Acaena exigua NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is a source for authoritative conservation information on more than 50,000 plants, animals and ecological communtities of the U.S and Canada. NatureServe Explorer provides in-depth information on rare and endangered species, but includes common plants and animals too. NatureServe Explorer is a product of NatureServe in collaboration with the Natural Heritage Network.

ITIS Reports -- ITIS (the Integrated Taxonomic Information System) is a source for authoritative taxonomic information on plants, animals, fungi, and microbes of North America and the world.

FWS Digital Media Library -- The U.S.<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ocean-surface-slicks-create-superhighway-for-fish/"> Fish</a> and Wildlife Service's National Digital Library is a searchable collection of selected images, historical artifacts, audio clips, publications, and video. Acaena exigua is an extinct species of flowering plant in the rose family known by the common name liliwai. It was endemic to Hawaii, where it was known from Kauaʻi and west Maui. It had not been seen or collected since 1957 and was feared extinct until 1997, when one plant was discovered in a remote montane bog on <a href="https://www.bing.com/search?q=maui&amp;cvid=11f593b142284a109c4b71b63cd85874&amp;FORM=ANAB01&amp;PC=HCTS">Maui</a>. The plant died in 2000, and the species is now considered extinct.Acaena exigua A. Gray var. subtusstrigulosa Bitter: Classification. Click on a scientific name below to expand it in the PLANTS Classification Report. Rank Scientific Name and Common Name; Kingdom: Plantae – Plants Subkingdom: Tracheobionta

Acaena exigua

Acaena exigua NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is a source for authoritative conservation...

Pediocactus peeblesianus fickeiseniae NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is a source for authoritative conservation information on more than 50,000 plants, animals and ecological communtities of the U.S and <a href="https://www.bing.com/search?q=canada&amp;cvid=b57d5893ceff412895aebe1a0d82ff85&amp;FORM=ANAB01&amp;PC=HCTS">Canada</a>. NatureServe Explorer provides in-depth information on rare and endangered species, but includes common plants and animals too. NatureServe Explorer is a product of NatureServe in collaboration with the Natural Heritage Network.The Bureau of Land Management 345 East Riverside Drive St. George, Utah 84770 Introduction Pediocactus peeblesianus var. fickeiseniae is a small desert grassland cactus commonly known as the Fickeisen plains cactus. This cactus if one of the plants monitored on the Arizona Strip, a strip of land along the Arizona -Utah border

ITIS Reports -- Pediocactus peeblesianus fickeiseniae ITIS (the Integrated Taxonomic Information System) is a source for authoritative taxonomic information on plants, animals, fungi, and microbes of North America and the world.Introduction Pediocactus peeblesianus var. fickeiseniae is a small desert grassland cactus commonly known as the Fickeisen plains cactus. This cactus if one of the plants monitored on the Arizona Strip, a strip of land along the Arizona -Utah borde

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Pediocactus peeblesianus fickeiseniae

Pediocactus peeblesianus fickeiseniae NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer...

Pediocactus peeblesianus var. peeblesianus NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is a source for authoritative conservation information on more than 50,000 plants, animals and ecological communtities of the U.S and <a href="https://www.earth.com/image/mistastin-lake-in-labrador-canada/">Canada</a>. NatureServe Explorer provides in-depth information on rare and endangered species, but includes common plants and animals too. NatureServe Explorer is a product of NatureServe in collaboration with the Natural Heritage Network.

ITIS Reports -- ITIS (the Integrated Taxonomic Information System) is a source for authoritative taxonomic information on plants, animals, fungi, and microbes of <a href="https://www.bing.com/search?q=north+america&amp;cvid=a89f77701d234b96b3eaee1307656b94&amp;aqs=edge.0.69i59j69i57j0l4j69i60l3.1415j0j9&amp;FORM=ANAB01&amp;PC=HCTS">North America</a> and the world. North America is a continent entirely within the Northern Hemisphere and almost all within the Western Hemisphere. It can also be described as the northern subcontinent of the Americas. It is bordered to the north by the Arctic Ocean, to the east by the Atlantic Ocean, to the southeast by South America and the Caribbean Sea, and to the west and south by the Pacific Ocean. Because it is on the North American Tectonic Plate, Greenland is included as part of North America geographically. North America covers an area of about 24,709,000 square kilometers (9,540,000 square miles), about 16.5% of the Earth's land area and about 4.8% of its total surface. North America is the third-largest continent by area, following Asia and Africa, and the fourth by population after Asia, Africa, and Europe. In 2013, its population was estimated at nearly 579 million people in 23 independent states,

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Pediocactus peeblesianus var. peeblesianus

Pediocactus peeblesianus var. peeblesianus NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe...

Pediocactus winkleri NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is a source for authoritative conservation information on more than 50,000 plants, animals and ecological communtities of the U.S and <a href="https://www.bing.com/search?q=canada&amp;cvid=6cde074b65a941d5873e6cd33214d1e3&amp;FORM=ANAB01&amp;PC=HCTS">Canada</a>. NatureServe Explorer provides in-depth information on rare and endangered species, but includes common <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/plants-cannot-keep-up-with-rising-co2-levels/">plants</a> and animals too. NatureServe Explorer is a product of NatureServe in collaboration with the Natural Heritage Network.

ITIS Reports -- ITIS (the Integrated Taxonomic Information System) is a source for authoritative taxonomic information on plants, animals, fungi, and microbes of North America and the world.Pediocactus winkleri, commonly known as Winkler's cactus or Winkler's pincushion cactus, is a small cactus endemic to the state of Utah in the United States. It is known only from Emery and Wayne Counties. The cactus is shaped like a small ribbed ball. It has 9 to 14 short radial spines each 1.5 – 4 mm long. The flowers range from peach to pink in color. The cactus is cold-hardy and are native to high altitude sandy hilltops and slopes.

FWS Digital Media Library -- The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service's National Digital Library is a searchable collection of selected images, historical artifacts, audio clips, publications, and video. Ilham Alakbarov Cultivation and Propagation: Under cool temperatures and wet conditions it is highly susceptible to root rot. For this reason it is usually cultivated as a grafted plant, which is very easy to cultivate and free flowering.

Pediocactus winkleri

Pediocactus winkleri NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is...

NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is a source for authoritative conservation information on more than 50,000 plants, animals and ecological communtities of the U.S and Canada. NatureServe Explorer provides in-depth information on rare and endangered species, but includes common plants and animals too. NatureServe Explorer is a product of NatureServe in collaboration with the Natural Heritage Network.ITIS Reports -- ITIS (the Integrated Taxonomic Information System) is a source for authoritative taxonomic information on plants, animals, fungi, and microbes of North America and the world.FWS Digital Media Library -- The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service's National Digital Library is a searchable collection of selected images, historical artifacts, audio clips, publications, and video.

Penstemon debilis

NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is a source...

Penstemon haydenii

Penstemon penlandii NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is a source for authoritative conservation information on more than 50,000 plants, animals and ecological communtities of the U.S and <a href="https://www.bing.com/search?q=canada&amp;cvid=1e06c6f1e65b4e7ebd97c162b59fc925&amp;FORM=ANAB01&amp;PC=HCTS">Canada.</a> NatureServe Explorer provides in-depth information on rare and endangered species, but includes common plants and animals too. NatureServe Explorer is a product of NatureServe in collaboration with the Natural Heritage Network.

ITIS Reports -- Penstemon penlandii ITIS (the Integrated Taxonomic Information System) is a source for authoritative taxonomic information on plants, animals, fungi, and microbes of North America and the world.Penstemon penlandii is a rare species of flowering plant in the plantain family known by the common names Penland penstemon and Penland's beardtongue. It is endemic to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/colorado-forests-are-transformed-by-bark-beetles-and-fire/">Colorado</a> in the United States, where it is known only from a strip of land about five miles long in central Grand County. There are two occurrences totalling about 8600 individuals. This is a federally listed endangered species of the United States.

FWS Digital Media Library -- The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service's National Digital Library is a searchable collection of selected images, historical artifacts, audio clips, publications, and video. Penland's beardtongue. Subordinate Taxa. This plant has no children. Legal Status. Threatened and Endangered Information: This plant is listed by the U.S. federal government or a state. Common names are from state and federal lists. Click on a place name to get a complete protected plant list for that location.short herbaceous perennial with showy flowers, linear leaves, and clumped stems up to 10 in (25 cm) tall. The flower clusters (inflorescences) consist of 5-15 flowers with blue lobes and a violet throat. The fruits are small brown capsules.

Penstemon penlandii

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Pentachaeta bellidiflora NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is a source for authoritative conservation information on more than 50,000 plants, animals and ecological communtities of the U.S and <a href="https://www.bing.com/search?q=canada&amp;cvid=b57d5893ceff412895aebe1a0d82ff85&amp;FORM=ANAB01&amp;PC=HCTS">Canada</a>. NatureServe Explorer provides in-depth information on rare and endangered species, but includes common plants and animals too. NatureServe Explorer is a product of NatureServe in collaboration with the Natural Heritage Network.White-rayed pentachaeta is a small annual plant with small, white, daisy-like flowers that typically bloom from March to May. White-rayed pentachaeta is found in San Mateo County west of Redwood City at a single population in a location known as the “Triangle.”

ITIS Reports -- ITIS (the Integrated Taxonomic Information System) is a source for authoritative taxonomic information on <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plants-set-a-bedtime-alarm-that-helps-them-survive-the-night/">plants</a>, animals, fungi, and microbes of North America and the world.Pentachaeta bellidiflora, the white-rayed pentachaeta or whiteray pygmydaisy, is a Californian wildflower in the genus Pentachaeta of the family Asteraceae. It is included in both the state and federal lists of endangered species.

FWS Digital Media Library -- The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service's National Digital Library is a searchable collection of selected images, historical artifacts, audio clips, publications, and video.whiteray pygmydaisy. Subordinate Taxa. This plant has no children. Legal Status. Threatened and Endangered Information: This plant is listed by the U.S. federal government or a state. Common names are from state and federal lists. Click on a place name to get a complete protected plant list for that location.

Pentachaeta bellidiflora

Pentachaeta bellidiflora NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is...

Pentachaeta lyonii

Peperomia subpetiolata

Peperomia wheeleri

Peucedanum sandwicense

Phacelia argillacea NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is a source for authoritative conservation information on more than 50,000 plants, animals and ecological communtities of the U.S and<a href="https://www.earth.com/image/the-fall-rhapsody-in-ottawa/"> Canada.</a> NatureServe Explorer provides in-depth information on rare and endangered species, but includes common plants and animals too. NatureServe Explorer is a product of NatureServe in collaboration with the Natural Heritage Network.

ITIS Reports -- ITIS (the Integrated Taxonomic Information System) is a source for authoritative taxonomic information on plants, animals, <a href="https://www.bing.com/search?q=fungi&amp;cvid=704ec0b8b5b84cc080ecc089d58213de&amp;FORM=ANAB01&amp;PC=HCTS">fungi</a>, and microbes of North America and the world.Phacelia argillacea is a rare species of flowering plant in the borage family known by the common names clay phacelia and Atwood's phacelia. It is endemic to Utah in the United States, where it is known only from one canyon in Utah County. Phacelia argillacea is a rare species of flowering plant in the borage family known by the common names clay phacelia and Atwood's phacelia. It is endemic to Utah in the United States, where it is known only from one canyon in Utah County. It is "one of Utah's most endangered species"; it is "one of the nation's rarest plants" and is federally listed as an endangered species of the United States.
This plant is an annual herb growing up to 36 to 40 centimeters in height. It has a rosette

FWS Digital Media Library -- The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service's National Digital Library is a searchable collection of selected images, historical artifacts, audio clips, publications, and video.

Phacelia argillacea

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Phacelia formosula NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is a source for authoritative conservation information on more than 50,000 plants, animals and ecological communtities of the U.S and <a href="https://www.bing.com/search?q=canada&amp;cvid=627c9af80ae742fc889db486695a4c08&amp;FORM=ANAB01&amp;PC=HCTS">Canada</a>. NatureServe Explorer provides in-depth information on rare and endangered species, but includes common plants and animals too. NatureServe Explorer is a product of NatureServe in collaboration with the Natural Heritage Network.

ITIS Reports -- Phacelia formosula ITIS (the Integrated Taxonomic Information System) is a source for authoritative taxonomic information on <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plants-can-hide-the-effects-of-climate-stress-for-years/">plants</a>, animals, fungi, and microbes of North America and the world.Phacelia formosula is a rare species of flowering plant in the borage family known by the common name North Park phacelia. It is endemic to the state of Colorado in the United States, where it is known only from the North Park region in Jackson County. It is threatened by a number of human activities, such as motorcycle and off-road vehicle use in its habitat. It is a federally listed endangered species of the United States.

FWS Digital Media Library -- The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service's National Digital Library is a searchable collection of selected images, historical artifacts, audio clips, publications, and video.Northpark phacelia Subordinate Taxa. This plant has no children Legal Status. Threatened and Endangered Information: This plant is listed by the U.S. federal government or a state. Common names are from state and federal lists. Click on a place name to get a complete protected plant list for that location.

Phacelia formosula

Phacelia formosula NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is...

Phacelia insularis ssp. insularis NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is a source for authoritative conservation information on more than 50,000 plants, animals and ecological communtities of the U.S and <a href="https://www.bing.com/search?q=canada&amp;cvid=ecdf500a088f4a26aeebbb6c7b142662&amp;FORM=ANAB01&amp;PC=HCTS">Canada</a>. NatureServe Explorer provides in-depth information on rare and endangered species, but includes common plants and animals too. NatureServe Explorer is a product of NatureServe in collaboration with the Natural Heritage Network.

ITIS Reports -- ITIS (the Integrated Taxonomic Information System) is a source for authoritative taxonomic information on plants, animals, <a href="https://www.bing.com/search?q=fungi&amp;cvid=cf7affd56bc24275843fbc28cc0ef4e0&amp;FORM=ANAB01&amp;PC=HCTS">fungi,</a> and microbes of North America and the world.Phacelia insularis, the coast phacelia is a rare species of phacelia. It is endemic to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/kelp-forests-may-be-gone-for-good-in-northern-california/">California</a>, where it has a disjunct distribution.Phacelia insularis ssp. insularis is a decumbent (reclining), branched annual of the waterleaf (Hydrophyllaceae) family. The short-hairy and glandular stems grow to 6 in (15 cm) high from a basal rosette of leaves. The small lavender to violet, bell-shaped flowers are borne in loose cymes.Geographic subdivisions for Phacelia insularis var. continentis: NCo, CCo. MAP CONTROLS 1. You can change the display of the base map and layers by clicking on the layer control box in the upper right-hand corner. 2. California county polygons can be turned off and on in the layer control box. 3. Filling of Jepson subdivision polygons can be.

FWS Digital Media Library -- The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service's National Digital Library is a searchable collection of selected images, historical artifacts, audio clips, publications, and video.

Phacelia insularis ssp. insularis

Phacelia insularis ssp. insularis NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe...

Phacelia submutica NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is a source for authoritative conservation information on more than 50,000 plants, animals and ecological communtities of the U.S and <a href="https://www.bing.com/search?q=canada&amp;cvid=5b54bdc059bf473b87fc26bf2d0da9fd&amp;FORM=ANAB01&amp;PC=HCTS">Canada</a>. NatureServe Explorer provides in-depth information on rare and endangered species, but includes common plants and animals too. NatureServe Explorer is a product of NatureServe in collaboration with the Natural Heritage Network.

ITIS Reports --Phacelia submutica  ITIS (the Integrated Taxonomic Information System) is a source for authoritative taxonomic information on plants, animals, fungi, and microbes of North America and the world.Phyllostegia velutina is a rare species of flowering plant in the mint family known by the common name velvet phyllostegia. It is endemic to Hawaii, where it is limited to the island of Hawaii, including the slopes of Mauna Loa and Mauna Kea. It is a federally listed endangered species of the <a href="https://www.earth.com/image/river-colors-are-changing-across-the-united-states/">United States.</a>

FWS Digital Media Library -- The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service's National Digital Library is a searchable collection of selected images, historical artifacts, audio clips, publications, and video.Phacelia submutica is a rare species of flowering plant in the borage family known by the common name De Beque phacelia. It is endemic to Colorado in the United States, where it is limited to the Piceance Basin in two counties. It is threatened by petroleum exploration.

Phacelia submutica

Phacelia submutica NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is...

Phlox hirsuta NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is a source for authoritative conservation information on more than 50,000 plants, animals and ecological communtities of the U.S and <a href="https://www.earth.com/image/the-fall-rhapsody-in-ottawa/">Canada</a>. NatureServe Explorer provides in-depth information on rare and endangered species, but includes common plants and animals too. NatureServe Explorer is a product of NatureServe in collaboration with the Natural Heritage Network.

ITIS Reports -- Phlox hirsuta ITIS (the Integrated Taxonomic Information System) is a source for authoritative taxonomic information on plants, animals, fungi, and microbes of North America and the world.Phlox hirsuta, also known as Yreka, or hairy phlox, is a rare plant, found only in California. The plant is on the state of California’s list of endangered species. Also listed as endangered in California, Phlox muscoides, also know as moss or wild phlox, displays thick clumps of foliage with small, pure white flowers.(Phlox hirsuta) Yreka phlox is a California endangered plant species, which means that killing or possessing this plant is prohibited by the California Endangered Species Act (CESA). This species is also listed as endangered under the federal Endangered Species Act.

FWS Digital Media Library -- The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service's National Digital Library is a searchable collection of selected images, historical artifacts, audio clips, publications, and video.

Phlox hirsuta

Phlox hirsuta NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is...

Phlox nivalis ssp. texensis NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is a source for authoritative conservation information on more than 50,000 plants, animals and ecological communtities of the U.S and <a href="https://www.bing.com/search?q=canada&amp;cvid=a5ede85426904fc5bfa6a08c3ea4dc7f&amp;FORM=ANAB01&amp;PC=HCTS">Canada.</a> NatureServe Explorer provides in-depth information on rare and endangered species, but includes common plants and animals too. NatureServe Explorer is a product of NatureServe in collaboration with the Natural Heritage Network.As its name indicates, Texas trailing phlox has stems that spread horizontally, then vertically, to form a small shrub 10-30 cm tall. Leaves persist on the woody stems year-round and are more abundant on horizontal stems. Non-flowering stems have grooved, needle-like leaves, and flowering stems have narrowly teardrop shaped leaves.

ITIS Reports -- ITIS (the Integrated Taxonomic Information System) is a source for authoritative taxonomic information on plants, animals, fungi, and microbes of North America and the world.Phlox nivalis is a species of flowering plant in the phlox family known by the common name trailing phlox. It is native to the southeastern <a href="https://www.earth.com/image/river-colors-are-changing-across-the-united-states/">United States</a>. One subspecies of this plant, ssp. texensis, the Texas trailing phlox or Texan phlox, is a rare plant federally listed as an endangered species of the United States. It is endemic to Texas, where there are fewer than 20 populations in three counties. At one time it was thought to be extinct. It was rediscovered in 1972.

FWS Digital Media Library -- The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service's National Digital Library is a searchable collection of selected images, historical artifacts, audio clips, publications, and video.

Phlox nivalis ssp. texensis

Phlox nivalis ssp. texensis NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe...

Phyllanthus saffordii NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is a source for authoritative conservation information on more than 50,000 plants, animals and ecological communtities of the U.S and <a href="https://www.bing.com/search?q=canada&amp;cvid=a5ede85426904fc5bfa6a08c3ea4dc7f&amp;FORM=ANAB01&amp;PC=HCTS">Canada</a>. NatureServe Explorer provides in-depth information on rare and endangered species, but includes common plants and animals too. NatureServe Explorer is a product of NatureServe in collaboration with the Natural Heritage Network.

ITIS Reports -- ITIS (the Integrated Taxonomic Information System) is a source for authoritative taxonomic information on <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plants-can-hide-the-effects-of-climate-stress-for-years/">plants</a>, animals, fungi, and microbes of North America and the world.Phyllanthus is the largest genus in the flowering plant family Phyllanthaceae. Estimates of the number of species in this genus vary widely, from 750 to 1200. Phyllanthus has a remarkable diversity of growth forms including annual and perennial herbs, shrubs, climbers, floating aquatics, and pachycaulous succulents. Some have flattened leaflike stems called cladodes. It has a wide variety of floral morphologies and chromosome numbers and has one of the widest range of pollen types of any seed plant genus.Phyllanthus saffordii. Form: an erect, low woody shrub, sparsely branched, with terete stems to 30-40 (rarely 60-70) cm tall, sometimes accumbent from prostrate bases; branches dark reddish-brown. Leaves: side-branchlets 10-12 cm long, with many small distichous, shiny dark green, imbricate, oblong leaves 5-12 cm long, 1.5-3 mm wide, acuminate .

FWS Digital Media Library -- The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service's National Digital Library is a searchable collection of selected images, historical artifacts, audio clips, publications, and video.

Phyllanthus saffordii

Phyllanthus saffordii NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is...

Plants cannot move to chase comfort, yet they still need to choose the right season to reproduce. A new study explains how a small plant uses blue light and cool air together to decide when to flower.



A research team led by Adam Seluzicki from the <a href="https://www.salk.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Salk Institute for Biological Studies</a> mapped a genetic switch that listens for both signals at once. 



The study shows how one pathway senses blue light and another senses low temperature, and how they meet to control the transition to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/flowering-plants-appeared-two-million-years-earlier-than-we-thought/">flowering</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-when-do-plants-start-flowering">When do plants start flowering?</h2>



Arabidopsis thaliana uses a blue light sensor called PHOT2 and a helper protein named NPH3 to read light signals. When the air is cool, a temperature responsive gene switch called CAMTA2 turns on another gene called <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0176161716302024" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EHB1</a>.



The EHB1 gene then connects with NPH3, which brings the light and temperature signals together. The plant starts flowering only when both <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/nasa-tracks-changes-in-seasonal-flower-cycles-and-migration-patterns-from-the-air/">conditions</a> are met - blue light is present and the air is cool.



“Here we show that signals from the PHOTOTROPIN2 (PHOT2) blue photoreceptor combine with low temperature information to control flowering,” wrote Seluzicki.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-timing-of-plant-flowering">The timing of plant flowering </h2>



Seasonal timing depends on multiple cues, not a single trigger. A recent <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/pce.15678?af=R" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">review</a> outlines how plants sense temperature through changes in cell membranes, protein activity, and chromatin.



Day length, light color, and light intensity also shape <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/a-new-window-into-the-early-evolution-of-flowering-plants/">flowering</a>. These signals run through several networks at once, which is why combining them gives a more reliable readout than using either one alone.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-blue-light-pathway">Blue light pathway</h3>



Plant <a href="https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8630751/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">photoreceptors</a> are proteins that detect wavelengths and pass along messages. The blue light sensor PHOT2, located at the cell membrane, helps direct growth and movement.



NPH3 works after the PHOT proteins and helps control how their signals are used. In the system described in the new research, NPH3 acts like the main hub. It changes its response depending on what the temperature pathway is doing.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-temperature-pathway">Temperature pathway</h3>



When it is cool, the gene switch CAMTA2 becomes active. It turns on the gene EHB1, which then slows down NPH3 at the right moment.



Other studies on NPH3 show that its behavior depends on where it is in the cell and how it is modified. These details explain why EHB1’s link with NPH3 can change the balance of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seasonal-timing-can-change-quickly-over-short-distances/">signals</a> that decide when the plant flowers.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-revelations-about-plant-flowering">Revelations about plant flowering</h2>



When the days were long and the air was cool, plants without PHOT2 grew more leaves before making flowers compared to normal plants. At warmer temperatures, this delay disappeared, showing that PHOT2 matters most in cooler conditions.



Previous studies found that PHOT2 and other phototropins help plants adjust to daily cold at sunrise. This supports the idea that blue light sensors play an important role in how plants respond to low temperatures. 



These results together make the connection between PHOT2, CAMTA2, NPH3, and EHB1 more convincing.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-the-plant-system-functions">How the plant system functions</h2>



PHOT2 picks up blue light and passes the signal to NPH3. When it is cold, CAMTA2 turns on EHB1, and EHB1 connects with NPH3 to help control flowering.



In warm conditions, CAMTA2 does not activate EHB1 the same way, so the system works differently. In that state, flowering is not delayed, which explains why the effect only shows up in cooler weather.



Arabidopsis uses a signal called FT, also known as <a href="https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC5654465/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">florigen</a>, to send the message from the leaves to the shoot, where flowers develop. FT levels go up when day length and light quality favor flowering, and this signal also takes temperature into account.



Other blue light sensors besides PHOT proteins also affect flowering time. One called <a href="https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6670086/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">FKF1</a> works with the plant’s internal clock and a protein named CONSTANS to boost FT under the right day length. This shows that several blue light pathways feed into the same flowering signal.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-sets-this-research-apart">What sets this research apart</h2>



Most past studies linked flowering to sensors called cryptochromes, phytochromes, or to the FT pathway. 



This new research shows that PHOT2, a sensor usually known for guiding growth, moving chloroplasts, and opening stomata, also plays a role in flowering when it is cool.



In addition, the study shows how temperature signals through CAMTA2 and EHB1 connect directly to NPH3, the hub of the light pathway. This direct link explains why flowering is affected only when both light and temperature signals are present.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-crops">Implications for crops</h2>



Climate change is altering seasonal light patterns and nighttime temperatures in many places. A system that only triggers when both signals line up can help prevent plants from flowering too early in unpredictable springs.



The Salk team’s results highlight genes that plant breeders could adjust to control flowering in cooler conditions. 



Small changes in PHOT2, CAMTA2, NPH3, or EHB1 could help time flowering to match better conditions for pollination and seed production.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-research-directions">Future research directions </h2>



Future work can map where, within a leaf, this module is most active. Tissue specific data would show how the signal flows into FT production and transport.



It will also be important to test crop species. If a similar module exists in brassicas or cereals, targeted edits could help stabilize yields when cold snaps interrupt the start of the growing season.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-025-62194-y" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Communications</a>.



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Plant flowering is triggered by blue light and cool air

Plants cannot move to chase comfort, yet they still need...

Earth’s seasons are not a single global script. They vary from place to place, sometimes over short distances. 



In a new global study, experts used 20 years of satellite observations to map when plants grow and rest through the year. They found many spots where neighboring <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earth-day-2025-our-power-our-planet/">landscapes</a> run on different clocks.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-the-satellites-measured">What the satellites measured</h2>



The research was led by Drew E. Terasaki Hart of the University of California, <a href="https://www.berkeley.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Berkeley</a>. The goal was to stitch together a worldwide picture of seasonal timing. The team focused on how plant communities rise and fall in activity across each year.



Scientists call this timing phenology, and when it is mapped from space across landscapes it is called land surface phenology. The approach sidesteps guesswork and lets researchers see real signals of growth and pause across ecosystems.



Near-infrared reflectance of vegetation (NIRV) is closely linked with solar-induced chlorophyll fluorescence (SIF), which measures light re-emitted by plants during photosynthesis. Both NIRV and SIF provide reliable ways to track how much energy plants are capturing and using.



Because SIF changes in step with photosynthesis, it gives scientists a clear <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earths-oceans-are-rapidly-changing-colors-matching-climate-predictions/">signal</a> of when plants are actively growing and when they are at rest.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-seasons-out-of-sync">Seasons out of sync</h2>



The map shows many places where seasonal timing changes quickly over short distances. Hotspots stand out in Mediterranean climate zones and in tropical mountain regions, where terrain and winds shape local rain and cloud patterns.



In the U.S. Southwest, cities just about 100 miles apart can show very different annual <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/lightning-is-changing-the-atmosphere-in-surprising-ways/">rhythms</a> because one area leans on summer monsoon rains while another splits rain between winter and summer. 



Similar seasonal contrasts also appear along mountain slopes in South America and East Africa.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-timing-differences-matter">Why timing differences matter</h2>



According to a 2017 <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/28370658/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">review</a>, when populations breed at different times, they meet less often and that can reduce gene flow and let differences stack up.&nbsp;



The new map links sharp timing breaks to measured differences in flowering dates and to genetic divergence in some species. That pattern hints that out-of-sync seasons can help build biodiversity over long timescales.



Agriculture feels these patterns in practical ways. In Colombia, growers plan around two distinct coffee harvest windows, one from October to December and another from March to June. Mountain ranges can flip the calendar across short drives, changing when cherries ripen and labor is needed.



“Our map predicts stark geographic differences in flowering timing and genetic relatedness across a wide variety of plant and animal species,” said Hart.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-map-built-from-satellite-data">Map built from satellite data</h2>



The team analyzed two decades of satellite records and fit each pixel with a simple model of its average year. That model can capture single peaks or two peaks in plant activity, which is important in places with two rainy seasons.



The researchers measured how quickly seasonal timing changes across <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earthcares-first-year-surprising-climate-clues-unveiled-from-space/">space</a>. Where that rate is high, nearby places are out of sync. 



Patterns point to shifting rainfall and minimum temperatures as the main drivers, especially where mountains steer air and moisture.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-ecology-and-people">Implications for ecology and people</h2>



Wildlife that moves to follow food can get out of step if resources peak at different times across a landscape. Pollinators, seed dispersers, and migratory species may all feel the squeeze when timing shifts across short distances.



Managers can use these maps to spot regions where species are most likely to split into locally timed groups. That helps set priorities for conservation, seed sourcing, and habitat corridors that keep life stages connected.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-shifts-the-timing-of-seasons">Climate shifts the timing of seasons</h2>



Warming and shifting rainfall can move seasonal cues. In places where timing already varies a lot, small climatic nudges could tip species out of sync with food or mates. 



The new baseline makes it easier to flag unusual years and track how often they happen.



Land use matters too. Irrigation can create human-made timing that does not match nearby natural cycles. Understanding where that mismatch is strongest can guide smarter water use and crop planning.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-clearer-plant-activity-signals">Clearer plant activity signals</h2>



NIRV and SIF help avoid a common pitfall of older vegetation metrics that can blur the signal in evergreen systems. 



NIRV filters out bright backgrounds, and SIF connects directly to chlorophyll activity, which tightens the link to photosynthesis.



The analysis does not depend on one sensor or one region. It draws strength from multiple data streams, long records, and simple math that holds up across biomes. That mix is what makes the global picture hang together.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-seasonal-timing-shapes-biodiversity">Seasonal timing shapes biodiversity</h2>



Timing is a quiet kind of change. It rarely makes headlines, but it shapes whether young animals find food, whether flowers meet pollinators, and whether farms hit their harvest windows. 



Knowing where timing disagrees across short distances turns guesswork into preparation and planning.



The take-home is simple. Seasons still matter, but they do not line up the same way everywhere, and those differences can ripple through evolution, ecology, and economies.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-025-09410-3" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature</a>.



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Seasonal timing can change quickly over short distances

Earth’s seasons are not a single global script. They vary...

Robots usually take orders from silicon chips and lines of code. In this project, the commands start in living tissue. The control signals come from mycelia - the branching underground networks that support mushrooms. 



These networks sense light, touch, chemicals, and temperature. They also produce tiny electrical pulses that carry information.



Researchers from <a href="https://www.engineering.cornell.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cornell University Engineering</a> learned to read those pulses without harming the organism or muddying the signal. They translated the rhythms into digital commands that set a robot’s movement. 



When the environment changed, the mycelia changed their electrical patterns, and the robot adjusted how it moved. That is sensorimotor control driven by a living system.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-from-mushrooms-to-motion">From mushrooms to motion</h2>



The work comes from Cornell Engineering. After <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mushroom-leather-mycelium-latest-eco-friendly-fashion-trend/">growing mycelium</a> in small chambers fitted with electrodes, the team linked those chambers to two robots and let the fungus set the tempo for movement.



“By growing mycelium into the electronics of a robot, we were able to allow the biohybrid machine to sense and respond to the environment. In this case we used light as the input, but in the future it will be chemical," explained Rob Shepherd, professor of mechanical and aerospace engineering in Cornell Engineering, and the paper’s senior author. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-melding-mycelium-with-a-robot">Melding mycelium with a robot</h2>



Many biohybrid systems use animal cells such as muscle fibers. Those cells can work in controlled lab setups but demand constant care and strict conditions. 



Mycelia handle rougher settings. They tolerate swings in humidity and temperature, grow on basic nutrients, and respond to many cues. 



That toughness makes them appealing for robots meant to operate outdoors or in messy places where dust, vibration, and weather get in the way.



Mycelia also form <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthpedia-articles/a-beginners-guide-to-mycology/">dense, responsive networks</a>. The electrical activity runs in spikes and patterns rather than steady tones, which is handy for timing movement. That natural rhythm lets engineers detect meaningful signals without decoding every subtle variation.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-making-whisper-quiet-signals">Making whisper-quiet signals</h2>



The main hurdle was signal quality. Electrical noise from motors, wires, and the air itself can drown out small biological spikes. The team built a shielded interface that blocks vibrations and electromagnetic interference. 



That design allowed clean recordings while the robots moved, which is rarely possible with living sensors because motion tends to scramble delicate measurements.



Software then monitored the incoming signal in real time. It detected spike times and translated them into control commands. 



The approach focused on rhythm, not on decoding a complex language of signals, which kept the system robust.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-robot-gait-from-mycelium-rhythm">Robot gait from mycelium rhythm</h2>



Biology has a term - <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/neuroscience/central-pattern-generator" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">central pattern generator</a> (CPG) - for circuits that produce rhythmic outputs to coordinate movement. The controller here borrowed that idea. The mycelial spikes set a beat. 



The controller mapped that beat to motor timing so the robot could coordinate steps or wheel turns without micromanaging each joint.



Focusing on timing helps avoid overfitting to noisy features. If the rhythm quickened or changed shape under new conditions, the controller shifted the gait accordingly. That kept the loop simple and reliable.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://news.cornell.edu/stories/2024/08/biohybrid-robots-controlled-electrical-impulses-mushrooms" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/09/biohybrid-robot_mushroom-robot_cornell-university_1s.webp" alt="This biohybrid robot uses electrical signals processed from King Oyster mushroom mycelia to jump and move around. Credit: Cornell University" class="wp-image-1984600"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">This biohybrid robot uses electrical signals processed from King Oyster mushroom mycelia to jump and move around. Click image for video. Credit: Cornell University</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-two-robots-one-living-beat">Two robots, one living beat</h2>



To show that it works across designs, the team built a soft, spider-like walker and a small wheeled rover. 



Each held a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/nasa-plans-use-mushrooms-fungi-mycelium-to-grow-homes-on-mars-the-moon/">living mycelium</a> sample wired to electrodes. When the fungus produced its natural spiking pattern, the robots moved.



The mycelia sensed ultraviolet light. When UV hit the chamber, the spiking pattern changed. The robots then changed how they moved by altering gait timing. 



The researchers also added an override mode through the same interface. They could pause or redirect the robot with an injected signal without damaging the tissue, combining biological autonomy with human supervision.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-real-world-applications">Real-world applications</h2>



Soil chemistry changes over hours, days, and seasons, and the cost of sampling across large fields adds up. 



Systems that respond locally to nutrient cues could help apply fertilizer where it’s needed and cut back where it’s not.



"The potential for future robots could be to sense soil chemistry in row crops and decide when to add more fertilizer, for example, perhaps mitigating downstream effects of agriculture like harmful algal blooms," Shepherd expounded.



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fungi-can-think-and-make-smart-decisions-without-a-brain/">Environmental monitoring</a> faces similar trade-offs. Sensors fail in wet, dirty, or variable conditions. Mycelia evolved to survive in those conditions and react to them. 



Tapping that sensitivity may give cheap, soft robots a way to notice toxins or pathogens and adjust their paths without hard-coded rules for every scenario.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-robotic-mycelium-beyond-light">Robotic mycelium beyond light</h2>



Light is just one input. Mycelia excel as chemical sensors, reacting to nutrients, toxins, and microbial signals. 



Moving from light to chemical cues would open direct links to soil health, pollutant detection, and other real-world triggers. 



A controller can listen for shifts in rhythm as the fungus responds to a molecule and translate that into a change in movement or task.



That shift also aligns with how fields and waterways behave. Chemistry changes in patches and pulses. A living sensor that tracks those changes in place can help robots act locally without heavy computation.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-mycelium-robots-matter">Why mycelium robots matter</h2>



Typical robots bolt on their different sensors as if they were simple accessories. This approach blends the sensor into the control loop itself. 



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mycocrete-new-material-made-of-fungi-hopes-to-replace-concrete-in-construction-projects/">The living network</a> doesn’t just report data; it shapes timing and action. That’s a different philosophy for machine control.



“This kind of project is not just about controlling a robot. It is also about creating a true connection with the living system. Because once you hear the signal, you also understand what’s going on,” noted lead author Anand Mishra, a research associate in the <a href="https://orl.mae.cornell.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Organic Robotics Lab</a>. 



"Maybe that signal is coming from some kind of stresses. So you’re seeing the physical response, because those signals we can’t visualize, but the robot is making a visualization," Mishra concluded.



There’s still work between lab demos and long-term field deployments. Keeping the biology stable, scaling production, and validating responses across varied environments are real jobs ahead. 



But the key step is now clear: a living network can steer a machine outside a benchtop, and the machine can respond in kind without the setup falling apart.



Click here to see <a href="https://cornell.app.box.com/v/biohybridrobots/file/1633854067059" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">a video of the study from Cornell University...</a>



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/scirobotics.adk8019" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Science Robotics</a>.



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Scientists attached a mushroom to a 'biohybrid robot body' and the results were amazing

Robots usually take orders from silicon chips and lines of...

Walk into a grocery store today and you may find familiar foods looking less predictable. From corn chips to tofu, climate change is quietly reshaping what fills our plates. Scientists are warning that it is not just about fewer crops, but about harvests becoming wildly unstable.



A global study led by the <a href="https://www.ubc.ca/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of British Columbia</a> shows that hotter and drier conditions are making food production swing more dramatically. 



These shifts ripple through the economy, driving higher prices, creating financial stress for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plants-trade-growth-for-survival-after-drought/">farmers</a>, and leaving vulnerable communities facing hunger.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-heat-makes-crops-unstable">Heat makes crops unstable</h2>



The study, published in the journal <a href="https://www.science.org/journal/sciadv" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Science Advances</a>, tracked three major crops: corn, soybean and sorghum. 



The researchers found that for every degree of warming, year-to-year yield variability jumps by 7 percent for corn, 19 percent for soybeans and 10 percent for sorghum.



Earlier studies mostly measured declining average yields. This research spotlights something equally dangerous: instability. For many farmers, that instability determines whether they survive another season or face ruin.



“<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-devastate-global-food-production/">Farmers</a> and the societies they feed don’t live off of averages - they generally live off of what they harvest each year,” said Dr. Jonathan Proctor, assistant professor at UBC and lead author of the study. 



“A big shock in one bad year can mean real hardship, especially in places without sufficient access to crop insurance or food storage.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rising-disaster-risk">Rising disaster risk</h2>



The numbers highlight how warming multiplies risks. At two degrees hotter than today’s climate, soybean failures that used to occur once a century could strike every 25 years. 



Corn failures would shift from once every hundred years to every 49, while sorghum failures would occur every 54 years.



Unchecked emissions push the timeline further. By 2100, soybean failures could arrive as often as once every eight years. The danger is greatest for farmers in Sub-Saharan Africa, Central America and South Asia, where rain-fed farming and weak financial support leave little room to absorb shocks.



Yet even wealthy regions are not immune. In 2012, a heatwave and drought in the U.S. Midwest cut corn and soybean yields by a fifth, costing billions and triggering a 10 percent spike in global <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/lanthanides-common-metal-in-plant-fertilizer-key-to-boosting-global-crop-food-supplies/">food</a> prices.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-heat-and-dryness-worsen-crops">Heat and dryness worsen crops</h2>



The researchers found that it is not just heat alone but its overlap with dry soil that explains these swings. Using global harvest records along with climate data from satellites, models and weather stations, they pinpointed the twin stressors.



“A key driver of these wild swings? A double whammy of heat and dryness, increasingly arriving together,” said Dr. Proctor.



Hot weather dries the soil, which in turn amplifies heat. This vicious cycle hits plants hard, especially during sensitive phases like pollination.



“If you’re hydrated and go for a run your body will sweat to cool down, but if you’re dehydrated you can get heatstroke,” said Dr. Proctor. “The same processes make dry <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rising-carbon-dioxide-makes-crops-grow-bigger-but-less-nutritious/">farms</a> hotter than wet ones.”



Even short dry spells during high heat can devastate crops, especially soybeans and sorghum, where the overlap of heat and dryness drives much of the volatility.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-irrigation-and-its-limits">Irrigation and its limits</h2>



The study shows that irrigation can reduce these risks, but only if water is available. Many of the regions most vulnerable already face water stress or lack infrastructure for large-scale irrigation. 



That means the solution cannot rely on water alone, especially as water demand grows with rising populations, expanding cities, and shifting climate patterns.



In many parts of the world, aquifers are already being depleted faster than they can naturally recharge, adding another layer of uncertainty to future farming. 



Even in wealthier nations, competing demands between agriculture, households, and industry often limit how much water farmers can access during droughts.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-addressing-the-root-cause">Addressing the root cause</h2>



The researchers recommend stronger safety nets to help farmers survive difficult years, alongside investment in heat- and drought-resistant crop varieties that can better withstand extreme conditions. 



The experts also highlight the importance of better soil care, such as practices that improve water retention and reduce erosion, and the role of advanced forecasting systems that give farmers more time to prepare for upcoming heatwaves or dry spells.



These steps can soften the blow, but they are not enough on their own. Ultimately, the researchers emphasize that the most reliable and far-reaching solution is cutting the emissions driving global warming. 



Without addressing the root cause, they warn, adaptation measures will always remain partial and temporary.



“Not everyone grows food, but everyone needs to eat,” said Dr. Proctor. “When harvests become more unstable, everyone will feel it.”



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/sciadv.ady3575" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Science Advances</a>.



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Heat is making crop harvests wildly unpredictable

Walk into a grocery store today and you may find...

People,Group,Toasting,Latte,At,Coffee,Bar,Rooftop,-,Friends

Coffee is part of the morning routines for millions of people. But does drinking more coffee align with having more muscle? That’s the question behind a new analysis of Americans’ habits and body composition. 



This research doesn’t try to prove cause and effect. It asks whether higher coffee or caffeine intake corresponds to more limb muscle for a given body size.



The answer points in a positive direction for most adults, with an important exception. The details matter, because the way researchers measured muscle and tallied <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/coffee-may-help-you-live-longer-if-you-drink-it-this-way/">coffee intake</a> shapes how to read the results.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-limb-muscle-matters">Why limb muscle matters</h2>



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/studies-learn-the-exact-amount-of-time-you-should-spend-training-to-build-muscle/">Muscle mass</a> isn’t just about strength. Lower muscle mass in arms and legs raises the risk of falls, fractures, and everyday struggles that chip away at independence. 



Scientists often track limb muscle adjusted for body size because it flags early losses that can sneak up with age.



A standard yardstick for that job is the appendicular skeletal muscle mass-to-BMI ratio, abbreviated as <a href="https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10401528/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ASMBMI</a>. In plain terms: “How much limb muscle do you have for your body size?” 



This measurement focuses on muscle quantity, not how quickly you rise from a chair or how steady you feel on stairs.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-studying-coffee-s-link-to-muscles">Studying coffee's link to muscles</h2>



Researchers pulled data from a large, ongoing U.S. health survey (<a href="https://www.cdc.gov/nchs/nhanes/index.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NHANES</a>) spanning 2011-2018. 



They started with adults, applied clear rules such as “only include people with full diet interviews and body scans,” and finished with 8,333 participants. Muscle was measured by DXA scans of the arms and legs and then expressed as ASMBMI.



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/coffee-helps-bacteria-resist-antibiotics-in-your-gut/">Coffee intake</a> came from two 24-hour dietary recalls - structured interviews covering everything people ate and drank on two different days. The team looked at regular coffee, decaf coffee, and total caffeine from all sources. 



Their statistical models adjusted for age, sex, race, education, income, smoking, alcohol, physical activity, BMI, medical conditions, total calories, and protein, so they could compare people who were similar on many fronts except for coffee intake.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-the-results-say">What the results say</h2>



People who drank more coffee tended to have <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/eating-grapes-every-day-can-transform-your-muscles/">more limb muscle</a> relative to their body size. After full adjustments, the highest coffee group had about a 13% higher ASMBMI than the non-coffee group. 



The highest caffeinated coffee group showed roughly a 12% increase. The top caffeine group showed about an 11% increase. Decaf didn’t show a clear, statistically significant link. 



When researchers drew smoothed trend lines, the pattern appeared approximately linear: more <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/drinking-coffee-may-help-women-stay-sharp-and-strong-as-they-age/">regular coffee</a> or caffeine corresponded to more muscle relative to body size.



There was one major exception. When participants were split by BMI, the positive link disappeared in the group with obesity (BMI ≥ 30). 



In that subset, drinking more coffee was not associated with higher ASMBMI. That doesn’t mean coffee lowers muscle there; it means the helpful pattern seen elsewhere wasn’t present.



A likely reason is biological factors tied to obesity, including chronic, low-grade inflammation that speeds muscle breakdown and may overshadow small benefits from caffeine or other coffee compounds.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-limitations-in-this-research">Limitations in this research</h2>



This was a cross-sectional snapshot. It can spot links, but it can’t prove that coffee changes muscle. People with more muscle may simply be more active or keep schedules where coffee fits better. 



The models adjusted for activity and many other variables, which strengthens confidence, but unmeasured factors can still nudge results.



Diet recalls lean on memory and honesty, and add-ins like sugar or cream can be easy to forget. 



ASMBMI captures muscle quantity, not strength or performance, so it can’t tell you how much weight you can move or how good your balance is during daily activities. 



Results also come from U.S. adults in specific survey years, so patterns could differ in other populations.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-coffee-is-linked-with-muscles">Why coffee is linked with muscles</h2>



Caffeine stimulates the nervous system and modulates how the body uses fuel during activity. Coffee also contains <a href="https://www.chhs.colostate.edu/krnc/monthly-blog/what-are-polyphenols-another-great-reason-to-eat-fruits-and-veggies/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">polyphenols</a> with antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties. 



Lab and animal research suggests these compounds may support healthier muscle by encouraging autophagy - the cell’s cleanup crew for worn-out parts - and by dialing down chronic inflammation over time. 



This analysis didn’t test mechanisms, but these ideas fit with the pattern. Decaf’s “no clear link” signal hints that caffeine may be doing more of the heavy lifting in this dataset.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-did-we-learn-from-this">What did we learn from this?</h2>



In U.S. adults, higher <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mood-boost-how-coffee-makes-us-happier-in-the-morning/">regular coffee</a> and total caffeine intake tracked with more limb muscle relative to body size after accounting for many other factors. However, that association did not appear in participants with obesity. 



If coffee already fits your day, these results sit comfortably with a muscle-friendly routine. Keep portions sensible, mind the extras, and avoid late cups that cut into sleep because <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/irregular-sleep-may-cause-premature-muscle-aging/">poor sleep impairs recovery</a>.



If you’re in the obesity range, the study’s “no clear link” finding suggests coffee isn’t a muscle fix. 



The bigger levers are steady resistance training, enough protein spaced through the day, and better sleep, ideally alongside medical care that addresses weight, strength, and metabolic health together. 



Coffee can still be part of that plan if it agrees with you, but it’s not the star of the show.



It’s a pattern, not proof. Pair your coffee with protein, training, and sleep if your goal is to build or protect muscle.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/nutrition/articles/10.3389/fnut.2024.1390309/full" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Frontiers in Nutrition</a>.



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Drinking this every day helps keep muscles tone and strong as you age, preventing frailty

Coffee is part of the morning routines for millions of...

Deforestation in the Brazilian Amazon is doing far more than clearing trees: it’s directly shrinking the region’s rain supply and nudging temperatures upward during the dry season.&nbsp;



A new study led by scientists at the <a href="https://www5.usp.br/english/institutional/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of São Paulo</a> (USP) is the first to put hard numbers on how much of the recent shift is due to local forest loss versus global climate change.



The researchers found that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/millions-exposed-to-deadly-heat-from-deforestation/">deforestation</a> accounts for roughly 74.5% of the observed decline in dry-season rainfall and 16.5% of the warming in the biome.



This work arrives just ahead of COP30 in Belém, the Amazonian capital hosting November’s U.N. climate summit - timing that highlights its policy relevance.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-amazon-dry-season-and-deforestation">Amazon dry season and deforestation </h2>



The team used parametric statistical models to disentangle overlapping influences - forest loss, temperature trends, precipitation shifts, and greenhouse gas concentrations - on the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-is-disrupting-how-amazon-trees-process-sunlight/">Amazon’s climate</a>.&nbsp;



On average across the biome, dry-season rainfall has fallen by about 21 millimeters per year, with 15.8 mm of that drop traced to deforestation alone. Meanwhile, maximum temperatures have climbed about 2.0°C, and the researchers attribute 16.5% of that rise to forest clearing, with the remainder tied to global warming.



“Several scientific articles on the Amazon have already shown that the temperature is higher, that rainfall has decreased, and that the dry season has increased,” said study senior author Luiz Augusto Toledo Machado of USP.



"There was still no separation between the effect of climate change, caused mainly by <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/cutting-super-pollutants-could-quickly-cool-the-planet/">pollution</a> from countries in the Northern Hemisphere, and deforestation caused by Brazil itself. Through this study, we were able to separate and weigh each of these components, practically showing a kind of ‘account payable.’”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-intense-changes-from-forest-loss">Intense changes from forest loss</h2>



One practical insight leaps off the page: the biggest local climate swings happen at the earliest stages of forest loss. The models show the most intense changes in rainfall and temperature occur when 10% to 40% of the forest is removed.&nbsp;



“The effects of the changes, especially in temperature and precipitation, are much more significant in the first few percent of deforestation,” said co-author Marco Aurélio Franco from USP’s Institute of Astronomy, Geophysics, and Atmospheric Sciences.&nbsp;



“In other words, we have to preserve the forest; that’s very clear. We can’t transform it into something else, such as pastureland. If there’s any type of exploitation, it needs to be sustainable.”



That finding reframes “small” incursions: early clearing is not a harmless nibble - it’s when the local water and heat balance is most sensitive.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-forest-that-makes-its-own-rain">A forest that makes its own rain</h2>



The Amazon is more than a carbon storehouse; it manufactures its own moisture. Through deep roots and vast leaf area, trees pump water skyward, feeding the “flying rivers” - atmospheric flows that deliver rainfall to the Amazon itself and to far-flung biomes such as the Cerrado.



Recent research by some of the same USP scientists illuminated the biome’s rain-making chemistry: <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/household-sprays-release-dangerous-nanoparticles-that-linger-in-the-home/">aerosol nanoparticles</a>, electrical discharges, and day-night reactions act like a cloud-building “machine.” 



Strip away trees, and you weaken that system - less evapotranspiration, fewer cloud seeds, and a longer, harsher dry season primed for fire.



Those dynamics are not abstract. MapBiomas data show the Brazilian Amazon lost 14% of its native vegetation between 1985 and 2023. An area of 553,000 square kilometers, roughly the size of France, was primarily lost to pasture. 



Deforestation dropped to its second-lowest level between August 2024 and July 2025 (4,495 km²). However, degradation - especially from fire - remains stubborn and widespread.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-effects-of-amazon-deforestation">Effects of Amazon deforestation </h2>



To parse the drivers, the team combined long-term reanalysis, remote sensing, and land-use classifications (including MapBiomas) with parametric surface equations that track annual cycles and forest loss. Alongside rain and temperature, they examined greenhouse gases.&nbsp;



Across the past 35 years, CO₂ rose by about 87 ppm and methane by about 167 ppb in the region - increases driven more than 99% by global emissions. That result doesn’t contradict studies showing deforestation weakens the forest’s CO₂ uptake.&nbsp;



As Machado noted, flux measurements are local, while concentrations reflect the global burden. In other words, global emissions dominate the background rise, even as local clearing erodes the forest’s ability to absorb <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dry-spells-weaken-the-amazons-ability-to-store-carbon/">carbon</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-keep-the-forest-keep-the-rain">Keep the forest, keep the rain</h2>



Project the trends forward and the message is unambiguous. If clearing continues, the experts warn, dry-season rainfall will decline further and temperatures will climb higher, amplifying drought risk and fire weather.&nbsp;



Other recent work already points to deforestation-driven disruptions of the South American <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/the-atmosphere-has-a-memory-that-affects-the-timing-of-monsoons/">monsoon</a>, which waters central and southeastern Brazil. Weakening that summer lifeline doesn’t just stress farms and cities downstream; it also undercuts the Amazon’s own resilience - making it harder for the forest to recover from shocks like the 2023–2024 droughts.



The new attribution numbers give decision-makers a sharper tool. They quantify how much of today’s dry-season pain is homegrown versus imported via global warming. 



That “account payable” puts a premium on preserving standing forest, restoring degraded areas, and reining in fire - actions that can deliver near-term benefits for rainfall and heat, even as the world tackles emissions.



With COP30 convening in Belém, the study’s take-home is as practical as it is urgent: keep the forest intact, and you keep the rain. Every hectare left standing pays climate dividends - locally, season by season, not just in abstract global carbon ledgers.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-025-63156-0" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Communications</a>.



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Deforestation is drying the Amazon more than climate change

Deforestation in the Brazilian Amazon is doing far more than...

Romans loved garum, a salty fish sauce that showed up on tables from Spain to Syria. A new study spells out which fish actually went into it by reading DNA from tiny bones buried in an ancient salting vat.  



The team worked at Adro Vello, a Roman era fish processing site on Spain’s northwest coast. 



They pulled fragments from the bottom of a vat and extracted <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/neuroscience/ancient-dna" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ancient DNA</a>, which is genetic material preserved in old remains, to identify the species and peek at past fish populations.  



<a href="https://www.ciimar.up.pt/members/paula-campos/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Paula F. Campos</a>, CIIMAR at the University of Porto, is the corresponding author who helped lead the genetic work.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-romans-and-their-sauces">Romans and their sauces</h2>



Roman cooks made <a href="https://fermentology.pubpub.org/pub/h0khkmbv/release/1" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">fish sauces</a> and pastes in large stone vats along the Atlantic and Mediterranean coasts. 



Workers salted, crushed, and left small fish under controlled fermentation, which broke down tissues and created a savory liquid that seasoned everything from vegetables to meat.  



That process destroyed the usual features scientists use to tell one fish from another. 



Bones were shattered, and acids from fermentation damaged the DNA inside them, which makes species identification tough without genetics.  



Even so, the Adro Vello bones held enough information to test a clear question. Did <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mass-grave-vienna-discovery-tells-the-story-of-a-forgotten-defeat-by-the-roman-empire/">Romans</a> really pack these vats with sardines, as some earlier visual identifications hinted.&nbsp;&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-reading-the-recipe">Reading the recipe</h2>



Researchers sampled the residue at the bottom of a single vat and cleaned the tiny vertebrae and scales. They then built DNA libraries and compared overlapping sequences against the reference genome of European sardine.&nbsp;&nbsp;



From those fragments, they assembled the full <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/biochemistry-genetics-and-molecular-biology/mitochondrial-genome" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">mitochondrial genome</a> of multiple fish, which is a small circular chromosome inside the cell’s energy factories that helps track maternal lineages. Depth of coverage varied across samples, but it was sufficient to confirm identity.&nbsp;&nbsp;



They also used <a href="https://news.uchicago.edu/explainer/what-is-carbon-14-dating" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">radiocarbon dating</a>, a technique that estimates age by measuring the decay of carbon isotopes, to anchor the material to the early third century AD. That timeline lines up with the period when this coastal factory was active.&nbsp;&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dna-found-in-the-roman-sauce">DNA found in the Roman sauce</h2>



The sauce makers at Adro Vello were using European sardine. Genetic signatures placed the ancient fish with present day sardines from the central Atlantic Iberian region, which signals continuity across nearly two thousand years.&nbsp;&nbsp;



Population analyses showed less admixture, meaning less mixing between distant sardine groups, than we see in many modern samples. 



That result hints at lower connectivity among stocks in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ancient-roman-concrete-offers-lessons-for-sustainable-building/">Roman</a> times, likely due to different fishing pressure and maritime movement.  



These insights do more than satisfy culinary curiosity. They add data points for how human activity and environment shape marine populations over long periods.&nbsp;&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-dna-survives-fermentation">How DNA survives fermentation</h2>



“In this study, we demonstrate that usable DNA can survive in fermentation environments, such as the brines used by the Romans to make garum,” concluded Dr. Campos.



That is not a trivial point, since acids and microbial enzymes can chop DNA into pieces too small to read. 



The team still recovered enough high quality sequences to assemble full mitochondrial genomes and validate species calls with phylogenetic tests. 



They also reported calendar dates consistent with the site’s archaeological layers. Those dates, along with clean damage patterns typical of truly ancient molecules, strengthen the case that the DNA is original to the vat and not modern contamination.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-roman-sauce-matters">Why Roman sauce matters</h2>



Foodways reveal trade, labor, and taste. Because garum production plants ringed the coasts, matching species to specific factories helps map supply chains and regional preferences across the empire.



Knowing that Adro Vello used sardines fits finds from other Atlantic facilities. It suggests local fleets targeted schooling fish that could be processed quickly into sauces and pastes for shipment.&nbsp;



Linking ancient and modern sardine genomes also provides a baseline for long term change. 



Fisheries managers can compare today’s gene flow and stock structure with a historical snapshot that predates industrial fleets.  



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-from-roman-vats-to-present-management">From Roman vats to present management</h2>



Iberian sardines remain central to coastal economies, and managers in Portugal and Spain use a multi-year <a href="https://www.dgrm.pt/documents/20143/46478/PGSARDINHA2021-2026.pdf/d36a1df9-7353-32a4-a06e-c72852e73cb0" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">plan</a> to set cautious catch limits and seasonal closures. 



Those measures follow scientific advice and aim to stabilize biomass through variable recruitment years. 



Ancient data will not decide quotas, but it can refine assumptions about how populations connect and change. When models rest on sound baselines, policies stand on firmer ground.&nbsp;



The approach used here can travel well beyond Spain. Similar vats exist across the former <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/317-skeletons-from-the-roman-empire-found-beneath-an-old-shopping-center/">Roman</a> world, which means there are many chances to test whether other regions leaned on sardine, anchovy, or mixed catches.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-comes-next">What comes next</h2>



The authors plan to sample other sites to see how recipes varied from Africa to the western Mediterranean. 



With more genomes in hand, they can test whether regional fleets drew on distinct stocks or tapped a shared pool of fish. 



Better reference genomes will only improve the resolution of species calls and population tests. As methods advance, even more degraded residues may yield clear answers.&nbsp;



History often hides in scraps. Here, scraps of bone preserved a record of taste, trade, and the lives of fish that fed an empire.



The study is published in <a href="https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/antiquity/article/roman-atlantic-garum-dna-confirms-sardine-use-and-population-continuity-in-northwestern-iberia/9487347327F3724D1D2C4F72266DAEF3" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Antiquity</a>.



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DNA identifies ingredients of the 'ketchup' used on food by the Roman Empire

Romans loved garum, a salty fish sauce that showed up...

We stroll past wheat, clover, and grass and see only the green half of the story. The other half - the roots - do the heavy lifting: anchoring plants, pulling up water and nutrients, and locking away carbon in the soil.



Yet because roots are hidden, scientists have spent decades using muddy, labor-intensive methods to guess their size and spread, often missing the finest, most active threads. According to a team of researchers at <a href="https://international.au.dk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Aarhus University</a>, that guesswork can finally stop.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-high-tech-root-census">A high-tech root census</h2>



“It's a bit like studying marine ecosystems without ever being able to dive,” said senior author Henrik Brinch-Pedersen, a professor in the Department of Agroecology.



Until now, the standard approach was to carve out big blocks of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/world-soil-day-2024-protecting-our-planets-lifeline/">soil</a>, wash away the dirt, sort and dry what remained, and weigh the roots. It’s slow, destructive, and misses the fine roots that absorb nutrients and release carbon to the soil.



The new approach swaps spades for droplet digital PCR (ddPCR), a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/hidden-chapter-in-human-evolution-revealed-through-genetics/">DNA</a> technology that partitions a teaspoon of soil into tens of thousands of microscopic droplets. Each droplet then answers a yes/no question: Does it contain plant DNA with a specific genetic signature?



The team uses a marker called ITS2 - think of it as a barcode that differs among species - so a single run can reveal not just that roots are present, but whose roots they are. Crucially, it also shows how much underground biomass each species contributes.



“It’s a bit like giving the soil a DNA test,” Brinch-Pedersen said. “We can suddenly see the hidden distribution of species and biomass without digging up the whole field.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mapping-roots-with-precision">Mapping roots with precision</h2>



Because ddPCR counts DNA molecules across thousands of droplets, it can quantify roots that would otherwise be pulverized or rinsed away. 



That makes it possible to map root communities at high resolution in living fields, pastures, and mixed-species grasslands and to repeat measurements over time without disturbing the site.



The payoff spans several fronts. For climate research, it lets scientists measure how much <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/planting-diverse-crops-traps-carbon-and-boosts-soil-health/">carbon</a> different crops actually push belowground - data that’s been frustratingly hard to pin down but is essential for credible climate accounting in agriculture.



For plant breeding, the digital DNA method creates a path to select varieties that invest more in roots without sacrificing grain or forage aboveground.



And for biodiversity science, the technology finally illuminates the underground dynamics in species mixes - who’s competing, who’s complementing - insights that were “almost impossible before,” Brinch-Pedersen noted.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-roots-matter-for-the-climate">Roots matter for the climate</h2>



We tend to picture wind turbines and EVs when we think of climate solutions, but roots are a vast, quiet carbon pump. 



As plants photosynthesize, some of the captured carbon flows belowground into roots and the surrounding soil. Depending on the crop, soil type, and management, a fraction of that carbon can persist for decades or even centuries.



Farmers and policymakers talk about “soil carbon sequestration,” but without precise measurement tools it’s been hard to document gains in ways that stand up to scrutiny. A rapid, species-resolved root assay changes that equation.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dna-test-in-soil">DNA test in soil</h2>



In practice, researchers collect small soil cores, extract DNA, and run ddPCR with species-specific probes keyed to the ITS2 barcode. The number of positive droplets scales with <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/deep-rooted-crops-can-significantly-improve-soil-carbon-storage/">root biomass</a> for that species in that sample. 



Because the test targets DNA directly in soil, it captures fine roots and root fragments as well as thicker roots that are tough to wash and weigh.



There are, however, limits. Close relatives can be tricky to tell apart when their barcodes are nearly identical - ryegrass and Italian ryegrass hybrids, for instance, can blur the signal. 



And the method recognizes only what it’s trained to find. Researchers must validate a probe for each species, so expanding the “DNA library” is both the hurdle and the goal.



“For us, the most important thing is that we have shown it can be done,” Brinch-Pedersen said. “Our vision is to expand the library so we can measure many more species directly in soil samples.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rapid-answers-from-soil">Rapid answers from soil</h2>



Speed is the other advantage. Traditional root studies hinge on days to weeks of field and lab work per site. The ddPCR method turns around results in hours, making it practical to scale from a few experimental plots to entire farms, seasons, and regions.



That opens the door to experiments that were previously unrealistic. Researchers can compare cover crops for their belowground carbon contributions across soil types. 



They can track how drought shifts root allocation among species in a pasture. They can also screen hundreds of breeding lines for deeper, denser root systems.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-plants-that-work-smarter">Plants that work smarter</h2>



Brinch-Pedersen sees a straight line from measurement to design. If breeders can quantify underground investment as easily as they count kernels or measure protein, they can begin to select for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/tree-crops-a-path-to-feeding-the-world-and-saving-the-planet/">crops</a> that are not only high-yielding but also high-sequestering. These are plants that do more of the climate work for us.



The same logic applies to mixtures. With species-level root data, agronomists can compose plant communities that pack more carbon belowground while maintaining forage or grain output above.



The bigger picture is simple: half a plant lives out of sight, and that half shapes soil health, farm resilience, and the climate. With a “DNA test for dirt,” researchers can finally watch that hidden half at work - no shovels required.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://academic.oup.com/plphys/article/198/3/kiaf276/8173641?login=false" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Plant Physiology</a>.



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Digging into plant roots with DNA - no shovels required

We stroll past wheat, clover, and grass and see only...

When plants face a drought, they stop growing. That part isn’t surprising - no water means no business as usual. But what happens when the rain finally returns? You might expect plants to bounce back and grow rapidly to make up for lost time. That’s not what actually happens.



Instead, new research shows plants go into defense mode. Their priority isn’t growing - it’s fighting off threats.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-plants-hit-pause-to-survive">Plants hit pause to survive </h2>



A tiny plant known as Arabidopsis thaliana helped scientists understand this. Researchers have long experimented with this plant in labs because it is easy to cultivate and has a simple genetic makeup. It also shares many genes with common crops such as <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/gene-edited-wheat-turns-soil-microbes-into-fertilizer/">wheat</a>, rice, and tomatoes.



When water is scarce, Arabidopsis closes its pores, slows down its activity, and conserves resources.



When water returns, those pores reopen, allowing the plant to rehydrate quickly. But this also welcomes disease-spreading bacteria, fungi, and viruses. Rather than going straight into growth, the plant prepares to protect itself..



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-genes-tracked-cell-by-cell">Genes tracked cell by cell</h2>



Scientists at the <a href="https://www.salk.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Salk Institute</a> used cutting-edge technology to monitor what happens inside the plant immediately after rehydration.



They focused on how gene activity varies from cell to cell, not just across the whole plant. This kind of research once required grinding up plant tissue and averaging the data, which concealed many details.



Using single-cell and spatial transcriptomics, the team zoomed in on individual cells to see how they responded the moment water returned.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-plants-activate-hidden-defenses">Plants activate hidden defenses</h2>



Just 15 minutes after watering the dried-out plants, something big happened. Genes across the leaves started turning on - thousands of them. 



This sudden burst of gene activity wasn’t random. It formed a clear pattern of immune defense. The team calls this “Drought Recovery-Induced Immunity” (DRII).



This rapid and targeted immune response is triggered as soon as rehydration occurs, helping the plant fight off infections while it is still vulnerable. 



“What’s really incredible here,” said Natanella Illouz-Eliaz, first author of the study, “is we would have entirely missed this discovery had we not decided to capture data at these early time points.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-crops-share-drought-defenses">Crops share drought defenses</h2>



After spotting DRII in Arabidopsis, the team checked if it happened in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-find-a-surprising-case-of-reverse-evolution-in-wild-tomatoes/">tomatoes</a> too - both wild and farmed. It did. Both types activated the same kind of immune response after drought.



That means DRII probably isn’t just a lab-only thing. It could be common in many crops, especially ones closely related to tomatoes or Arabidopsis. And if that’s true, understanding how DRII works might help us grow tougher crops in the future.



“Drought poses a major challenge for plants, but what is less understood is how they recover once water returns,” said senior author Joseph Ecker. “We found that, rather than accelerating growth to compensate for lost time, Arabidopsis rapidly activates a coordinated immune response.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-unanswered-genetic-puzzles">Unanswered genetic puzzles</h2>



The speed of the immune response was striking. Within minutes of rehydration, leaves were already activating defense genes. 



That raises some big questions for scientists. How does a signal from the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plant-roots-could-be-key-to-fighting-climate-change/">roots</a> reach the leaves so quickly? What is the signal?



Experts also want to figure out how DRII might be used in real-world farming. Can <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/tree-crops-a-path-to-feeding-the-world-and-saving-the-planet/">crops</a> be bred or engineered to trigger this response more effectively? Could that protect yields during unpredictable weather?



“Our results reveal that drought recovery is not a passive process but a highly dynamic reprogramming of the plant’s immune system,” Ecker said. 



“By defining the early genetic events that occur within minutes of rehydration, we can begin to uncover the molecular signals that coordinate stress recovery and explore how these mechanisms might be harnessed to improve crop resilience.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-stronger-plants-for-dry-times">Stronger plants for dry times</h2>



Droughts are becoming more frequent and more extreme in many parts of the world. Crops that can bounce back strong - and defend themselves when they do - could make a real difference in keeping food supplies steady.



This discovery shows that the moment after water returns may be just as important as the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/droughts-and-extreme-weather-events-are-escalating/">drought</a> itself. 



The research also demonstrates that plants don’t passively wait to grow again - they make a quick and strategic move to survive. And that’s something we are only beginning to understand.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-025-63467-2" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Communications</a>.



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Plants trade growth for survival after drought

When plants face a drought, they stop growing. That part...

From space, Earth looks lusher than it did a generation ago. Satellite records show that leaf area has expanded across most of the planet since the early 1980s - a phenomenon popularly called “global greening.” 



It sounds like unambiguously good news: more foliage to soak up carbon, more habitat, more shade. But a new analysis throws a bucket of cold water on such an optimistic view.



In many places, greener landscapes have gone hand in hand with <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/40-percent-of-earths-land-has-became-permanently-drier/">drier soils</a>, especially where water is already scarce. The paradox is simple: plants that flourish also tend to drink more.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-four-decades-of-data">Four decades of data</h2>



The research team stitched together four decades of evidence - multiple satellite records of vegetation, modern climate datasets, and simulations from a dozen Earth system models.



They used these to tease out cause and effect between <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-finally-learn-what-makes-plants-roots-grow-faster-and-stronger-autophagy/">plant growth</a> and soil moisture.



Looking from 1982 through the end of this century, they asked a straightforward question with big consequences: what usually happens to the water held in the ground when vegetation ramps up?



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-greener-landscapes-more-water">Greener landscapes, more water</h2>



Their answer is sobering. About two-thirds of the world’s vegetated land has greened since the early 1980s, but nearly half of those greener areas have also dried out below the surface.



That “greening–drying” pattern shows up most clearly in Central Africa, Central Asia, eastern Australia, and swaths of mid- to high-latitude Europe - places where rainfall is fickle and heatwaves are becoming more punishing.



There are brighter spots. Parts of North America, the Indian Peninsula, and the southern Sahel buck the trend, showing “greening–wetting,” where extra leaves coexist with moister soils. But the overarching story is that more vegetation often means a thirstier landscape.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lush-growth-dries-the-land">Lush growth dries the land</h2>



Why would that be? Plants are living pumps. To photosynthesize, they open microscopic pores on their leaves to draw in carbon dioxide. 



Water escapes through those same pores, a process called transpiration. Add more leaves or extend the growing season and you boost the total draw on the local water budget.



In wet climates with regular recharge, the added demand can be balanced by <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rainfall-is-increasingly-unpredictable-due-to-climate-change/">rainfall</a> and snowmelt. In drylands, or in places where warm-season rains have weakened, the balance tips the other way. Soil moisture is the first line of credit, and it gets depleted.



Rising CO2, land management, and warming have boosted global leaf area, lengthening growing seasons and adding vegetation worldwide. Trees can shade and save soil moisture, but in water-limited regions, added transpiration often outweighs those benefits.



The atmosphere’s rising “thirst” under warming - meteorologists call it higher vapor pressure deficit - adds yet another straw to the same glass. When the air can hold more moisture, it pulls harder on leaves and soils alike.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-losing-earth-s-natural-water-buffer">Losing Earth’s natural water buffer</h2>



The consequences ripple well beyond a wilting lawn. <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-soil-moisture-can-predict-severe-storms/">Soil moisture</a> is the quiet buffer that keeps crops from failing between rains, feeds streams weeks after a storm, and tamps down wildfire risk.



As that buffer shrinks, irrigation demand rises, late-season flows dwindle, and heat extremes become more dangerous because dry soils can no longer shed heat through evaporation.



Ecologically, greener-but-drier can rearrange communities. Woody encroachment in savannas may squeeze out grasses that grazers need. In northern forests, faster spring growth may be offset by late-summer stress that leaves trees susceptible to pests and fire.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-climate-fix-with-tradeoffs">A climate fix with tradeoffs</h2>



It’s tempting to read <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/2020-was-earths-greenest-year-in-two-decades/">greening</a> as a climate solution in its own right. And in many contexts - protecting existing forests, restoring wetlands, planting the right trees in the right places - nature is absolutely part of the answer.



What this study adds is nuance: greening is not automatically good for water. In cities, for example, more urban canopy cools streets and cleans the air, but it also increases transpiration. If the species mix is ill-suited to local rainfall, or irrigation relies on potable water, the fix can create its own strain.



On farms, hedgerows and windbreaks can improve microclimates and reduce evaporation from bare soil. Yet high-water-use species planted at large scale in arid basins may cut into already stretched rivers.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-feedbacks-between-plants-and-water">Future feedbacks between plants and water</h2>



The authors didn’t stop at the past. Using the same blend of observations and models, they projected how vegetation–water feedbacks may evolve through 2100.



In many regions, especially under hotter scenarios, soils become more sensitive to changes in plant activity: a given boost in leafiness more readily drains the root zone. 



Where precipitation is expected to increase substantially, that added income can balance the books. Where it isn’t, the greening–drying paradox tightens its grip.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-smarter-restoration-strategies">Smarter restoration strategies </h2>



None of this argues against restoration or <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/planting-too-many-trees-could-spoil-the-planet/">tree planting</a>. It argues for smarter versions of both. A watershed that mixes deep-rooted native species, patches of shade, and open ground can deliver carbon storage, flood mitigation, and cooling without overtaxing local supplies.



Riparian buffers that slow runoff and recharge aquifers do double duty for water and biodiversity. In drylands, species choice matters. Drought-tolerant shrubs and trees with efficient water use can stabilize soils and provide habitat without guzzling what little is available.



Even in humid regions, paying attention to late-summer soil moisture - not just annual rainfall - helps avoid surprises.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-global-greening-and-water-security">Global greening and water security </h2>



There’s also a policy undercurrent here. Nature-based solutions are rightly gaining traction in climate plans, but their success will be measured on the ground, not from orbit. 



Accounting for water alongside carbon - evaluating how projects alter soil moisture, streamflow, and downwind climate - should be standard practice.



That means monitoring, course-correcting when plantings are too dense or too thirsty, and designing projects at the scale where water actually moves: the watershed.



The picture from space remains compelling: a greener Earth than our parents knew. The view from the ground is more complicated. Leaves are only half the story. Water is the other half, and in a warming world it’s the half we can least afford to ignore.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s43247-025-02470-3" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Communications Earth &amp; Environment</a>.



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How global greening could drain Earth’s water supply

From space, Earth looks lusher than it did a generation...

When we talk about plastic pollution, oceans and rivers dominate the conversation. Beaches lined with plastic bottles have become the symbol of this crisis. Farms and city streets also show clear signs of contamination. But forests? Few would imagine plastic reaching there.



Researchers at <a href="https://www.tu-darmstadt.de/index.en.jsp" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">TU Darmstadt</a> have shown otherwise. Their study reveals, for the first time, that forest soils carry large amounts of microplastics. 



The particles arrive mainly through the air, settle on leaves, and later end up in the ground. <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/global-warming-may-trigger-rapid-release-of-soil-carbon/">Forests</a>, once thought of as clean and distant, are absorbing pollution every day.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-microplastics-falling-from-the-sky">Microplastics falling from the sky</h2>



Unlike farmland, forests do not receive fertilizers laced with plastic. They do not sit beside landfills or sewage plants. Yet they still collect microplastics. How? The atmosphere delivers them.



Leaves catch the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/organic-matter-helps-soil-hold-water-even-in-conditions-like-mars/">particles</a> first. Rain and falling foliage move them downward. Forests act like large nets that sweep pollution from the sky.



"The microplastics from the atmosphere initially settle on the leaves of the tree crowns, which scientists refer to as the 'comb-out effect,'" explains lead author Dr. Collin J. Weber. "Then, in deciduous forests, the particles are transported to the forest soil by rain or the autumn leaf fall, for example."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-soil-as-storage">Soil as storage</h2>



Once in the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/soil-is-losing-nitrogen-along-with-its-climate-fighting-power/">soil</a>, the particles do not stay at the surface. Leaf litter slowly breaks down, and with it, plastics sink deeper. 



Insects, fungi, and other organisms speed up this process. The result is long-term storage of plastics in soil horizons that usually contain decomposed organic matter.



The researchers measured concentrations ranging from 120 to more than 13,000 particles per kilogram of soil. Stocks of up to nearly a million particles per square meter were recorded at some sites. Forest soils, it turns out, rival urban soils in plastic load.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-plastics-in-forest-soil">Plastics in forest soil</h2>



The team analyzed the chemical makeup of the particles. Polypropylene, polyethylene, and polyamide dominated the samples. These are common in packaging and textiles. 



The particles were mostly fragments and films, not fibers. Most measured less than 250 micrometers, far smaller than a grain of sand.



The similarity between what fell from the air and what lay in the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/amthropocene-humans-began-causing-global-soil-erosion-much-earlier-than-believed/">soil</a> points to the same source: atmospheric deposition. Other ground-based sources like littering or forestry practices may add some plastic, but their role is minor.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-forests-collect-plastics-for-decades">Forests collect plastics for decades</h2>



The story does not end with today’s measurements. The scientists modeled how long it would take to build up current soil levels. 



The answer points back to the 1950s, when plastic production exploded worldwide. For 70 years, forests have been quietly gathering plastic particles from the air.



Even under conservative scenarios, the amounts found in soil today can be explained by steady deposition over decades. Forest soils, like silent records, tell the history of the plastic age.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-forests-match-city-pollution">Forests match city pollution</h2>



The surprise is not just the presence of plastics but the quantity. Compared to global data, these German forest soils contain as much plastic as urban soils and often more than agricultural, wetland, or coastal soils. The assumption that forests stand apart from <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-type-of-microbes-found-earths-deep-soil-critical-zone/">pollution</a> no longer holds.



Forests cover about a third of Earth’s land surface. If all are acting as sinks, the scale of storage is enormous. This changes how scientists think about the global flow of microplastics.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-forests-as-indicators">Forests as indicators</h2>



"Our results indicate that microplastics in forest soils originate primarily from atmospheric deposition and from leaves falling to the ground, known as litterfall. Other sources, on the other hand, have only a minor influence," said Dr. Weber.



"We conclude that forests are good indicators of atmospheric microplastic pollution and that a high concentration of microplastics in forest soils indicates a high diffuse input - as opposed to direct input such as from fertilizers in agriculture - of particles from the air into these ecosystems."



Forests, in other words, act like monitors. The amount of plastic in their soils reflects what is falling from the sky across regions and continents.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-risks-for-nature-and-people">Risks for nature and people</h2>



What does this mean for ecosystems? Microplastics can change soil structure, affect microbes, and alter nutrient cycles. Over time, this could influence tree growth and forest health. 



The combination of climate stress and plastic pollution could place new pressure on already fragile ecosystems.



"Forests are already threatened by climate change, and our findings suggest that microplastics could now pose an additional threat to forest ecosystems," noted Dr. Weber.



There is also a human angle. The same particles found in forests travel through the air we breathe. What lands on a leaf today may be part of tomorrow’s inhaled dust.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-of-plastic-in-forest-soils">Future of plastic in forest soils</h2>



This study is the first to show, with clear evidence, that forests are major recipients of microplastic pollution from the atmosphere. 



The research raises urgent questions. How do different tree species capture particles? How do seasonal changes affect deposition? And what will decades more of plastic production mean for soils and air?



For now, one conclusion is unavoidable: forests, once considered safe from plastic waste, are firmly part of the story. 



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s43247-025-02712-4" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Communications Earth &amp; Environment</a>.



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Plastic rain: Forests are trapping microplastics from the sky

When we talk about plastic pollution, oceans and rivers dominate...

Endangered plants

News coming your way