Acipenser transmontanus NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is a source for authoritative conservation information on more than 50,000 plants, animals and ecological communtities of the U.S and <a href="https://www.earth.com/image/the-fall-rhapsody-in-ottawa/">Canada</a>. NatureServe Explorer provides in-depth information on rare and endangered species, but includes common plants and animals too. NatureServe Explorer is a product of NatureServe in collaboration with the Natural Heritage Network.

ITIS Reports -- ITIS (the Integrated Taxonomic Information System) is a source for authoritative taxonomic information on plants, animals, fungi, and microbes of<a href="https://www.bing.com/search?q=north+america&amp;cvid=d55013d210f7439f8ca981b3b73576f2&amp;aqs=edge.0.69i59l2j69i60j69i57j69i60l2j69i59.492j0j4&amp;FORM=ANAB01&amp;PC=HCTS"> North America</a> and the world.

FWS Digital Media Library -- The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service's National Digital Library is a searchable collection of selected images, historical artifacts, audio clips, publications, and video.White sturgeon (Acipenser transmontanus) is a species of sturgeon in the family Acipenseridae of the order Acipenseriformes. They are an anadromous fish species ranging in the Eastern Pacific; from the Gulf of Alaska to Monterey, California. However, some are landlocked in the Columbia River Drainage, Montana, and Lake Shasta in California, with reported sightings in northern Baja California, Mexico.Actinopterygii (ray-finned fishes) &gt; Acipenseriformes (Sturgeons and paddlefishes) &gt; Acipenseridae (Sturgeons) &gt; Acipenserinae Etymology: : Latin, = sturgeon, 1853 (Ref. 45335); transmontanus: The specific name is derived from the Latin acipenser (sturgeon), trans (beyond), and montanus (mountain) (Ref. 27436).More on author: Richardson.

Acipenser transmontanus

Acipenser transmontanus NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is a source for authoritative conservation...

Capromys nana NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is a source for authoritative conservation information on more than 50,000 plants, animals and ecological communtities of the U.S and <a href="https://www.earth.com/image/lake-st-clair-of-the-u-s-and-canada/">Canada.</a> NatureServe Explorer provides in-depth information on rare and endangered species, but includes common plants and animals too. NatureServe Explorer is a product of NatureServe in collaboration with the Natural Heritage Network.

FWS Digital Media Library -- The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service's National Digital Library is a searchable collection of selected images, historical artifacts, audio clips, publications, and video.The Desmarest's hutia (Capromys pilorides), also known as the Cuban hutia, is a species of <a title="Rodent" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rodent">rodent</a> endemic to <a title="Cuba" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cuba">Cuba</a>, although an <a title="Extinction" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extinction">extinct</a> subspecies is known from the <a title="Cayman Islands" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cayman_Islands">Cayman Islands</a>. Weighing up to 8.5 kg (19 lb), it is the largest of the <a class="mw-redirect" title="Extant taxon" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extant_taxon">extant</a> species of <a title="Hutia" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hutia">hutia</a> (the extinct <a title="Giant hutia" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Giant_hutia">giant hutias</a> were far larger).

The Desmarest's hutia has a head-and-body length of 31–60 cm (12–24 in), a tail that is 14–29 cm (5.5–11.4 in) long, and weigh 2.8–8.5 kg (6.2–18.7 lb). It has thick, coarse <a title="Fur" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fur">fur</a> which extends to the tip of the tail. The colour of the body fur varies from black to brown, with a light sand colour and red also seen. The body is stocky and the legs short. It moves with a slow, waddling gait, but can perform a quick hop when pursued. The feet have five toes with large claws which assist the animal in climbing. The <a title="Stomach" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stomach">stomach</a> is divided into three compartments by constrictions in the gut and is among the most complex of any <a title="Rodent" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rodent">rodent</a>.

Capromys nana

Capromys nana NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is...

Capromys sanfelipensis NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is a source for authoritative conservation information on more than 50,000 plants, animals and ecological communtities of the U.S and <a href="https://www.earth.com/image/the-fall-rhapsody-in-ottawa/">Canada.</a> NatureServe Explorer provides in-depth information on rare and endangered species, but includes common plants and animals too. NatureServe Explorer is a product of NatureServe in collaboration with the Natural Heritage Network.

ITIS Reports -- Capromys sanfelipensis ITIS (the Integrated Taxonomic Information System) is a source for authoritative taxonomic information on plants, animals, fungi, and microbes of <a href="https://www.bing.com/search?q=north+america&amp;cvid=80be9f0fef91455d8b1f8b1725e10fba&amp;aqs=edge.0.69i59j69i57j69i60l3j0l2.781j0j4&amp;FORM=ANAB01&amp;PC=HCTS">North America</a> and the world.It is bordered to the north by the Arctic Ocean, to the east by the Atlantic Ocean, to the southeast by South America and the Caribbean Sea.

FWS Digital Media Library -- The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service's National Digital Library is a searchable collection of selected images, historical artifacts, audio clips, publications, and video.The San Felipe hutia, also known as the little earth hutia, formerly found in Cuba, is listed on the 2008 IUCN Red List as Critically Endangered, possibly extinct.The San Felipe Hutia) is one of the five species of the genus Mesocapromys (Upham &amp; Borroto-Páez, 2017). With the exception Key region: Greater Antillean moist and dry forests. Range: Cuba. The little earth hutia is a very poorly known species that was first discovered in 1970 on a single.

Capromys sanfelipensis

Capromys sanfelipensis NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is...

Carduelis cucullata NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is a source for authoritative conservation information on more than 50,000 plants, animals and ecological communtities of the U.S and <a href="https://www.earth.com/image/lake-st-clair-of-the-u-s-and-canada/">Canada</a>. NatureServe Explorer provides in-depth information on rare and endangered species, but includes common plants and animals too. NatureServe Explorer is a product of NatureServe in collaboration with the Natural Heritage Network.The red siskin (Spinus cucullatus) is a small passerine bird in the finch family, Fringillidae, and in the goldfinch subfamily, Carduelinae. This finch is a resident breeding bird in tropical South America in northern Colombia and northern Venezuela (where it is called the "cardenalito"). The introduced population on Trinidad is believed to be extinct,

ITIS Reports -- Carduelis cucullata ITIS (the Integrated Taxonomic Information System) is a source for authoritative taxonomic information on plants, animals, fungi, and microbes of <a href="https://www.bing.com/search?q=north+america&amp;cvid=e95124dc9add46a7bea7af0bac284f1a&amp;aqs=edge.0.69i59j69i60j69i57j69i60l2j0l2.614j0j9&amp;FORM=ANAB01&amp;PC=HCTS">North America</a> and the world. The red siskin is a small endangered finch native to tropical South America - in northern Colombia, northern Venezuela and Guyana. It was common in the early 20th century, occurring throughout the foothills of northern Venezuela, but has now become extremely rare in a fragmented range. The population on Trinidad is believed to be extirpated, with no sightings since 1960.

FWS Digital Media Library -- The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service's National Digital Library is a searchable collection of selected images, historical artifacts, audio clips, publications, and video.

Carduelis cucullata

Carduelis cucullata NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is...

Caretta caretta NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is a source for authoritative conservation information on more than 50,000 plants, animals and ecological communtities of the U.S and <a href="https://www.earth.com/image/lake-st-clair-of-the-u-s-and-canada/">Canada</a>. NatureServe Explorer provides in-depth information on rare and endangered species, but includes common plants and animals too. NatureServe Explorer is a product of NatureServe in collaboration with the Natural Heritage Network.

ITIS Reports -- Caretta caretta ITIS (the Integrated Taxonomic Information System) is a source for authoritative taxonomic information on plants, animals, fungi, and microbes of <a href="https://www.bing.com/search?q=north+america&amp;cvid=80be9f0fef91455d8b1f8b1725e10fba&amp;aqs=edge.0.69i59j69i57j69i60l3j0l2.781j0j4&amp;FORM=ANAB01&amp;PC=HCTS">North America</a> and the world. The loggerhead sea turtle, is a species of oceanic turtle distributed throughout the world. It is a marine reptile, belonging to the family Cheloniidae. The average loggerhead measures around 90 cm in carapace length when fully grown. The adult loggerhead sea turtle weighs approximately 135 kg, with the largest specimens weighing in at more than 450 kg. The skin ranges from yellow to brown in color, and the shell is typically reddish brown. No external differences in sex are seen until the turtle becomes an adult, the most obvious difference being the adult males have thicker tails and shorter plastrons than the females

FWS Digital Media Library -- The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service's National Digital Library is a searchable collection of selected images, historical artifacts, audio clips, publications, and video.Loggerheads are found worldwide primarily in subtropical and temperate ocean waters. Nine Distinct Population Segments of loggerhead sea turtles are listed under the Endangered Species Act. The most recent reviews show that only two loggerhead nesting beaches have greater than 10,000 females nesting per year: South Florida and Oman. The status of the Oman nesting colony

Caretta caretta

Caretta caretta NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is...

Casarea dussumieri NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is a source for authoritative conservation information on more than 50,000 plants, animals and ecological communtities of the U.S and <a href="https://www.earth.com/image/mistastin-lake-in-labrador-canada/">Canada</a>. NatureServe Explorer provides in-depth information on rare and endangered species, but includes common plants and animals too. NatureServe Explorer is a product of NatureServe in collaboration with the Natural Heritage Network.

ITIS Reports -- Casarea dussumieri ITIS (the Integrated Taxonomic Information System) is a source for authoritative taxonomic information on plants, animals, fungi, and microbes of <a href="https://www.bing.com/search?q=north+america&amp;cvid=551b74f12d8744cdb3994f63b4a4d5c4&amp;aqs=edge.0.69i59j69i57j0l2j69i60l3.1074j0j1&amp;pglt=43&amp;FORM=ANNTA1&amp;PC=HCTS">North America</a> and the world. North America is a continent entirely within the Northern Hemisphere and almost all within the Western Hemisphere. It can also be described as the northern subcontinent of the Americas. It is bordered to the north by the Arctic Ocean, to the east by the Atlantic Ocean, to the southeast by South America and the Caribbean Sea, and to the west and south by the Pacific Ocean. Because it is on the North American Tectonic Plate, Greenland is included as part of North America geographically. North America covers an area of about 24,709,000 square kilometers (9,540,000 square miles), about 16.5% of the Earth's land area and about 4.8% of its total surface. North America is the third-largest continent by area, following Asia and Africa, and the fourth by population after Asia, Africa, and Europe.

FWS Digital Media Library -- The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service's National Digital Library is a searchable collection of selected images, historical artifacts, audio clips, publications, and video.

Casarea dussumieri

Casarea dussumieri NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is...

Castor fiber birulai NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is a source for authoritative conservation information on more than 50,000 plants, animals and ecological communtities of the U.S and <a href="https://www.earth.com/image/lake-st-clair-of-the-u-s-and-canada/">Canada</a>. NatureServe Explorer provides in-depth information on rare and endangered species, but includes common plants and animals too. NatureServe Explorer is a product of NatureServe in collaboration with the Natural Heritage Network.

ITIS Reports -- Castor fiber birulai ITIS (the Integrated Taxonomic Information System) is a source for authoritative taxonomic information on plants, animals, fungi, and microbes of <a href="https://www.bing.com/search?q=north+america&amp;cvid=80be9f0fef91455d8b1f8b1725e10fba&amp;aqs=edge.0.69i59j69i57j69i60l3j0l2.781j0j4&amp;FORM=ANAB01&amp;PC=HCTS">North America</a> and the world. Beavers are large, semiaquatic rodents native to the temperate Northern Hemisphere. There are two extant species in the genus Castor, the North American beaver and the Eurasian beaver. Beavers are the second-largest living rodents after the capybaras. They have stout bodies with large heads, long chisel-like incisors, brown or gray fur, hand-like front feet, webbed back feet and flat, scaly tails. The Eurasian beaver has a more elongated skull with a more triangular nasal bone opening, lighter fur color and a narrower tail. The animals can be found in a number of freshwater habitats,

FWS Digital Media Library -- The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service's National Digital Library is a searchable collection of selected images, historical artifacts, audio clips, publications, and video.

Castor fiber birulai

Castor fiber birulai NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer...

Catopuma (=Felis) temminckii NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is a source for authoritative conservation information on more than 50,000 plants, animals and ecological communtities of the U.S and <a href="https://www.earth.com/image/mistastin-lake-in-labrador-canada/">Canada</a>. NatureServe Explorer provides in-depth information on rare and endangered species, but includes common plants and animals too. NatureServe Explorer is a product of NatureServe in collaboration with the Natural Heritage Network.

ITIS Reports -- Catopuma (=Felis) temminckii ITIS (the Integrated Taxonomic Information System) is a source for authoritative taxonomic information on plants, animals, fungi, and microbes of <a href="https://www.bing.com/search?q=north+america&amp;cvid=84f1e8e9658b4caea7e69e7c7dff2555&amp;aqs=edge.0.69i59j69i57j69i59j0j69i60l3.1774j0j9&amp;FORM=ANAB01&amp;PC=HCTS">North America</a> and the world. North America is a continent entirely within the Northern Hemisphere and almost all within the Western Hemisphere. It can also be described as the northern subcontinent of the Americas. It is bordered to the north by the Arctic Ocean, to the east by the Atlantic Ocean, to the southeast by South America and the Caribbean Sea, and to the west and south by the Pacific Ocean. Because it is on the North American Tectonic Plate, Greenland is included as part of North America geographically. North America covers an area of about 24,709,000 square kilometers (9,540,000 square miles), about 16.5% of the Earth's land area and about 4.8% of its total surface. North America is the third-largest continent by area, following Asia and Africa, and the fourth by population after Asia, Africa, and Europe.

FWS Digital Media Library -- The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service's National Digital Library is a searchable collection of selected images, historical artifacts, audio clips, publications, and video.

Catopuma (=Felis) temminckii

Catopuma (=Felis) temminckii NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer...

Catostomus discobolus yarrowi NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is a source for authoritative conservation information on more than 50,000 plants, animals and ecological communtities of the U.S and<a href="https://www.earth.com/image/the-fall-rhapsody-in-ottawa/"> Canada.</a> NatureServe Explorer provides in-depth information on rare and endangered species, but includes common plants and animals too. NatureServe Explorer is a product of NatureServe in collaboration with the Natural Heritage Network.

FWS Digital Media Library -- Catostomus discobolus yarrowi The U.S. <a href="https://www.bing.com/search?q=fish&amp;cvid=b8bbe6c14a6244659ec371597ad6e05a&amp;aqs=edge.0.69i59j0l6.914j0j4&amp;FORM=ANAB01&amp;PC=HCTS">Fish</a> and Wildlife Service's National Digital Library is a searchable collection of selected images, historical artifacts, audio clips, publications, and video. The Zuni bluehead sucker has a slender fusiform body with a subterminal mouth. The fish’s mouth contains fleshy lips and protuberances, mainly on the lower lips. Both lips are notched laterally, and the middle separation of the lips extends all the way to the fish’s anterior margin. The position of the lips is unique to this species. A Zuni bluehead sucker has a generally thick caudal penduncle. For coloration, young Zuni bluehead suckers are dark gray-green dorsally and cream-white ventrally; while adults are slate-gray, being almost black dorsally and cream-white ventrally. Males develop a distinct coloration during spawning season; instead of being slate-gray, they become intense black with a bright red lateral band. Most individuals are 200 mm (7.87 in) at most, although few were found at 250 mm.

Catostomus discobolus yarrowi

Catostomus discobolus yarrowi NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer...

Catostomus santaanae conservation information on more than 50,000 plants, animals and ecological communtities of the U.S and <a href="https://www.bing.com/search?q=canada&amp;cvid=ccc54f33faef42bb94aa5376a6a94fde&amp;pglt=43&amp;FORM=ANNTA1&amp;PC=HCTS">Canada.</a> NatureServe Explorer provides in-depth information on rare and endangered species, but includes common plants and animals too. NatureServe Explorer is a product of NatureServe in collaboration with the Natural Heritage Network.

ITIS Reports -- ITIS (the Integrated Taxonomic Information System) is a source for authoritative taxonomic information on plants, animals, fungi, and microbes of North America and the world.

FWS Digital Media Library -- The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service's National Digital Library is a searchable collection of selected images, historical artifacts, audio clips, publications, and video. The Santa Ana sucker is a freshwater ray-finned <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/eating-fish-lowers-risk-of-recurrent-cardiovascular-events/">fish,</a> endemic to California. It is closely related to the mountain sucker and has dark grey upper parts and silvery underparts. It grows to a maximum length of 25 cm, but most adults are much smaller than this. It feeds on algae, diatoms and detritus on the floor of shallow streams with sand, gravel or cobble bottoms. It is found in only a few streams in southern California, and many of these in the Greater Los Angeles metropolitan area have been restricted to concrete channels. Because of its small area of occupancy and vulnerability, the International Union for Conservation of Nature has rated this fish as "endangered".

Catostomus santaanae

Catostomus santaanae conservation information on more than 50,000 plants, animals...

Catostomus warnerensis NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is a source for authoritative conservation information on more than 50,000 plants, animals and ecological communtities of the U.S and <a href="https://www.earth.com/image/the-fall-rhapsody-in-ottawa/">Canada</a>. NatureServe Explorer provides in-depth information on rare and endangered species, but includes common plants and animals too. NatureServe Explorer is a product of NatureServe in collaboration with the Natural Heritage Network.

ITIS Reports -- Catostomus warnerensis ITIS (the Integrated Taxonomic Information System) is a source for authoritative taxonomic information on plants, animals, fungi, and microbes of <a href="https://www.bing.com/search?q=north+america&amp;cvid=80be9f0fef91455d8b1f8b1725e10fba&amp;aqs=edge.0.69i59j69i57j69i60l3j0l2.781j0j4&amp;FORM=ANAB01&amp;PC=HCTS">North America</a> and the world.The Warner sucker is a rare species of freshwater ray-finned fish in the family Catostomidae. Native to Oregon in the United States and found only in the Warner Basin, its distribution extends just into Nevada and California. It is a federally listed threatened species. Its other common name is redhorse. The International Union for Conservation of Nature has rated this fish as an endangered species because of its small extent of occurrence, the small number of locations in which it is found, and the extreme fluctuations in area of occupancy resulting from drought and water abstraction. Conservation efforts have been put in place.

FWS Digital Media Library -- The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service's National Digital Library is a searchable collection of selected images, historical artifacts, audio clips, publications, and video.

Catostomus warnerensis

Catostomus warnerensis NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is...

Catreus wallichii NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is a source for authoritative conservation information on more than 50,000 plants, animals and ecological communtities of the U.S and <a href="https://www.earth.com/image/lake-st-clair-of-the-u-s-and-canada/">Canada</a>. NatureServe Explorer provides in-depth information on rare and endangered species, but includes common plants and animals too. NatureServe Explorer is a product of NatureServe in collaboration with the Natural Heritage Network. The cheer pheasant, also known as Wallich's pheasant or chir pheasant, is a vulnerable species of the pheasant family, Phasianidae. It is the only member in the genus Catreus. The scientific name commemorates Danish botanist Nathaniel Wallich.

ITIS Reports -- Catreus wallichii ITIS (the Integrated Taxonomic Information System) is a source for authoritative taxonomic information on plants, animals, fungi, and microbes of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/north-americas-largest-mammals-were-a-casualty-of-climate-change/">North America</a> and the world.

FWS Digital Media Library -- The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service's National Digital Library is a searchable collection of selected images, historical artifacts, audio clips, publications, and video. These birds lack the color and brilliance of most pheasants, with buffy gray <a href="https://www.bing.com/search?q=Feather%20wikipedia&amp;form=WIKIRE">plumage</a> and long, gray crests. Its long tail has 18 feathers and the central tail feathers are much longer and the colour is mainly gray and brown. The female is slightly smaller in overall size.
• Cheer pheasant pair from <a href="https://www.bing.com/search?q=Himalaya%20wikipedia&amp;form=WIKIRE">Himalaya</a>, <a href="https://www.bing.com/search?q=India%20wikipedia&amp;form=WIKIRE">India</a>
• Painting from Hume and Marshall, 1880, Gamebirds of India, <a href="https://www.bing.com/search?q=Burma%20wikipedia&amp;form=WIKIRE">Burma</a>, <a href="https://www.bing.com/search?q=Ceylon%20wikipedia&amp;form=WIKIRE">Ceylon</a>

Catreus wallichii

Catreus wallichii NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is...

Centrocercus minimus NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is a source for authoritative conservation information on more than 50,000 plants, animals and ecological communtities of the U.S and <a href="https://www.earth.com/image/lake-st-clair-of-the-u-s-and-canada/">Canada</a>. NatureServe Explorer provides in-depth information on rare and endangered species, but includes common plants and animals too. NatureServe Explorer is a product of NatureServe in collaboration with the Natural Heritage Network.

ITIS Reports -- Centrocercus minimus ITIS (the Integrated Taxonomic Information System) is a source for authoritative taxonomic information on plants, animals, fungi, and microbes of <a href="https://www.bing.com/search?q=north+america&amp;cvid=80be9f0fef91455d8b1f8b1725e10fba&amp;aqs=edge.0.69i59j69i57j69i60l3j0l2.781j0j4&amp;FORM=ANAB01&amp;PC=HCTS">North America</a> and the world. The Gunnison grouse or Gunnison sage-grouse is a species of grouse endemic to the United States. It is similar to the closely related greater sage-grouse in appearance, but about a third smaller in size, with much thicker plumes behind the head; it also has a less elaborate courtship dance. It is restricted in range to southwestern Colorado and extreme southeastern Utah, with the largest population residing in the Gunnison Basin region in Colorado. Despite being native to a country where the avifauna is relatively well known, it was overlooked until the 1990s due to the similarities with the sage grouse,

FWS Digital Media Library -- The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service's National Digital Library is a searchable collection of selected images, historical artifacts, audio clips, publications, and video.

Centrocercus minimus

Centrocercus minimus NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is...

Cephalophus jentinki NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is a source for authoritative conservation information on more than 50,000 plants, animals and ecological communtities of the U.S and <a href="https://www.earth.com/image/mistastin-lake-in-labrador-canada/">Canada</a>. NatureServe Explorer provides in-depth information on rare and endangered species, but includes common plants and animals too. NatureServe Explorer is a product of NatureServe in collaboration with the Natural Heritage Network.

ITIS Reports --  Cephalophus jentinki ITIS (the Integrated Taxonomic Information System) is a source for authoritative taxonomic information on plants, animals, fungi, and microbes of <a href="https://www.bing.com/search?q=north+america&amp;cvid=551b74f12d8744cdb3994f63b4a4d5c4&amp;aqs=edge.0.69i59j69i57j0l2j69i60l3.1074j0j1&amp;pglt=43&amp;FORM=ANNTA1&amp;PC=HCTS">North America</a> and the world. North America is a continent entirely within the Northern Hemisphere and almost all within the Western Hemisphere. It can also be described as the northern subcontinent of the Americas. It is bordered to the north by the Arctic Ocean, to the east by the Atlantic Ocean, to the southeast by South America and the Caribbean Sea, and to the west and south by the Pacific Ocean. Because it is on the North American Tectonic Plate, Greenland is included as part of North America geographically. North America covers an area of about 24,709,000 square kilometers (9,540,000 square miles), about 16.5% of the Earth's land area and about 4.8% of its total surface. North America is the third-largest continent by area, following Asia and Africa, and the fourth by population after Asia, Africa, and Europe.

FWS Digital Media Library -- The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service's National Digital Library is a searchable collection of selected images, historical artifacts, audio clips, publications, and video.

Cephalophus jentinki

Cephalophus jentinki NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is...

Ceratotherium simum cottoni NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is a source for authoritative conservation information on more than 50,000 plants, animals and ecological communtities of the U.S and <a href="https://www.earth.com/image/the-fall-rhapsody-in-ottawa/">Canada</a>. NatureServe Explorer provides in-depth information on rare and endangered species, but includes common plants and animals too. NatureServe Explorer is a product of NatureServe in collaboration with the Natural Heritage Network.

FWS Digital Media Library -- The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service's National Digital Library is a searchable collection of selected images, historical artifacts, audio clips, publications, and video. The northern white rhinoceros, or northern square-lipped rhinoceros (Ceratotherium simum cottoni), is one of two subspecies of the white rhinoceros (the other being the southern white rhinoceros). Formerly found in several countries in East and Central <a href="https://www.bing.com/search?q=africa&amp;cvid=ba093f33935540f8bc5fa71fff4d80ee&amp;aqs=edge.0.69i59j0l6.1121j0j9&amp;FORM=ANAB01&amp;PC=HCTS">Africa</a> south of the Sahara , this subspecies is a grazer in grasslands and savanna woodlands. The northern white rhinoceros (Ceratotherium simum cottoni), or northern square-lipped rhinoceros, is one of two subspecies of the white rhinoceros (the other being the southern white rhinoceros). Formerly found in several countries in East and Central Africa south of the Sahara, this subspecies is a grazer in grasslands and savannawoodlands. Since 19 March 2018, there are only two known rhinos of this subspecies left, called Najin and Fatu, both of which are female; barring the existence

Ceratotherium simum cottoni

Ceratotherium simum cottoni NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer...

Ceratotherium simum ssp. simum NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is a source for authoritative conservation information on more than 50,000 plants, animals and ecological communtities of the U.S and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bird-populations-dropped/">Canada</a>. NatureServe Explorer provides in-depth information on rare and endangered species, but includes common plants and animals too. NatureServe Explorer is a product of NatureServe in collaboration with the Natural Heritage Network.

FWS Digital Media Library -- Ceratotherium simum ssp. simum The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service's National Digital Library is a searchable collection of selected images, historical artifacts, audio clips, publications, and video.

The southern white rhinoceros or southern square-lipped rhinoceros (Ceratotherium simum simum), is one of the two <a title="Subspecies" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Subspecies">subspecies</a> of the <a title="White rhinoceros" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/White_rhinoceros">white rhinoceros</a> (the other being the much rarer <a title="Northern white rhinoceros" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Northern_white_rhinoceros">northern white rhinoceros</a>). It is the most common and widespread subspecies of <a title="Rhinoceros" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rhinoceros">rhinoceros</a>.

As of late December 2007, the total population was estimated at 17,460 southern white rhino in the wild, making them by far the most abundant subspecies of rhino in the world. South Africa is the stronghold for this subspecies (93.0%), conserving 16,255 individuals in the wild in 2007. The current census from <a title="Save the Rhino" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Save_the_Rhino">Save the Rhino</a>'s official website revealed there are 19,682–21,077 southern white rhinoceros since 2015

Ceratotherium simum ssp. simum

Ceratotherium simum ssp. simum NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe...

Cercocebus galeritus galeritus NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is a source for authoritative conservation information on more than 50,000 plants, animals and ecological communtities of the U.S and Canada. NatureServe Explorer provides in-depth information on rare and endangered species, but includes common <a href="https://www.bing.com/search?q=plants&amp;cvid=68e5f28975dc4e75b3b4d282fb6990ac&amp;aqs=edge.0.69i59j69i60j0l5.2459j0j4&amp;FORM=ANAB01&amp;PC=HCTS">plants</a> and animals too. NatureServe Explorer is a product of NatureServe in collaboration with the Natural Heritage Network.

FWS Digital Media Library -- Cercocebus galeritus galeritus The U.S. <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/eating-fish-lowers-risk-of-recurrent-cardiovascular-events/">Fish</a> and Wildlife Service's National Digital Library is a searchable collection of selected images, historical artifacts, audio clips, publications, and video.

The Tana River mangabey (Cercocebus galeritus) is a highly endangered species of <a title="Primate" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Primate">primate</a> in the family <a class="mw-redirect" title="Cercopithecidae" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cercopithecidae">Cercopithecidae</a>. Some authorities have included the <a class="mw-redirect" title="Taxa" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taxa">taxa</a> <a class="mw-redirect" title="Cercocebus agilis" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cercocebus_agilis">agilis</a> and <a class="mw-redirect" title="Cercocebus sanjei" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cercocebus_sanjei">sanjei</a> as <a title="Subspecies" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Subspecies">subspecies</a> of this species,<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tana_River_mangabey#cite_note-3">[3]</a> while others award these full species status.<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tana_River_mangabey#cite_note-msw3-1">[1]</a>

It is <a class="mw-redirect" title="Endemic" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Endemic">endemic</a> to riverine forest patches along the lower <a title="Tana River (Kenya)" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tana_River_(Kenya)">Tana River</a> in southeastern <a title="Kenya" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kenya">Kenya</a>. It is threatened by <a class="mw-redirect" title="Habitat loss" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Habitat_loss">habitat loss</a> and degradation, which has increased in recent years.<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tana_River_mangabey#cite_note-4">[4]</a> This species was, together with the equally endangered <a title="Tana River red colobus" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tana_River_red_colobus">Tana River red colobus</a>, the main reason for the creation of the <a class="mw-redirect" title="Tana River Primate Reserve" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tana_River_Primate_Reserve">Tana River Primate Reserve</a> in 1978,<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tana_River_mangabey#cite_note-kws-5">[5]</a> but human encroachment within this reserve continues.<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tana_River_mangabey#cite_note-6">[6]</a> Recently, it has been suggested that 20,000 hectares of the Tana River Delta should be transformed into sugarcane plantations, but this has, temporarily at least, been stopped by the <a title="Politics of Kenya" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Politics_of_Kenya#Judicial_branch">High Court</a> of Kenya

Cercocebus galeritus galeritus

Cercocebus galeritus galeritus NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer...

Cercocebus torquatus NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is a source for authoritative conservation information on more than 50,000 plants, animals and ecological communtities of the U.S and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bird-populations-dropped/">Canada.</a> NatureServe Explorer provides in-depth information on rare and endangered species, but includes common plants and animals too. NatureServe Explorer is a product of NatureServe in collaboration with the Natural Heritage Network.The collared mangabey has grey fur covering its body, but its common names refer to the colours on its head and neck. Its prominent chestnut-red cap gives it the name red-capped, and its white collar gives it the names collared and white-collared. Its ears are black and it has striking white eyelids, which is why some refer to it as the "four-eyed monkey". It has a dark grey tail that exceeds

ITIS Reports -- Cercocebus torquatus ITIS (the Integrated Taxonomic Information System) is a source for authoritative taxonomic information on plants, animals, fungi, and microbes of <a href="https://www.bing.com/search?q=north+america&amp;cvid=80be9f0fef91455d8b1f8b1725e10fba&amp;aqs=edge.0.69i59j69i57j69i60l3j0l2.781j0j4&amp;FORM=ANAB01&amp;PC=HCTS">North America</a> and the world.The collared mangabey, also known as the red-capped mangabey, or the white-collared mangabey, is a species of primate in the family Cercopithecidae of Old World monkeys. It formerly included the sooty mangabey as a subspecies. As presently defined, the collared mangabey is monotypic.

FWS Digital Media Library -- The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service's National Digital Library is a searchable collection of selected images, historical artifacts, audio clips, publications, and video.

Cercocebus torquatus

Cercocebus torquatus NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is...

Cercopithecus diana NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is a source for authoritative conservation information on more than 50,000 plants, animals and ecological communtities of the U.S and <a href="https://www.earth.com/image/lake-st-clair-of-the-u-s-and-canada/">Canada.</a> NatureServe Explorer provides in-depth information on rare and endangered species, but includes common plants and animals too. NatureServe Explorer is a product of NatureServe in collaboration with the Natural Heritage Network.The Diana monkey (Cercopithecus diana) is an Old World monkey. The term “old-world monkey” refers to the family of monkeys known as Cercopithecoidea and the Diana monkey is only 1 species out of the 148 that are a part of this family.

ITIS Reports -- Cercopithecus diana ITIS (the Integrated Taxonomic Information System) is a source for authoritative taxonomic information on plants, animals, fungi, and microbes of <a href="https://www.bing.com/search?q=north+america&amp;cvid=e95124dc9add46a7bea7af0bac284f1a&amp;aqs=edge.0.69i59j69i60j69i57j69i60l2j0l2.614j0j9&amp;FORM=ANAB01&amp;PC=HCTS">North America</a> and the world. The Diana monkey is an Old World monkey. The term “old-world monkey” refers to the family of monkeys known as Cercopithecoidea and the Diana monkey is only 1 species out of the 148 that are a part of this family. Also Cerc diana ranges from 40 to 55 cm in length, with a long tail 50 to 75 cm long. The coloration is extremely variable. These primates are generally black, with a white throat, ruff, pointed beard

FWS Digital Media Library -- The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service's National Digital Library is a searchable collection of selected images, historical artifacts, audio clips, publications, and video.

Cercopithecus diana

Cercopithecus diana NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is...

Coffee is part of the morning routines for millions of people. But does drinking more coffee align with having more muscle? 



That’s the question behind a new analysis of Americans’ habits and body composition. This research doesn’t try to prove cause and effect. It asks whether higher coffee or caffeine intake corresponds to more limb muscle for a given body size.



The answer points in a positive direction for most adults, with an important exception. The details matter, because the way researchers measured muscle and tallied <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/coffee-may-help-you-live-longer-if-you-drink-it-this-way/">coffee intake</a> shapes how to read the results.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-limb-muscle-matters">Why limb muscle matters</h2>



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/studies-learn-the-exact-amount-of-time-you-should-spend-training-to-build-muscle/">Muscle mass</a> isn’t just about strength. Lower muscle mass in arms and legs raises the risk of falls, fractures, and everyday struggles that chip away at independence. 



Scientists often track limb muscle adjusted for body size because it flags early losses that can sneak up with age.



A standard yardstick for that job is the appendicular skeletal muscle mass-to-BMI ratio, abbreviated as <a href="https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10401528/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ASMBMI</a>. In plain terms: “How much limb muscle do you have for your body size?” 



This measurement focuses on muscle quantity, not how quickly you rise from a chair or how steady you feel on stairs.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-studying-coffee-s-link-to-muscles">Studying coffee's link to muscles</h2>



Researchers pulled data from a large, ongoing U.S. health survey (<a href="https://www.cdc.gov/nchs/nhanes/index.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NHANES</a>) spanning 2011-2018. 



They started with adults, applied clear rules such as “only include people with full diet interviews and body scans,” and finished with 8,333 participants. Muscle was measured by DXA scans of the arms and legs and then expressed as ASMBMI.



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/coffee-helps-bacteria-resist-antibiotics-in-your-gut/">Coffee intake</a> came from two 24-hour dietary recalls - structured interviews covering everything people ate and drank on two different days. The team looked at regular coffee, decaf coffee, and total caffeine from all sources. 



Their statistical models adjusted for age, sex, race, education, income, smoking, alcohol, physical activity, BMI, medical conditions, total calories, and protein, so they could compare people who were similar on many fronts except for coffee intake.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-the-results-say">What the results say</h2>



People who drank more coffee tended to have <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/eating-grapes-every-day-can-transform-your-muscles/">more limb muscle</a> relative to their body size. After full adjustments, the highest coffee group had about a 13% higher ASMBMI than the non-coffee group. 



The highest caffeinated coffee group showed roughly a 12% increase. The top caffeine group showed about an 11% increase. Decaf didn’t show a clear, statistically significant link. 



When researchers drew smoothed trend lines, the pattern appeared approximately linear: more <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/drinking-coffee-may-help-women-stay-sharp-and-strong-as-they-age/">regular coffee</a> or caffeine corresponded to more muscle relative to body size.



There was one major exception. When participants were split by BMI, the positive link disappeared in the group with obesity (BMI ≥ 30). 



In that subset, drinking more coffee was not associated with higher ASMBMI. That doesn’t mean coffee lowers muscle there; it means the helpful pattern seen elsewhere wasn’t present.



A likely reason is biological factors tied to obesity, including chronic, low-grade inflammation that speeds muscle breakdown and may overshadow small benefits from caffeine or other coffee compounds.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-limitations-in-this-research">Limitations in this research</h2>



This was a cross-sectional snapshot. It can spot links, but it can’t prove that coffee changes muscle. People with more muscle may simply be more active or keep schedules where coffee fits better. 



The models adjusted for activity and many other variables, which strengthens confidence, but unmeasured factors can still nudge results.



Diet recalls lean on memory and honesty, and add-ins like sugar or cream can be easy to forget. 



ASMBMI captures muscle quantity, not strength or performance, so it can’t tell you how much weight you can move or how good your balance is during daily activities. 



Results also come from U.S. adults in specific survey years, so patterns could differ in other populations.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-coffee-is-linked-with-muscles">Why coffee is linked with muscles</h2>



Caffeine stimulates the nervous system and modulates how the body uses fuel during activity. Coffee also contains <a href="https://www.chhs.colostate.edu/krnc/monthly-blog/what-are-polyphenols-another-great-reason-to-eat-fruits-and-veggies/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">polyphenols</a> with antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties. 



Lab and animal research suggests these compounds may support healthier muscle by encouraging autophagy - the cell’s cleanup crew for worn-out parts - and by dialing down chronic inflammation over time. 



This analysis didn’t test mechanisms, but these ideas fit with the pattern. Decaf’s “no clear link” signal hints that caffeine may be doing more of the heavy lifting in this dataset.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-did-we-learn-from-this">What did we learn from this?</h2>



In U.S. adults, higher <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mood-boost-how-coffee-makes-us-happier-in-the-morning/">regular coffee</a> and total caffeine intake tracked with more limb muscle relative to body size after accounting for many other factors. However, that association did not appear in participants with obesity. 



If coffee already fits your day, these results sit comfortably with a muscle-friendly routine. Keep portions sensible, mind the extras, and avoid late cups that cut into sleep because <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/irregular-sleep-may-cause-premature-muscle-aging/">poor sleep impairs recovery</a>.



If you’re in the obesity range, the study’s “no clear link” finding suggests coffee isn’t a muscle fix. 



The bigger levers are steady resistance training, enough protein spaced through the day, and better sleep, ideally alongside medical care that addresses weight, strength, and metabolic health together. 



Coffee can still be part of that plan if it agrees with you, but it’s not the star of the show.



It’s a pattern, not proof. Pair your coffee with protein, training, and sleep if your goal is to build or protect muscle.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/nutrition/articles/10.3389/fnut.2024.1390309/full" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Frontiers in Nutrition</a>.



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Drinking this beverage every day helps protect your muscles from aging

Coffee is part of the morning routines for millions of...

When we walk across farmland, we see only the parts of plants above ground. Below the surface, roots provide stability, take up water and nutrients, and store carbon in the soil. Yet despite their importance, researchers have had no precise way to measure roots.



“We have always known that roots are important, but we have lacked a precise tool to measure them. It’s a bit like studying marine ecosystems without ever being able to dive beneath the surface of the water,” noted Henrik Brinch-Pedersen from <a href="https://international.au.dk" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Aarhus University</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-old-ways-failed-to-measure-roots">Old ways failed to measure roots</h2>



The usual way meant digging up soil, rinsing roots, drying them, and weighing them. It took hours and destroyed many of the fine roots that matter most. 



Scientists also tried methods like rhizotrons or tracer studies. These helped but often underestimated root <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plant-roots-rewire-themselves-to-fight-drought/">biomass</a>.



Fine roots - the ones that take up nutrients and release carbon - were especially easy to lose. Without them, much of the underground story stayed invisible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dna-reveals-hidden-root-systems">DNA reveals hidden root systems</h2>



Now comes droplet digital PCR, or ddPCR. Instead of tearing apart the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plant-roots-defy-gravity-when-water-is-scarce/">soil</a>, scientists divide a tiny sample into thousands of droplets and test each for DNA. They use a genetic marker called ITS2, which acts like a barcode. 



This doesn’t just show that roots exist in the soil. It shows which species they belong to and how much they contribute.



“It’s a bit like giving the soil a DNA test. We can suddenly see the hidden distribution of species and biomass without digging up the whole field,” said Brinch-Pedersen.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-reliable-root-measurements">Reliable root measurements</h2>



Earlier approaches like qPCR struggled with soil contaminants and inconsistent reactions. The ddPCR method avoids these problems by turning each droplet into a tiny reaction chamber. 



The technology counts DNA molecules directly, using statistics to link those counts to root biomass. The result is a reliable measurement, even in complex soils with multiple plant <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plants-change-their-roots-to-survive-harsh-conditions/">species</a>.



The method also works across a wide range of concentrations. Whether the sample contains lots of roots or very few, ddPCR maintains accuracy. That flexibility makes it suitable for both small experimental plots and large, diverse fields.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dna-method-works-in-mixed-roots">DNA method works in mixed roots</h2>



To test it, researchers mixed soils containing ryegrass, white clover, and yarrow. They found that ddPCR identified each plant and measured its share of the underground biomass.



Hybrids like ryegrass crosses sometimes confused the system, but overall, the accuracy remained high.



Even when species grew together, the method could still tease apart their contributions. That is something old root washing methods could never do with confidence.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-it-matters">Why it matters</h2>



The new digital DNA method has the potential to transform how we study crops. Climate researchers can now calculate how much carbon plants actually store underground.



Breeders can choose crop varieties that send more growth into roots without hurting yields. Ecologists can finally see how plants compete or cooperate beneath the surface.



“We see great potential in using this method to develop varieties that store more carbon in the soil. It could become an important tool in future agriculture,” noted Brinch-Pedersen.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-roots-play-a-role-in-storing-carbon">Roots play a role in storing carbon</h2>



Roots are more than anchors. They could be powerful allies in slowing climate change. Plants pull in carbon dioxide and send some of it underground, where it can stay locked away for decades. But without precise tools, proving this has been difficult. The ddPCR technology gives scientists that missing tool.



Imagine grasslands where certain species funnel extra carbon into deep roots. Or croplands where breeders select varieties with stronger underground storage potential. With the right choices, agriculture could shift from being a major emitter to a carbon sink.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-challenges-still-remain">Challenges still remain</h2>



The method isn’t perfect. Hybrids remain tricky, since their DNA overlaps with parent species. Each plant type needs its own probe, which takes effort to design and test. 



Probe development requires careful validation, because even small genetic changes can throw results off. Still, once a probe library expands, the technology becomes faster and easier to apply.



“For us, the most important thing is that we have shown it can be done. That is the foundation we can build upon. Our vision is to expand the DNA library so that in the future we can measure many more species directly in soil samples,” noted Brinch-Pedersen.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-studying-roots-with-dna-tools">Studying roots with DNA tools</h2>



Droplet digital PCR already works in medicine for spotting rare mutations and pathogens. Applying it to roots is a natural next step. 



Once established, the method is simple, scalable, and powerful. It could help create crops that store more carbon belowground while keeping food production steady.



Beyond crops, the technology could also reshape how we manage ecosystems. Grasslands, forests, and mixed farmlands all depend on <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plant-roots-use-a-chemical-code-to-fight-stress-and-share-resources/">root systems</a> we rarely measure well. Now, we finally have a way to look underground without tearing everything apart.



For the first time, researchers can explore the hidden world beneath our feet - and measure it with confidence.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://academic.oup.com/plphys/article/198/3/kiaf276/8173641" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Plant Physiology</a>.



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Unlocking the hidden half of plants with DNA

When we walk across farmland, we see only the parts...

Ask yourself this: when was the last time you felt truly at peace, not just amused or entertained, but deeply rooted in who you are? A new study suggests that spending more time in nature may play a bigger role in that feeling than we assume.



That deeper layer has a name in psychology - <a href="https://link.springer.com/rwe/10.1007/978-94-007-0753-5_929" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">eudaimonic well-being</a>. It is about purpose, self-acceptance, growth, and relationships. It sticks.



Does nature help with that? The short answer is a resounding "yes." Not only can nature boost your mood for an hour; it can also give you a clearer sense of self that lasts. 



This study examined that question and returned with an answer that feels both refreshing and practical.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-nature-time-and-eudaimonic-well-being">Nature time and eudaimonic well-being</h2>



Researchers invited people in Turku, Finland, to share how the outdoors shows up in their real lives. 



First, 158 residents answered questions about time in nature and how their lives felt in terms of purpose, self-acceptance, growth, relationships, autonomy, and life management. 



Then, 20 people joined creative writing workshops to describe, in their own words, how the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/urban-forest-bathing-fresh-breath-for-teen-mental-health/">natural world shapes them</a>. The team paired numbers with stories to capture both patterns and personal depth.



“We wanted to explore how nature supports people's self-acceptance, purpose of life, positive relationships, autonomy, personal growth and agency, as well as life management," explains Joha Järekari, Doctoral Researcher at the <a href="https://www.utu.fi/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Turku</a>.



"This is called eudaimonic well-being and it can be considered in contrast to <a href="https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/hedonism/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">hedonism</a>: whereas hedonism focuses on short-term pleasures, eudaimonia delves into longer and deeper well-being.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-nature-time-evokes-deep-feelings">Nature time evokes deep feelings</h2>



The study focused on two groups: ages 15 to 24 and adults over 60. Different life stages bring different needs. 



Yet a clear theme showed up in both: <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/virtual-forest-bathing-can-reduce-stress-and-improve-mood/">nature felt nonjudgmental</a>. Trees do not judge. Water does not grade them. That sense of relief made room for honesty.



“Although there were some differences between the different age groups in how they spent time in nature and in what kinds of places, they also had many shared experiences," Järekari noted.



"What both age groups had in common was, among other things, a feeling that nature does not judge or criticize, which had a positive effect on the participants' self-acceptance."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-choices-and-belonging">Choices and belonging</h2>



Participants described two kinds of connection. One was inward. Time outside - on a trail, beside water, in a garden - made it easier to hear their own values and act on them. 



The other was outward. <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/natures-scents-linked-to-improved-health-and-well-being/">Being outdoors</a> helped people feel closer to friends and family, and also widened their sense of community to include birds, trees, and other living things. 



That broader bond pointed toward meaning, not just good moods.



“Spending time and being active in nature brought to the surface what was really important to the participants in their lives," Järekari describes.



"This increased people's agency and autonomy and had a positive impact on personal growth. The participants reported that it was easier to get in touch with oneself, with other people, and with other species."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-factoring-in-age-and-experience">Factoring in age and experience</h2>



Older adults often talked about shared moments with grandchildren and unhurried walks, the kind that leave room for quiet. 



Some mentioned <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/religious-leaders-tried-psilocybin-and-it-changed-their-lives/">moments of spirituality</a>, a quiet awareness of being part of something larger than themselves. 



Younger people leaned on the outdoors for healthy solitude. They could be alone without feeling lonely, or with friends without filling every second with conversation. Different routes, same endpoint: a more authentic self.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-when-worry-creeps-in">When worry creeps in</h2>



The picture was not perfect. Many participants, especially younger ones, felt the weight of environmental damage. 



Worry about climate change often chipped away at that comfort. Shame showed up too, a feeling of being part of the problem just by being human.



“However, this feeling grew stronger when participants noticed the visible effects of the ecological crisis on their surroundings," Järekari continued.



"Many young people also described a sense of shame about being part of the problem, so to speak, by being part of humanity, which challenged their self-acceptance."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-nature-time-goes-deep">Nature time goes deep</h2>



Plenty of research shows that green space can lower stress and help attention bounce back. This work points to something deeper: <a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0329411" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">identity-level effects</a> that unfold over time. 



It suggests that nature is not just a reset button. It is a steady setting where people practice being who they want to be.



“Our research unlocks the impact of nature on people's well-being on a deeper level than stress relief or positive emotions," Järekari emphasizes.



"Connection to nature is important to us on an identity level and often shapes our lives in ways that aren’t immediately obvious, but become clearer over time."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-eudaimonic-well-being-in-society">Eudaimonic well-being in society</h2>



Design choices of public spaces matter. If we judge parks only by how many joggers they attract, we miss a big part of their value. 



People need quiet corners, meandering paths, and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/world-environment-day-the-critical-role-of-nature-in-human-well-being/">benches under trees</a>. Those places support reflection, relationships, and responsibility - features, not extras.



“It is important to encourage a deeper public discussion about the meaning of nature in people’s lives," adds Salla Eilola, Postdoctoral Researcher at the University of Turku. 



"Consequently, these issues could also be taken into account in decision-making and, for example, in <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/sciadv.adn3028" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">urban planning</a>, where nature still often unfortunately has to give way to built environment," 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-small-steps-lasting-benefits">Small steps, lasting benefits</h2>



You do not need a dramatic plan to make this real. Pick a nearby spot and go there on a regular day, not just on the best day. Let your mind settle and see what values bubble up. 



If you spend time with kids or elders, choose slow routes that welcome pauses. Put phones aside. Short, steady moments count.



None of this turns a park into a productivity tool. It simply gives you space to notice what matters and act on it. 



That's the heart of eudaimonic well-being, and nature offers a simple doorway - whether it is a patch of grass, a line of trees, or a stretch of water.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://besjournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/pan3.70104" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">People and Nature</a>.



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Walking through a forest can reshape who you are and bring inner peace, according to science

Ask yourself this: when was the last time you felt...

Species don’t all carve out territory the same way. A sweeping analysis across the tree of life shows that, on average, older lineages occupy larger geographical ranges than younger ones.



The relationship isn’t uniform - <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/marine-mammals-in-the-us-are-highly-vulnerable-to-climate-change/">marine mammals</a> buck the trend, and islands add their own twists - but evolutionary time consistently emerges as a powerful predictor of how far a species spreads.



An international team led by scientists at the German Center for Integrative Biodiversity Research (<a href="https://www.idiv.de/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">iDiv</a>), Leipzig University, and the Naturalis Biodiversity Center compared evolutionary age and present-day range size for more than 26,000 species.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-panoramic-look-across-26-000-species"><a></a>A panoramic look across 26,000 species</h2>



The dataset spanned seven major groups - <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/birds-are-struggling-to-keep-pace-with-a-warming-climate/">birds</a>, reptiles, amphibians, reef fishes, palms, and both terrestrial and marine mammals - providing one of the broadest tests yet of how age shapes distribution.



The headline result is straightforward: older species tend to have larger ranges. That pattern appeared across every group except marine mammals. The logic is intuitive but has not been demonstrated at this scale.



“Older species are expected to have larger distributions because they have had more time, sometimes several millions of years, to expand their ranges since first appearing,” explained first author Adriana Alzate, a scientist at Naturalis.



“Over evolutionary timescales, these species have had more opportunities to reproduce, disperse, colonize, and adapt to diverse environments, allowing them to occupy broader geographical areas.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dispersal-power-changes-the-pace"><a></a>Dispersal power changes the pace</h2>



Time alone doesn’t tell the whole story. How easily a species moves through landscapes - its dispersal ability - can speed or slow the march outward.



Strong fliers such as birds with long, pointed wings, and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fossil-reveals-how-plants-use-winged-seeds-to-expand-their-habitats/">plants</a> whose seeds travel with large, wide-ranging animals, often achieve broad ranges quickly. Poor dispersers, including many amphibians, expand more slowly; for them, age exerts a stronger influence because overcoming barriers takes generations.



The study’s cross-taxa lens makes those contrasts visible. Two species of similar age can differ dramatically in range simply because one can vault barriers while the other cannot. That natural experiment plays out worldwide, from continental interiors to archipelagos.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-islands-rewrite-the-rules"><a></a>Islands rewrite the rules</h2>



Geography sets hard limits, and nowhere is that clearer than on islands. Native species confined to islands necessarily have smaller maximum ranges than their mainland relatives.



The team confirmed that basic constraint, but they also uncovered an unexpected nuance: the gap between young and old species’ ranges is even larger on islands than on continents.



“Island dynamics and ontogeny modulate the relationship between age and range size. Release from predators and competitors may have enabled early island colonizers, typically ecological generalists, to achieve broader ranges than expected based on age only,” said co-author Roberto Rozzi, a scientist at iDIV.



In other words, the first arrivals - often flexible in diet and habitat - can spread widely within the island system, cementing a strong age–range link even under geographic caps.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-range-size-matters-for-survival"><a></a>Why range size matters for survival</h2>



Range size isn’t just a biogeographic curiosity; it’s one of the strongest predictors of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/animal-extinction-risk-is-heavily-influenced-by-climate-change/">extinction risk</a>. Species with narrow distributions usually have smaller total populations and fewer local strongholds. 



They are more vulnerable to droughts, storms, disease outbreaks, invasive species, and human disturbance. With more than 40,000 species currently facing extinction, understanding what governs range size can sharpen conservation priorities.



That’s especially important as climate change scrambles habitats. If older species generally occupy larger, more environmentally diverse ranges, they may carry genetic variation that helps them cope with shifting conditions.



“This is even more important in the context of changing environmental conditions, because not all species may be able to keep up with these changes,” said senior author Renske Onstein, a biologist at iDIV. 



“Possibly, older species have the genetic makeup to more readily adapt and therefore persist in their relatively large ranges. This needs further testing with genetic data, for example, providing exciting possibilities for future research."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-takeaways-for-conservation-strategies">Takeaways for conservation strategies </h2>



The study highlights three practical lessons for managers. First, evolutionary age can be a useful flag when assessing exposure to risk: younger, poor-dispersing species with small ranges may need faster, more targeted intervention.



Second, island biotas demand tailored strategies that account for their tight geographic limits and unique dynamics. 



Third, bolstering connectivity - through corridors and habitat restoration - can partially compensate for weak dispersal, giving species the chance to expand or shift ranges as climates warm.



Crucially, the work also warns against one-size-fits-all assumptions. <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/these-marine-mammals-killer-whales-dolphins-permanently-lost-ability-to-ever-walk-again/">Marine mammals</a>, for instance, didn’t follow the main pattern, likely reflecting the fluidity of ocean habitats and the long-distance movements of many whale and dolphin species. The lesson is to treat age as a powerful factor, not a universal rule.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-clock-a-map-and-a-moving-target">A clock, a map, and a moving target</h2>



Range size emerges from the interplay of time, traits, and terrain. Evolutionary “clock time” creates opportunities; dispersal traits determine how readily species seize them; geography dictates what’s possible. 



By stitching those pieces together across tens of thousands of species, the researchers show that age leaves a durable imprint on where life lives today.



For conservation in a rapidly changing world, that imprint is more than academic. It helps explain why some species are widespread while their close relatives cling to a single valley or reef. 



And it offers a clearer map of where limited resources can do the most good - before small ranges become no ranges at all.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-025-62124-y" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Communications</a>.



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Why older species may be better survivors

Species don’t all carve out territory the same way. A...

Scientists have engineered wheat to nudge soil bacteria into producing plant-ready nitrogen, a shift that could cut fertilizer use, curb pollution, and lower farm costs without sacrificing yields. 



The plants overproduce a natural compound, leak the excess into the soil, and in doing so jumpstart nearby microbes that “fix” nitrogen from the air into forms crops can use.



In this work, a team at the <a href="https://www.ucdavis.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of California, Davis</a>, led by Eduardo Blumwald, used <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/crispr-used-to-remove-extra-chromosomes-in-down-syndrome-and-restore-cell-function/">CRISPR</a> to dial up a wheat metabolite and tested the effect under low-nitrogen conditions.



The study extends earlier proof-of-concept in rice, with efforts underway to translate the approach to other staple cereals.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-synthetic-nitrogen-fuels-global-harvests">Synthetic nitrogen fuels global harvests</h2>



Worldwide, synthetic nitrogen fuels modern harvests but at a steep environmental and economic price. Wheat alone accounts for about 18 percent of global nitrogen fertilizer use. Of the hundreds of millions of tons produced each year, plants capture only 30 to 50 percent.



The remainder washes into rivers and coasts, feeding oxygen-starved <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/excess-nutrients-are-creating-ocean-dead-zones/">dead zones</a>, or escapes as nitrous oxide, a potent greenhouse gas. For smallholder farmers, especially in low-income regions, cost and access make fertilizer a gamble.



“In Africa, people don't use fertilizers because they don’t have money, and farms are small, not larger than six to eight acres,” Blumwald said. “Imagine, you are planting crops that stimulate bacteria in the soil to create the fertilizer that the crops need, naturally. Wow! That’s a big difference!”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-wheat-learns-microbes-nitrogen-trick">Wheat learns microbes’ nitrogen trick</h2>



Nitrogen fixation is carried out by specialized bacteria using an enzyme called nitrogenase, which only functions in low-oxygen conditions. Legumes such as beans and peas solve this by hosting the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plants-have-root-microbiomes-like-humans-do-vital-for-survival-defense/">microbes</a> in root nodules, which are tiny oxygen-poor chambers. 



Cereals like wheat lack nodules, which is why they rely on bagged nitrogen. Rather than trying to give cereals nodules or force microbes to colonize roots - a strategy that has long struggled to stick - the team flipped the problem.



The researchers screened roughly 2,800 plant-made chemicals and found a small set, including flavones, that prompt soil <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/when-bacteria-get-hungry-they-turn-on-each-other/">bacteria</a> to form protective biofilms. Those sticky microbial coats reduce oxygen exposure enough for nitrogenase to work.



“For decades, scientists have been trying to develop cereal crops that produce active root nodules, or trying to colonize cereals with nitrogen-fixing bacteria, without much success. We used a different approach,” Blumwald said.



“We said the location of the nitrogen-fixing bacteria is not important, so long as the fixed nitrogen can reach the plant, and the plant can use it.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-gene-edit-flips-fertilizer-switch">Gene edit flips fertilizer switch</h2>



Using CRISPR, the researchers boosted wheat’s production of apigenin, a common flavone. Plants kept what they needed and exuded the surplus through their roots.



In soil tests, the extra apigenin encouraged local bacteria to spin up biofilms, protecting nitrogenase, fixing nitrogen, and making ammonium available for the crop. In low-fertility conditions, edited wheat assimilated the microbially supplied nitrogen and outyielded control plants.



The amazing thing lies in what the plant does automatically. It manufactures the signal, leaks it when nitrogen is scarce, and benefits from the neighborhood effect. No external inoculants are required, and the microbes remain free-living in the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-type-of-microbes-found-earths-deep-soil-critical-zone/">soil</a> rather than locked inside a root.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-pollution-down-resilience-up"><a></a>Pollution down, resilience up</h2>



If scaled, the approach could trim the fertilizer footprint that drives water pollution and climate forcing in wheat and other crops. Less soluble nitrogen applied to fields means less runoff during storms, smaller algal blooms, and fewer oxygen crashes in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-shock-lakes-are-losing-oxygen-faster-than-expected/">lakes</a> and coastal zones. 



Cutting back on industrial nitrogen also reduces upstream emissions from natural-gas-intensive fertilizer production.



Because the mechanism amplifies microbial activity already present in many soils, it may also help stabilize yields under input constraints. In places where fertilizer is scarce or prohibitively expensive, the crop’s own chemistry becomes a lever to unlock atmospheric nitrogen.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-billions-saved-with-less-fertilizer">Billions saved with less fertilizer</h2>



The United States alone saw nearly $36 billion in fertilizer spending in 2023. Cereals cover close to 500 million acres nationally. Even modest reductions in inputs translate into real money while lowering risk in volatile markets.



“Imagine, if you could save 10 percent of the amount of fertilizer being used on that land,” Blumwald said. “I’m calculating conservatively: That should be a savings of more than a billion dollars every year.”



Those savings would not come solely from buying less nitrogen. Fewer passes to apply fertilizer mean lower fuel use and less soil compaction. Reduced losses to waterways could also ease regulatory pressure and improve community relations in vulnerable watersheds.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-proving-stability-across-soil-types">Proving stability across soil types</h2>



The road from greenhouse pots to farm fields is long, but the milestones are clear. Researchers will need to confirm that the nitrogen boost holds under diverse soils, climates, and microbiomes, and that it plays nicely with existing rotations and management. 



They will need to show stable performance across seasons and varieties, measure effects on soil ecology, and ensure that yields and grain quality are maintained.



Because the edit increases a native metabolite rather than introducing a foreign gene, regulatory pathways may be more straightforward in some jurisdictions. Still, farmers and policymakers will want transparent data on environmental outcomes, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-solar-power-can-transform-urine-into-fertilizer/">fertilizer</a> savings, and return on investment.



If the results scale, gene-edited cereals like wheat that recruit their own microbial fertilizer factories could become a practical tool in the nitrogen toolbox - cutting costs where budgets are tight, trimming pollution where waters run foul, and building resilience in the breadbaskets of a warming world.



The study is published in the <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/pbi.70289" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Plant Biotechnology Journal</a>.



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Gene-edited wheat turns soil microbes into fertilizer

Scientists have engineered wheat to nudge soil bacteria into producing...

Farming spread across prehistoric Europe mostly because farming communities moved, not because local hunter-gatherers copied their ways. Cultural adoption played only a minimal role in the Neolithic transition, the period when agriculture took hold. 



A team of researchers at <a href="https://www.psu.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Penn State</a> combined ancient DNA, archaeology, and computer simulations to separate the effects of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ancient-dna-reveals-human-migration-patterns-in-first-millennium-ad/">migration</a> from the uptake of new practices. 



The team modeled population movements, growth, and learning, then tested those models against genetic ancestry from hundreds of Neolithic individuals and against the known pace of farming’s advance from the Middle East into Europe.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-two-sciences-unlock-farming-s-spread">Two sciences unlock farming’s spread</h2>



Christian Huber, an assistant professor of biology at Penn State and senior author on the paper, noted that archaeology and genetics offer complementary windows into this transition.



“Artifacts and isotopes in ancient bones can reveal whether a person relied on domesticated plants or animals, reflecting the adoption of new farming practices," said Huber. 



“At the same time, DNA preserved in those bones can show where people’s ancestors came from, providing evidence of migration, or the movement of farming populations into new regions.”



Archaeological traces show when <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/domesticating-wild-plants-may-result-in-more-resilient-crops/">domesticated crops</a> and animals appeared. Genomes preserve who arrived with them. 



By fusing those records within a single statistical framework, the team could estimate how much of farming’s spread came from people on the move and how much from ideas crossing cultural lines.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-migration-versus-culture-finally-measured">Migration versus culture finally measured</h2>



“This has been a long-standing question - and disentangling the roles of migration and cultural adoption has been a goal of archaeologists and anthropologists for decades,” said study lead author Troy LaPolice, a doctoral student at Penn State.



“What we found was surprising: when cultures spread through migration, it is not guaranteed local ancestry patterns will change, but the spread of farming managed to leave a strong and lasting impact on European ancestry.”



The researchers simulated the front of farming as it rolled out from the Fertile Crescent roughly 10,000 years ago, reaching into the Balkans, then north and west across the continent. They fit those simulations to radiocarbon timelines and to ancestry profiles from 618 ancient individuals.



The results allowed them to assign weight to two forces - movement of farming groups and adoption by foragers - and to test which combination best reproduced the record.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-farmers-moved-ideas-spread-slowly">Farmers moved, ideas spread slowly</h2>



The answer was clear. Migration dominated. Cultural transmission, the flow of practices without the movement of people, barely nudged the pace. 



The team’s estimates put the “cultural effect” at about half a percent. <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/stone-age-hunter-gatherers-had-a-very-organized-domestic-life/">Hunter-gatherers</a> in most places continued to forage even as farmsteads appeared nearby and, over generations, replaced their way of life.



“The assimilation rate, the rate at which hunter-gatherers were grafted into farming communities, was actually very low&nbsp; -&nbsp; only about one in 1,000 farmers converted a hunter-gatherer to farming each year,” Huber said.



“As a result, cultural transmission had almost no effect on how quickly farming spread. Still, even at this low rate, it left a lasting mark on the DNA of Europeans today and introduced useful genetic traits into the growing farming communities.”



That small but steady flow mattered biologically, even if it mattered little to the speed of the transition. 



Genes from local foragers entered the expanding farming populations. Some of those variants likely helped the newcomers adapt to new environments as they moved north into different climates and daylight regimes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-farming-and-foragers-rarely-mixed">Farming and foragers rarely mixed</h2>



The models also point to strong social boundaries. According to the team’s analysis, farmers overwhelmingly mated with farmers, and foragers with foragers. “Between-group” pairings were rare, on the order of less than three percent.



That pattern aligns with other ancient DNA studies showing persistent genetic differences between neighboring groups that shared landscapes for centuries.



Those findings help explain why the genetic imprint of the first farmers is so pervasive in Europe today. Once agricultural communities established themselves, their numbers grew more quickly than those of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/birth-of-farming-driven-by-humans/">foragers</a>. 



Even with little intermarriage or conversion, demographic momentum carried their ancestry far.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dna-helps-rewrite-early-history">DNA helps rewrite early history</h2>



“It's really interesting to be able to understand a time period before any written or oral history,” LaPolice said. “This intense interdisciplinary project allowed us to undertake a new kind of historical reconstruction.”



The approach tested not just a story but a set of mechanisms. It allowed the team to ask what combinations of movement, growth, and learning could produce the archaeological and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ancient-dna-reveals-human-migration-patterns-in-first-millennium-ad/">genetic patterns</a> we see. 



It also let them probe how sensitive their conclusions were to assumptions about mating, mobility, and population size.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-method-offers-tools-for-archaeology">Method offers tools for archaeology</h2>



The study adds to a growing body of work showing how ancient genomes can clarify human prehistory when paired with robust models.



It also echoes the team’s recent methodological papers assessing common ancestry tools - useful when applied carefully, but misleading when pushed beyond their limits.



“This research highlights the power of combining genetic data with archaeological models to uncover the complex behavioral mechanisms of our past,” Williams said. “Looking forward, I see this paving the way for a reevaluation of other major prehistoric cultural shifts.”



From metalworking to herding, from language dispersals to the rise of cities, many transformations reshaped ancient lives. The Penn State team’s framework offers a way to test whether those farming changes spread through people, ideas, or - most often - some blend of both.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-025-63172-0" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Communications</a>.



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Ancient DNA shows what really spread the farming revolution

Farming spread across prehistoric Europe mostly because farming communities moved,...

From glowing mushrooms on forest floors to plankton that light up the sea, nature has long revealed beauty through bioluminescence. These natural spectacles capture human imagination, inspiring ideas of glowing gardens and self-lit cities. 



Scientists are now moving closer to that vision, crafting houseplants that radiate their own soft <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/amazon-trees-glow-more-under-stress-but-photosynthesize-less/">light</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-scientists-create-glowing-plants">Scientists create glowing plants</h2>



In a recent study published in the journal Matter, researchers described glowing succulents that recharge in sunlight and emit colorful afterglows. 



By injecting the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/all-living-things-emit-a-subtle-glow-that-ceases-at-death/">leaves</a> with special light-storing particles, the plants become capable of radiating light bright enough to rival small night lamps.



“Picture the world of Avatar, where glowing plants light up an entire ecosystem,” said first author Shuting Liu of <a href="https://www.scau.edu.cn" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">South China Agricultural University</a>. “We wanted to make that vision possible using materials we already work with in the lab. Imagine glowing trees replacing streetlights.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-moving-past-genetic-engineering">Moving past genetic engineering</h2>



Earlier attempts at creating luminescent plants relied on genetic engineering. These methods typically produced faint green light and came with challenges: high costs, complex techniques, and risks such as gene drift. 



The new approach sidesteps these issues by using inorganic afterglow particles, materials already known for their roles in glowing toys and safety signs. These particles are inexpensive, widely available, and capable of storing light energy efficiently, making them an ideal choice for transforming <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-future-climate-conditions-will-transform-plant-growth/">plants</a> into living light sources. 



Unlike genetic methods, which require lengthy cultivation and complex engineering, this strategy allows for quick preparation, reproducibility, and scalability. It opens the door to practical applications in sustainable lighting and everyday decorative uses.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-micron-particles-work">Why micron particles work</h2>



The team worked with micron-sized afterglow phosphors. While nanoparticles move more easily through leaves, the larger particles shine with greater brightness.



Traditionally, their size limited plant absorption, but the succulent Echeveria "Mebina" provided the right internal structure to carry them. Its dense but evenly spaced tissue channels enabled rapid diffusion, producing uniform and strong luminescence.



“Smaller, nano-sized particles move easily within the plant but are dimmer,” said Liu. “Larger particles glowed brighter but couldn’t travel far inside the plant.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-succulents-glow-better-than-leafy-plants">Succulents glow better than leafy plants</h2>



Unexpectedly, succulents outperformed non-succulents like golden pothos and bok choy. Despite having fewer air pockets than leafy plants, their compact, uniform tissue allowed particles to spread smoothly without clumping. 



This created evenly glowing leaves after just minutes of exposure to sunlight or LED light, with brightness lasting for nearly two hours.



“It was really unexpected,” said Liu. “The particles diffused in just seconds, and the entire succulent leaf glowed.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-stable-and-safe-glow">Stable and safe glow</h2>



The particles used were specially coated with phosphate to improve water resistance and ensure biocompatibility inside plant tissues. 



Tests showed that plants maintained normal chlorophyll, sugar, and protein levels even after several days, suggesting they can handle the modification without losing vitality.



This stability highlights the protective role of the phosphate layer, ensuring that luminescence persists without harmful side effects. 



The results also show that material-engineered plants can retain their natural functions and growth patterns under experimental conditions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-plants-glow-in-many-colors">Plants glow in many colors</h2>



By mixing different phosphors, researchers created plants that glowed not just green, but also red, blue, and even warm white. The team demonstrated a wall of 56 succulents glowing brightly enough to illuminate books and nearby objects. 



Patterns, such as letters or images, could be temporarily written on plant leaves with UV light, hinting at potential uses in decoration and information storage.



“Each plant takes about 10 minutes to prepare and costs a little over 10 yuan (about $1.4), not including labor,” said Liu.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-eco-friendly-lighting-and-architecture">Eco-friendly lighting and architecture </h2>



The glow fades over time, but repeated exposure to light recharges it. This low-cost, reproducible method could pave the way for eco-friendly lighting in gardens, pathways, or interior design. 



Expanding beyond succulents remains a challenge, but the study shows a path forward. The research offers possibilities for future urban planning, sustainable architecture, and even artistic applications where living plants provide both decoration and functional <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bioluminescent-plants-gene-discovery-now-available-for-any-home/">illumination</a>.



“I just find it incredible that an entirely human-made, micro-scale material can come together so seamlessly with the natural structure of a plant,” said Liu. “The way they integrate is almost magical. It creates a special kind of functionality.”



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.cell.com/matter/fulltext/S2590-2385(25)00413-8" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Matter</a>.



Image Credit: Liu et al., Matter



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Glowing plants could replace street lamps in future cities

From glowing mushrooms on forest floors to plankton that light...

Roughly 390 million years ago, the ancient seas witnessed a dramatic change. Marine animals began moving into deeper waters that had long been uninhabitable. New research suggests this expansion was fueled by a lasting rise in deep-ocean oxygen. 



The source of that oxygen traces back to the spread of woody plants on land, the earliest forests on Earth. This environmental shift coincided with an explosion of new species, especially jawed fish. 



These fish became the ancestors of nearly all <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/greenland-sharks-survive-for-centuries-in-icy-waters/">vertebrates</a> alive today. The link between oxygen levels and evolutionary diversification offers fresh insight into how life reshaped the oceans.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-oxygen-rise-shaped-evolution">Oxygen rise shaped evolution</h2>



“It’s known that oxygen is a necessary condition for animal evolution, but the extent to which it is the sufficient condition that can explain trends in animal diversification has been difficult to pin down,” said co-lead author Michael Kipp, assistant professor at <a href="https://duke.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Duke University</a>.



“This study gives a strong vote that oxygen dictated the timing of early animal evolution, at least for the appearance of jawed vertebrates in deep-ocean habitats.”



For decades, scientists believed deep-ocean oxygenation occurred only once, at the start of the Paleozoic Era about 540 million years ago. 



Later evidence pointed instead to multiple phases. First, shallower waters became livable for breathing organisms, and only later did oxygen reach deeper environments.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rocks-reveal-ocean-oxygen-history">Rocks reveal ocean oxygen history</h2>



Kipp and his colleagues focused on timing by studying sedimentary rocks once buried beneath ancient oceans. 



They measured levels of selenium, an element that records traces of oxygen in the environment. Selenium occurs in different isotopes, and their ratios reveal whether <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sea-levels-are-rising-as-predicted-with-bigger-risks-ahead/">oxygen</a> levels were high enough to support animal life.



The team collected 97 rock samples dating from 252 to 541 million years ago, gathered from five continents. 



At the time, these sites lay along outer continental shelves, the zones where land tapered into the ocean before plunging steeply downward. By analyzing isotope ratios in the samples, the researchers tracked oxygen’s reach through time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-two-deep-sea-oxygen-waves">Two deep-sea oxygen waves</h2>



Results showed two distinct deep-ocean oxygenation events. One brief episode occurred during the Cambrian period, about 540 million years ago. 



The second began during the Middle Devonian, around 393 to 382 million years ago, and continues today. Between these events, oxygen dropped to inhospitable levels for most animals.



“The selenium data tell us that the second oxygenation event was permanent. It began in the Middle Devonian and persisted in our younger rock samples,” said co-lead author Kunmanee “Mac” Bubphamanee, a Ph.D. candidate at the <a href="https://www.washington.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Washington</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-vertebrates-thrived-with-more-oxygen">Vertebrates thrived with more oxygen</h2>



The Middle Devonian oxygen rise triggered what scientists call the “mid-Paleozoic marine revolution.” With oxygen now plentiful, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ancient-fish-had-flexible-joints-like-humans/">jawed fish</a> and other animals expanded into deeper waters and diversified. 



Fossil evidence also shows that many species grew larger, likely supported by the richer oxygen supply. One example is shown in the featured image of this article - a prehistoric jawed fish from the Late Devonian called <a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/08/Dunkleosteus_prehistoric-fish_deep-ocean-oxygen_N-Tamura_1m.jpg">Dunkleosteus</a>.



This geological shift aligned with another event on land: the spread of woody plants. 



“Our thinking is that, as these woody plants increased in number, they released more oxygen into the air, which led to more oxygen in deeper ocean environments,” Kipp said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-first-oxygen-wave-faded-fast">First oxygen wave faded fast</h2>



The earlier <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/cambrian-explosion-fossils-push-back-the-rise-of-complex-life/">Cambrian</a> oxygen surge remains puzzling. Its decline likely prevented animals from permanently establishing themselves in deeper waters at that time.



“What seems clear is that the drop in oxygen after that initial pulse hindered the spread and diversification of marine animals into those deeper environments of the outer continental shelves,” Kipp noted.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-oxygen-history-warns-about-today-s-oceans">Oxygen history warns about today’s oceans</h2>



Although the study looks far into the past, its message carries urgency now. 



“Today, there’s abundant ocean oxygen in equilibrium with the atmosphere," said Kipp. "But in some locations, ocean oxygen can drop to undetectable levels."



"Some of these zones occur through natural processes. But in many cases, they’re driven by nutrients draining off continents from <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/wildlife-may-be-the-answer-to-dwindling-fertilizer-ingredient/">fertilizers</a> and industrial activity that fuel plankton blooms that suck up oxygen when they decay.”



“This work shows very clearly the link between oxygen and animal life in the ocean. This was a balance struck about 400 million years ago, and it would be a shame to disrupt it today in a matter of decades.”



-----



Featured image: An artist’s rendering of a prehistoric jawed fish from the Late Devonian called Dunkleosteus. These sorts of large, active vertebrates evolved shortly after the deep ocean became well-oxygenated. Credit: 2008 N. Tamura/CC-BY-SA



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.2501342122" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a>.



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Ancient forests pumped oxygen into the ocean and helped deep-sea fish thrive

Roughly 390 million years ago, the ancient seas witnessed a...

Wildfire headlines can feel all over the place. One summer brings walls of flames putting millions of people in danger. The next brings lots of fires, but very few near humans. This is called the "wildfire paradox." 



Here’s the twist: the planet has actually seen less land burned in recent years, yet more people are ending up in the path of flames.



From 2002 to 2021, the total area that burned worldwide went down by about a quarter. 



Over the same years, the number of people directly exposed to wildfires - meaning flames reached the places where they live - went up by roughly 40%. Those two facts sit side by side. They also change how we think about risk.



The "wildfire paradox" term fits. The land is burning less, but exposure is rising because more homes and towns now sit where fires naturally occur. That shift is not random. It grows out of how and where people build.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-africa-carries-the-weight">Africa carries the weight</h2>



Across that same period from 2002 to 2021, the authors estimate that about 440 million people experienced a wildfire reaching their community. 



Year to year, exposure climbed by several hundred thousand people annually on average, even as total burned acreage fell. Fewer acres does not automatically mean fewer people in danger.



Most news stories highlight wildfires in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dry-lightning-sparks-the-most-destructive-california-wildfires/">California</a>, Greece, or Australia. Yet wildfires in these places account for less than 2.5 percent of all exposures. Africa, often missing from headlines, saw 85 percent of them.



Just five countries - Congo, South Sudan, Mozambique, Zambia, and Angola - accounted for about half of the global total. 



The United States, Europe, and Australia combined made up less than 2.5%. That contrast says more about population patterns and fire frequency than media attention.



“We are surprised by the disproportionate impacts of wildfires on humans in Africa," said Dr. Mojtaba Sadegh, Climate and Wildfire Analytics Lead at <a href="https://unu.edu/inweh" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">UNU-INWEH</a>.



"We knew that around 65 percent of global burned area occurs there, but their 85 percent share of human exposure shows a pronounced impact that deserves more attention.”



Farming plays a big role. Fields break up grasslands and stop large fires from spreading. But they also bring villages and farms closer to the flames.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-wildfire-paradox-and-climate-change">Wildfire paradox and climate change</h2>



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-is-making-wildfire-smoke-more-deadly/">Climate change</a> is amplifying fire danger. Since 1979, extreme fire weather jumped by more than 54 percent. Fire seasons now stretch longer. Nights, once safer, often stay hot and dry enough for fires to keep burning.



Still, the story changes depending on where you look. Africa shows smaller fires but far more people exposed. 



In North and South America, invasive plants help fires grow larger. Europe tries to suppress fires, yet expanding settlements keep raising the risks.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/08/human-wildlife-exposure_growing-globally_map_ScienceJ_1m.jpg"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/08/human-wildlife-exposure_growing-globally_map_ScienceJ_1s.webp" alt="Human exposure to wildland fires from 2002 to 2021. (A and C) Cumulative human exposure to wildland fires (A) and cumulative burned area (C) from 2002 to 2021 at the country level. (B and D) Share of continents in wildland fire exposure (B) and burned areas (D). (E and F) Percentage of population exposed to wildland fire from 2002 to 2021 in each country (E) and continent (F). K, one thousand; M, one million. Credit: Science Advisor" class="wp-image-1983464"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Human exposure to wildland fires from 2002 to 2021. (A and C) Cumulative human exposure to wildland fires (A) and cumulative burned area (C) from 2002 to 2021 at the country level. (B and D) Share of continents in wildland fire exposure (B) and burned areas (D). (E and F) Percentage of population exposed to wildland fire from 2002 to 2021 in each country (E) and continent (F). K, one thousand; M, one million. Click image to enlarge. Credit: Science Advisor</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-human-actions-reshape-fire-risks">Human actions reshape fire risks</h2>



Study co-author Professor Amir AghaKouchak noted that while the human exposure to fires is rising, the team saw that burned land is shrinking by 26 percent.



“In Africa, farming has broken up large <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/grasslands-are-racing-to-adapt-to-climate-shifts/">grasslands</a> into smaller fields, which stops fires from spreading as widely but also puts more villages and farms closer to fire-prone land."



"In the Americas, invasive plants have fueled bigger and more frequent wildfires, showing how human actions can change fire risks in very different ways.”



The numbers back this up. Nearly half of the world’s people now live in the wildland–urban interface, an area covering less than 5 percent of Earth’s surface.



The study shows that population growth and migration explain about a quarter of all exposures. Without these changes, exposure levels would have fallen alongside shrinking burned area.



Instead, exposure density nearly doubled. In plain terms, more people are living inside or right next to land that burns.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-beyond-burned-land">Beyond burned land</h2>



Focusing only on how much land burns hides the real danger. Intense fires make up just 0.01 percent of all events, but they exposed 2.7 million people and burned 5 percent of the total land in the study. 



Regions like Western North America, Southern Europe, and Southern Australia faced far more human loss than their share of exposures suggested.



“Wildfires are no longer seasonal or regional anomalies; they have become a global crisis, intensified by rising <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-has-made-heatwaves-more-deadly/">heatwaves</a>, worsening droughts, and drastic land use changes,” said Professor Kaveh Madani, Director of UNU-INWEH.



“But instead of stepping up to confront this threat, some of the world’s biggest economies are rolling back protections, leaving vulnerable regions and communities to shoulder the heaviest burden."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-wildfire-paradox-needs-solutions">The wildfire paradox needs solutions</h2>



The study warns that measuring only burned land misses the true danger of wildfires. What matters most is how close people live to fire-prone areas. As populations expand into these zones, exposure to wildfires rises even if less land burns.



The authors stress the need for stronger<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fire-suppression-methods-increase-the-severity-of-wildfires/"> fire management</a> and strategies tailored to local conditions. Communities require infrastructure designed to withstand fire, along with better preparedness. 



At the same time, global climate action is essential to slow the worsening of extreme fire weather. Without these combined efforts, more lives will remain directly in the path of devastating wildfires.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.adu6408" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Science</a>.



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"Wildfire paradox" tries to explain why fires are raging across the entire planet

Wildfire headlines can feel all over the place. One summer...

In crowded cities, leafy streets can lift a neighborhood’s appeal - and its home values. But a new analysis finds the boost depends on where those trees are. Nearby canopy that cools sidewalks and frames streetscapes tends to raise prices. 



Trees planted on the lot itself can sometimes do the opposite once maintenance, root damage, and storm risks are factored in.



The study was led by researchers from the <a href="https://pamplin.vt.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Pamplin College of Business</a>, working with the <a href="https://www.fs.usda.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">U.S. Forest Service</a>.



The team stitched together multiple data sets - including Environmental Protection Agency records - across nine U.S. metropolitan areas to map how tree cover at different distances relates to sale prices.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-where-trees-grow-values-follow">Where trees grow, values follow</h2>



The team broke urban greenery into rings around each property: within 330 feet (about a city block), from 330 feet to one-third of a mile, and from one-third to two-thirds of a mile. 



The researchers then estimated how much added canopy in each ring correlated with a change in value, controlling for local market conditions.



“While tree cover supports owners' property values, their tree cover benefits the greater community property values,” said co-author Kevin Boyle, a professor in the <a href="https://realestate.vt.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Blackwood Department of Real Estate</a>.



That distinction - private trees versus neighborhood trees - runs through the results. Shade you can walk under and scenery you drive past appear to deliver broad benefits that the market recognizes. 



On-site trees, by contrast, carry highly localized costs and risks that can dampen the net effect for the individual owner.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-tale-of-two-cities"><a></a>A tale of two cities</h2>



The effect differs widely by location, with Fresno, California, at the lowest end and Milwaukee, Wisconsin, at the highest.



In Fresno, tree cover adds about $9 to a home’s value - essentially a rounding error. Adding 10 percent more <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/laser-technology-measures-forest-canopy-height-from-space/">canopy</a> on or near the lot, and Fresno values dip by roughly $114 (around 0.1%). This reflects perceived costs such as upkeep, insurance, or interference with structures and utilities.



Shift that same extra canopy outward - between one-third and two-thirds of a mile - and the home’s value rises by about $6,751 (roughly 3.2%).



Milwaukee tells the opposite story. There, the same baseline tree cover near a property adds roughly $3,500. A 10 percent increase in canopy within 330 feet is associated with a jump of about $39,701 (around 24 percent).



Even at a distance - one-third to two-thirds of a mile - extra canopy correlates with another $27,194 (about 16 percent) in value. The Milwaukee case underscores how neighborhood-level trees can powerfully shape perceived livability in some markets.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-neighborhood-trees-pay-off">Neighborhood trees pay off</h2>



The researchers argue the market is pricing two different bundles of attributes. Neighborhood canopy offers shared goods: cooler microclimates during <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-has-made-heatwaves-more-deadly/">heat waves</a> and calmer streetscapes. It also provides a cohesive look that signals care and stability.



Homebuyers will pay for those amenities even if they’re not responsible for pruning the branches that provide them. 



On-lot trees can still be assets, especially when well sited and maintained. But buyers often discount for future costs - leaf litter, gutter clogs, sidewalk heaves, power-line conflicts, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-soil-moisture-can-predict-severe-storms/">storm</a> damage, or insurance implications.



The analysis also acknowledges weather realities. Trees can fall in severe winds or ice storms and increase damage risk. They also cut urban heat, manage stormwater, and improve air quality at block and district scales.



The net economic signal depends on which set of experiences dominates in a given city and how residents value shared versus private benefits.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-private-yards-public-benefits">Private yards, public benefits</h2>



Most urban land is privately owned, which complicates efforts to grow and maintain the “green infrastructure” that benefits entire neighborhoods. 



The authors suggest local leaders consider incentives - <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/planting-trees-is-important-but-reforestation-can-help-too/">planting programs</a>, maintenance support, or right-of-way investments - that nudge canopy growth into the rings where it delivers the biggest bang for the buck.



“Our analysis can be used by community leaders to understand the benefits of tree coverage,” Boyle said. “It can also educate community members that their actions in support of tree coverage can help not only the greater community, but themselves through enhanced property values.”



That strategy could include prioritizing street trees and park expansions within walking distance of homes, where the study finds the strongest and most consistent price effects.



It could also mean offering technical help to homeowners for site-appropriate species selection and root-friendly planting plans that minimize future conflicts with foundations, sidewalks, and utilities.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-action-steps-for-greener-cities">Action steps for greener cities</h2>



For owners, the takeaway is practical: trees can add value, but placement, species, and care matter. A well-chosen street-facing canopy that shades façades and sidewalks can enhance curb appeal and comfort. 



In backyards, opt for species with less <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/diverse-forests-can-shut-down-non-native-tree-invasions/">invasive</a> roots and maintain clearances around roofs and lines.



For cities, the findings argue for shifting some canopy growth off private lots and into shared corridors - streets, medians, easements, and pocket parks. They also highlight the need for maintenance budgets that keep those trees healthy and safe.



Doing so aligns who pays with who benefits, reducing the friction that can arise when the public asks private owners to shoulder the costs of a public good.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-greener-neighborhoods-higher-values">Greener neighborhoods, higher values</h2>



The headline is simple: trees can lift home values in cities. The fine print is where the policy levers lie. Market signals in Fresno differ from Milwaukee, and the effects of canopy on the lot differ from canopy down the block.



By parsing those patterns across thousands of blocks in nine metropolitan areas, the study gives planners, assessors, and residents a clearer map. 



Plant where the benefits compound, support owners where responsibilities fall, and grow the shared canopy that keeps neighborhoods cooler, calmer, and more valuable.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0921800925001922?via%3Dihub">Ecological Economics</a>.



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How neighborhood trees can raise - or sink - your property value

In crowded cities, leafy streets can lift a neighborhood’s appeal...

When you toss food waste into the trash, it might seem like no big deal. After all, it’s organic - it’ll break down eventually, right? 



But what actually happens to that waste after it’s hauled away is a much bigger issue than most people realize. And it’s not just about overcrowded landfills - it’s about methane.



Food waste buried in a landfill doesn’t simply rot and disappear. It releases <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/top-10-global-methane-emissions-hotspots-spotted-by-satellites/">methane</a>, a greenhouse gas that’s 80 to 85 times more powerful than <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-carbon-dioxide-travels-in-the-atmosphere/">carbon dioxide</a> over a 20-year period. 



This makes food waste a serious player in climate change - not because of how much we toss, but because of where it ends up and how it breaks down.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-landfills-turn-food-waste-into-methane">Landfills turn food waste into methane</h2>



Here’s the issue: <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/landfills-emit-exorbitant-amount-methane-into-atmosphere/">landfills</a> aren't built to help food break down cleanly. When food waste ends up buried under other trash, it quickly uses up the oxygen in its immediate surroundings. 



At first, some decomposition happens with oxygen, which releases carbon dioxide - still a greenhouse gas, but not nearly as potent.



But once the oxygen's gone, the process switches. Now you’ve got anaerobic decomposition, which happens without oxygen. This is where methane starts building up. 



And unlike compost piles, which stay exposed to air and rely on oxygen, landfills are packed tight. That makes them perfect methane factories.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-composting-transforms-food-waste">Composting transforms food waste</h2>



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/food-waste-crisis-why-u-s-goals-remain-out-of-reach/">Composting</a> does the exact opposite. It keeps oxygen in the mix throughout the process. That means no methane. Plus, it turns food scraps into something useful: a natural fertilizer that can go back into farms and gardens.



Some cities, especially in recent years, have started composting programs to cut down on landfill methane. But how effective are these programs? Do they really work?



One recent study examined how composting plays out in real life, based on actual data. The study concentrated on places such as Austin, Texas, where there are programs set up to allow people to compost at home. 



On average, the program reduced organic waste output by roughly 2.3 pounds per household per week. That’s a good start, but it’s only about 30% of what a typical American household discards a week.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-composting-requires-individual-effort">Composting requires individual effort</h2>



There’s also the question of participation. Unlike cities such as San Francisco, many places don’t enforce composting. That means it’s optional - and a lot of people skip it.



Jackson Somers is an assistant professor of&nbsp;agricultural and resource economics&nbsp;in the College of Agriculture, Health and Natural Resources (<a href="https://cahnr.uconn.edu/">CAHNR</a>).



“As individuals, we produce a lot of food waste, and it’s something we should be cognizant of. From there, you should compost if you want to compost,” said Somers. 



"I think, inherently, we don’t want to be wasteful. But for some people it’s just a high burden of effort.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-composting-isn-t-cheap-yet">Composting isn’t cheap - yet</h2>



Even with some success, the economics are tricky. According to Somers’ analysis, it currently costs about $478 to avoid emitting one ton of CO2 through composting programs. 



By comparison, the “social cost of carbon” - a number economists use to estimate the damage caused by each ton of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/circular-economy-needed-to-reduce-americas-carbon-emissions/">carbon emissions</a> - is set at $51.



That means composting, at least in small-scale residential programs with low participation, isn’t cheap when measured in dollars.



“With current programs, given the infrastructure we have - these programs are really expensive for the savings we see,” Somers said. But that doesn’t make composting a lost cause.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-short-term-cost-long-term-gain">Short-term cost, long-term gain</h2>



The cost of building new landfills is rising fast. Once current landfills are full, finding and building new ones will be a big financial burden for many cities. So building composting infrastructure now might save money down the road.



Also, the social cost of carbon isn’t fixed. As scientists understand more about climate change, the estimated damage from each ton of carbon goes up. That means composting could become more cost-effective over time - even if the upfront price is high.



“As we learn more about our impact, composting programs may become cheaper from an environmental sense,” Somers said.



The study focused on households, but Somers pointed out that restaurants, grocery stores, and other businesses throw away massive amounts of organic waste. That’s where composting could really move the needle.



“That’s where I think you can see real savings. I think that’s something we should consider more than we do," said Somers. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-unexpected-benefits-of-composting">Unexpected benefits of composting </h2>



Composting might also bring unexpected benefits. Large cities with lots of exposed food waste deal with more mess and public health concerns. Composting can help reduce that and keep neighborhoods cleaner.



“Keeping <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rats-are-spreading-a-deadly-disease-across-cities/">rats</a> and other pests out of neighborhoods certainly goes into the calculus too,” Somers said. 



“How many people get sick from rats? How much do we dislike seeing rats running around on the streets? It’s important to factor in other impacts, not just environmental.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-no-universal-fix-for-food-waste">No universal fix for food waste</h2>



Different communities need different solutions. Demographics, geography, and even local habits all shape what works best.



In some Connecticut cities, compost bins are picked up curbside. In others, residents drop off food scraps at centralized locations. 



“A one-size-fits-all solution is not the answer,” Somers said. “The solution in northwestern Connecticut is very different from the solution in Stamford or Hartford - and the solutions for Stamford and Hartford are also going to be different because demographically they’re quite different.”



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0095069625000580?via%3Dihub">Journal of Environmental Economics and Management</a>.



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Food waste is a growing climate threat - can composting help?

When you toss food waste into the trash, it might...

Endangered animals

News coming your way