Acipenser transmontanus NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is a source for authoritative conservation information on more than 50,000 plants, animals and ecological communtities of the U.S and <a href="https://www.earth.com/image/the-fall-rhapsody-in-ottawa/">Canada</a>. NatureServe Explorer provides in-depth information on rare and endangered species, but includes common plants and animals too. NatureServe Explorer is a product of NatureServe in collaboration with the Natural Heritage Network.

ITIS Reports -- ITIS (the Integrated Taxonomic Information System) is a source for authoritative taxonomic information on plants, animals, fungi, and microbes of<a href="https://www.bing.com/search?q=north+america&amp;cvid=d55013d210f7439f8ca981b3b73576f2&amp;aqs=edge.0.69i59l2j69i60j69i57j69i60l2j69i59.492j0j4&amp;FORM=ANAB01&amp;PC=HCTS"> North America</a> and the world.

FWS Digital Media Library -- The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service's National Digital Library is a searchable collection of selected images, historical artifacts, audio clips, publications, and video.White sturgeon (Acipenser transmontanus) is a species of sturgeon in the family Acipenseridae of the order Acipenseriformes. They are an anadromous fish species ranging in the Eastern Pacific; from the Gulf of Alaska to Monterey, California. However, some are landlocked in the Columbia River Drainage, Montana, and Lake Shasta in California, with reported sightings in northern Baja California, Mexico.Actinopterygii (ray-finned fishes) &gt; Acipenseriformes (Sturgeons and paddlefishes) &gt; Acipenseridae (Sturgeons) &gt; Acipenserinae Etymology: : Latin, = sturgeon, 1853 (Ref. 45335); transmontanus: The specific name is derived from the Latin acipenser (sturgeon), trans (beyond), and montanus (mountain) (Ref. 27436).More on author: Richardson.

Acipenser transmontanus

Acipenser transmontanus NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is a source for authoritative conservation...

Papilio homerus NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is a source for authoritative conservation information on more than 50,000 plants, animals and ecological communtities of the U.S and <a href="https://www.earth.com/image/mistastin-lake-in-labrador-canada/">Canada</a>. NatureServe Explorer provides in-depth information on rare and endangered species, but includes common plants and animals too. NatureServe Explorer is a product of NatureServe in collaboration with the Natural Heritage Network.

FWS Digital Media Library -- Papilio homerus The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service's National Digital Library is a searchable collection of selected images, historical artifacts, audio clips, publications, and video. North America is a continent entirely within the <a href="https://www.bing.com/search?q=north+america&amp;cvid=04199c903ec340abbe76ed5437dee267&amp;aqs=edge.0.69i59l2j69i57j69i59j69i60l3.622j0j1&amp;pglt=43&amp;FORM=ANNTA1&amp;PC=HCTS">Northern</a> Hemisphere and almost all within the Western Hemisphere. It can also be described as the northern subcontinent of the Americas. It is bordered to the north by the Arctic Ocean, to the east by the Atlantic Ocean, to the southeast by South America and the Caribbean Sea, and to the west and south by the Pacific Ocean. Because it is on the North American Tectonic Plate, Greenland is included as part of North America geographically. North America covers an area of about 24,709,000 square kilometers (9,540,000 square miles), about 16.5% of the Earth's land area and about 4.8% of its total surface. North America is the third-largest continent by area, following Asia and Africa, and the fourth by population after Asia, Africa, and Europe.

Papilio homerus

Papilio homerus NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is...

Papilio hospiton NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is a source for authoritative conservation information on more than 50,000 plants, animals and ecological communtities of the U.S and <a href="https://www.earth.com/image/the-fall-rhapsody-in-ottawa/">Canada.</a> NatureServe Explorer provides in-depth information on rare and endangered species, but includes common plants and animals too. NatureServe Explorer is a product of NatureServe in collaboration with the Natural Heritage Network. endemic to Corsica and Sardinia, and occurs there especially in middle mountain ranges from 400 to 1500m asl (rarely lower or higher). From the fact that not too seldom hybridization.

FWS Digital Media Library -- The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service's National Digital Library is a searchable collection of selected images, historical artifacts, audio clips, publications, and video.

Papilio hospiton, the Corsican swallowtail, is a species of butterfly in the family Papilionidae. It is found only in Corsica and Sardinia in the <a href="https://www.bing.com/search?q=Mediterranean+Sea&amp;cvid=0778e8fba9d34468acccb8394086d002&amp;aqs=edge..69i57j0l6.2990j0j9&amp;FORM=ANAB01&amp;PC=HCTS">Mediterranean Sea</a>. A medium-sized butterfly with a wingspan of 72–76 millimetres, Papilio hospiton is a short black-and-yellow swallowtail with short tails. The butterfly has blue and red markings. Sexes are alike.

Papilio hospiton, the Corsican swallowtail, is a species of butterfly in the family Papilionidae. It is found only in Corsica and Sardinia in the Mediterranean Sea. A medium-sized butterfly with a wingspan

Papilio hospiton

Papilio hospiton NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is...

Papustyla pulcherrima NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is a source for authoritative conservation information on more than 50,000 plants, animals and ecological communtities of the U.S and <a href="https://www.earth.com/image/mistastin-lake-in-labrador-canada/">Canada.</a> NatureServe Explorer provides in-depth information on rare and endangered species, but includes common plants and animals too. NatureServe Explorer is a product of NatureServe in collaboration with the Natural Heritage Network.

ITIS Reports -- ITIS (the Integrated Taxonomic Information System) is a source for authoritative taxonomic information on plants, animals, fungi, and microbes of <a href="https://www.bing.com/search?q=north+america&amp;cvid=351ddbeeb874424bbd0f1a20142ee73b&amp;aqs=edge.0.0l7.2232j0j9&amp;FORM=ANAB01&amp;PC=HCTS">North America</a> and the world. North America is a continent entirely within the Northern Hemisphere and almost all within the Western Hemisphere. It can also be described as the northern subcontinent of the Americas. It is bordered to the north by the Arctic Ocean, to the east by the Atlantic Ocean, to the southeast by South America and the Caribbean Sea, and to the west and south by the Pacific Ocean. Because it is on the North American Tectonic Plate, Greenland is included as part of North America geographically. North America covers an area of about 24,709,000 square kilometers (9,540,000 square miles), about 16.5% of the Earth's land area and about 4.8% of its total surface. North America is the third-largest continent by area,

FWS Digital Media Library -- The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service's National Digital Library is a searchable collection of selected images, historical artifacts, audio clips, publications, and video.

Papustyla pulcherrima

Papustyla pulcherrima NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is...

Parahyaena (=Hyaena) brunnea NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is a source for authoritative conservation information on more than 50,000 plants, animals and ecological communtities of the U.S and Canada. NatureServe Explorer provides in-depth information on rare and endangered species, but includes common plants and animals too. NatureServe Explorer is a product of NatureServe in collaboration with the Natural Heritage Network.

ITIS Reports -- Parahyaena (=Hyaena) brunnea ITIS (the Integrated Taxonomic Information System) is a source for authoritative taxonomic information on plants, animals, fungi, and microbes of <a href="https://www.bing.com/search?q=north+america&amp;cvid=04199c903ec340abbe76ed5437dee267&amp;aqs=edge.0.69i59l2j69i57j69i59j69i60l3.622j0j1&amp;pglt=43&amp;FORM=ANNTA1&amp;PC=HCTS">North America</a> and the world. North America is a continent entirely within the Northern Hemisphere and almost all within the Western Hemisphere. It can also be described as the northern subcontinent of the Americas. It is bordered to the north by the Arctic Ocean, to the east by the Atlantic Ocean, to the southeast by South America and the Caribbean Sea, and to the west and south by the Pacific Ocean. Because it is on the North American Tectonic Plate, Greenland is included as part of North America geographically. North America covers an area of about 24,709,000 square kilometers (9,540,000 square miles), about 16.5% of the Earth's land area and about 4.8% of its total surface. North America is the third-largest continent by area, following Asia and Africa, and the fourth by population after Asia, Africa, and Europe.

FWS Digital Media Library -- The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service's National Digital Library is a searchable collection of selected images, historical artifacts, audio clips, publications, and video.

Parahyaena (=Hyaena) brunnea

Parahyaena (=Hyaena) brunnea NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer...

Pardofelis (=Felis) marmorata NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is a source for authoritative conservation information on more than 50,000 plants, animals and ecological communtities of the U.S and<a href="https://www.earth.com/image/mistastin-lake-in-labrador-canada/"> Canada.</a> NatureServe Explorer provides in-depth information on rare and endangered species, but includes common plants and animals too. NatureServe Explorer is a product of NatureServe in collaboration with the Natural Heritage Network.

ITIS Reports -- Pardofelis (=Felis) marmorata ITIS (the Integrated Taxonomic Information System) is a source for authoritative taxonomic information on plants, animals, fungi, and microbes of <a href="https://www.bing.com/search?q=north+america&amp;cvid=13b1d1ef5fa544a5b4a5ebc5ef530df5&amp;aqs=edge.0.69i59j69i57j0l3j69i60l2.698j0j9&amp;FORM=ANAB01&amp;PC=HCTS">North America</a> and the world. North America is a continent entirely within the Northern Hemisphere and almost all within the Western Hemisphere. It can also be described as the northern subcontinent of the Americas. It is bordered to the north by the Arctic Ocean, to the east by the Atlantic Ocean, to the southeast by South America and the Caribbean Sea, and to the west and south by the Pacific Ocean. Because it is on the North American Tectonic Plate, Greenland is included as part of North America geographically. North America covers an area of about 24,709,000 square kilometers (9,540,000 square miles), about 16.5% of the Earth's land area and about 4.8% of its total surface. North America is the third-largest continent by area, following Asia and Africa, and the fourth by population after Asia, Africa, and Europe.

FWS Digital Media Library -- The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service's National Digital Library is a searchable collection of selected images, historical artifacts, audio clips, publications, and video.

Pardofelis (=Felis) marmorata

Pardofelis (=Felis) marmorata NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer...

Paroreomyza flammea NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is a source for authoritative conservation information on more than 50,000 plants, animals and ecological communtities of the U.S and <a href="https://www.earth.com/image/the-fall-rhapsody-in-ottawa/">Canada</a>. NatureServe Explorer provides in-depth information on rare and endangered species, but includes common plants and animals too. NatureServe Explorer is a product of NatureServe in collaboration with the Natural Heritage Network. The kākāwahie or Molokaʻi creeper ( Paroreomyza flammea) was a species of Hawaiian honeycreeper. It is extinct, but was found on the Hawaiian island of Molokaʻi in Hawaii .

ITIS Reports -- ITIS (the Integrated Taxonomic Information System) is a source for authoritative taxonomic information on plants, animals, fungi, and microbes of <a href="https://www.bing.com/search?q=north+america&amp;cvid=8093ca26b76b4bc7abbc4af702f97602&amp;aqs=edge.0.69i59j69i57j0l2j69i60l3.897j0j9&amp;FORM=ANAB01&amp;PC=HCTS">North America</a> and the world. The 'alauahio (genus Paroreomyza) are three species of honeycreeper endemic to the Hawaiian Islands of Maui and Läna'i (P. montana), O'ahu (P. maculata), and Moloka'i (P. flammea). On Moloka'i, the Käkäwahie (pronounced KAH-KAH-va-HEE-ay) was first described in 1889 by Wilson who collected 3 birds at Kala'e, Kahanui, in June 1888 (Wilson and Evans 1890-1899).

FWS Digital Media Library -- The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service's National Digital Library is a searchable collection of selected images, historical artifacts, audio clips, publications, and video.The Kākāwahie or Molokaʻi Creeper, (Paroreomyza flammea) was a species of Hawaiian honeycreeper. It is extinct, but formerly occurred on the Hawaiian island of Moloka ʻ i in Hawaii.

Paroreomyza flammea

Paroreomyza flammea NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is...

Paroreomyza maculata NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is a source for authoritative conservation information on more than 50,000 plants, animals and ecological communtities of the U.S and <a href="https://www.earth.com/image/mistastin-lake-in-labrador-canada/">Canada</a>. NatureServe Explorer provides in-depth information on rare and endangered species, but includes common plants and animals too. NatureServe Explorer is a product of NatureServe in collaboration with the Natural Heritage Network.

ITIS Reports -- Paroreomyza maculata ITIS (the Integrated Taxonomic Information System) is a source for authoritative taxonomic information on plants, animals, fungi, and microbes of <a href="https://www.bing.com/search?q=north+america&amp;cvid=04199c903ec340abbe76ed5437dee267&amp;aqs=edge.0.69i59l2j69i57j69i59j69i60l3.622j0j1&amp;pglt=43&amp;FORM=ANNTA1&amp;PC=HCTS">North America</a> and the world. North America is a continent entirely within the Northern Hemisphere and almost all within the Western Hemisphere. It can also be described as the northern subcontinent of the Americas. It is bordered to the north by the Arctic Ocean, to the east by the Atlantic Ocean, to the southeast by South America and the Caribbean Sea, and to the west and south by the Pacific Ocean. Because it is on the North American Tectonic Plate, Greenland is included as part of North America geographically. North America covers an area of about 24,709,000 square kilometers (9,540,000 square miles), about 16.5% of the Earth's land area and about 4.8% of its total surface. North America is the third-largest continent by area, following Asia and Africa, and the fourth by population after Asia, Africa, and Europe.

FWS Digital Media Library -- The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service's National Digital Library is a searchable collection of selected images, historical artifacts, audio clips, publications, and video.

Paroreomyza maculata

Paroreomyza maculata NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is...

Partula gibba NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is a source for authoritative conservation information on more than 50,000 plants, animals and ecological communtities of the U.S and <a href="https://www.earth.com/image/mistastin-lake-in-labrador-canada/">Canada</a>. NatureServe Explorer provides in-depth information on rare and endangered species, but includes common plants and animals too. NatureServe Explorer is a product of NatureServe in collaboration with the Natural Heritage Network.

FWS Digital Media Library -- Partula gibba The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service's National Digital Library is a searchable collection of selected images, historical artifacts, audio clips, publications, and video. North America is a continent entirely within the <a href="https://www.bing.com/search?q=north+america&amp;cvid=04199c903ec340abbe76ed5437dee267&amp;aqs=edge.0.69i59l2j69i57j69i59j69i60l3.622j0j1&amp;pglt=43&amp;FORM=ANNTA1&amp;PC=HCTS">Northern</a> Hemisphere and almost all within the Western Hemisphere. It can also be described as the northern subcontinent of the Americas. It is bordered to the north by the Arctic Ocean, to the east by the Atlantic Ocean, to the southeast by South America and the Caribbean Sea, and to the west and south by the Pacific Ocean. Because it is on the North American Tectonic Plate, Greenland is included as part of North America geographically. North America covers an area of about 24,709,000 square kilometers (9,540,000 square miles), about 16.5% of the Earth's land area and about 4.8% of its total surface. North America is the third-largest continent by area, following Asia and Africa, and the fourth by population after Asia, Africa, and Europe.

Partula gibba

Partula gibba NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is...

Partula langfordi NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is a source for authoritative conservation information on more than 50,000 plants, animals and ecological communtities of the U.S and <a href="https://www.earth.com/image/the-fall-rhapsody-in-ottawa/">Canada.</a> NatureServe Explorer provides in-depth information on rare and endangered species, but includes common plants and animals too. NatureServe Explorer is a product of NatureServe in collaboration with the Natural Heritage Network.

FWS Digital Media Library -- The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service's National Digital Library is a searchable collection of selected images, historical artifacts, audio clips, publications, and video. Partula langfordi is a species of air-breathing land snail, a terrestrial pulmonate gastropod mollusk in the family Partulidae. This species is known by the common name Langford's tree snail and endemic to the Northern Mariana Islands.North America is a continent entirely within the Northern Hemisphere and almost all within the Western Hemisphere. It can also be described as the northern subcontinent of the Americas. It is bordered to the north by the Arctic Ocean, to the east by the Atlantic Ocean, to the southeast by South America and the Caribbean Sea, and to the west and south by the Pacific Ocean. Because it is on the North American Tectonic Plate, Greenland is included as part of North America geographically. North America covers an area of about 24,709,000 square kilometers (9,540,000 square miles), about 16.5% of the Earth's land area and about 4.8% of its total surface. North America is the third-largest continent by area, following Asia and Africa, and the fourth by population after Asia, Africa, and Europe. In 2013, its population was estimated at nearly 579 million people in 23 independent states, or about 7.5% of the world's population. North America was reached by its first human populations during the last glacial period

Partula langfordi

Partula langfordi NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is...

Partula radiolata NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is a source for authoritative conservation information on more than 50,000 plants, animals and ecological communtities of the U.S and <a href="https://www.earth.com/image/mistastin-lake-in-labrador-canada/">Canada</a>. NatureServe Explorer provides in-depth information on rare and endangered species, but includes common plants and animals too. NatureServe Explorer is a product of NatureServe in collaboration with the Natural Heritage Network.

FWS Digital Media Library -- Partula radiolata The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service's National Digital Library is a searchable collection of selected images, historical artifacts, audio clips, publications, and video. North America is a continent entirely within the <a href="https://www.bing.com/search?q=north+america&amp;cvid=04199c903ec340abbe76ed5437dee267&amp;aqs=edge.0.69i59l2j69i57j69i59j69i60l3.622j0j1&amp;pglt=43&amp;FORM=ANNTA1&amp;PC=HCTS">Northern</a> Hemisphere and almost all within the Western Hemisphere. It can also be described as the northern subcontinent of the Americas. It is bordered to the north by the Arctic Ocean, to the east by the Atlantic Ocean, to the southeast by South America and the Caribbean Sea, and to the west and south by the Pacific Ocean. Because it is on the North American Tectonic Plate, Greenland is included as part of North America geographically. North America covers an area of about 24,709,000 square kilometers (9,540,000 square miles), about 16.5% of the Earth's land area and about 4.8% of its total surface. North America is the third-largest continent by area, following Asia and Africa, and the fourth by population after Asia, Africa, and Europe.

Partula radiolata

Partula radiolata NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is...

Partulina semicarinata NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is a source for authoritative conservation information on more than 50,000 plants, animals and ecological communtities of the U.S and <a href="https://www.earth.com/image/the-fall-rhapsody-in-ottawa/">Canada.</a> NatureServe Explorer provides in-depth information on rare and endangered species, but includes common plants and animals too. NatureServe Explorer is a product of NatureServe in collaboration with the Natural Heritage Network.

FWS Digital Media Library -- The U.S. Fish and <a href="https://www.bing.com/search?q=wildlife&amp;cvid=5fdae51726a5406281887a7a681f8b6d&amp;aqs=edge..69i57j0l6.1834j0j9&amp;FORM=ANAB01&amp;PC=HCTS">Wildlife</a> Service's National Digital Library is a searchable collection of selected images, historical artifacts, audio clips, publications, and video. Partulina semicarinata is a species of tropical air-breathing land snail, a terrestrial pulmonate gastropod mollusk in the family Achatinellidae. This species is endemic to Hawaii in the United States. The US Fish and Wildlife Service recently proposed to list this snail as an endangered species.

North America is a continent entirely within the Northern Hemisphere and almost all within the Western Hemisphere. It can also be described as the northern subcontinent of the Americas. It is bordered to the north by the Arctic Ocean, to the east by the Atlantic Ocean, to the southeast by South America and the Caribbean Sea, and to the west and south by the Pacific Ocean. Because it is on the North American Tectonic Plate, Greenland is included as part of North America geographically. North America covers an area of about 24,709,000 square kilometers (9,540,000 square miles), about 16.5% of the Earth's land area and about 4.8% of its total surface. North America is the third-largest continent by area, following Asia and Africa, and the fourth by population after Asia, Africa, and Europe. In 2013, its population was estimated at nearly 579 million people in 23 independent states, or about 7.5% of the world's population. North America was reached by its first human populations during the last glacial period

&nbsp;

Partulina semicarinata

Partulina semicarinata NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is...

Partulina variabilis NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is a source for authoritative conservation information on more than 50,000 plants, animals and ecological communtities of the U.S and <a href="https://www.earth.com/image/the-fall-rhapsody-in-ottawa/">Canada.</a> NatureServe Explorer provides in-depth information on rare and endangered species, but includes common plants and animals too. NatureServe Explorer is a product of NatureServe in collaboration with the Natural Heritage Network.

FWS Digital Media Library -- The U.S.<a href="https://www.bing.com/search?q=fish&amp;cvid=b8d2469ac852449da062fd81fa6fcfe8&amp;aqs=edge.0.69i59j0l6.536j0j9&amp;FORM=ANAB01&amp;PC=HCTS"> Fish</a> and Wildlife Service's National Digital Library is a searchable collection of selected images, historical artifacts, audio clips, publications, and video. Partulina variabilis is a species of tropical air-breathing land snail, a terrestrial pulmonate gastropod mollusk in the family Achatinellidae. This species is endemic to Hawaii. The US Fish and Wildlife Service recently proposed to list this snail as an endangered species. North America is a continent entirely within the Northern Hemisphere and almost all within the Western Hemisphere. It can also be described as the northern subcontinent of the Americas. It is bordered to the north by the Arctic Ocean, to the east by the Atlantic Ocean, to the southeast by South America and the Caribbean Sea, and to the west and south by the Pacific Ocean. Because it is on the North American Tectonic Plate, Greenland is included as part of North America geographically. North America covers an area of about 24,709,000 square kilometers (9,540,000 square miles), about 16.5% of the Earth's land area and about 4.8% of its total surface. North America is the third-largest continent by area, following Asia and Africa, and the fourth by population after Asia, Africa, and Europe. In 2013, its population was estimated at nearly 579 million people in 23 independent states, or about 7.5% of the world's population. North America was reached by its first human populations during the last glacial period

Partulina variabilis

Partulina variabilis NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is...

Patera clarki nantahala NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is a source for authoritative conservation information on more than 50,000 plants, animals and ecological communtities of the U.S and<a href="https://www.earth.com/image/mistastin-lake-in-labrador-canada/"> Canada.</a> NatureServe Explorer provides in-depth information on rare and endangered species, but includes common plants and animals too. NatureServe Explorer is a product of NatureServe in collaboration with the Natural Heritage Network.

ITIS Reports -- Patera clarki nantahala ITIS (the Integrated Taxonomic Information System) is a source for authoritative taxonomic information on plants, animals, fungi, and microbes of <a href="https://www.bing.com/search?q=north+america&amp;cvid=04199c903ec340abbe76ed5437dee267&amp;aqs=edge.0.69i59l2j69i57j69i59j69i60l3.622j0j1&amp;pglt=43&amp;FORM=ANNTA1&amp;PC=HCTS">North America</a> and the world. North America is a continent entirely within the Northern Hemisphere and almost all within the Western Hemisphere. It can also be described as the northern subcontinent of the Americas. It is bordered to the north by the Arctic Ocean, to the east by the Atlantic Ocean, to the southeast by South America and the Caribbean Sea, and to the west and south by the Pacific Ocean. Because it is on the North American Tectonic Plate, Greenland is included as part of North America geographically. North America covers an area of about 24,709,000 square kilometers (9,540,000 square miles), about 16.5% of the Earth's land area and about 4.8% of its total surface. North America is the third-largest continent by area, following Asia and Africa, and the fourth by population after Asia, Africa, and Europe.

FWS Digital Media Library -- The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service's National Digital Library is a searchable collection of selected images, historical artifacts, audio clips, publications, and video.

Patera clarki nantahala

Patera clarki nantahala NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer...

Pavona diffluens NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is a source for authoritative conservation information on more than 50,000 plants, animals and ecological communtities of the U.S and <a href="https://www.earth.com/image/mistastin-lake-in-labrador-canada/">canada</a>. NatureServe Explorer provides in-depth information on rare and endangered species, but includes common plants and animals too. NatureServe Explorer is a product of NatureServe in collaboration with the Natural Heritage Network.

ITIS Reports -- ITIS (the Integrated Taxonomic Information System) is a source for authoritative taxonomic information on plants, animals, fungi, and microbes of <a href="https://www.bing.com/search?q=north+america&amp;cvid=13b1d1ef5fa544a5b4a5ebc5ef530df5&amp;aqs=edge.0.69i59j69i57j0l3j69i60l2.698j0j9&amp;FORM=ANAB01&amp;PC=HCTS">North America</a> and the world. North America is a continent entirely within the Northern Hemisphere and almost all within the Western Hemisphere. It can also be described as the northern subcontinent of the Americas. It is bordered to the north by the Arctic Ocean, to the east by the Atlantic Ocean, to the southeast by South America and the Caribbean Sea, and to the west and south by the Pacific Ocean. Because it is on the North American Tectonic Plate, Greenland is included as part of North America geographically. North America covers an area of about 24,709,000 square kilometers (9,540,000 square miles), about 16.5% of the Earth's land area and about 4.8% of its total surface. North America is the third-largest continent by area, following Asia and Africa, and the fourth by population after Asia, Africa, and Europe.

FWS Digital Media Library -- The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service's National Digital Library is a searchable collection of selected images, historical artifacts, audio clips, publications, and video.

Pavona diffluens

Pavona diffluens NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is...

Pedionomous torquatus NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is a source for authoritative conservation information on more than 50,000 plants, animals and ecological communtities of the U.S and <a href="https://www.earth.com/image/the-fall-rhapsody-in-ottawa/">Canada</a>. NatureServe Explorer provides in-depth information on rare and endangered species, but includes common plants and animals too. NatureServe Explorer is a product of NatureServe in collaboration with the Natural Heritage Network.

FWS Digital Media Library -- Pedionomous torquatus The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service's National Digital Library is a searchable collection of selected images, historical artifacts, audio clips, publications, and video. The plains-wanderer (Pedionomus torquatus) is a bird, the only representative of family Pedionomidae and genus Pedionomus. It is endemic to Australia. The majority of the remaining population is found in the Riverina region of New South Wales. The plains-wanderer is a <a href="https://www.bing.com/search?q=Quail%20wikipedia&amp;form=WIKIRE">quail</a>-like ground bird, measuring 15–19 cm. It is such an atypical bird that it is placed in an entire family of its own, Pedionomidae. The adult male is light brown above, with fawn-white underparts with black crescents. The adult female is substantially larger than the male, and has a distinctive white-spotted black collar. They have excellent camouflage, and will first hide at any disturbance. If they're approached too closely, they will run rather than flying at which they are very poor. Females lay four eggs, which the male then incubates.

Pedionomous torquatus

Pedionomous torquatus NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is...

Pegias fabula NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is a source for authoritative conservation information on more than 50,000 plants, animals and ecological communtities of the U.S and <a href="https://www.earth.com/image/lake-st-clair-of-the-u-s-and-canada/">Canada.</a> NatureServe Explorer provides in-depth information on rare and endangered species, but includes common plants and animals too. NatureServe Explorer is a product of NatureServe in collaboration with the Natural Heritage Network.

ITIS Reports -- ITIS (the Integrated Taxonomic Information System) is a source for authoritative taxonomic information on plants, animals, fungi, and microbes of <a href="https://www.bing.com/search?q=north+america&amp;cvid=a45da56058c44fdcb8902b21afcf3721&amp;aqs=edge.0.69i59j69i57j0l2j69i60l3.810j0j9&amp;FORM=ANAB01&amp;PC=HCTS">North America</a> and the world.North America is a continent entirely within the Northern Hemisphere and almost all within the Western Hemisphere. It can also be described as the northern subcontinent of the Americas. It is bordered to the north by the Arctic Ocean, to the east by the Atlantic Ocean, to the southeast by South America and the Caribbean Sea, and to the west and south by the Pacific Ocean. Because it is on the North American Tectonic Plate, Greenland is included as part of North America geographically. North America covers an area of about 24,709,000 square kilometers (9,540,000 square miles), about 16.5% of the Earth's land area and about 4.8% of its total surface. North America is the third-largest continent by area, following Asia and Africa, and the fourth by population after Asia, Africa, and Europe. In 2013, its population was estimated at nearly 579 million people in 23 independent states, or about 7.5% of the world's population. North America was reached by its first human populations during the last glacial period

FWS Digital Media Library -- The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service's National Digital Library is a searchable collection of selected images, historical artifacts, audio clips, publications, and video.

Pegias fabula

Pegias fabula NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is...

Peltophryne lemur NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is a source for authoritative conservation information on more than 50,000 plants, animals and ecological communtities of the U.S and <a href="https://www.earth.com/image/the-fall-rhapsody-in-ottawa/">Canada</a>. NatureServe Explorer provides in-depth information on rare and endangered species, but includes common plants and animals too. NatureServe Explorer is a product of NatureServe in collaboration with the Natural Heritage Network.

ITIS Reports -- Peltophryne lemur ITIS (the Integrated Taxonomic Information System) is a source for authoritative taxonomic information on plants, animals, fungi, and microbes of <a href="https://www.bing.com/search?q=north+america&amp;cvid=a45da56058c44fdcb8902b21afcf3721&amp;aqs=edge.0.69i59j69i57j0l2j69i60l3.810j0j9&amp;FORM=ANAB01&amp;PC=HCTS">North America</a> and the world. North America is a continent entirely within the Northern Hemisphere and almost all within the Western Hemisphere. It can also be described as the northern subcontinent of the Americas. It is bordered to the north by the Arctic Ocean, to the east by the Atlantic Ocean, to the southeast by South America and the Caribbean Sea, and to the west and south by the Pacific Ocean. Because it is on the North American Tectonic Plate, Greenland is included as part of North America geographically. North America covers an area of about 24,709,000 square kilometers (9,540,000 square miles), about 16.5% of the Earth's land area and about 4.8% of its total surface. North America is the third-largest continent by area, following Asia and Africa, and the fourth by population after Asia, Africa, and Europe. In 2013, its population was estimated at nearly 579 million people in 23 independent states, or about 7.5% of the world's population. North America was reached by its first human populations during the last glacial period

FWS Digital Media Library -- The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service's National Digital Library is a searchable collection of selected images, historical artifacts, audio clips, publications, and video.

Peltophryne lemur

Peltophryne lemur NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is...

Penelope albipennis NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is a source for authoritative conservation information on more than 50,000 plants, animals and ecological communtities of the U.S and <a href="https://www.earth.com/image/the-fall-rhapsody-in-ottawa/">Canada.</a> NatureServe Explorer provides in-depth information on rare and endangered species, but includes common plants and animals too. NatureServe Explorer is a product of NatureServe in collaboration with the Natural Heritage Network.

ITIS Reports -- ITIS (the Integrated Taxonomic Information System) is a source for authoritative taxonomic information on plants, animals, fungi, and microbes of<a href="https://www.bing.com/search?q=north+america&amp;cvid=a45da56058c44fdcb8902b21afcf3721&amp;aqs=edge.0.69i59j69i57j0l2j69i60l3.810j0j9&amp;FORM=ANAB01&amp;PC=HCTS"> North America</a> and the world. North America is a continent entirely within the Northern Hemisphere and almost all within the Western Hemisphere. It can also be described as the northern subcontinent of the Americas. It is bordered to the north by the Arctic Ocean, to the east by the Atlantic Ocean, to the southeast by South America and the Caribbean Sea, and to the west and south by the Pacific Ocean. Because it is on the North American Tectonic Plate, Greenland is included as part of North America geographically. North America covers an area of about 24,709,000 square kilometers (9,540,000 square miles), about 16.5% of the Earth's land area and about 4.8% of its total surface. North America is the third-largest continent by area, following Asia and Africa, and the fourth by population after Asia, Africa, and Europe. In 2013, its population was estimated at nearly 579 million people in 23 independent states, or about 7.5% of the world's population. North America was reached by its first human populations during the last glacial period

FWS Digital Media Library -- The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service's National Digital Library is a searchable collection of selected images, historical artifacts, audio clips, publications, and video.

Penelope albipennis

Penelope albipennis NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is...

Hot summers have made bark beetles a familiar menace in northern Europe, but a new twist is now clear. When these insects kill spruce, they also change the air within the forest, raising daytime temperatures close to the ground by as much as 2 degrees Celsius (about 3.6 degrees Fahrenheit).



That <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/future-forests-which-tree-species-can-survive-climate-change/">shift</a> matters because many organisms depend on steady conditions near the forest floor. It also affects how new trees take root after a disturbance, and how people feel when they walk these trails on a scorching day.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-increasing-bark-beetle-outbreaks">Increasing bark beetle outbreaks </h2>



The research was led by Caroline Greiser of Stockholm University and the <a href="https://www.su.se/bolin-centre-for-climate-research/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Bolin Centre for Climate Research</a>. 



The team measured temperatures both beneath and above the trees at 31 spruce-dominated sites in southern Sweden between July and September 2021.



Sensors mounted at 6.5 feet recorded air in the understory, the shaded space below the canopy. A drone flight added a thermal map of treetops over one reserve to compare living crowns with dead ones.



The focus was the European spruce bark beetle, Ips typographus. “We’ve known for a long time that hot, dry summers increase bark beetle <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/forests-are-lagging-centuries-behind-in-climate-adaptation/">outbreaks</a>,” said Greiser.



The goal of the study was to see how attack severity plays out in the micro-scale temperatures that plants and animals actually experience.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-temperatures-of-dead-trees">Temperatures of dead trees</h2>



Daytime maximums beneath attacked stands ran up to 2 degrees Celsius warmer along a gradient from healthy to heavily damaged. 



Nights did not drop below the temperatures seen in healthy stands, which suggests a surprising kind of thermal stability after mortality.



Dead trees were not neutral at the top of the forest either. On a sunny day their crowns averaged 2.6 degrees Celsius warmer than living crowns, and on an overcast day the gap shrank to 0.7 degrees.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-deciduous-trees-matter">Why deciduous trees matter</h2>



Where birch and aspen were mixed in with spruce, the warming was smaller. Broad leaves restore shade, keep moisture cycling, and help hold down the daily highs under the trees after an outbreak.



“Our study adds a new reason to diversify forests,” said Greiser. Mixed stands also spread risk across species, so a single pest cannot topple everything at once. 



Restoring deciduous trees to conifer heavy stands has been a policy discussion in Scandinavia for years. These results add temperature control to the list of reasons to bring them back.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-temperature-effects-of-bark-beetles">Temperature effects of bark beetles</h2>



Forests tend to be cooler by day and warmer by night than open areas because of shading, wind reduction, and moisture fluxes. That buffering is documented in a global <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/gcb.15569" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">review</a> that links canopy structure to steadier conditions below.



Living trees also move water from soils to air through <a href="https://www.usgs.gov/water-science-school/science/evapotranspiration-and-water-cycle" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evapotranspiration</a>, which absorbs heat on hot afternoons. When many trees die, that cooling pathway weakens, so the daytime highs under the canopy can tick upward.



Despite the warmer days, attacked stands did not show colder nights in this work. Crowns and stems, even when dead, still slow the loss of heat to the sky, and that can keep minimums steady.



Earlier field <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S037811270100754X" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">study</a> in shelterwood systems found higher night minimums under partial cover than in clear cuts. That helps explain why leaving some structure standing can still protect frost sensitive seedlings.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-dead-trees-run-hotter">Why dead trees run hotter</h2>



The thermal drone maps showed dead crowns run warmer than living crowns, especially on clear days. That pattern lines up with reduced water flow from dead wood and the loss of evaporative cooling at the top of the stand.



Independent remote sensing work in Poland reported roughly a 2.5 degrees Celsius (about 4.5 degrees Fahrenheit) difference between dead and healthy tree canopies on a hot day. Weather conditions and tree species can change the exact number, but the direction is consistent.



Clear skies strengthen these differences because sunlight drives heating while living leaves are busy cooling. Clouds narrow the gap by cutting incoming <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/protecting-forests-helps-birds-and-humans-in-many-ways/">energy</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-preparing-for-bark-beetles">Preparing for bark beetles</h2>



Once again, diversity proves valuable. Adding birch and aspen to spruce stands softens the heat surge that follows beetle die-offs and reduces the risk of a single insect wiping out the entire stand.



Decisions about salvage logging are not one size fits all. Where standing dead trees help hold night minimums steady and support insects and fungi that need dead wood, managers can leave structure to maintain that buffering.



Fire risk is often raised after beetle outbreaks, yet large scale <a href="https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.1424037112" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">analyses</a> show area burned in the western United States did not increase directly because of beetles, with fire weather playing a larger role. 



That does not remove local hazards, but it does suggest careful, site specific planning rather than blanket assumptions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-bark-beetle-outbreaks">Future bark beetle outbreaks </h2>



Better maps of fine scale temperature will help link microclimate to seedling survival and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/forests-are-not-adapting-fast-enough-to-climate-change/">wildlife</a> activity. 



Repeated drone flights across seasons and weather types could sharpen guidance on when and where structure matters most.



Microclimate is part of the climate feedback too. As bark beetles change how heat moves through forests, they shape the very environment that affects future outbreaks and regeneration.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0168192325004150" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Agricultural and Forest Meteorology</a>.



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Bark beetle attacks increase daytime forest temperatures

Hot summers have made bark beetles a familiar menace in...

The genome of life is vanishing faster than we can understand it. Species are going extinct, ecosystems are breaking down, and climate change is making everything more unstable. 



At the same time, science is finally catching up with a bold idea: if we can read the DNA of life - every plant, animal, fungus, and more - we can help protect it. 



That’s the massive mission behind the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/butterfly-genome-has-barely-changed-after-250-million-years-of-evolution/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Earth BioGenome Project</a> (EBP), a global effort to sequence the DNA of every known eukaryotic species on the planet.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-reference-for-life-itself">A reference for life itself</h2>



In simple terms, eukaryotes are the organisms that have complex cells, like humans, trees, and mushrooms. 



There are about 1.67 million named species, and EBP wants to map the genome of each one. That means building a massive, digital <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/cracking-the-code-of-life-the-secret-language-of-dna/">DNA</a> library - a reference for life itself. 



This isn’t just for the sake of curiosity. Knowing the genetic makeup of different species can help with medicine, food security, environmental protection, and even pandemic prevention.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-powering-up-the-genome-project">Powering up the genome project</h2>



The EBP started sequencing genomes in 2020. Since then, it’s picked up speed. Today, the project is moving 10 times faster than when it began, thanks to better technology and new tools like portable “pop-up” labs that can work even in remote regions.



“As <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/global-biodiversity-crisis-is-actually-worse-than-we-thought/">biodiversity</a> loss gathers pace, so must our work,” said Professor Harris Lewin at <a href="https://www.asu.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Arizona State University</a>. “Our growing digital ‘genome ark’ is shifting what’s possible in genomics from isolated, expensive sequencing efforts to a global, scalable, and inclusive enterprise.”



The project isn’t just about science - it’s also about making sure the work benefits everyone, especially communities in biodiversity-rich but often overlooked areas, like parts of South America, Africa, and Southeast Asia. 



That includes giving local and Indigenous researchers the tools they need to do world-class genomic science right where they live.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-building-a-digital-tree-of-life">Building a digital tree of life</h2>



By the end of 2024, researchers in the network had published 1,667 genomes, representing over 500 eukaryotic families. Another 1,798 genomes were submitted that meet EBP’s standards. That brings the total to 3,465 species already sequenced and cataloged.



These genomes have helped explain how some <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/genomics-can-help-farm-animals-adapt-to-climate-change/">animals adapt</a> to extreme environments, like the Svalbard reindeer in the Arctic. They’ve also shown how chromosomes have changed over time in butterflies and moths. 



Furthermore, the genomes are helping to improve tools like environmental DNA, or eDNA, which can identify species just from the traces they leave behind in water, soil, or air.



“We have laid the roots to build our digital ‘tree of life’ - and our early outputs are already reshaping what we know about evolution, ecosystem function, and biodiversity,” said Professor Mark Blaxter at the UK’s Wellcome Sanger Institute.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-next-big-challenge">The next big challenge</h2>



Now, EBP is entering the second of three phases. Phase II is much more ambitious. The goal is to sequence 150,000 species over the next four years. That’s half of all known genera. 



The focus of this phase will be on species that matter most for ecosystems, food, disease prevention, and cultural and community needs.



That also means collecting 300,000 biological samples. To hit these targets, the project will need to sequence 3,000 genomes a month. That’s more than 10 times the current rate. But the tech is getting better - and cheaper. Genome sequencing costs have dropped eightfold in just a few years.



“It’s a biological moonshot in terms of the scale of ambition. As species vanish and ecosystems degrade, we aim to capture and preserve the biological blueprint of life on Earth for future generations,” said Professor Blaxter. 



“Understanding the origins and evolution of life on Earth is a human pursuit equivalent to understanding the origins and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/evolution-is-not-as-random-as-we-thought/">evolution</a> of the universe.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-genome-labs-in-a-box">Genome labs in a box</h2>



One of the biggest challenges is getting high-quality samples from hard-to-reach places. The EBP wants to solve that with a simple idea: genome labs in a box. 



These pop-up sequencing labs, called gBoxes, fit inside shipping containers and can go almost anywhere. Once there, they give local scientists the power to process and analyze DNA on site - without having to ship samples around the world.



“Chile is one of the world’s biodiversity hotspots with many endemic species, but these are under threat,” said Professor Juliana Vianna from the <a href="https://www.internationalgenome.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">1,000 Genomes Project</a>. 



“In addition, our species are often studied only after samples are exported. With gBoxes, we can change that. Local teams can generate the data here, in context, and immediately connect it to the conservation and sustainable management challenges we face on the ground.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-developing-novel-solutions">Developing novel solutions</h2>



“Biodiversity scientists in low and lower middle-income countries confront daily the great irony of our species and our planet: that the lion’s share of funding and infrastructure for genomics is located at higher latitudes while the great bulk of biodiversity is found in the tropics,” said Dr. Andrew J Crawford from Universidad de los Andes in Colombia. 



He noted that the gBox would allow any nation on the globe to make its own choices, empower the next generation of researchers in biotech and computational biology, and impact national economies by asking novel questions and developing creative solutions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-huge-genome-project-mission">A huge genome project mission</h2>



Since it started, EBP has built a strong foundation. It created international standards, set up a network of affiliated projects, and reached many of its Phase I goals. Now it’s aiming even higher.



The price tag for Phase II is $1.1 billion. That includes $0.5 billion for a Foundational Impact Fund to support training, infrastructure, and applied research in the Global South.



Sequencing the full 1.67 million named eukaryotic species over 10 years would cost around $4.42 billion. For perspective, that’s less than what it cost to sequence the first human genome or to build the James Webb Space Telescope.



The scientists behind the project say that’s a fair price for what it could deliver - a complete digital record of Earth’s genetic diversity.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/science/articles/10.3389/fsci.2025.1514835/full">Frontiers in Science</a>.



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Preserving Earth’s genetic future before it’s too late

The genome of life is vanishing faster than we can...

Seagrass meadows are more than just coastal greenery. Beneath the waves, they capture carbon and bury it in the seafloor, storing it safely for decades or centuries. This makes seagrass a powerful ally in the fight against climate change



But there’s a catch. When humans flood coastlines with too much nutrient pollution - especially from wastewater - it doesn’t just mess with the water. It messes with the seagrass, too.



Scientists wanted to find out exactly how this works, and they didn’t take shortcuts. Over nine years, researchers observed what happened when they added extra nutrients to seagrass beds. What they found was a balancing act between helping and hurting.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-balance-of-seagrass-and-nutrients">The balance of seagrass and nutrients</h2>



In the warm, shallow waters of tropical bays, seagrass grows in sandy beds. Such places are usually poor in nutrients. That may sound bad, but it is one of the reasons why seagrass is good at capturing <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seagrass-plays-a-major-role-in-global-carbon-storage/">carbon</a>. 



The plants grow slowly and consistently, extending their roots deep into the sediment where carbon is stored and trapped.



But when researchers added <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/lack-of-phosphorus-will-limit-growth-of-the-amazon-rainforest/">phosphorus</a> and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/kelp-farms-could-help-clean-up-coastal-nitrogen-pollution/">nitrogen</a> to these beds, something interesting happened. The seagrass responded with a burst of growth. 



First, it strengthened its root systems. Then, it put more energy into its blades - the flat, grass-like leaves. As the roots grew quickly, they also died more quickly, sending extra carbon into the sediment. That should be good news, right? 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-shadow-of-too-much-nitrogen">The shadow of too much nitrogen</h2>



Here’s where things got complicated. When nitrogen levels went too high, the team saw a surge in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/invisible-forest-of-phytoplankton-thrives-in-a-warming-climate/">phytoplankton</a> - tiny algae that float in the water. These blooms blocked sunlight, putting the seagrass at risk.



“People thought excess nutrients were killing seagrass,” said Jacob Allgeier, associate professor of ecology and evolutionary biology at the <a href="https://umich.edu/">University of Michigan</a>. 



“But we show that as long as there are not too many nutrients, which would also increase phytoplankton, the seagrass will just increase growth with excess nutrients.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-the-experiment-worked">How the experiment worked</h2>



To figure out what was really going on, a team led by recent doctoral graduate Bridget Shayka went hands-on - literally. The team collected seagrass samples from test plots in the Bahamas. 



Shayka and 17 undergraduate students separated each plant into parts: <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seagrass-meadows-still-thrive-on-floridas-nature-coast/">blades</a>, sheaths, roots, and rhizomes (the stems that grow underground). Next, the parts were freeze-dried, crushed, and tested for nitrogen, phosphorus, and carbon.



The researchers found that nutrients from human sources had a bigger effect than those from fish.



“The systems we study are pretty low-nutrient systems, so adding nutrients can increase seagrass production,” said Shayka, now a program officer at Ocean Visions. 



“But we also know that when you go too far and add too many nutrients, it really destroys these systems. It's one of the leading causes of their destruction around the world and in coastal systems.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-nitrogen-isn-t-the-only-problem">Nitrogen isn’t the only problem</h2>



In another experiment, the researchers tried 21 varied nutrient ratios in bottles of seawater and phytoplankton. They were curious to know if the ratio of nitrogen to phosphorus mattered more than just the amount of each nutrient. The results surprised them.



In this system, phosphorus had a stronger positive effect on seagrass growth. Nitrogen, on the other hand, caused phytoplankton levels to spike. That meant more light-blocking <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ocean-algae-play-an-unexpected-role-in-cooling-the-earth/">algae</a> in the water and more stress for the seagrass beds.



“When you grow tomatoes, you don't just add nitrogen. You add a perfect ratio of nitrogen and phosphorus. That idea is replete in our society,” said Allgeier. “But because we tested the water column and because we tested the seagrass, we're able to say that model doesn't work in our system.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-seagrass-and-carbon-storage">Seagrass and carbon storage</h2>



It’s unlikely that we’ll stop nutrient pollution altogether. But these findings suggest we don’t need to. Instead, we need to manage it better.



“We're not stopping nutrient enrichment. It's just not going to stop,” said Allgeier. “But we can manage it. And how do you best manage it? We scrub it for nitrogen.”



If local communities can control nitrogen runoff - especially from sewage and agriculture - they might give seagrass a better chance to grow, store carbon, and stay alive. This matters, not just for marine ecosystems, but for climate action too.



Seagrass may not get the attention coral reefs or rainforests do, but when it comes to carbon storage, it’s one of the most powerful tools in nature.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/gcb.70401">Global Change Biology</a>.



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Seagrass is a powerful climate weapon - unless we drown it in nutrients

Seagrass meadows are more than just coastal greenery. Beneath the...

Robots usually take orders from silicon chips and lines of code. In this project, the commands start in living tissue. The control signals come from mycelia - the branching underground networks that support mushrooms. 



These networks sense light, touch, chemicals, and temperature. They also produce tiny electrical pulses that carry information.



Researchers from <a href="https://www.engineering.cornell.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cornell University Engineering</a> learned to read those pulses without harming the organism or muddying the signal. They translated the rhythms into digital commands that set a robot’s movement. 



When the environment changed, the mycelia changed their electrical patterns, and the robot adjusted how it moved. That is sensorimotor control driven by a living system.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-from-mushrooms-to-motion">From mushrooms to motion</h2>



The work comes from Cornell Engineering. After <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mushroom-leather-mycelium-latest-eco-friendly-fashion-trend/">growing mycelium</a> in small chambers fitted with electrodes, the team linked those chambers to two robots and let the fungus set the tempo for movement.



“By growing mycelium into the electronics of a robot, we were able to allow the biohybrid machine to sense and respond to the environment. In this case we used light as the input, but in the future it will be chemical," explained Rob Shepherd, professor of mechanical and aerospace engineering in Cornell Engineering, and the paper’s senior author. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-melding-mycelium-with-a-robot">Melding mycelium with a robot</h2>



Many biohybrid systems use animal cells such as muscle fibers. Those cells can work in controlled lab setups but demand constant care and strict conditions. 



Mycelia handle rougher settings. They tolerate swings in humidity and temperature, grow on basic nutrients, and respond to many cues. 



That toughness makes them appealing for robots meant to operate outdoors or in messy places where dust, vibration, and weather get in the way.



Mycelia also form <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthpedia-articles/a-beginners-guide-to-mycology/">dense, responsive networks</a>. The electrical activity runs in spikes and patterns rather than steady tones, which is handy for timing movement. That natural rhythm lets engineers detect meaningful signals without decoding every subtle variation.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-making-whisper-quiet-signals">Making whisper-quiet signals</h2>



The main hurdle was signal quality. Electrical noise from motors, wires, and the air itself can drown out small biological spikes. The team built a shielded interface that blocks vibrations and electromagnetic interference. 



That design allowed clean recordings while the robots moved, which is rarely possible with living sensors because motion tends to scramble delicate measurements.



Software then monitored the incoming signal in real time. It detected spike times and translated them into control commands. 



The approach focused on rhythm, not on decoding a complex language of signals, which kept the system robust.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-robot-gait-from-mycelium-rhythm">Robot gait from mycelium rhythm</h2>



Biology has a term - <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/neuroscience/central-pattern-generator" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">central pattern generator</a> (CPG) - for circuits that produce rhythmic outputs to coordinate movement. The controller here borrowed that idea. The mycelial spikes set a beat. 



The controller mapped that beat to motor timing so the robot could coordinate steps or wheel turns without micromanaging each joint.



Focusing on timing helps avoid overfitting to noisy features. If the rhythm quickened or changed shape under new conditions, the controller shifted the gait accordingly. That kept the loop simple and reliable.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://news.cornell.edu/stories/2024/08/biohybrid-robots-controlled-electrical-impulses-mushrooms" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/09/biohybrid-robot_mushroom-robot_cornell-university_1s.webp" alt="This biohybrid robot uses electrical signals processed from King Oyster mushroom mycelia to jump and move around. Credit: Cornell University" class="wp-image-1984600"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">This biohybrid robot uses electrical signals processed from King Oyster mushroom mycelia to jump and move around. Click image for video. Credit: Cornell University</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-two-robots-one-living-beat">Two robots, one living beat</h2>



To show that it works across designs, the team built a soft, spider-like walker and a small wheeled rover. 



Each held a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/nasa-plans-use-mushrooms-fungi-mycelium-to-grow-homes-on-mars-the-moon/">living mycelium</a> sample wired to electrodes. When the fungus produced its natural spiking pattern, the robots moved.



The mycelia sensed ultraviolet light. When UV hit the chamber, the spiking pattern changed. The robots then changed how they moved by altering gait timing. 



The researchers also added an override mode through the same interface. They could pause or redirect the robot with an injected signal without damaging the tissue, combining biological autonomy with human supervision.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-real-world-applications">Real-world applications</h2>



Soil chemistry changes over hours, days, and seasons, and the cost of sampling across large fields adds up. 



Systems that respond locally to nutrient cues could help apply fertilizer where it’s needed and cut back where it’s not.



"The potential for future robots could be to sense soil chemistry in row crops and decide when to add more fertilizer, for example, perhaps mitigating downstream effects of agriculture like harmful algal blooms," Shepherd expounded.



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fungi-can-think-and-make-smart-decisions-without-a-brain/">Environmental monitoring</a> faces similar trade-offs. Sensors fail in wet, dirty, or variable conditions. Mycelia evolved to survive in those conditions and react to them. 



Tapping that sensitivity may give cheap, soft robots a way to notice toxins or pathogens and adjust their paths without hard-coded rules for every scenario.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-robotic-mycelium-beyond-light">Robotic mycelium beyond light</h2>



Light is just one input. Mycelia excel as chemical sensors, reacting to nutrients, toxins, and microbial signals. 



Moving from light to chemical cues would open direct links to soil health, pollutant detection, and other real-world triggers. 



A controller can listen for shifts in rhythm as the fungus responds to a molecule and translate that into a change in movement or task.



That shift also aligns with how fields and waterways behave. Chemistry changes in patches and pulses. A living sensor that tracks those changes in place can help robots act locally without heavy computation.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-mycelium-robots-matter">Why mycelium robots matter</h2>



Typical robots bolt on their different sensors as if they were simple accessories. This approach blends the sensor into the control loop itself. 



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mycocrete-new-material-made-of-fungi-hopes-to-replace-concrete-in-construction-projects/">The living network</a> doesn’t just report data; it shapes timing and action. That’s a different philosophy for machine control.



“This kind of project is not just about controlling a robot. It is also about creating a true connection with the living system. Because once you hear the signal, you also understand what’s going on,” noted lead author Anand Mishra, a research associate in the <a href="https://orl.mae.cornell.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Organic Robotics Lab</a>. 



"Maybe that signal is coming from some kind of stresses. So you’re seeing the physical response, because those signals we can’t visualize, but the robot is making a visualization," Mishra concluded.



There’s still work between lab demos and long-term field deployments. Keeping the biology stable, scaling production, and validating responses across varied environments are real jobs ahead. 



But the key step is now clear: a living network can steer a machine outside a benchtop, and the machine can respond in kind without the setup falling apart.



Click here to see <a href="https://cornell.app.box.com/v/biohybridrobots/file/1633854067059" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">a video of the study from Cornell University...</a>



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/scirobotics.adk8019" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Science Robotics</a>.



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Scientists attached a mushroom to a "biohybrid robot body" and the results were amazing

Robots usually take orders from silicon chips and lines of...

Extinction has always been part of life. Some events were enormous, like the asteroid strike that wiped out the dinosaurs. Others unfolded more quietly, reshaping ecosystems. 



Today, people are driving species toward extinction at alarming rates through habitat destruction, invasive species, and climate change. 



But does this mean Earth is in the midst of a new mass extinction? Not quite, according to a recent study led by John Wiens of the <a href="https://www.arizona.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Arizona</a> and Kristen Saban of <a href="https://www.harvard.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Harvard University</a>. 



Their findings show that while many species have disappeared, entire genera are not vanishing at the same pace. The loss of higher taxonomic groups is rare, often localized, and has slowed in recent decades.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-genus-extinctions-matter">Why genus extinctions matter</h2>



Species matter, but a genus carries more weight. Each genus represents unique evolutionary history, sometimes stretching back millions of years. Losing one can erase distinct genetic, ecological, and functional <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/prediction-how-and-when-humans-and-mammals-will-face-next-mass-extinction/">traits</a>. 



The tuatara offers a stark example. It is the only living member of a reptile lineage that dates back more than 250 million years. If it vanished, an entire evolutionary branch would be gone forever.



Wiens and Saban reviewed more than 22,000 genera from the IUCN database. They wanted to know if higher-level losses were stacking up. 



The researchers identified 102 <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/thousands-of-animal-species-face-extinction-from-climate-change/">extinct</a> genera in the past 500 years, less than half a percent of those assessed.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-genus-level-extinction-is-uncommon">Genus-level extinction is uncommon</h2>



The extinctions weren’t evenly spread. Birds have lost 37 genera and mammals 21 - together making up about 1.6% of their total. 



Other groups fared far better: amphibians lost just one genus, reptiles three, and ray-finned fishes four. Arthropods lost 11 genera, plants 12, and mollusks 14 - though most mollusk losses were limited to isolated islands.



These findings highlight a bias. Mammals and birds, both studied closely, show higher genus-level losses. Insects, though far more numerous, are under-assessed. 



Even so, the data suggest that genus-level extinction is still uncommon compared to species-level decline.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-island-effect">The island effect</h2>



Most genus-level extinctions happened on islands. About three out of four <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-chaos-the-mass-extinction-that-reshaped-life-on-earth/">extinct</a> genera were island endemics. 



Isolated ecosystems magnify vulnerability. Invasive predators, hunting, and habitat change hit harder where species have nowhere else to go.



Examples are scattered across the globe. The Mascarene Islands lost multiple bird genera. The West Indies saw mammals disappear. Saint Helena’s mollusks were especially affected. 



Even freshwater systems showed vulnerability. All four extinct genera of ray-finned fishes lived in rivers or lakes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-slowdown-in-extinction-rates">Slowdown in extinction rates </h2>



Extinction rates climbed between the 1500s and 1800s, hitting their peak in the late 1800s and early 1900s. The decades with the most losses were the 1890s, 1900s, and 1930s. 



Since then, rates have slowed. That finding directly challenges earlier claims that extinctions are speeding up.



Why the slowdown? One reason may be conservation. Efforts to protect birds and mammals in the past century appear to have worked. 



Another possible explanation for the slowdown is timing. Many of the most fragile lineages, especially on islands, disappeared over a century ago. What remains may be more resilient, at least against the threats of that time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-counting-extinctions-is-challenging">Counting extinctions is challenging</h2>



Counting extinctions isn’t simple. Insects, for example, are underrepresented in the IUCN database. They make up nearly half of all species, but few genera are assessed. 



Even with that gap, genus-level extinction remains below half a percent for insects and other groups.



Another factor is classification. Birds and mammals often have fewer species per genus. This makes them more likely to lose entire genera when species vanish. 



Reptiles and amphibians, which pack more species into each genus, appear less vulnerable in this way.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-possible-but-uncertain-patterns">Possible but uncertain patterns</h2>



The study also tracked 37 genera listed as “possibly extinct.” Most of them were monotypic, consisting of only one species. Many were island or freshwater specialists, echoing the confirmed extinction patterns. 



If all of the possible extinctions were confirmed, the total number would rise slightly. But even then, the trend of rarity and slowdown would hold.



The big picture is clear: the crisis is real, but it looks different when measured at higher levels of classification.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-extinctions-must-be-stopped">Why extinctions must be stopped</h2>



“A recent study suggested that extinctions of animal genera are rapidly accelerating and that these extinctions endanger human survival," said Wiens.



"We found instead that extinctions of genera are very rare across plants and animals, that they were mostly of genera found only on islands, and that these extinctions actually slowed down over the last 100 years instead of rapidly accelerating."



According to Wiens, there was never any evidence that these extinctions, which peaked ~100 years ago and occurred mostly on isolated islands, endanger human survival. 



"We argue that the reason why future extinctions must be stopped is not because they threaten humans, but because it is morally wrong for humans to drive other species to extinction.”



Saban highlighted another important issue - how science is communicated. “Now more than ever, given the widespread mistrust in science, it is important that we conduct <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/life-was-thriving-before-earths-greatest-mass-extinction/">conservation</a> research carefully and present it accurately,” she said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-irreplaceable-value-of-species">Irreplaceable value of species</h2>



So, what does this mean? We are not in a mass extinction at the genus level. But that does not soften the blow of losing hundreds of species. 



Threats are changing. In the past, invasive species and overhunting drove island losses. Now, climate change and habitat destruction loom large.



The study urges caution. Scientists should avoid exaggerating extinction trends but must still stress urgency. Every extinction matters, not just for ecosystems but as a moral responsibility. 



Humanity has the choice to act, not because its survival depends on every genus, but because each species adds irreplaceable value to Earth’s living fabric.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosbiology/article?id=10.1371/journal.pbio.3003356" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">PLOS Biology</a>.



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Species are vanishing at an unprecedented rate, but we're not yet at "mass extinction" levels

Extinction has always been part of life. Some events were...

Most of what we learn about ancient animals comes from hard parts - shells, bones, and sometimes soft tissues that have been transformed into fossils over eons. How does this happen? The key lies in the chemistry around a carcass. 



As microbes move in, they use up oxygen and flip the local conditions from oxidizing to reducing within minutes to days. Those shifts decide whether tissues vanish or get copied by minerals and locked into rock.



A recent experiment asked a clear question with big consequences: if different animals decay in the same water, will they create the same chemistry above their bodies, or does each one build its own microenvironment? 



The answers derived from a study led by the University of Lausanne (<a href="https://www.unil.ch/unil/en/home.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">UNIL</a>) points straight to why some animals transform into fossils when they die, but most simply return to dust.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-animals-become-fossils">How animals become fossils</h2>



Researchers placed four aquatic animals - a shrimp, a snail, a starfish, and a planarian flatworm - into sealed jars of gently oxygenated water. For seven days, they measured <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/immunology-and-microbiology/oxidation-reduction-potential" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">oxidation-reduction potential</a> (ORP) just above each carcass. 



ORP, recorded in millivolts, indicates whether conditions favor oxidation (positive values) or reduction (negative values). 



As microbes burn oxygen and switch to other electron acceptors, ORP drops. Each animal drove a different chemical path. 



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/shrimp-crisis-alarming-virus-threatens-global-seafood-supplies/">Shrimp</a> pulled ORP down the fastest and deepest, sometimes reaching values linked to methanogenesis. Snails also pushed conditions into strongly reducing ranges, but not as rapidly or as far. 



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bacteria-thats-melting-starfish-alive-has-finally-been-identified/">Starfish</a> moved more slowly and ended near the snails after a week. Planarians barely shifted from the starting conditions, much like control jars without an animal.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-minerals-in-the-ground">Minerals in the ground</h2>



Different redox windows favor different preservation routes. In oxygen-rich water, soft tissues usually break down quickly. 



Under reducing conditions, minerals can grow on or within tissues and capture detail before it’s lost. When sulfate reduces to sulfide and iron is present, iron sulfide (<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fools-gold-may-be-a-valuable-source-of-lithium/">pyrite</a>) can form, producing pyritization. 



In other reducing ranges, phosphorus released during decay can bind into calcium phosphate, producing <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phosphatization" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">phosphatization</a>.



Because shrimp and snails spent time in reducing “sweet spots,” their remains would be more likely to acquire pyrite or calcium phosphate coatings. Planarians, which stayed closer to oxygenated conditions, were less likely to mineralize that way. 



A single sediment bed can therefore hold different preservation styles side by side, driven by the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/microbes-found-alive-sealed-inside-rock-after-2-billion-years/">microenvironments</a> that different carcasses create.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fossils-and-animal-size">Fossils and animal size</h2>



Size helps. Larger bodies feed microbes more and draw down oxygen faster, so they reach reducing conditions sooner. But size wasn’t the whole story. 



The team normalized results by body mass and subtracted the weight of mineralized parts, such as shells, that don’t decay. Even after those corrections, the taxa did not line up the same way.



Composition mattered. Bodies richer in protein relative to lipid produced stronger ORP drops on a per-mass basis. 



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/apple-snails-regrow-their-eyes-and-may-help-humans-do-the-same/">Planarians</a> are small and protein-heavy with little fat, giving them a larger per-mass chemical impact than size alone would predict. 



Shrimp carry more lipid, which degrades more slowly and blunts the per-mass effect, even though a whole shrimp still drove ORP very negative due to overall size, surface area, and varied tissues.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-from-the-lab-into-the-real-world">From the lab into the real world</h2>



Several jars showed an ORP rebound after about five days. Conditions became less reducing. That pattern likely reflects microbial succession. 



Early colonizers use easy fuels and drain oxygen quickly. Later arrivals run different reactions that tilt the chemistry back toward less extreme values. The decay path bends as the microbial roster changes.



These trials used freshwater at room temperature in sealed, gently oxygenated jars. Natural settings vary. Salty seawater alters protein behavior while cold mud slows reactions. 



Flowing pore water can deliver new oxidants. Starfish are marine animals, and in seawater their decay chemistry can shift. 



Sediments also matter. Many <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rare-video-footage-of-an-elusive-deep-sea-predator-pacific-sleeper-shark/">carcasses land in mud</a> that limits oxygen flow and sets up reducing pockets faster than open water.



The specific numbers will change with the setting, but the pattern holds: taxon identity and tissue chemistry steer decay chemistry under the same starting conditions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-it-all-means">What it all means</h2>



“This means that, in nature, two animals buried side by side could have vastly different fates as fossils, simply because of differences in size or body chemistry,” affirms Nora Corthésy, Ph.D. student at the University of Lausanne and lead author of the study. 



“One might vanish entirely, while the other could be immortalized in stone,” adds Farid Saleh, Swiss National Science Foundation (<a href="https://www.snf.ch/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">SNSF)</a> Ambizione Fellow at UNIL, and senior author of the paper.



According to this study, animals such as large arthropods are more likely to be preserved than small planarians or other aquatic worms. 



“This could explain why fossil communities dating from the <a href="https://ucmp.berkeley.edu/cambrian/cambrian.php" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cambrian</a> and <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/earth-and-planetary-sciences/ordovician-period" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Ordovician</a> periods (around 500 million years ago) are dominated by arthropods,” states Corthésy.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-preservation-of-animal-fossils">Preservation of animal fossils</h2>



Geologists often picture redox conditions stacked vertically in sediment - from oxygenated at the top to more reducing with depth. That vertical model explains shifts in preservation with burial depth. This study adds a lateral view. 



Two carcasses lying inches apart can generate different chemical zones and end up preserved by different mineral pathways, even when the surrounding mud looks uniform. 



That helps explain mixed beds where pyritized and phosphatized fossils sit together and why some groups appear repeatedly while others fade.



The chemistry above a carcass is not one-size-fits-all. It changes with body size and, crucially, with what the body is made of. Those differences decide which minerals, if any, have time to copy soft parts before they disappear. 



That is why a shrimp and a snail, decaying close together, can leave very different signatures in stone - and why the fossil record, with all its gaps and surprises, makes more sense when you follow the chemistry.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-025-59372-3" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Communication</a>.



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Some animals survive millions of years in stone, but most simply vanish, now we know why

Most of what we learn about ancient animals comes from...

Feeding a growing global population while preserving space for wildlife is one of agriculture’s toughest challenges. The debate has often been framed as a stark choice - either intensify farming to save land for nature or spread out production in more wildlife-friendly ways. 



But that either-or framing has oversimplified the problem and left policymakers with little clarity.



A new study takes a closer look at the evidence and asks a sharper question: which farming approach actually works best in practice to support biodiversity while keeping food production steady? The answer is far more complex than slogans suggest.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-challenging-either-or-farming">Challenging either-or farming</h2>



Study lead author Eva Augustiny at the Research Institute of Organic Agriculture in Switzerland (<a href="https://www.fibl.org/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">FiBL</a>) and her team reviewed evidence from many landscapes and production systems.



The researchers assessed 57 studies and concluded that only 17 had the right ingredients to compare strategies head to head, yielding 27 apples-to-apples cases.



In those cases, 52 percent favored a mix of approaches, 41 percent favored land sparing, and seven percent favored land sharing, with the authors noting gaps in how biodiversity and yield were measured across the literature. That tally comes from the team’s peer-reviewed paper&nbsp;



"The empirical basis is thus sparse and does not support statements claiming that, in general, either land sharing or land sparing strategies are unequivocally better," said Augustiny.



Many studies focused on a narrow slice of life. Birds dominated the sample, often <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ozone-pollution-is-stunting-tropical-forest-growth/">tropical forest</a> birds, while soil organisms and microbes were barely covered. 



Agricultural performance focused on yield, while profitability, stability, and key services like pollination and pest control were rarely tracked.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-farms-use-land-differently">Farms use land differently</h2>



In this debate, land sharing means lower-intensity farming across wider areas with habitat elements built into fields and pastures. Farmers may keep hedgerows, ponds, tree belts, or flower strips and use more wildlife-friendly practices.



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/farming-for-wildlife-how-traditional-practices-can-protect-nature/">Land sparing</a> means concentrating production on smaller, higher yielding areas and setting aside larger, undisturbed spaces elsewhere for nature. The core idea is to meet food demand on less land and leave more intact habitat.



The modern framing grew from a 2005 theoretical model that linked species responses to farm yields and area needs. That model helped structure later field tests, but it simplified messy realities on the ground.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-biodiversity-complicates-the-picture">Biodiversity complicates the picture</h2>



Species differ. Forest-dependent birds often need large, continuous habitat and do poorly in patchy mosaics. 



A European population-level study found that simple sparing outperformed sharing for many species, while a three-compartment model that paired spared habitat with some low-yield farmland improved outcomes further.



Climate, farm size, and the mobility of organisms also tilt the balance. Mobile pollinators and predators can thrive in mixed farm landscapes, while less mobile amphibians, reptiles, or cavity-nesting mammals may require the security of protected areas.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-economics-and-soil-matter">Economics and soil matter</h2>



Economics and policy strongly influence results. A cross-country analysis of yield gains and land use showed that intensifying production does not automatically free land for nature - especially where subsidies or market demand drive expansion.



Soil quality sets boundaries that short-term yield gains often obscure. A global review documented how erosion, compaction, and other forms of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/land-degradation-severely-threatens-planetary-boundaries/">degradation</a> undermine productivity over time and raise the risk that new land will be cleared. 



As Rhys Green of the <a href="https://www.cam.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Cambridge</a> noted in 2005, increasing yield could reduce farmland needs, but demand growth and rebound effects can erase those gains. Even the theory behind sparing warned against oversimplification.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-farms-thrive-when-diversified">Farms thrive when diversified</h2>



Flower strips, hedgerows, and diversified rotations can lift biodiversity and stabilize services on farms. 



A large second-order meta-analysis showed that agricultural diversification supports <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/robotic-insects-may-be-the-future-of-farming-and-plant-pollination/">pollination</a>, natural pest control, nutrient cycling, soil fertility, and water regulation without sacrificing overall yields.



Protected areas still matter. Some species simply cannot persist in farmland, no matter how friendly the practices, so set-asides remain a nonnegotiable part of the picture.



Connectivity helps both sides. Corridors and stepping stones reduce isolation of protected patches, while on farm habitat elements keep beneficial organisms moving through fields.



Local food system choices can relieve pressure too. Less waste and smarter use of crops for food rather than feed reduce the acreage needed to meet diets, which strengthens the case for keeping more land wild.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-land-policies-must-stay-local">Land policies must stay local</h2>



It's time to stop asking which side wins in general. The better question is which mix of spared land and shared land fits a specific place, given its species, soils, climate, and markets.



Measure more than yield. Track profitability, stability over years, and the biodiversity based services that keep farms productive in the long run. 



Tie intensification to real conservation. Sparing only works if the land that is supposedly saved is actually protected, restored, and connected.



Invest in data where it is thin. <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/gene-edited-wheat-turns-soil-microbes-into-fertilizer/">Soil microbes</a>, fungi, and belowground communities underpin fertility and resilience yet are missing from most studies.



Remember where this started. The early model framed a useful thought experiment, but today’s decisions need local evidence, clear goals, and policies that lock in the benefits.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://academic.oup.com/pnasnexus/article/4/9/pgaf251/8245250?login=false" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">PNAS Nexus</a>.



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Farms can feed people and protect biodiversity at the same time

Feeding a growing global population while preserving space for wildlife...

When we think of pollinators, bees, butterflies, and hoverflies usually spring to mind. Rarely do we imagine true bugs dusted in pollen. Yet a stunning 99-million-year-old fossil of a bug, Shaykayatcoris michalskii, suggests our mental picture of who carried pollen through ancient flowers needs an update.



Hungarian researchers studying a pristine inclusion in Burmese amber identified a flat <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/do-bugs-bug-humans-more-than-humans-bug-bugs/">bug</a>, preserved with plant fragments and a halo of pollen grains. The specimen comes from Late Cretaceous amber formed on the West Burma terrane. 



This fragment of crust split from Gondwana more than 100 million years earlier and drifted in the tropical Tethys. 



Isolated for eons, life on the terrane evolved along a distinctive path, and its amber famously preserved delicate organisms in extraordinary detail.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-unexpected-bug-pollinator">Unexpected bug pollinator</h2>



Shaykayatcoris michalskii belongs to the flat bug family Aradidae, best known today as cryptic, bark-hugging <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/underground-fungi-networks-that-sustain-all-life-on-earth-are-in-danger/">fungi</a> feeders. 



Yet this individual, assigned to the subfamily Prosympiestinae, breaks the mold in multiple ways.



The species is the first representative of that ancient lineage ever reported from Burmese amber. Previously, all aradids from this deposit came from more derived branches of the family.



Even more striking is its appearance: the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/cambrian-fossils-reveal-new-clues-about-arthropod-evolution/">exoskeleton</a> is iridescent, flashing a metallic sheen never before documented in flat bugs.



Prosympiestinae differ in lifestyle and form from their pancake-flat, bark-dwelling relatives. 



Rather than being pressed thin to slip beneath tree bark, they tend to have more cylindrical bodies and inhabit leaf litter or the undersides of fallen logs and branches.



That departure from a strictly subcortical existence may have opened opportunities - like venturing onto flowers - that typical flat bugs rarely seize today.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-shaykayatcoris-michalskii-was-shiny">Shaykayatcoris michalskii was shiny</h2>



Iridescence in insects can serve several functions. Brilliant warning colors can advertise toxicity. 



Shaykayatcoris, however, shows a brownish base tone with a subtle shimmer, not the bold reds and oranges linked to aposematism.



Camouflage is the more likely explanation here. On petals, an iridescent gloss can fracture outlines and mimic the shifting play of light on floral surfaces.



It helps an insect like Shaykayatcoris michalskii blend in among gleaming pollen and reflective nectar guides. In that context, shimmering armor would be less a billboard than a cloak.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dust-points-to-flowers">Dust points to flowers</h2>



The most persuasive clue to this bug’s floral life comes from its microscopic companions. Alongside plant fragments, abundant pollen surrounds the insect inside the amber, with grains even adhering to the body.



Because resin entombs scenes in mid-action, the association is unlikely to be accidental. 



Coupled with the iridescent finish, the pollen dusting points to regular flower visits and, by extension, a role - perhaps incidental, perhaps important - in pollination.



That inference matters because modern true bugs rarely rank among primary pollinators. 



Today’s flowering plants largely rely on <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-identify-the-parasite-thats-driving-bees-into-a-death-spiral/">bees</a>, butterflies, moths, and flies, whose mouthparts and foraging habits are specialized for nectar and pollen.



This fossil suggests that, earlier in Earth’s history, some bugs occupied that niche more frequently than they do now. Competition and coevolution later favored the classic <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/pollinators-face-extinction-risk-due-to-climate-change/">pollinator</a> guilds we recognize today.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-bug-fossil-fills-missing-gap">Bug fossil fills missing gap</h2>



Flat bugs are typically masters of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/insect-larvae-had-sophisticated-defense-strategies-100-million-years-ago/">concealment</a>. They live under bark, graze fungal hyphae with elongated stylets coiled inside their heads, and wear muted colors that melt into wood grain.



Finding an aradid with a reflective finish is startling on its own; finding it in a lineage that retains ancestral traits and in one of the world’s most storied amber deposits magnifies the surprise.



The discovery fills a conspicuous gap in the Burmese amber fauna by documenting an older aradid lineage where only more derived ones had been seen.



Burmese amber is a magnet for paleobiologists precisely because it preserves what rock often erases: hairs on fly legs, pollen clumps, and the fine sculpturing of exoskeletons.



Arthropods, with their delicate cuticles and appendages, are especially prone to being flattened or fragmented in sedimentary fossils. 



Resin captures them mid-gesture, with spores, dust, and pollen revealing behaviors that bones and impressions cannot.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rethinking-bug-pollinators">Rethinking bug pollinators </h2>



If true bugs frequented flowers in the Cretaceous, the implications ripple through our view of angiosperm evolution. 



Early flowering plants diversified at the same time as many insect groups, and their mutual influences shaped floral structures and insect mouthparts.



A broader cast of pollinators - one that included iridescent aradids - could help explain certain floral traits that don’t neatly match bee or <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/butterflies-can-adapt-quickly-but-evolution-has-its-limits/">butterfly</a> syndromes. 



It suggests that as bees rose, many bug lineages abandoned flowers to better-equipped pollinators.



The study, led by <a href="https://www.elte.hu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eötvös Loránd University</a>, demonstrates how competition and environmental change filter ecosystems over deep time. 



What looks “typical” today - bees buzzing between blossoms while true bugs skulk under bark - might be a late chapter rather than the opening scene.



By showing that bugs once mingled more often with flowers, the fossil nudges us to see present-day patterns as the outcome of shifting pressures rather than fixed rules.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lessons-from-shaykayatcoris-michalskii">Lessons from Shaykayatcoris michalskii</h2>



Beyond rewriting a small piece of floral history, the find has contemporary resonance. 



Global pollinator declines threaten crop yields and wild plant reproduction, prompting urgent searches for overlooked or understudied pollinators across landscapes.



Fossils like Shaykayatcoris michalskii remind us that pollination networks can be more diverse and flexible than we assume, and that marginal or rare visitors might become important under different conditions.



Understanding how ancient communities shared pollination helps refine our expectations and conservation priorities as today’s ecosystems are reshaped.



In a single shard of amber, a shimmering bug and its cloud of pollen grains expand our imagination of who carried Cretaceous pollen. 



They also invite us to look more closely at the quiet, easily missed participants in the modern pollination story.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-025-15559-8" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Scientific Reports</a>.



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99-million-year-old bug hints that flowers once had very different pollinators

When we think of pollinators, bees, butterflies, and hoverflies usually...

Wood looks simple, but it’s a tricky material. Inside every tree are long cellulose fibers, helper sugars called hemicellulose, and a stiff, brown binder known as lignin. 



That mix lets trees grow tall and stay standing through wind and weather. It also makes wood tough to reshape into high-performance beams and panels.



Factories usually force wood into shape with chemicals and heat. They strip out some lignin first, then compress what remains into a dense, strong material. 



That step consumes energy, costs money, and generates waste. A team of researchers set out to avoid it.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-engineered-wood-and-lignin">Engineered wood and lignin</h2>



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/poplar-trees-changed-their-chemistry-to-survive/">Lignin</a> is great for trees and a challenge for manufacturers. It’s the glue that stiffens cell walls and blocks pests. It resists many industrial treatments. 



Take out some lignin and you can pack <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/agricultural-and-biological-sciences/cellulose-fiber" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cellulose fibers</a> closer, which boosts strength. The usual methods require harsh chemicals and high temperatures.



Engineered wood has become a cleaner alternative to steel and concrete in many projects. It’s lighter and can carry serious loads when densified. 



To keep that promise, the industry needs cleaner steps from the forest to the factory floor.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-genetics-and-wood-engineering">Genetics and wood engineering</h2>



Researchers at the <a href="https://umd.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Maryland</a> genetically modified poplar trees to produce high-performance structural wood with fewer chemicals and less energy-intensive processing.



“We are very excited to demonstrate an innovative approach that combines genetic engineering and wood engineering, to sustainably sequester and store carbon in a resilient super wood form,” explained <a href="https://agnr.umd.edu/about/directory/yiping-qi/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Yiping Qi</a>, a professor in the Department of Plant Science and Landscape Architecture (<a href="https://psla.umd.edu/node/1/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">PSLA</a>) at the University of Maryland.



Instead of modifying wood after the tree grows, the team asked a simple question: could the tree grow wood that’s easier to densify from the start? 



They chose poplar, a fast-growing research workhorse that also shows up in real products. Using precise gene editing, they adjusted the tree’s lignin pathway without undermining growth.



They targeted one gene - <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26491147/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">4CL1</a> - within the pathway cells use to make lignin. By switching off 4CL1, the trees produced slightly less lignin, but maintained normal development under controlled conditions. 



That small change opened a new option in the factory: skipping the chemical delignification step.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-the-gene-edit-works">How the gene edit works</h2>



The tool was base editing, a form of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/worlds-first-gene-edited-spiders-spin-red-silk/">CRISPR</a> that swaps one DNA letter for another at a chosen spot. It doesn’t slice the genome; it rewrites a letter with precision. 



In this case, the edit focused on 4CL1 while minimizing changes elsewhere in the genome.



With the wood in hand, the team soaked it in water and then applied heat and pressure to densify it. 



When cellulose fibers line up and move closer together, mechanical strength climbs. The process relies less on solvents and more on physical compaction.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/08/engineered-trees_wood_lignin_construction-revolution_UMaryland_1m.jpg"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/08/engineered-trees_wood_lignin_construction-revolution_UMaryland_1s.webp" alt="This method for producing genetically modified wood eliminates chemical delignification, offering a cost-effective, eco-friendly alternative for producing densified wood. This success highlights genome editing’s potential to create other engineered wood materials with enhanced properties, contributing to a CO2-negative bioeconomy by providing renewable alternatives to traditional materials. Credit: Matter Journal" class="wp-image-1984732"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">This method for producing genetically modified wood eliminates chemical delignification, offering a cost-effective, eco-friendly alternative for producing densified wood. This success highlights genome editing’s potential to create other engineered wood materials with enhanced properties, contributing to a CO2-negative bioeconomy by providing renewable alternatives to traditional materials. Click image to enlarge. Credit: Matter Journal</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-putting-it-to-the-test">Putting it to the test</h2>



The densified wood from the edited poplars reached <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/booster-plant-gene-discovery-amplifies-plant-growth-up-to-200-percent/">strength levels</a> comparable to those of panels made with conventional chemical treatments. 



The researchers measured lignin levels approximately one-eighth lower than in unedited controls. Growth remained healthy in greenhouse tests, which matters because factory gains aren’t worth much if the tree can’t thrive.



Skipping the chemical bath meant fewer inputs and less waste while still yielding structural-grade material. 



The balance was key: reduce lignin just enough to ease processing, not so much that the tree loses toughness in the wild.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-co2-and-engineered-wood">CO2 and engineered wood</h2>



Buildings are a major source of global <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ai-just-created-concrete-that-could-reverse-climate-damage/">carbon emissions</a>, driven by materials like steel and concrete. 



Engineered wood can help by replacing part of that footprint with lighter structural components that store carbon for decades. Cleaner processing tightens the loop further, cutting energy use and reducing waste streams.



“Carbon sequestration is critical in our fight against climate change, and such engineered wood may find many uses in the future bioeconomy,” Qi added.



If mills can avoid harsh solvents and still press wood into high-strength beams and panels, the path to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/construction-materials-could-store-carbon-in-homes-and-buildings-helping-the-climate/">lower-carbon construction</a> gets wider. 



The approach starts upstream in the forest, not just on the factory line. It tunes the raw material so it cooperates when densified.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-next-steps-underway">Next steps underway</h2>



Greenhouse results look good, but forests are tougher proving grounds. Wind, pests, and seasons test wood in ways a lab cannot. 



Longer field trials will show whether reduced-lignin trees keep their strength and resilience outdoors. Another step is to try similar edits in pine, spruce, or eucalyptus, which dominate many timber markets.



Policy will shape the path. Base-edited trees do not carry added foreign genes; they contain single-letter changes to DNA already present. 



Many regulators treat that differently from classic GMOs, but rules vary by country. Because forestry spans long life cycles and open landscapes, regulators will likely require careful, staged reviews before any commercial rollout.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-super-wood-and-earth-s-future">"Super wood" and Earth's future</h2>



This study shows that small genetic changes can simplify manufacturing while maintaining performance. The edit doesn’t erase lignin; it tunes it. 



The result is densified “super wood” that matches the strength of chemically treated material while avoiding the delignification step.



This is a careful blend of biology and materials science aimed at a practical target: strong, reliable wood that stores carbon and reduces the mess of production. 



If future field tests and policy steps go well, smarter forests could feed cleaner factories - and sturdier buildings - for years to come.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.cell.com/matter/abstract/S2590-2385(24)00396-5" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Matter</a>.



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Scientists create 'super wood' from gene-edited trees and claim it will change everything

Wood looks simple, but it’s a tricky material. Inside every...

Plants cannot move to chase comfort, yet they still need to choose the right season to reproduce. A new study explains how a small plant uses blue light and cool air together to decide when to flower.



A research team led by Adam Seluzicki from the <a href="https://www.salk.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Salk Institute for Biological Studies</a> mapped a genetic switch that listens for both signals at once. 



The study shows how one pathway senses blue light and another senses low temperature, and how they meet to control the transition to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/flowering-plants-appeared-two-million-years-earlier-than-we-thought/">flowering</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-when-do-plants-start-flowering">When do plants start flowering?</h2>



Arabidopsis thaliana uses a blue light sensor called PHOT2 and a helper protein named NPH3 to read light signals. When the air is cool, a temperature responsive gene switch called CAMTA2 turns on another gene called <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0176161716302024" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EHB1</a>.



The EHB1 gene then connects with NPH3, which brings the light and temperature signals together. The plant starts flowering only when both <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/nasa-tracks-changes-in-seasonal-flower-cycles-and-migration-patterns-from-the-air/">conditions</a> are met - blue light is present and the air is cool.



“Here we show that signals from the PHOTOTROPIN2 (PHOT2) blue photoreceptor combine with low temperature information to control flowering,” wrote Seluzicki.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-timing-of-plant-flowering">The timing of plant flowering </h2>



Seasonal timing depends on multiple cues, not a single trigger. A recent <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/pce.15678?af=R" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">review</a> outlines how plants sense temperature through changes in cell membranes, protein activity, and chromatin.



Day length, light color, and light intensity also shape <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/a-new-window-into-the-early-evolution-of-flowering-plants/">flowering</a>. These signals run through several networks at once, which is why combining them gives a more reliable readout than using either one alone.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-blue-light-pathway">Blue light pathway</h3>



Plant <a href="https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8630751/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">photoreceptors</a> are proteins that detect wavelengths and pass along messages. The blue light sensor PHOT2, located at the cell membrane, helps direct growth and movement.



NPH3 works after the PHOT proteins and helps control how their signals are used. In the system described in the new research, NPH3 acts like the main hub. It changes its response depending on what the temperature pathway is doing.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-temperature-pathway">Temperature pathway</h3>



When it is cool, the gene switch CAMTA2 becomes active. It turns on the gene EHB1, which then slows down NPH3 at the right moment.



Other studies on NPH3 show that its behavior depends on where it is in the cell and how it is modified. These details explain why EHB1’s link with NPH3 can change the balance of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seasonal-timing-can-change-quickly-over-short-distances/">signals</a> that decide when the plant flowers.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-revelations-about-plant-flowering">Revelations about plant flowering</h2>



When the days were long and the air was cool, plants without PHOT2 grew more leaves before making flowers compared to normal plants. At warmer temperatures, this delay disappeared, showing that PHOT2 matters most in cooler conditions.



Previous studies found that PHOT2 and other phototropins help plants adjust to daily cold at sunrise. This supports the idea that blue light sensors play an important role in how plants respond to low temperatures. 



These results together make the connection between PHOT2, CAMTA2, NPH3, and EHB1 more convincing.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-the-plant-system-functions">How the plant system functions</h2>



PHOT2 picks up blue light and passes the signal to NPH3. When it is cold, CAMTA2 turns on EHB1, and EHB1 connects with NPH3 to help control flowering.



In warm conditions, CAMTA2 does not activate EHB1 the same way, so the system works differently. In that state, flowering is not delayed, which explains why the effect only shows up in cooler weather.



Arabidopsis uses a signal called FT, also known as <a href="https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC5654465/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">florigen</a>, to send the message from the leaves to the shoot, where flowers develop. FT levels go up when day length and light quality favor flowering, and this signal also takes temperature into account.



Other blue light sensors besides PHOT proteins also affect flowering time. One called <a href="https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6670086/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">FKF1</a> works with the plant’s internal clock and a protein named CONSTANS to boost FT under the right day length. This shows that several blue light pathways feed into the same flowering signal.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-sets-this-research-apart">What sets this research apart</h2>



Most past studies linked flowering to sensors called cryptochromes, phytochromes, or to the FT pathway. 



This new research shows that PHOT2, a sensor usually known for guiding growth, moving chloroplasts, and opening stomata, also plays a role in flowering when it is cool.



In addition, the study shows how temperature signals through CAMTA2 and EHB1 connect directly to NPH3, the hub of the light pathway. This direct link explains why flowering is affected only when both light and temperature signals are present.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-crops">Implications for crops</h2>



Climate change is altering seasonal light patterns and nighttime temperatures in many places. A system that only triggers when both signals line up can help prevent plants from flowering too early in unpredictable springs.



The Salk team’s results highlight genes that plant breeders could adjust to control flowering in cooler conditions. 



Small changes in PHOT2, CAMTA2, NPH3, or EHB1 could help time flowering to match better conditions for pollination and seed production.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-research-directions">Future research directions </h2>



Future work can map where, within a leaf, this module is most active. Tissue specific data would show how the signal flows into FT production and transport.



It will also be important to test crop species. If a similar module exists in brassicas or cereals, targeted edits could help stabilize yields when cold snaps interrupt the start of the growing season.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-025-62194-y" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Communications</a>.



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Plant flowering is triggered by blue light and cool air

Plants cannot move to chase comfort, yet they still need...

Earth’s seasons are not a single global script. They vary from place to place, sometimes over short distances. 



In a new global study, experts used 20 years of satellite observations to map when plants grow and rest through the year. They found many spots where neighboring <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earth-day-2025-our-power-our-planet/">landscapes</a> run on different clocks.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-the-satellites-measured">What the satellites measured</h2>



The research was led by Drew E. Terasaki Hart of the University of California, <a href="https://www.berkeley.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Berkeley</a>. The goal was to stitch together a worldwide picture of seasonal timing. The team focused on how plant communities rise and fall in activity across each year.



Scientists call this timing phenology, and when it is mapped from space across landscapes it is called land surface phenology. The approach sidesteps guesswork and lets researchers see real signals of growth and pause across ecosystems.



Near-infrared reflectance of vegetation (NIRV) is closely linked with solar-induced chlorophyll fluorescence (SIF), which measures light re-emitted by plants during photosynthesis. Both NIRV and SIF provide reliable ways to track how much energy plants are capturing and using.



Because SIF changes in step with photosynthesis, it gives scientists a clear <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earths-oceans-are-rapidly-changing-colors-matching-climate-predictions/">signal</a> of when plants are actively growing and when they are at rest.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-seasons-out-of-sync">Seasons out of sync</h2>



The map shows many places where seasonal timing changes quickly over short distances. Hotspots stand out in Mediterranean climate zones and in tropical mountain regions, where terrain and winds shape local rain and cloud patterns.



In the U.S. Southwest, cities just about 100 miles apart can show very different annual <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/lightning-is-changing-the-atmosphere-in-surprising-ways/">rhythms</a> because one area leans on summer monsoon rains while another splits rain between winter and summer. 



Similar seasonal contrasts also appear along mountain slopes in South America and East Africa.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-timing-differences-matter">Why timing differences matter</h2>



According to a 2017 <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/28370658/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">review</a>, when populations breed at different times, they meet less often and that can reduce gene flow and let differences stack up.&nbsp;



The new map links sharp timing breaks to measured differences in flowering dates and to genetic divergence in some species. That pattern hints that out-of-sync seasons can help build biodiversity over long timescales.



Agriculture feels these patterns in practical ways. In Colombia, growers plan around two distinct coffee harvest windows, one from October to December and another from March to June. Mountain ranges can flip the calendar across short drives, changing when cherries ripen and labor is needed.



“Our map predicts stark geographic differences in flowering timing and genetic relatedness across a wide variety of plant and animal species,” said Hart.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-map-built-from-satellite-data">Map built from satellite data</h2>



The team analyzed two decades of satellite records and fit each pixel with a simple model of its average year. That model can capture single peaks or two peaks in plant activity, which is important in places with two rainy seasons.



The researchers measured how quickly seasonal timing changes across <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earthcares-first-year-surprising-climate-clues-unveiled-from-space/">space</a>. Where that rate is high, nearby places are out of sync. 



Patterns point to shifting rainfall and minimum temperatures as the main drivers, especially where mountains steer air and moisture.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-ecology-and-people">Implications for ecology and people</h2>



Wildlife that moves to follow food can get out of step if resources peak at different times across a landscape. Pollinators, seed dispersers, and migratory species may all feel the squeeze when timing shifts across short distances.



Managers can use these maps to spot regions where species are most likely to split into locally timed groups. That helps set priorities for conservation, seed sourcing, and habitat corridors that keep life stages connected.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-shifts-the-timing-of-seasons">Climate shifts the timing of seasons</h2>



Warming and shifting rainfall can move seasonal cues. In places where timing already varies a lot, small climatic nudges could tip species out of sync with food or mates. 



The new baseline makes it easier to flag unusual years and track how often they happen.



Land use matters too. Irrigation can create human-made timing that does not match nearby natural cycles. Understanding where that mismatch is strongest can guide smarter water use and crop planning.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-clearer-plant-activity-signals">Clearer plant activity signals</h2>



NIRV and SIF help avoid a common pitfall of older vegetation metrics that can blur the signal in evergreen systems. 



NIRV filters out bright backgrounds, and SIF connects directly to chlorophyll activity, which tightens the link to photosynthesis.



The analysis does not depend on one sensor or one region. It draws strength from multiple data streams, long records, and simple math that holds up across biomes. That mix is what makes the global picture hang together.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-seasonal-timing-shapes-biodiversity">Seasonal timing shapes biodiversity</h2>



Timing is a quiet kind of change. It rarely makes headlines, but it shapes whether young animals find food, whether flowers meet pollinators, and whether farms hit their harvest windows. 



Knowing where timing disagrees across short distances turns guesswork into preparation and planning.



The take-home is simple. Seasons still matter, but they do not line up the same way everywhere, and those differences can ripple through evolution, ecology, and economies.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-025-09410-3" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature</a>.



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Seasonal timing can change quickly over short distances

Earth’s seasons are not a single global script. They vary...

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