Acaena exigua NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is a source for authoritative conservation information on more than 50,000 plants, animals and ecological communtities of the U.S and Canada. NatureServe Explorer provides in-depth information on rare and endangered species, but includes common plants and animals too. NatureServe Explorer is a product of NatureServe in collaboration with the Natural Heritage Network.

ITIS Reports -- ITIS (the Integrated Taxonomic Information System) is a source for authoritative taxonomic information on plants, animals, fungi, and microbes of North America and the world.

FWS Digital Media Library -- The U.S.<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ocean-surface-slicks-create-superhighway-for-fish/"> Fish</a> and Wildlife Service's National Digital Library is a searchable collection of selected images, historical artifacts, audio clips, publications, and video. Acaena exigua is an extinct species of flowering plant in the rose family known by the common name liliwai. It was endemic to Hawaii, where it was known from Kauaʻi and west Maui. It had not been seen or collected since 1957 and was feared extinct until 1997, when one plant was discovered in a remote montane bog on <a href="https://www.bing.com/search?q=maui&amp;cvid=11f593b142284a109c4b71b63cd85874&amp;FORM=ANAB01&amp;PC=HCTS">Maui</a>. The plant died in 2000, and the species is now considered extinct.Acaena exigua A. Gray var. subtusstrigulosa Bitter: Classification. Click on a scientific name below to expand it in the PLANTS Classification Report. Rank Scientific Name and Common Name; Kingdom: Plantae – Plants Subkingdom: Tracheobionta

Acaena exigua

Acaena exigua NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is a source for authoritative conservation...

Platanthera praeclara NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is a source for authoritative conservation information on more than 50,000 plants, animals and ecological communtities of the U.S and <a href="https://www.earth.com/image/the-fall-rhapsody-in-ottawa/">Canada.</a> NatureServe Explorer provides in-depth information on rare and endangered species, but includes common plants and animals too. NatureServe Explorer is a product of NatureServe in collaboration with the Natural Heritage Network.

ITIS Reports -- ITIS (the Integrated Taxonomic Information System) is a source for authoritative taxonomic information on plants, animals, <a href="https://www.bing.com/search?q=fungi&amp;cvid=359f23bace3f4e729d575ea9613b9280&amp;FORM=ANAB01&amp;PC=HCTS">fungi,</a> and microbes of North America and the world.Platanthera praeclara, known as the western prairie fringed orchid and the Great Plains white fringed orchid, is a rare and threatened species of orchid native to North America.Species. Platanthera praeclara Sheviak &amp; Bowles – Great Plains white fringed orchid. Subordinate Taxa. This plant has no children. Legal Status. Threatened and Endangered Information: This plant is listed by the U.S. federal government or a state. Common names are from state and federal lists.chid, is distributed in the midwest United States and Canada, from Oklahoma to Manitoba. It produces 2-5 basal and lower stem leaves, which are present at the time of flowering. The inflorescence has 10-24 creamy white colored flowers with petals that form a hood over the column.

FWS Digital Media Library -- The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service's National Digital Library is a searchable collection of selected images, historical artifacts, audio clips, publications, and video.

Platanthera praeclara

Platanthera praeclara NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is...

Platydesma cornuta cornuta NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is a source for authoritative conservation information on more than 50,000 plants, animals and ecological communtities of the U.S and <a href="https://www.bing.com/search?q=canada&amp;cvid=969fbf1d6fe24892b50216501e362a53&amp;FORM=ANAB01&amp;PC=HCTS">Canada</a>. NatureServe Explorer provides in-depth information on rare and endangered species, but includes common plants and animals too. NatureServe Explorer is a product of NatureServe in collaboration with the Natural Heritage Network.Platydesma cornuta Hillebr. – Oahu pilo kea Variety: Platydesma cornuta Hillebr. var. cornuta – Oahu pilo kea Subordinate Taxa. This plant has no children Legal Status. Wetland Status. Interpreting Wetland Status. Related Links. More Accounts and Images; Integrated Taxonomic Information System

ITIS Reports -- ITIS (the Integrated Taxonomic Information System) is a source for authoritative taxonomic information on plants, animals, <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthpedia-articles/fungi-characteristics-and-function/">fungi</a>, and microbes of North America and the world.Rutaceae of North America Update, database (version 2011) Acquired: 2011 : Notes: Updated for ITIS by the Flora of North America Expertise Network, in connection with an update for USDA PLANTS (2007-2010) Reference for: Platydesma cornuta : Source: The PLANTS Database, database (version 4.0.4) Acquired: 1996 : Notes: Taxonomic Tree; Domain: Eukaryota Kingdom: Plantae Phylum: Spermatophyta Subphylum: Angiospermae Class: Dicotyledonae; There are no pictures available for this datasheet If you can supply pictures for this datasheet

FWS Digital Media Library -- The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service's National Digital Library is a searchable collection of selected images, historical artifacts, audio clips, publications, and video.

Platydesma cornuta cornuta

Platydesma cornuta cornuta NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer...

Platydesma cornuta decurrens NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is a source for authoritative conservation information on more than 50,000 plants, animals and ecological communtities of the U.S and <a href="https://www.earth.com/image/mistastin-lake-in-labrador-canada/">Canada</a>. NatureServe Explorer provides in-depth information on rare and endangered species, but includes common plants and animals too. NatureServe Explorer is a product of NatureServe in collaboration with the Natural Heritage Network.

ITIS Reports -- ITIS (the Integrated Taxonomic Information System) is a source for authoritative taxonomic information on plants, animals, fungi, and microbes of <a href="https://www.bing.com/search?q=north+america&amp;cvid=84f1e8e9658b4caea7e69e7c7dff2555&amp;aqs=edge.0.69i59j69i57j69i59j0j69i60l3.1774j0j9&amp;FORM=ANAB01&amp;PC=HCTS">North America</a> and the world. North America is a continent entirely within the Northern Hemisphere and almost all within the Western Hemisphere. It can also be described as the northern subcontinent of the Americas. It is bordered to the north by the Arctic Ocean, to the east by the Atlantic Ocean, to the southeast by South America and the Caribbean Sea, and to the west and south by the Pacific Ocean. Because it is on the North American Tectonic Plate, Greenland is included as part of North America geographically. North America covers an area of about 24,709,000 square kilometers (9,540,000 square miles), about 16.5% of the Earth's land area and about 4.8% of its total surface. North America is the third-largest continent by area, following Asia and Africa, and the fourth by population after Asia, Africa, and Europe.

FWS Digital Media Library -- The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service's National Digital Library is a searchable collection of selected images, historical artifacts, audio clips, publications, and video.

Platydesma cornuta decurrens

Platydesma cornuta decurrens NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer...

Platydesma remyi NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is a source for authoritative conservation information on more than 50,000 plants, animals and ecological communtities of the U.S and <a href="https://www.bing.com/search?q=north+america&amp;cvid=caba13a30d474b4daa06fc89b0ad61f8&amp;FORM=ANAB01&amp;PC=HCTS">Canada</a>. NatureServe Explorer provides in-depth information on rare and endangered species, but includes common plants and animals too. NatureServe Explorer is a product of NatureServe in collaboration with the Natural Heritage Network.Platydesma remyi, the Hawai'i pilo kea, is a species of plant in the family Rutaceae. It is endemic to the island of Hawaii. It is threatened by habitat loss. Platydesma remyi is on the IUCN Red List of Endangered species.

ITIS Reports -- ITIS (the Integrated Taxonomic Information System) is a source for authoritative taxonomic information on plants, animals, fungi, and microbes of North <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/north-americas-largest-mammals-were-a-casualty-of-climate-change/">America</a> and the world.Platydesma remyi : Source: Rutaceae of North America Update, database (version 2011) Acquired: 2011 : Notes: Updated for ITIS by the Flora of North America Expertise Network, in connection with an update for USDA PLANTS (2007-2010) Reference for: Platydesma remyi : Source: The PLANTS Database, database (version 4.0.4)Datasheet Type(s): Threatened Species, Host Plant. References Top of page. US Fish and Wildlife Service, 2012. Endangered and threatened wildlife and plants; Listing 15 species on Hawaii Island as endangered and designating critical habitat for 3 species; proposed rule.

FWS Digital Media Library -- The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service's National Digital Library is a searchable collection of selected images, historical artifacts, audio clips, publications, and video.

Platydesma remyi

Platydesma remyi NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is...

NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is a source for authoritative conservation information on more than 50,000 plants, animals and ecological communtities of the U.S and <a href="https://www.bing.com/search?q=canada&amp;cvid=969fbf1d6fe24892b50216501e362a53&amp;FORM=ANAB01&amp;PC=HCTS">Canada</a>. NatureServe Explorer provides in-depth information on rare and endangered species, but includes common plants and animals too. NatureServe Explorer is a product of NatureServe in collaboration with the Natural Heritage Network.Platydesma rostrata is a rare species of flowering plant in the citrus family known by the common name pilo kea lau li'i. It is endemic to Hawaii, where there are only about 100 individuals remaining on island of Kauai. It was federally listed as an endangered species of the United States in 2010.

ITIS Reports -- ITIS (the Integrated Taxonomic Information System) is a source for authoritative taxonomic information on plants, animals, <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthpedia-articles/fungi-characteristics-and-function/">fungi</a>, and microbes of North America and the world.Platydesma rostrata Hillebr., Fl. Hawaiian Isl. 72. 1888. Note. At the time Hillebrand described this species there was a single specimen known, the type. When Rock brought fragments from B back to BISH the label information was not well transcribed, but all have printed labels indicating they were from the B collection.

FWS Digital Media Library -- The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service's National Digital Library is a searchable collection of selected images, historical artifacts, audio clips, publications, and video.

Platydesma rostrata

NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is a source...

Pleodendron macranthum NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is a source for authoritative conservation information on more than 50,000 plants, animals and ecological communtities of the U.S and <a href="https://www.earth.com/image/mistastin-lake-in-labrador-canada/">Canada.</a> NatureServe Explorer provides in-depth information on rare and endangered species, but includes common plants and animals too. NatureServe Explorer is a product of NatureServe in collaboration with the Natural Heritage Network.

ITIS Reports -- Pleodendron macranthum ITIS (the Integrated Taxonomic Information System) is a source for authoritative taxonomic information on plants, animals, fungi, and microbes of <a href="https://www.bing.com/search?q=north+america&amp;cvid=84f1e8e9658b4caea7e69e7c7dff2555&amp;aqs=edge.0.69i59j69i57j69i59j0j69i60l3.1774j0j9&amp;FORM=ANAB01&amp;PC=HCTS">North America</a> and the world. North America is a continent entirely within the Northern Hemisphere and almost all within the Western Hemisphere. It can also be described as the northern subcontinent of the Americas. It is bordered to the north by the Arctic Ocean, to the east by the Atlantic Ocean, to the southeast by South America and the Caribbean Sea, and to the west and south by the Pacific Ocean. Because it is on the North American Tectonic Plate, Greenland is included as part of North America geographically. North America covers an area of about 24,709,000 square kilometers (9,540,000 square miles), about 16.5% of the Earth's land area and about 4.8% of its total surface. North America is the third-largest continent by area, following Asia and Africa, and the fourth by population after Asia, Africa, and Europe

FWS Digital Media Library -- The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service's National Digital Library is a searchable collection of selected images, historical artifacts, audio clips, publications, and video.

Pleodendron macranthum

Pleodendron macranthum NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is...

Pleomele fernaldii NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is a source for authoritative conservation information on more than 50,000 plants, animals and ecological communtities of the U.S and <a href="https://www.earth.com/image/mistastin-lake-in-labrador-canada/">Canada</a>. NatureServe Explorer provides in-depth information on rare and endangered species, but includes common plants and animals too. NatureServe Explorer is a product of NatureServe in collaboration with the Natural Heritage Network.

ITIS Reports -- ITIS (the Integrated Taxonomic Information System) is a source for authoritative taxonomic information on plants, animals, fungi, and microbes of <a href="https://www.bing.com/search?q=north+america&amp;cvid=a89f77701d234b96b3eaee1307656b94&amp;aqs=edge.0.69i59j69i57j0l4j69i60l3.1415j0j9&amp;FORM=ANAB01&amp;PC=HCTS">North America</a> and the world. North America is a continent entirely within the Northern Hemisphere and almost all within the Western Hemisphere. It can also be described as the northern subcontinent of the Americas. It is bordered to the north by the Arctic Ocean, to the east by the Atlantic Ocean, to the southeast by South America and the Caribbean Sea, and to the west and south by the Pacific Ocean. Because it is on the North American Tectonic Plate, Greenland is included as part of North America geographically. North America covers an area of about 24,709,000 square kilometers (9,540,000 square miles), about 16.5% of the Earth's land area and about 4.8% of its total surface. North America is the third-largest continent by area, following Asia and Africa, and the fourth by population after Asia, Africa, and Europe. In 2013, its population was estimated at nearly 579 million people in 23 independent states,

FWS Digital Media Library -- The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service's National Digital Library is a searchable collection of selected images, historical artifacts, audio clips, publications, and video.

Pleomele fernaldii

Pleomele fernaldii NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is...

Pleomele forbesii NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is a source for authoritative conservation information on more than 50,000 plants, animals and ecological communtities of the U.S and <a href="https://www.bing.com/search?q=canada&amp;cvid=969fbf1d6fe24892b50216501e362a53&amp;FORM=ANAB01&amp;PC=HCTS">Canada</a>. NatureServe Explorer provides in-depth information on rare and endangered species, but includes common plants and animals too. NatureServe Explorer is a product of NatureServe in collaboration with the Natural Heritage Network.

ITIS Reports -- ITIS (the Integrated Taxonomic Information System) is a source for authoritative taxonomic information on plants, animals, fungi, and microbes of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/north-americas-largest-mammals-were-a-casualty-of-climate-change/">North America</a> and the world.General Information. The genus Pleomele has been recently placed in the family Ruscaceae with notables such as dracaena, liriope, lily-of-the-valley, mondo grass, pony tail palm ( Beaucarnea recurvata ), and snake plant (Sansevieria spp.) or with the less dignified name, mother-in-laws tongue.Pleomele forbesii O. Deg. – Waianae Range hala pepe Subordinate Taxa. This plant has no children Legal Status. Wetland Status. Interpreting Wetland Status. Related Links. More Accounts and Images; Integrated Taxonomic Information System (PLFO2) Wildlife.

FWS Digital Media Library -- The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service's National Digital Library is a searchable collection of selected images, historical artifacts, audio clips, publications, and video.Pleomele forbesii is a species of flowering plant that is endemic to the island of Oʻahu in Hawaiʻi. It inhabits dry, coastal mesic and mixed mesic forests at elevations of 240–730 metres. It is threatened by habitat loss.

Pleomele forbesii

Pleomele forbesii NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is...

Pleomele hawaiiensis NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is a source for authoritative conservation information on more than 50,000 plants, animals and ecological communtities of the U.S and <a href="https://www.earth.com/image/mistastin-lake-in-labrador-canada/">Canada</a>. NatureServe Explorer provides in-depth information on rare and endangered species, but includes common plants and animals too. NatureServe Explorer is a product of NatureServe in collaboration with the Natural Heritage Network.

ITIS Reports -- Pleomele hawaiiensis ITIS (the Integrated Taxonomic Information System) is a source for authoritative taxonomic information on plants, animals, fungi, and microbes of <a href="https://www.bing.com/search?q=north+america&amp;cvid=84f1e8e9658b4caea7e69e7c7dff2555&amp;aqs=edge.0.69i59j69i57j69i59j0j69i60l3.1774j0j9&amp;FORM=ANAB01&amp;PC=HCTS">North America</a> and the world. North America is a continent entirely within the Northern Hemisphere and almost all within the Western Hemisphere. It can also be described as the northern subcontinent of the Americas. It is bordered to the north by the Arctic Ocean, to the east by the Atlantic Ocean, to the southeast by South America and the Caribbean Sea, and to the west and south by the Pacific Ocean. Because it is on the North American Tectonic Plate, Greenland is included as part of North America geographically. North America covers an area of about 24,709,000 square kilometers (9,540,000 square miles), about 16.5% of the Earth's land area and about 4.8% of its total surface. North America is the third-largest continent by area, following Asia and Africa, and the fourth by population after Asia, Africa, and Europe.

FWS Digital Media Library -- The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service's National Digital Library is a searchable collection of selected images, historical artifacts, audio clips, publications, and video.

Pleomele hawaiiensis

Pleomele hawaiiensis NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is...

Poa atropurpurea NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is a source for authoritative conservation information on more than 50,000 plants, animals and ecological communtities of the U.S and <a href="https://www.earth.com/image/mistastin-lake-in-labrador-canada/">Canada.</a> NatureServe Explorer provides in-depth information on rare and endangered species, but includes common plants and animals too. NatureServe Explorer is a product of NatureServe in collaboration with the Natural Heritage Network.

ITIS Reports -- Poa atropurpurea ITIS (the Integrated Taxonomic Information System) is a source for authoritative taxonomic information on plants, animals, fungi, and microbes of <a href="https://www.bing.com/search?q=north+america&amp;cvid=84f1e8e9658b4caea7e69e7c7dff2555&amp;aqs=edge.0.69i59j69i57j69i59j0j69i60l3.1774j0j9&amp;FORM=ANAB01&amp;PC=HCTS">North America</a> and the world. North America is a continent entirely within the Northern Hemisphere and almost all within the Western Hemisphere. It can also be described as the northern subcontinent of the Americas. It is bordered to the north by the Arctic Ocean, to the east by the Atlantic Ocean, to the southeast by South America and the Caribbean Sea, and to the west and south by the Pacific Ocean. Because it is on the North American Tectonic Plate, Greenland is included as part of North America geographically. North America covers an area of about 24,709,000 square kilometers (9,540,000 square miles), about 16.5% of the Earth's land area and about 4.8% of its total surface. North America is the third-largest continent by area, following Asia and Africa, and the fourth by population after Asia, Africa, and Europe.

FWS Digital Media Library -- The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service's National Digital Library is a searchable collection of selected images, historical artifacts, audio clips, publications, and video.

Poa atropurpurea

Poa atropurpurea NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is...

Poa mannii NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is a source for authoritative conservation information on more than 50,000 plants, animals and ecological communtities of the U.S and <a href="https://www.earth.com/image/mistastin-lake-in-labrador-canada/">Canada</a>. NatureServe Explorer provides in-depth information on rare and endangered species, but includes common plants and animals too. NatureServe Explorer is a product of NatureServe in collaboration with the Natural Heritage Network.

ITIS Reports -- Poa mannii ITIS (the Integrated Taxonomic Information System) is a source for authoritative taxonomic information on plants, animals, fungi, and microbes of <a href="https://www.bing.com/search?q=north+america&amp;cvid=84f1e8e9658b4caea7e69e7c7dff2555&amp;aqs=edge.0.69i59j69i57j69i59j0j69i60l3.1774j0j9&amp;FORM=ANAB01&amp;PC=HCTS">North America</a> and the world. North America is a continent entirely within the Northern Hemisphere and almost all within the Western Hemisphere. It can also be described as the northern subcontinent of the Americas. It is bordered to the north by the Arctic Ocean, to the east by the Atlantic Ocean, to the southeast by South America and the Caribbean Sea, and to the west and south by the Pacific Ocean. Because it is on the North American Tectonic Plate, Greenland is included as part of North America geographically. North America covers an area of about 24,709,000 square kilometers (9,540,000 square miles), about 16.5% of the Earth's land area and about 4.8% of its total surface. North America is the third-largest continent by area, following Asia and Africa, and the fourth by population after Asia, Africa, and Europe

FWS Digital Media Library -- The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service's National Digital Library is a searchable collection of selected images, historical artifacts, audio clips, publications, and video.

Poa mannii

Poa mannii NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is...

Poa napensis NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is a source for authoritative conservation information on more than 50,000 plants, animals and ecological communtities of the U.S and <a href="https://www.earth.com/image/the-fall-rhapsody-in-ottawa/">Canada.</a> NatureServe Explorer provides in-depth information on rare and endangered species, but includes common plants and animals too. NatureServe Explorer is a product of NatureServe in collaboration with the Natural Heritage Network.

ITIS Reports -- ITIS (the Integrated Taxonomic Information System) is a source for authoritative taxonomic information on plants, animals, fungi, and microbes of North America and the world.

FWS Digital Media Library -- The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service's National Digital Library is a searchable collection of selected images, historical artifacts, audio clips, publications, and video.Poa napensis is a rare species of grass known by the common name Napa bluegrass. It is endemic to Napa County, California, where it is known from only two occurrences near Calistoga. It grows in moist, mineral-rich soil around hot springs. The rare grass only occurs on private, unprotected land and depends on water from the hot springs; changes to the local water regime or any other aspects of its specific habitat type would affect the plant. This grass was federally listed as an endangered species in 1997, along with another rare local hot spring endemic, the Calistoga popcornflower.

Poa napensis

Poa napensis NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is...

Poa sandvicensis NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is a source for authoritative conservation information on more than 50,000 plants, animals and ecological communtities of the U.S and <a href="https://www.bing.com/search?q=north+america&amp;cvid=caba13a30d474b4daa06fc89b0ad61f8&amp;FORM=ANAB01&amp;PC=HCTS">Canada</a>. NatureServe Explorer provides in-depth information on rare and endangered species, but includes common plants and animals too. NatureServe Explorer is a product of NatureServe in collaboration with the Natural Heritage Network.Poa sandvicensis is a rare species of grass known by the common name <a href="https://www.earth.com/image/snow-on-hawaiis-tallest-peaks/">Hawaiian</a> bluegrass. It is endemic to Hawaii, where it is limited to the island of Kauai. It is threatened by the loss and modification of its habitat. It is a federally listed endangered species of the United States.

ITIS Reports -- ITIS (the Integrated Taxonomic Information System) is a source for authoritative taxonomic information on plants, animals, fungi, and microbes of North America and the world.Name Synonyms Festuca sandvicensis Reichardt Poa longiradiata Hildebr. Homonyms Poa sandvicensis Hitchcock Common names Hawai'i bluegrass in English Hawaiian bluegrass in English Hawaiian bluegrass in English Bibliographic References. U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service, 1992: Endangered and Threatened Wildlife and Plants ...

FWS Digital Media Library -- The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service's National Digital Library is a searchable collection of selected images, historical artifacts, audio clips, publications, and video.

Poa sandvicensis

Poa sandvicensis NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is...

Poa siphonoglossa NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is a source for authoritative conservation information on more than 50,000 plants, animals and ecological communtities of the U.S and <a href="https://www.earth.com/image/mistastin-lake-in-labrador-canada/">Canada</a>. NatureServe Explorer provides in-depth information on rare and endangered species, but includes common plants and animals too. NatureServe Explorer is a product of NatureServe in collaboration with the Natural Heritage Network.

ITIS Reports -- Poa siphonoglossa ITIS (the Integrated Taxonomic Information System) is a source for authoritative taxonomic information on plants, animals, fungi, and microbes of <a href="https://www.bing.com/search?q=north+america&amp;cvid=84f1e8e9658b4caea7e69e7c7dff2555&amp;aqs=edge.0.69i59j69i57j69i59j0j69i60l3.1774j0j9&amp;FORM=ANAB01&amp;PC=HCTS">North America</a> and the world. North America is a continent entirely within the Northern Hemisphere and almost all within the Western Hemisphere. It can also be described as the northern subcontinent of the Americas. It is bordered to the north by the Arctic Ocean, to the east by the Atlantic Ocean, to the southeast by South America and the Caribbean Sea, and to the west and south by the Pacific Ocean. Because it is on the North American Tectonic Plate, Greenland is included as part of North America geographically. North America covers an area of about 24,709,000 square kilometers (9,540,000 square miles), about 16.5% of the Earth's land area and about 4.8% of its total surface. North America is the third-largest continent by area, following Asia and Africa, and the fourth by population after Asia, Africa, and Europe.

FWS Digital Media Library -- The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service's National Digital Library is a searchable collection of selected images, historical artifacts, audio clips, publications, and video.

Poa siphonoglossa

Poa siphonoglossa NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is...

Pogogyne abramsii NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is a source for authoritative conservation information on more than 50,000 plants, animals and ecological communtities of the U.S and <a href="https://www.bing.com/search?q=canada&amp;cvid=969fbf1d6fe24892b50216501e362a53&amp;FORM=ANAB01&amp;PC=HCTS">Canada.</a> NatureServe Explorer provides in-depth information on rare and endangered species, but includes common plants and animals too. NatureServe Explorer is a product of NatureServe in collaboration with the Natural Heritage Network. Pogogyne abramsii is a rare species of flowering plant in the mint family known by the common name San Diego mesa mint.Pogogyne abramsii J.T. Howell – San Diego mesamint. Subordinate Taxa. This plant has no children. Legal Status. Threatened and Endangered Information: This plant is listed by the U.S. federal government or a state. Common names are from state and federal lists. Click on a place name to get a complete protected plant list for that location.

ITIS Reports -- ITIS (the Integrated Taxonomic Information System) is a source for authoritative taxonomic information on plants, animals, <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthpedia-articles/fungi-characteristics-and-function/">fungi</a>, and microbes of North America and the world.San Diego mesa mint is a California endangered plant species, which means that killing or possessing the plant is prohibited by the California Endangered Species Act (CESA).San Diego mesa mint is also listed as endangered under the federal Endangered Species Act.It is an aromatic, hairy annual herb in the mint family (Lamiaceae) restricted to San Diego County.

FWS Digital Media Library -- The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service's National Digital Library is a searchable collection of selected images, historical artifacts, audio clips, publications, and video.

Pogogyne abramsii

Pogogyne abramsii NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is...

Pogogyne nudiuscula NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is a source for authoritative conservation information on more than 50,000 plants, animals and ecological communtities of the U.S and <a href="https://www.bing.com/search?q=canada&amp;cvid=757a2d53f26d4ce7a4ec2c30078456fc&amp;FORM=ANAB01&amp;PC=HCTS">Canada</a>. NatureServe Explorer provides in-depth information on rare and endangered species, but includes common plants and animals too. NatureServe Explorer is a product of NatureServe in collaboration with the Natural Heritage Network.

ITIS Reports -- ITIS (the Integrated Taxonomic Information System) is a source for authoritative taxonomic information on plants, animals, fungi, and microbes of North America and the world.Pogogyne nudiuscula is a rare species of flowering plant in the mint family known by the common name Otay mesa mint. It is native to southern San Diego County, California, where it is known only from Otay Mesa near the border with Baja California. It was identified on land south of the Mexican border, but these occurrences have probably been extirpated. It is now known from seven vernal pool complexes just north of the border, and it is a federally listed endangered species of the United States.

FWS Digital Media Library -- The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service's National Digital Library is a searchable collection of selected images, historical artifacts, audio clips, publications, and video.

Pogogyne nudiuscula

Pogogyne nudiuscula NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is...

Polygala lewtonii NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is a source for authoritative conservation information on more than 50,000 plants, animals and ecological communtities of the U.S and<a href="https://www.bing.com/search?q=canada&amp;cvid=757a2d53f26d4ce7a4ec2c30078456fc&amp;FORM=ANAB01&amp;PC=HCTS"> Canada</a>. NatureServe Explorer provides in-depth information on rare and endangered species, but includes common plants and animals too. NatureServe Explorer is a product of NatureServe in collaboration with the Natural Heritage Network.

ITIS Reports -- ITIS (the Integrated Taxonomic Information System) is a source for authoritative taxonomic information on plants, animals, <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthpedia-articles/fungi-characteristics-and-function/">fungi</a>, and microbes of North America and the world.ut very rare exception. It is endemic and found only within the central portion of the peninsula that includes the Lake Wales Ridge and adjacent uplands, such as Ocala National Forest.

FWS Digital Media Library -- The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service's National Digital Library is a searchable collection of selected images, historical artifacts, audio clips, publications, and video.Polygala lewtonii is a rare species of flowering plant in the milkwort family known by the common name Lewton's polygala, or Lewton's milkwort. It is endemic to Florida in the United States, where it is limited to the central ridge of the peninsula. There are about 49 occurrences of the plant remaining. Most occurrences contain very few plants. The species is threatened by the loss and degradation of its habitat. This is a federally listed endangered species of the United States.

Polygala lewtonii

Polygala lewtonii NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is...

Polygala smallii NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is a source for authoritative conservation information on more than 50,000 plants, animals and ecological communtities of the U.S and <a href="https://www.bing.com/search?q=canada&amp;cvid=757a2d53f26d4ce7a4ec2c30078456fc&amp;FORM=ANAB01&amp;PC=HCTS">Canada</a>. NatureServe Explorer provides in-depth information on rare and endangered species, but includes common plants and animals too. NatureServe Explorer is a product of NatureServe in collaboration with the Natural Heritage Network.

ITIS Reports -- ITIS (the Integrated Taxonomic Information System) is a source for authoritative taxonomic information on plants, animals, fungi, and microbes of North America and the world.Polygala smallii R.R. Sm. &amp; Ward – tiny milkwort Subordinate Taxa. This plant has no children Legal Status. Threatened and Endangered Information: This plant is listed by the U.S. federal government or a state. Common names are from state and federal lists.

FWS Digital Media Library -- The U.S. <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/eating-fish-lowers-risk-of-recurrent-cardiovascular-events/">Fish</a> and Wildlife Service's National Digital Library is a searchable collection of selected images, historical artifacts, audio clips, publications, and video.Polygala smallii is a rare species of flowering plant in the milkwort family known by the common name tiny polygala, or tiny milkwort. It is endemic to Florida in the United States, where it is limited to the southeastern coast of the peninsula. The plant is now only known from eight sites, with most individuals located on one site in Miami-Dade County. The species is threatened by the loss of its habitat. This is a federally listed endangered species of the United States.

Polygala smallii

Polygala smallii NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is...

Romans loved garum, a salty fish sauce that showed up on tables from Spain to Syria. A new study spells out which fish actually went into it by reading DNA from tiny bones buried in an ancient salting vat.  



The team worked at Adro Vello, a Roman era fish processing site on Spain’s northwest coast. 



They pulled fragments from the bottom of a vat and extracted <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/neuroscience/ancient-dna" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ancient DNA</a>, which is genetic material preserved in old remains, to identify the species and peek at past fish populations.  



<a href="https://www.ciimar.up.pt/members/paula-campos/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Paula F. Campos</a>, CIIMAR at the University of Porto, is the corresponding author who helped lead the genetic work.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-romans-and-their-sauces">Romans and their sauces</h2>



Roman cooks made <a href="https://fermentology.pubpub.org/pub/h0khkmbv/release/1" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">fish sauces</a> and pastes in large stone vats along the Atlantic and Mediterranean coasts. 



Workers salted, crushed, and left small fish under controlled fermentation, which broke down tissues and created a savory liquid that seasoned everything from vegetables to meat.  



That process destroyed the usual features scientists use to tell one fish from another. 



Bones were shattered, and acids from fermentation damaged the DNA inside them, which makes species identification tough without genetics.  



Even so, the Adro Vello bones held enough information to test a clear question. Did <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mass-grave-vienna-discovery-tells-the-story-of-a-forgotten-defeat-by-the-roman-empire/">Romans</a> really pack these vats with sardines, as some earlier visual identifications hinted.&nbsp;&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-reading-the-recipe">Reading the recipe</h2>



Researchers sampled the residue at the bottom of a single vat and cleaned the tiny vertebrae and scales. They then built DNA libraries and compared overlapping sequences against the reference genome of European sardine.&nbsp;&nbsp;



From those fragments, they assembled the full <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/biochemistry-genetics-and-molecular-biology/mitochondrial-genome" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">mitochondrial genome</a> of multiple fish, which is a small circular chromosome inside the cell’s energy factories that helps track maternal lineages. Depth of coverage varied across samples, but it was sufficient to confirm identity.&nbsp;&nbsp;



They also used <a href="https://news.uchicago.edu/explainer/what-is-carbon-14-dating" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">radiocarbon dating</a>, a technique that estimates age by measuring the decay of carbon isotopes, to anchor the material to the early third century AD. That timeline lines up with the period when this coastal factory was active.&nbsp;&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dna-found-in-the-roman-sauce">DNA found in the Roman sauce</h2>



The sauce makers at Adro Vello were using European sardine. Genetic signatures placed the ancient fish with present day sardines from the central Atlantic Iberian region, which signals continuity across nearly two thousand years.&nbsp;&nbsp;



Population analyses showed less admixture, meaning less mixing between distant sardine groups, than we see in many modern samples. 



That result hints at lower connectivity among stocks in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ancient-roman-concrete-offers-lessons-for-sustainable-building/">Roman</a> times, likely due to different fishing pressure and maritime movement.  



These insights do more than satisfy culinary curiosity. They add data points for how human activity and environment shape marine populations over long periods.&nbsp;&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-dna-survives-fermentation">How DNA survives fermentation</h2>



“In this study, we demonstrate that usable DNA can survive in fermentation environments, such as the brines used by the Romans to make garum,” concluded Dr. Campos.



That is not a trivial point, since acids and microbial enzymes can chop DNA into pieces too small to read. 



The team still recovered enough high quality sequences to assemble full mitochondrial genomes and validate species calls with phylogenetic tests. 



They also reported calendar dates consistent with the site’s archaeological layers. Those dates, along with clean damage patterns typical of truly ancient molecules, strengthen the case that the DNA is original to the vat and not modern contamination.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-roman-sauce-matters">Why Roman sauce matters</h2>



Foodways reveal trade, labor, and taste. Because garum production plants ringed the coasts, matching species to specific factories helps map supply chains and regional preferences across the empire.



Knowing that Adro Vello used sardines fits finds from other Atlantic facilities. It suggests local fleets targeted schooling fish that could be processed quickly into sauces and pastes for shipment.&nbsp;



Linking ancient and modern sardine genomes also provides a baseline for long term change. 



Fisheries managers can compare today’s gene flow and stock structure with a historical snapshot that predates industrial fleets.  



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-from-roman-vats-to-present-management">From Roman vats to present management</h2>



Iberian sardines remain central to coastal economies, and managers in Portugal and Spain use a multi-year <a href="https://www.dgrm.pt/documents/20143/46478/PGSARDINHA2021-2026.pdf/d36a1df9-7353-32a4-a06e-c72852e73cb0" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">plan</a> to set cautious catch limits and seasonal closures. 



Those measures follow scientific advice and aim to stabilize biomass through variable recruitment years. 



Ancient data will not decide quotas, but it can refine assumptions about how populations connect and change. When models rest on sound baselines, policies stand on firmer ground.&nbsp;



The approach used here can travel well beyond Spain. Similar vats exist across the former <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/317-skeletons-from-the-roman-empire-found-beneath-an-old-shopping-center/">Roman</a> world, which means there are many chances to test whether other regions leaned on sardine, anchovy, or mixed catches.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-comes-next">What comes next</h2>



The authors plan to sample other sites to see how recipes varied from Africa to the western Mediterranean. 



With more genomes in hand, they can test whether regional fleets drew on distinct stocks or tapped a shared pool of fish. 



Better reference genomes will only improve the resolution of species calls and population tests. As methods advance, even more degraded residues may yield clear answers.&nbsp;



History often hides in scraps. Here, scraps of bone preserved a record of taste, trade, and the lives of fish that fed an empire.



The study is published in <a href="https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/antiquity/article/roman-atlantic-garum-dna-confirms-sardine-use-and-population-continuity-in-northwestern-iberia/9487347327F3724D1D2C4F72266DAEF3" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Antiquity</a>.



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DNA identifies ingredients of the 'ketchup' used on food by the Roman Empire

Romans loved garum, a salty fish sauce that showed up...

We stroll past wheat, clover, and grass and see only the green half of the story. The other half - the roots - do the heavy lifting: anchoring plants, pulling up water and nutrients, and locking away carbon in the soil.



Yet because roots are hidden, scientists have spent decades using muddy, labor-intensive methods to guess their size and spread, often missing the finest, most active threads. According to a team of researchers at <a href="https://international.au.dk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Aarhus University</a>, that guesswork can finally stop.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-high-tech-root-census">A high-tech root census</h2>



“It's a bit like studying marine ecosystems without ever being able to dive,” said senior author Henrik Brinch-Pedersen, a professor in the Department of Agroecology.



Until now, the standard approach was to carve out big blocks of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/world-soil-day-2024-protecting-our-planets-lifeline/">soil</a>, wash away the dirt, sort and dry what remained, and weigh the roots. It’s slow, destructive, and misses the fine roots that absorb nutrients and release carbon to the soil.



The new approach swaps spades for droplet digital PCR (ddPCR), a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/hidden-chapter-in-human-evolution-revealed-through-genetics/">DNA</a> technology that partitions a teaspoon of soil into tens of thousands of microscopic droplets. Each droplet then answers a yes/no question: Does it contain plant DNA with a specific genetic signature?



The team uses a marker called ITS2 - think of it as a barcode that differs among species - so a single run can reveal not just that roots are present, but whose roots they are. Crucially, it also shows how much underground biomass each species contributes.



“It’s a bit like giving the soil a DNA test,” Brinch-Pedersen said. “We can suddenly see the hidden distribution of species and biomass without digging up the whole field.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mapping-roots-with-precision">Mapping roots with precision</h2>



Because ddPCR counts DNA molecules across thousands of droplets, it can quantify roots that would otherwise be pulverized or rinsed away. 



That makes it possible to map root communities at high resolution in living fields, pastures, and mixed-species grasslands and to repeat measurements over time without disturbing the site.



The payoff spans several fronts. For climate research, it lets scientists measure how much <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/planting-diverse-crops-traps-carbon-and-boosts-soil-health/">carbon</a> different crops actually push belowground - data that’s been frustratingly hard to pin down but is essential for credible climate accounting in agriculture.



For plant breeding, the digital DNA method creates a path to select varieties that invest more in roots without sacrificing grain or forage aboveground.



And for biodiversity science, the technology finally illuminates the underground dynamics in species mixes - who’s competing, who’s complementing - insights that were “almost impossible before,” Brinch-Pedersen noted.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-roots-matter-for-the-climate">Roots matter for the climate</h2>



We tend to picture wind turbines and EVs when we think of climate solutions, but roots are a vast, quiet carbon pump. 



As plants photosynthesize, some of the captured carbon flows belowground into roots and the surrounding soil. Depending on the crop, soil type, and management, a fraction of that carbon can persist for decades or even centuries.



Farmers and policymakers talk about “soil carbon sequestration,” but without precise measurement tools it’s been hard to document gains in ways that stand up to scrutiny. A rapid, species-resolved root assay changes that equation.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dna-test-in-soil">DNA test in soil</h2>



In practice, researchers collect small soil cores, extract DNA, and run ddPCR with species-specific probes keyed to the ITS2 barcode. The number of positive droplets scales with <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/deep-rooted-crops-can-significantly-improve-soil-carbon-storage/">root biomass</a> for that species in that sample. 



Because the test targets DNA directly in soil, it captures fine roots and root fragments as well as thicker roots that are tough to wash and weigh.



There are, however, limits. Close relatives can be tricky to tell apart when their barcodes are nearly identical - ryegrass and Italian ryegrass hybrids, for instance, can blur the signal. 



And the method recognizes only what it’s trained to find. Researchers must validate a probe for each species, so expanding the “DNA library” is both the hurdle and the goal.



“For us, the most important thing is that we have shown it can be done,” Brinch-Pedersen said. “Our vision is to expand the library so we can measure many more species directly in soil samples.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rapid-answers-from-soil">Rapid answers from soil</h2>



Speed is the other advantage. Traditional root studies hinge on days to weeks of field and lab work per site. The ddPCR method turns around results in hours, making it practical to scale from a few experimental plots to entire farms, seasons, and regions.



That opens the door to experiments that were previously unrealistic. Researchers can compare cover crops for their belowground carbon contributions across soil types. 



They can track how drought shifts root allocation among species in a pasture. They can also screen hundreds of breeding lines for deeper, denser root systems.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-plants-that-work-smarter">Plants that work smarter</h2>



Brinch-Pedersen sees a straight line from measurement to design. If breeders can quantify underground investment as easily as they count kernels or measure protein, they can begin to select for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/tree-crops-a-path-to-feeding-the-world-and-saving-the-planet/">crops</a> that are not only high-yielding but also high-sequestering. These are plants that do more of the climate work for us.



The same logic applies to mixtures. With species-level root data, agronomists can compose plant communities that pack more carbon belowground while maintaining forage or grain output above.



The bigger picture is simple: half a plant lives out of sight, and that half shapes soil health, farm resilience, and the climate. With a “DNA test for dirt,” researchers can finally watch that hidden half at work - no shovels required.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://academic.oup.com/plphys/article/198/3/kiaf276/8173641?login=false" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Plant Physiology</a>.



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Digging into plant roots with DNA - no shovels required

We stroll past wheat, clover, and grass and see only...

When plants face a drought, they stop growing. That part isn’t surprising - no water means no business as usual. But what happens when the rain finally returns? You might expect plants to bounce back and grow rapidly to make up for lost time. That’s not what actually happens.



Instead, new research shows plants go into defense mode. Their priority isn’t growing - it’s fighting off threats.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-plants-hit-pause-to-survive">Plants hit pause to survive </h2>



A tiny plant known as Arabidopsis thaliana helped scientists understand this. Researchers have long experimented with this plant in labs because it is easy to cultivate and has a simple genetic makeup. It also shares many genes with common crops such as <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/gene-edited-wheat-turns-soil-microbes-into-fertilizer/">wheat</a>, rice, and tomatoes.



When water is scarce, Arabidopsis closes its pores, slows down its activity, and conserves resources.



When water returns, those pores reopen, allowing the plant to rehydrate quickly. But this also welcomes disease-spreading bacteria, fungi, and viruses. Rather than going straight into growth, the plant prepares to protect itself..



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-genes-tracked-cell-by-cell">Genes tracked cell by cell</h2>



Scientists at the <a href="https://www.salk.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Salk Institute</a> used cutting-edge technology to monitor what happens inside the plant immediately after rehydration.



They focused on how gene activity varies from cell to cell, not just across the whole plant. This kind of research once required grinding up plant tissue and averaging the data, which concealed many details.



Using single-cell and spatial transcriptomics, the team zoomed in on individual cells to see how they responded the moment water returned.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-plants-activate-hidden-defenses">Plants activate hidden defenses</h2>



Just 15 minutes after watering the dried-out plants, something big happened. Genes across the leaves started turning on - thousands of them. 



This sudden burst of gene activity wasn’t random. It formed a clear pattern of immune defense. The team calls this “Drought Recovery-Induced Immunity” (DRII).



This rapid and targeted immune response is triggered as soon as rehydration occurs, helping the plant fight off infections while it is still vulnerable. 



“What’s really incredible here,” said Natanella Illouz-Eliaz, first author of the study, “is we would have entirely missed this discovery had we not decided to capture data at these early time points.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-crops-share-drought-defenses">Crops share drought defenses</h2>



After spotting DRII in Arabidopsis, the team checked if it happened in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-find-a-surprising-case-of-reverse-evolution-in-wild-tomatoes/">tomatoes</a> too - both wild and farmed. It did. Both types activated the same kind of immune response after drought.



That means DRII probably isn’t just a lab-only thing. It could be common in many crops, especially ones closely related to tomatoes or Arabidopsis. And if that’s true, understanding how DRII works might help us grow tougher crops in the future.



“Drought poses a major challenge for plants, but what is less understood is how they recover once water returns,” said senior author Joseph Ecker. “We found that, rather than accelerating growth to compensate for lost time, Arabidopsis rapidly activates a coordinated immune response.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-unanswered-genetic-puzzles">Unanswered genetic puzzles</h2>



The speed of the immune response was striking. Within minutes of rehydration, leaves were already activating defense genes. 



That raises some big questions for scientists. How does a signal from the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plant-roots-could-be-key-to-fighting-climate-change/">roots</a> reach the leaves so quickly? What is the signal?



Experts also want to figure out how DRII might be used in real-world farming. Can <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/tree-crops-a-path-to-feeding-the-world-and-saving-the-planet/">crops</a> be bred or engineered to trigger this response more effectively? Could that protect yields during unpredictable weather?



“Our results reveal that drought recovery is not a passive process but a highly dynamic reprogramming of the plant’s immune system,” Ecker said. 



“By defining the early genetic events that occur within minutes of rehydration, we can begin to uncover the molecular signals that coordinate stress recovery and explore how these mechanisms might be harnessed to improve crop resilience.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-stronger-plants-for-dry-times">Stronger plants for dry times</h2>



Droughts are becoming more frequent and more extreme in many parts of the world. Crops that can bounce back strong - and defend themselves when they do - could make a real difference in keeping food supplies steady.



This discovery shows that the moment after water returns may be just as important as the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/droughts-and-extreme-weather-events-are-escalating/">drought</a> itself. 



The research also demonstrates that plants don’t passively wait to grow again - they make a quick and strategic move to survive. And that’s something we are only beginning to understand.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-025-63467-2" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Communications</a>.



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Plants trade growth for survival after drought

When plants face a drought, they stop growing. That part...

From space, Earth looks lusher than it did a generation ago. Satellite records show that leaf area has expanded across most of the planet since the early 1980s - a phenomenon popularly called “global greening.” 



It sounds like unambiguously good news: more foliage to soak up carbon, more habitat, more shade. But a new analysis throws a bucket of cold water on such an optimistic view.



In many places, greener landscapes have gone hand in hand with <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/40-percent-of-earths-land-has-became-permanently-drier/">drier soils</a>, especially where water is already scarce. The paradox is simple: plants that flourish also tend to drink more.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-four-decades-of-data">Four decades of data</h2>



The research team stitched together four decades of evidence - multiple satellite records of vegetation, modern climate datasets, and simulations from a dozen Earth system models.



They used these to tease out cause and effect between <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-finally-learn-what-makes-plants-roots-grow-faster-and-stronger-autophagy/">plant growth</a> and soil moisture.



Looking from 1982 through the end of this century, they asked a straightforward question with big consequences: what usually happens to the water held in the ground when vegetation ramps up?



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-greener-landscapes-more-water">Greener landscapes, more water</h2>



Their answer is sobering. About two-thirds of the world’s vegetated land has greened since the early 1980s, but nearly half of those greener areas have also dried out below the surface.



That “greening–drying” pattern shows up most clearly in Central Africa, Central Asia, eastern Australia, and swaths of mid- to high-latitude Europe - places where rainfall is fickle and heatwaves are becoming more punishing.



There are brighter spots. Parts of North America, the Indian Peninsula, and the southern Sahel buck the trend, showing “greening–wetting,” where extra leaves coexist with moister soils. But the overarching story is that more vegetation often means a thirstier landscape.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lush-growth-dries-the-land">Lush growth dries the land</h2>



Why would that be? Plants are living pumps. To photosynthesize, they open microscopic pores on their leaves to draw in carbon dioxide. 



Water escapes through those same pores, a process called transpiration. Add more leaves or extend the growing season and you boost the total draw on the local water budget.



In wet climates with regular recharge, the added demand can be balanced by <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rainfall-is-increasingly-unpredictable-due-to-climate-change/">rainfall</a> and snowmelt. In drylands, or in places where warm-season rains have weakened, the balance tips the other way. Soil moisture is the first line of credit, and it gets depleted.



Rising CO2, land management, and warming have boosted global leaf area, lengthening growing seasons and adding vegetation worldwide. Trees can shade and save soil moisture, but in water-limited regions, added transpiration often outweighs those benefits.



The atmosphere’s rising “thirst” under warming - meteorologists call it higher vapor pressure deficit - adds yet another straw to the same glass. When the air can hold more moisture, it pulls harder on leaves and soils alike.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-losing-earth-s-natural-water-buffer">Losing Earth’s natural water buffer</h2>



The consequences ripple well beyond a wilting lawn. <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-soil-moisture-can-predict-severe-storms/">Soil moisture</a> is the quiet buffer that keeps crops from failing between rains, feeds streams weeks after a storm, and tamps down wildfire risk.



As that buffer shrinks, irrigation demand rises, late-season flows dwindle, and heat extremes become more dangerous because dry soils can no longer shed heat through evaporation.



Ecologically, greener-but-drier can rearrange communities. Woody encroachment in savannas may squeeze out grasses that grazers need. In northern forests, faster spring growth may be offset by late-summer stress that leaves trees susceptible to pests and fire.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-climate-fix-with-tradeoffs">A climate fix with tradeoffs</h2>



It’s tempting to read <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/2020-was-earths-greenest-year-in-two-decades/">greening</a> as a climate solution in its own right. And in many contexts - protecting existing forests, restoring wetlands, planting the right trees in the right places - nature is absolutely part of the answer.



What this study adds is nuance: greening is not automatically good for water. In cities, for example, more urban canopy cools streets and cleans the air, but it also increases transpiration. If the species mix is ill-suited to local rainfall, or irrigation relies on potable water, the fix can create its own strain.



On farms, hedgerows and windbreaks can improve microclimates and reduce evaporation from bare soil. Yet high-water-use species planted at large scale in arid basins may cut into already stretched rivers.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-feedbacks-between-plants-and-water">Future feedbacks between plants and water</h2>



The authors didn’t stop at the past. Using the same blend of observations and models, they projected how vegetation–water feedbacks may evolve through 2100.



In many regions, especially under hotter scenarios, soils become more sensitive to changes in plant activity: a given boost in leafiness more readily drains the root zone. 



Where precipitation is expected to increase substantially, that added income can balance the books. Where it isn’t, the greening–drying paradox tightens its grip.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-smarter-restoration-strategies">Smarter restoration strategies </h2>



None of this argues against restoration or <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/planting-too-many-trees-could-spoil-the-planet/">tree planting</a>. It argues for smarter versions of both. A watershed that mixes deep-rooted native species, patches of shade, and open ground can deliver carbon storage, flood mitigation, and cooling without overtaxing local supplies.



Riparian buffers that slow runoff and recharge aquifers do double duty for water and biodiversity. In drylands, species choice matters. Drought-tolerant shrubs and trees with efficient water use can stabilize soils and provide habitat without guzzling what little is available.



Even in humid regions, paying attention to late-summer soil moisture - not just annual rainfall - helps avoid surprises.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-global-greening-and-water-security">Global greening and water security </h2>



There’s also a policy undercurrent here. Nature-based solutions are rightly gaining traction in climate plans, but their success will be measured on the ground, not from orbit. 



Accounting for water alongside carbon - evaluating how projects alter soil moisture, streamflow, and downwind climate - should be standard practice.



That means monitoring, course-correcting when plantings are too dense or too thirsty, and designing projects at the scale where water actually moves: the watershed.



The picture from space remains compelling: a greener Earth than our parents knew. The view from the ground is more complicated. Leaves are only half the story. Water is the other half, and in a warming world it’s the half we can least afford to ignore.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s43247-025-02470-3" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Communications Earth &amp; Environment</a>.



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How global greening could drain Earth’s water supply

From space, Earth looks lusher than it did a generation...

People,Group,Toasting,Latte,At,Coffee,Bar,Rooftop,-,Friends

Coffee is part of the morning routines for millions of people. But does drinking more coffee align with having more muscle? That’s the question behind a new analysis of Americans’ habits and body composition. 



This research doesn’t try to prove cause and effect. It asks whether higher coffee or caffeine intake corresponds to more limb muscle for a given body size.



The answer points in a positive direction for most adults, with an important exception. The details matter, because the way researchers measured muscle and tallied <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/coffee-may-help-you-live-longer-if-you-drink-it-this-way/">coffee intake</a> shapes how to read the results.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-limb-muscle-matters">Why limb muscle matters</h2>



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/studies-learn-the-exact-amount-of-time-you-should-spend-training-to-build-muscle/">Muscle mass</a> isn’t just about strength. Lower muscle mass in arms and legs raises the risk of falls, fractures, and everyday struggles that chip away at independence. 



Scientists often track limb muscle adjusted for body size because it flags early losses that can sneak up with age.



A standard yardstick for that job is the appendicular skeletal muscle mass-to-BMI ratio, abbreviated as <a href="https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10401528/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ASMBMI</a>. In plain terms: “How much limb muscle do you have for your body size?” 



This measurement focuses on muscle quantity, not how quickly you rise from a chair or how steady you feel on stairs.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-studying-coffee-s-link-to-muscles">Studying coffee's link to muscles</h2>



Researchers pulled data from a large, ongoing U.S. health survey (<a href="https://www.cdc.gov/nchs/nhanes/index.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NHANES</a>) spanning 2011-2018. 



They started with adults, applied clear rules such as “only include people with full diet interviews and body scans,” and finished with 8,333 participants. Muscle was measured by DXA scans of the arms and legs and then expressed as ASMBMI.



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/coffee-helps-bacteria-resist-antibiotics-in-your-gut/">Coffee intake</a> came from two 24-hour dietary recalls - structured interviews covering everything people ate and drank on two different days. The team looked at regular coffee, decaf coffee, and total caffeine from all sources. 



Their statistical models adjusted for age, sex, race, education, income, smoking, alcohol, physical activity, BMI, medical conditions, total calories, and protein, so they could compare people who were similar on many fronts except for coffee intake.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-the-results-say">What the results say</h2>



People who drank more coffee tended to have <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/eating-grapes-every-day-can-transform-your-muscles/">more limb muscle</a> relative to their body size. After full adjustments, the highest coffee group had about a 13% higher ASMBMI than the non-coffee group. 



The highest caffeinated coffee group showed roughly a 12% increase. The top caffeine group showed about an 11% increase. Decaf didn’t show a clear, statistically significant link. 



When researchers drew smoothed trend lines, the pattern appeared approximately linear: more <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/drinking-coffee-may-help-women-stay-sharp-and-strong-as-they-age/">regular coffee</a> or caffeine corresponded to more muscle relative to body size.



There was one major exception. When participants were split by BMI, the positive link disappeared in the group with obesity (BMI ≥ 30). 



In that subset, drinking more coffee was not associated with higher ASMBMI. That doesn’t mean coffee lowers muscle there; it means the helpful pattern seen elsewhere wasn’t present.



A likely reason is biological factors tied to obesity, including chronic, low-grade inflammation that speeds muscle breakdown and may overshadow small benefits from caffeine or other coffee compounds.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-limitations-in-this-research">Limitations in this research</h2>



This was a cross-sectional snapshot. It can spot links, but it can’t prove that coffee changes muscle. People with more muscle may simply be more active or keep schedules where coffee fits better. 



The models adjusted for activity and many other variables, which strengthens confidence, but unmeasured factors can still nudge results.



Diet recalls lean on memory and honesty, and add-ins like sugar or cream can be easy to forget. 



ASMBMI captures muscle quantity, not strength or performance, so it can’t tell you how much weight you can move or how good your balance is during daily activities. 



Results also come from U.S. adults in specific survey years, so patterns could differ in other populations.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-coffee-is-linked-with-muscles">Why coffee is linked with muscles</h2>



Caffeine stimulates the nervous system and modulates how the body uses fuel during activity. Coffee also contains <a href="https://www.chhs.colostate.edu/krnc/monthly-blog/what-are-polyphenols-another-great-reason-to-eat-fruits-and-veggies/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">polyphenols</a> with antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties. 



Lab and animal research suggests these compounds may support healthier muscle by encouraging autophagy - the cell’s cleanup crew for worn-out parts - and by dialing down chronic inflammation over time. 



This analysis didn’t test mechanisms, but these ideas fit with the pattern. Decaf’s “no clear link” signal hints that caffeine may be doing more of the heavy lifting in this dataset.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-did-we-learn-from-this">What did we learn from this?</h2>



In U.S. adults, higher <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mood-boost-how-coffee-makes-us-happier-in-the-morning/">regular coffee</a> and total caffeine intake tracked with more limb muscle relative to body size after accounting for many other factors. However, that association did not appear in participants with obesity. 



If coffee already fits your day, these results sit comfortably with a muscle-friendly routine. Keep portions sensible, mind the extras, and avoid late cups that cut into sleep because <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/irregular-sleep-may-cause-premature-muscle-aging/">poor sleep impairs recovery</a>.



If you’re in the obesity range, the study’s “no clear link” finding suggests coffee isn’t a muscle fix. 



The bigger levers are steady resistance training, enough protein spaced through the day, and better sleep, ideally alongside medical care that addresses weight, strength, and metabolic health together. 



Coffee can still be part of that plan if it agrees with you, but it’s not the star of the show.



It’s a pattern, not proof. Pair your coffee with protein, training, and sleep if your goal is to build or protect muscle.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/nutrition/articles/10.3389/fnut.2024.1390309/full" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Frontiers in Nutrition</a>.



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Drinking this beverage every day protects your muscles as you age

Coffee is part of the morning routines for millions of...

When we talk about plastic pollution, oceans and rivers dominate the conversation. Beaches lined with plastic bottles have become the symbol of this crisis. Farms and city streets also show clear signs of contamination. But forests? Few would imagine plastic reaching there.



Researchers at <a href="https://www.tu-darmstadt.de/index.en.jsp" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">TU Darmstadt</a> have shown otherwise. Their study reveals, for the first time, that forest soils carry large amounts of microplastics. 



The particles arrive mainly through the air, settle on leaves, and later end up in the ground. <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/global-warming-may-trigger-rapid-release-of-soil-carbon/">Forests</a>, once thought of as clean and distant, are absorbing pollution every day.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-microplastics-falling-from-the-sky">Microplastics falling from the sky</h2>



Unlike farmland, forests do not receive fertilizers laced with plastic. They do not sit beside landfills or sewage plants. Yet they still collect microplastics. How? The atmosphere delivers them.



Leaves catch the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/organic-matter-helps-soil-hold-water-even-in-conditions-like-mars/">particles</a> first. Rain and falling foliage move them downward. Forests act like large nets that sweep pollution from the sky.



"The microplastics from the atmosphere initially settle on the leaves of the tree crowns, which scientists refer to as the 'comb-out effect,'" explains lead author Dr. Collin J. Weber. "Then, in deciduous forests, the particles are transported to the forest soil by rain or the autumn leaf fall, for example."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-soil-as-storage">Soil as storage</h2>



Once in the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/soil-is-losing-nitrogen-along-with-its-climate-fighting-power/">soil</a>, the particles do not stay at the surface. Leaf litter slowly breaks down, and with it, plastics sink deeper. 



Insects, fungi, and other organisms speed up this process. The result is long-term storage of plastics in soil horizons that usually contain decomposed organic matter.



The researchers measured concentrations ranging from 120 to more than 13,000 particles per kilogram of soil. Stocks of up to nearly a million particles per square meter were recorded at some sites. Forest soils, it turns out, rival urban soils in plastic load.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-plastics-in-forest-soil">Plastics in forest soil</h2>



The team analyzed the chemical makeup of the particles. Polypropylene, polyethylene, and polyamide dominated the samples. These are common in packaging and textiles. 



The particles were mostly fragments and films, not fibers. Most measured less than 250 micrometers, far smaller than a grain of sand.



The similarity between what fell from the air and what lay in the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/amthropocene-humans-began-causing-global-soil-erosion-much-earlier-than-believed/">soil</a> points to the same source: atmospheric deposition. Other ground-based sources like littering or forestry practices may add some plastic, but their role is minor.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-forests-collect-plastics-for-decades">Forests collect plastics for decades</h2>



The story does not end with today’s measurements. The scientists modeled how long it would take to build up current soil levels. 



The answer points back to the 1950s, when plastic production exploded worldwide. For 70 years, forests have been quietly gathering plastic particles from the air.



Even under conservative scenarios, the amounts found in soil today can be explained by steady deposition over decades. Forest soils, like silent records, tell the history of the plastic age.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-forests-match-city-pollution">Forests match city pollution</h2>



The surprise is not just the presence of plastics but the quantity. Compared to global data, these German forest soils contain as much plastic as urban soils and often more than agricultural, wetland, or coastal soils. The assumption that forests stand apart from <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-type-of-microbes-found-earths-deep-soil-critical-zone/">pollution</a> no longer holds.



Forests cover about a third of Earth’s land surface. If all are acting as sinks, the scale of storage is enormous. This changes how scientists think about the global flow of microplastics.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-forests-as-indicators">Forests as indicators</h2>



"Our results indicate that microplastics in forest soils originate primarily from atmospheric deposition and from leaves falling to the ground, known as litterfall. Other sources, on the other hand, have only a minor influence," said Dr. Weber.



"We conclude that forests are good indicators of atmospheric microplastic pollution and that a high concentration of microplastics in forest soils indicates a high diffuse input - as opposed to direct input such as from fertilizers in agriculture - of particles from the air into these ecosystems."



Forests, in other words, act like monitors. The amount of plastic in their soils reflects what is falling from the sky across regions and continents.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-risks-for-nature-and-people">Risks for nature and people</h2>



What does this mean for ecosystems? Microplastics can change soil structure, affect microbes, and alter nutrient cycles. Over time, this could influence tree growth and forest health. 



The combination of climate stress and plastic pollution could place new pressure on already fragile ecosystems.



"Forests are already threatened by climate change, and our findings suggest that microplastics could now pose an additional threat to forest ecosystems," noted Dr. Weber.



There is also a human angle. The same particles found in forests travel through the air we breathe. What lands on a leaf today may be part of tomorrow’s inhaled dust.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-of-plastic-in-forest-soils">Future of plastic in forest soils</h2>



This study is the first to show, with clear evidence, that forests are major recipients of microplastic pollution from the atmosphere. 



The research raises urgent questions. How do different tree species capture particles? How do seasonal changes affect deposition? And what will decades more of plastic production mean for soils and air?



For now, one conclusion is unavoidable: forests, once considered safe from plastic waste, are firmly part of the story. 



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s43247-025-02712-4" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Communications Earth &amp; Environment</a>.



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Plastic rain: Forests are trapping microplastics from the sky

When we talk about plastic pollution, oceans and rivers dominate...

When we walk across farmland, we see only the parts of plants above ground. Below the surface, roots provide stability, take up water and nutrients, and store carbon in the soil. Yet despite their importance, researchers have had no precise way to measure roots.



“We have always known that roots are important, but we have lacked a precise tool to measure them. It’s a bit like studying marine ecosystems without ever being able to dive beneath the surface of the water,” noted Henrik Brinch-Pedersen from <a href="https://international.au.dk" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Aarhus University</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-old-ways-failed-to-measure-roots">Old ways failed to measure roots</h2>



The usual way meant digging up soil, rinsing roots, drying them, and weighing them. It took hours and destroyed many of the fine roots that matter most. 



Scientists also tried methods like rhizotrons or tracer studies. These helped but often underestimated root <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plant-roots-rewire-themselves-to-fight-drought/">biomass</a>.



Fine roots - the ones that take up nutrients and release carbon - were especially easy to lose. Without them, much of the underground story stayed invisible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dna-reveals-hidden-root-systems">DNA reveals hidden root systems</h2>



Now comes droplet digital PCR, or ddPCR. Instead of tearing apart the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plant-roots-defy-gravity-when-water-is-scarce/">soil</a>, scientists divide a tiny sample into thousands of droplets and test each for DNA. They use a genetic marker called ITS2, which acts like a barcode. 



This doesn’t just show that roots exist in the soil. It shows which species they belong to and how much they contribute.



“It’s a bit like giving the soil a DNA test. We can suddenly see the hidden distribution of species and biomass without digging up the whole field,” said Brinch-Pedersen.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-reliable-root-measurements">Reliable root measurements</h2>



Earlier approaches like qPCR struggled with soil contaminants and inconsistent reactions. The ddPCR method avoids these problems by turning each droplet into a tiny reaction chamber. 



The technology counts DNA molecules directly, using statistics to link those counts to root biomass. The result is a reliable measurement, even in complex soils with multiple plant <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plants-change-their-roots-to-survive-harsh-conditions/">species</a>.



The method also works across a wide range of concentrations. Whether the sample contains lots of roots or very few, ddPCR maintains accuracy. That flexibility makes it suitable for both small experimental plots and large, diverse fields.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dna-method-works-in-mixed-roots">DNA method works in mixed roots</h2>



To test it, researchers mixed soils containing ryegrass, white clover, and yarrow. They found that ddPCR identified each plant and measured its share of the underground biomass.



Hybrids like ryegrass crosses sometimes confused the system, but overall, the accuracy remained high.



Even when species grew together, the method could still tease apart their contributions. That is something old root washing methods could never do with confidence.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-it-matters">Why it matters</h2>



The new digital DNA method has the potential to transform how we study crops. Climate researchers can now calculate how much carbon plants actually store underground.



Breeders can choose crop varieties that send more growth into roots without hurting yields. Ecologists can finally see how plants compete or cooperate beneath the surface.



“We see great potential in using this method to develop varieties that store more carbon in the soil. It could become an important tool in future agriculture,” noted Brinch-Pedersen.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-roots-play-a-role-in-storing-carbon">Roots play a role in storing carbon</h2>



Roots are more than anchors. They could be powerful allies in slowing climate change. Plants pull in carbon dioxide and send some of it underground, where it can stay locked away for decades. But without precise tools, proving this has been difficult. The ddPCR technology gives scientists that missing tool.



Imagine grasslands where certain species funnel extra carbon into deep roots. Or croplands where breeders select varieties with stronger underground storage potential. With the right choices, agriculture could shift from being a major emitter to a carbon sink.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-challenges-still-remain">Challenges still remain</h2>



The method isn’t perfect. Hybrids remain tricky, since their DNA overlaps with parent species. Each plant type needs its own probe, which takes effort to design and test. 



Probe development requires careful validation, because even small genetic changes can throw results off. Still, once a probe library expands, the technology becomes faster and easier to apply.



“For us, the most important thing is that we have shown it can be done. That is the foundation we can build upon. Our vision is to expand the DNA library so that in the future we can measure many more species directly in soil samples,” noted Brinch-Pedersen.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-studying-roots-with-dna-tools">Studying roots with DNA tools</h2>



Droplet digital PCR already works in medicine for spotting rare mutations and pathogens. Applying it to roots is a natural next step. 



Once established, the method is simple, scalable, and powerful. It could help create crops that store more carbon belowground while keeping food production steady.



Beyond crops, the technology could also reshape how we manage ecosystems. Grasslands, forests, and mixed farmlands all depend on <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plant-roots-use-a-chemical-code-to-fight-stress-and-share-resources/">root systems</a> we rarely measure well. Now, we finally have a way to look underground without tearing everything apart.



For the first time, researchers can explore the hidden world beneath our feet - and measure it with confidence.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://academic.oup.com/plphys/article/198/3/kiaf276/8173641" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Plant Physiology</a>.



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Unlocking the hidden half of plants with DNA

When we walk across farmland, we see only the parts...

Ask yourself this: when was the last time you felt truly at peace, not just amused or entertained, but deeply rooted in who you are? A new study suggests that spending more time in nature may play a bigger role in that feeling than we assume.



That deeper layer has a name in psychology - <a href="https://link.springer.com/rwe/10.1007/978-94-007-0753-5_929" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">eudaimonic well-being</a>. It is about purpose, self-acceptance, growth, and relationships. It sticks.



Does nature help with that? The short answer is a resounding "yes." Not only can nature boost your mood for an hour; it can also give you a clearer sense of self that lasts. 



This study examined that question and returned with an answer that feels both refreshing and practical.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-nature-time-and-eudaimonic-well-being">Nature time and eudaimonic well-being</h2>



Researchers invited people in Turku, Finland, to share how the outdoors shows up in their real lives. 



First, 158 residents answered questions about time in nature and how their lives felt in terms of purpose, self-acceptance, growth, relationships, autonomy, and life management. 



Then, 20 people joined creative writing workshops to describe, in their own words, how the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/urban-forest-bathing-fresh-breath-for-teen-mental-health/">natural world shapes them</a>. The team paired numbers with stories to capture both patterns and personal depth.



“We wanted to explore how nature supports people's self-acceptance, purpose of life, positive relationships, autonomy, personal growth and agency, as well as life management," explains Joha Järekari, Doctoral Researcher at the <a href="https://www.utu.fi/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Turku</a>.



"This is called eudaimonic well-being and it can be considered in contrast to <a href="https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/hedonism/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">hedonism</a>: whereas hedonism focuses on short-term pleasures, eudaimonia delves into longer and deeper well-being.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-nature-time-evokes-deep-feelings">Nature time evokes deep feelings</h2>



The study focused on two groups: ages 15 to 24 and adults over 60. Different life stages bring different needs. 



Yet a clear theme showed up in both: <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/virtual-forest-bathing-can-reduce-stress-and-improve-mood/">nature felt nonjudgmental</a>. Trees do not judge. Water does not grade them. That sense of relief made room for honesty.



“Although there were some differences between the different age groups in how they spent time in nature and in what kinds of places, they also had many shared experiences," Järekari noted.



"What both age groups had in common was, among other things, a feeling that nature does not judge or criticize, which had a positive effect on the participants' self-acceptance."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-choices-and-belonging">Choices and belonging</h2>



Participants described two kinds of connection. One was inward. Time outside - on a trail, beside water, in a garden - made it easier to hear their own values and act on them. 



The other was outward. <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/natures-scents-linked-to-improved-health-and-well-being/">Being outdoors</a> helped people feel closer to friends and family, and also widened their sense of community to include birds, trees, and other living things. 



That broader bond pointed toward meaning, not just good moods.



“Spending time and being active in nature brought to the surface what was really important to the participants in their lives," Järekari describes.



"This increased people's agency and autonomy and had a positive impact on personal growth. The participants reported that it was easier to get in touch with oneself, with other people, and with other species."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-factoring-in-age-and-experience">Factoring in age and experience</h2>



Older adults often talked about shared moments with grandchildren and unhurried walks, the kind that leave room for quiet. 



Some mentioned <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/religious-leaders-tried-psilocybin-and-it-changed-their-lives/">moments of spirituality</a>, a quiet awareness of being part of something larger than themselves. 



Younger people leaned on the outdoors for healthy solitude. They could be alone without feeling lonely, or with friends without filling every second with conversation. Different routes, same endpoint: a more authentic self.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-when-worry-creeps-in">When worry creeps in</h2>



The picture was not perfect. Many participants, especially younger ones, felt the weight of environmental damage. 



Worry about climate change often chipped away at that comfort. Shame showed up too, a feeling of being part of the problem just by being human.



“However, this feeling grew stronger when participants noticed the visible effects of the ecological crisis on their surroundings," Järekari continued.



"Many young people also described a sense of shame about being part of the problem, so to speak, by being part of humanity, which challenged their self-acceptance."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-nature-time-goes-deep">Nature time goes deep</h2>



Plenty of research shows that green space can lower stress and help attention bounce back. This work points to something deeper: <a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0329411" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">identity-level effects</a> that unfold over time. 



It suggests that nature is not just a reset button. It is a steady setting where people practice being who they want to be.



“Our research unlocks the impact of nature on people's well-being on a deeper level than stress relief or positive emotions," Järekari emphasizes.



"Connection to nature is important to us on an identity level and often shapes our lives in ways that aren’t immediately obvious, but become clearer over time."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-eudaimonic-well-being-in-society">Eudaimonic well-being in society</h2>



Design choices of public spaces matter. If we judge parks only by how many joggers they attract, we miss a big part of their value. 



People need quiet corners, meandering paths, and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/world-environment-day-the-critical-role-of-nature-in-human-well-being/">benches under trees</a>. Those places support reflection, relationships, and responsibility - features, not extras.



“It is important to encourage a deeper public discussion about the meaning of nature in people’s lives," adds Salla Eilola, Postdoctoral Researcher at the University of Turku. 



"Consequently, these issues could also be taken into account in decision-making and, for example, in <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/sciadv.adn3028" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">urban planning</a>, where nature still often unfortunately has to give way to built environment," 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-small-steps-lasting-benefits">Small steps, lasting benefits</h2>



You do not need a dramatic plan to make this real. Pick a nearby spot and go there on a regular day, not just on the best day. Let your mind settle and see what values bubble up. 



If you spend time with kids or elders, choose slow routes that welcome pauses. Put phones aside. Short, steady moments count.



None of this turns a park into a productivity tool. It simply gives you space to notice what matters and act on it. 



That's the heart of eudaimonic well-being, and nature offers a simple doorway - whether it is a patch of grass, a line of trees, or a stretch of water.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://besjournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/pan3.70104" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">People and Nature</a>.



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Walking through a forest can reshape who you are and bring inner peace, according to science

Ask yourself this: when was the last time you felt...

Species don’t all carve out territory the same way. A sweeping analysis across the tree of life shows that, on average, older lineages occupy larger geographical ranges than younger ones.



The relationship isn’t uniform - <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/marine-mammals-in-the-us-are-highly-vulnerable-to-climate-change/">marine mammals</a> buck the trend, and islands add their own twists - but evolutionary time consistently emerges as a powerful predictor of how far a species spreads.



An international team led by scientists at the German Center for Integrative Biodiversity Research (<a href="https://www.idiv.de/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">iDiv</a>), Leipzig University, and the Naturalis Biodiversity Center compared evolutionary age and present-day range size for more than 26,000 species.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-panoramic-look-across-26-000-species"><a></a>A panoramic look across 26,000 species</h2>



The dataset spanned seven major groups - <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/birds-are-struggling-to-keep-pace-with-a-warming-climate/">birds</a>, reptiles, amphibians, reef fishes, palms, and both terrestrial and marine mammals - providing one of the broadest tests yet of how age shapes distribution.



The headline result is straightforward: older species tend to have larger ranges. That pattern appeared across every group except marine mammals. The logic is intuitive but has not been demonstrated at this scale.



“Older species are expected to have larger distributions because they have had more time, sometimes several millions of years, to expand their ranges since first appearing,” explained first author Adriana Alzate, a scientist at Naturalis.



“Over evolutionary timescales, these species have had more opportunities to reproduce, disperse, colonize, and adapt to diverse environments, allowing them to occupy broader geographical areas.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dispersal-power-changes-the-pace"><a></a>Dispersal power changes the pace</h2>



Time alone doesn’t tell the whole story. How easily a species moves through landscapes - its dispersal ability - can speed or slow the march outward.



Strong fliers such as birds with long, pointed wings, and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fossil-reveals-how-plants-use-winged-seeds-to-expand-their-habitats/">plants</a> whose seeds travel with large, wide-ranging animals, often achieve broad ranges quickly. Poor dispersers, including many amphibians, expand more slowly; for them, age exerts a stronger influence because overcoming barriers takes generations.



The study’s cross-taxa lens makes those contrasts visible. Two species of similar age can differ dramatically in range simply because one can vault barriers while the other cannot. That natural experiment plays out worldwide, from continental interiors to archipelagos.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-islands-rewrite-the-rules"><a></a>Islands rewrite the rules</h2>



Geography sets hard limits, and nowhere is that clearer than on islands. Native species confined to islands necessarily have smaller maximum ranges than their mainland relatives.



The team confirmed that basic constraint, but they also uncovered an unexpected nuance: the gap between young and old species’ ranges is even larger on islands than on continents.



“Island dynamics and ontogeny modulate the relationship between age and range size. Release from predators and competitors may have enabled early island colonizers, typically ecological generalists, to achieve broader ranges than expected based on age only,” said co-author Roberto Rozzi, a scientist at iDIV.



In other words, the first arrivals - often flexible in diet and habitat - can spread widely within the island system, cementing a strong age–range link even under geographic caps.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-range-size-matters-for-survival"><a></a>Why range size matters for survival</h2>



Range size isn’t just a biogeographic curiosity; it’s one of the strongest predictors of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/animal-extinction-risk-is-heavily-influenced-by-climate-change/">extinction risk</a>. Species with narrow distributions usually have smaller total populations and fewer local strongholds. 



They are more vulnerable to droughts, storms, disease outbreaks, invasive species, and human disturbance. With more than 40,000 species currently facing extinction, understanding what governs range size can sharpen conservation priorities.



That’s especially important as climate change scrambles habitats. If older species generally occupy larger, more environmentally diverse ranges, they may carry genetic variation that helps them cope with shifting conditions.



“This is even more important in the context of changing environmental conditions, because not all species may be able to keep up with these changes,” said senior author Renske Onstein, a biologist at iDIV. 



“Possibly, older species have the genetic makeup to more readily adapt and therefore persist in their relatively large ranges. This needs further testing with genetic data, for example, providing exciting possibilities for future research."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-takeaways-for-conservation-strategies">Takeaways for conservation strategies </h2>



The study highlights three practical lessons for managers. First, evolutionary age can be a useful flag when assessing exposure to risk: younger, poor-dispersing species with small ranges may need faster, more targeted intervention.



Second, island biotas demand tailored strategies that account for their tight geographic limits and unique dynamics. 



Third, bolstering connectivity - through corridors and habitat restoration - can partially compensate for weak dispersal, giving species the chance to expand or shift ranges as climates warm.



Crucially, the work also warns against one-size-fits-all assumptions. <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/these-marine-mammals-killer-whales-dolphins-permanently-lost-ability-to-ever-walk-again/">Marine mammals</a>, for instance, didn’t follow the main pattern, likely reflecting the fluidity of ocean habitats and the long-distance movements of many whale and dolphin species. The lesson is to treat age as a powerful factor, not a universal rule.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-clock-a-map-and-a-moving-target">A clock, a map, and a moving target</h2>



Range size emerges from the interplay of time, traits, and terrain. Evolutionary “clock time” creates opportunities; dispersal traits determine how readily species seize them; geography dictates what’s possible. 



By stitching those pieces together across tens of thousands of species, the researchers show that age leaves a durable imprint on where life lives today.



For conservation in a rapidly changing world, that imprint is more than academic. It helps explain why some species are widespread while their close relatives cling to a single valley or reef. 



And it offers a clearer map of where limited resources can do the most good - before small ranges become no ranges at all.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-025-62124-y" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Communications</a>.



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Why older species may be better survivors

Species don’t all carve out territory the same way. A...

Scientists have engineered wheat to nudge soil bacteria into producing plant-ready nitrogen, a shift that could cut fertilizer use, curb pollution, and lower farm costs without sacrificing yields. 



The plants overproduce a natural compound, leak the excess into the soil, and in doing so jumpstart nearby microbes that “fix” nitrogen from the air into forms crops can use.



In this work, a team at the <a href="https://www.ucdavis.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of California, Davis</a>, led by Eduardo Blumwald, used <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/crispr-used-to-remove-extra-chromosomes-in-down-syndrome-and-restore-cell-function/">CRISPR</a> to dial up a wheat metabolite and tested the effect under low-nitrogen conditions.



The study extends earlier proof-of-concept in rice, with efforts underway to translate the approach to other staple cereals.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-synthetic-nitrogen-fuels-global-harvests">Synthetic nitrogen fuels global harvests</h2>



Worldwide, synthetic nitrogen fuels modern harvests but at a steep environmental and economic price. Wheat alone accounts for about 18 percent of global nitrogen fertilizer use. Of the hundreds of millions of tons produced each year, plants capture only 30 to 50 percent.



The remainder washes into rivers and coasts, feeding oxygen-starved <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/excess-nutrients-are-creating-ocean-dead-zones/">dead zones</a>, or escapes as nitrous oxide, a potent greenhouse gas. For smallholder farmers, especially in low-income regions, cost and access make fertilizer a gamble.



“In Africa, people don't use fertilizers because they don’t have money, and farms are small, not larger than six to eight acres,” Blumwald said. “Imagine, you are planting crops that stimulate bacteria in the soil to create the fertilizer that the crops need, naturally. Wow! That’s a big difference!”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-wheat-learns-microbes-nitrogen-trick">Wheat learns microbes’ nitrogen trick</h2>



Nitrogen fixation is carried out by specialized bacteria using an enzyme called nitrogenase, which only functions in low-oxygen conditions. Legumes such as beans and peas solve this by hosting the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plants-have-root-microbiomes-like-humans-do-vital-for-survival-defense/">microbes</a> in root nodules, which are tiny oxygen-poor chambers. 



Cereals like wheat lack nodules, which is why they rely on bagged nitrogen. Rather than trying to give cereals nodules or force microbes to colonize roots - a strategy that has long struggled to stick - the team flipped the problem.



The researchers screened roughly 2,800 plant-made chemicals and found a small set, including flavones, that prompt soil <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/when-bacteria-get-hungry-they-turn-on-each-other/">bacteria</a> to form protective biofilms. Those sticky microbial coats reduce oxygen exposure enough for nitrogenase to work.



“For decades, scientists have been trying to develop cereal crops that produce active root nodules, or trying to colonize cereals with nitrogen-fixing bacteria, without much success. We used a different approach,” Blumwald said.



“We said the location of the nitrogen-fixing bacteria is not important, so long as the fixed nitrogen can reach the plant, and the plant can use it.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-gene-edit-flips-fertilizer-switch">Gene edit flips fertilizer switch</h2>



Using CRISPR, the researchers boosted wheat’s production of apigenin, a common flavone. Plants kept what they needed and exuded the surplus through their roots.



In soil tests, the extra apigenin encouraged local bacteria to spin up biofilms, protecting nitrogenase, fixing nitrogen, and making ammonium available for the crop. In low-fertility conditions, edited wheat assimilated the microbially supplied nitrogen and outyielded control plants.



The amazing thing lies in what the plant does automatically. It manufactures the signal, leaks it when nitrogen is scarce, and benefits from the neighborhood effect. No external inoculants are required, and the microbes remain free-living in the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-type-of-microbes-found-earths-deep-soil-critical-zone/">soil</a> rather than locked inside a root.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-pollution-down-resilience-up"><a></a>Pollution down, resilience up</h2>



If scaled, the approach could trim the fertilizer footprint that drives water pollution and climate forcing in wheat and other crops. Less soluble nitrogen applied to fields means less runoff during storms, smaller algal blooms, and fewer oxygen crashes in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-shock-lakes-are-losing-oxygen-faster-than-expected/">lakes</a> and coastal zones. 



Cutting back on industrial nitrogen also reduces upstream emissions from natural-gas-intensive fertilizer production.



Because the mechanism amplifies microbial activity already present in many soils, it may also help stabilize yields under input constraints. In places where fertilizer is scarce or prohibitively expensive, the crop’s own chemistry becomes a lever to unlock atmospheric nitrogen.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-billions-saved-with-less-fertilizer">Billions saved with less fertilizer</h2>



The United States alone saw nearly $36 billion in fertilizer spending in 2023. Cereals cover close to 500 million acres nationally. Even modest reductions in inputs translate into real money while lowering risk in volatile markets.



“Imagine, if you could save 10 percent of the amount of fertilizer being used on that land,” Blumwald said. “I’m calculating conservatively: That should be a savings of more than a billion dollars every year.”



Those savings would not come solely from buying less nitrogen. Fewer passes to apply fertilizer mean lower fuel use and less soil compaction. Reduced losses to waterways could also ease regulatory pressure and improve community relations in vulnerable watersheds.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-proving-stability-across-soil-types">Proving stability across soil types</h2>



The road from greenhouse pots to farm fields is long, but the milestones are clear. Researchers will need to confirm that the nitrogen boost holds under diverse soils, climates, and microbiomes, and that it plays nicely with existing rotations and management. 



They will need to show stable performance across seasons and varieties, measure effects on soil ecology, and ensure that yields and grain quality are maintained.



Because the edit increases a native metabolite rather than introducing a foreign gene, regulatory pathways may be more straightforward in some jurisdictions. Still, farmers and policymakers will want transparent data on environmental outcomes, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-solar-power-can-transform-urine-into-fertilizer/">fertilizer</a> savings, and return on investment.



If the results scale, gene-edited cereals like wheat that recruit their own microbial fertilizer factories could become a practical tool in the nitrogen toolbox - cutting costs where budgets are tight, trimming pollution where waters run foul, and building resilience in the breadbaskets of a warming world.



The study is published in the <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/pbi.70289" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Plant Biotechnology Journal</a>.



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Gene-edited wheat turns soil microbes into fertilizer

Scientists have engineered wheat to nudge soil bacteria into producing...

Farming spread across prehistoric Europe mostly because farming communities moved, not because local hunter-gatherers copied their ways. Cultural adoption played only a minimal role in the Neolithic transition, the period when agriculture took hold. 



A team of researchers at <a href="https://www.psu.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Penn State</a> combined ancient DNA, archaeology, and computer simulations to separate the effects of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ancient-dna-reveals-human-migration-patterns-in-first-millennium-ad/">migration</a> from the uptake of new practices. 



The team modeled population movements, growth, and learning, then tested those models against genetic ancestry from hundreds of Neolithic individuals and against the known pace of farming’s advance from the Middle East into Europe.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-two-sciences-unlock-farming-s-spread">Two sciences unlock farming’s spread</h2>



Christian Huber, an assistant professor of biology at Penn State and senior author on the paper, noted that archaeology and genetics offer complementary windows into this transition.



“Artifacts and isotopes in ancient bones can reveal whether a person relied on domesticated plants or animals, reflecting the adoption of new farming practices," said Huber. 



“At the same time, DNA preserved in those bones can show where people’s ancestors came from, providing evidence of migration, or the movement of farming populations into new regions.”



Archaeological traces show when <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/domesticating-wild-plants-may-result-in-more-resilient-crops/">domesticated crops</a> and animals appeared. Genomes preserve who arrived with them. 



By fusing those records within a single statistical framework, the team could estimate how much of farming’s spread came from people on the move and how much from ideas crossing cultural lines.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-migration-versus-culture-finally-measured">Migration versus culture finally measured</h2>



“This has been a long-standing question - and disentangling the roles of migration and cultural adoption has been a goal of archaeologists and anthropologists for decades,” said study lead author Troy LaPolice, a doctoral student at Penn State.



“What we found was surprising: when cultures spread through migration, it is not guaranteed local ancestry patterns will change, but the spread of farming managed to leave a strong and lasting impact on European ancestry.”



The researchers simulated the front of farming as it rolled out from the Fertile Crescent roughly 10,000 years ago, reaching into the Balkans, then north and west across the continent. They fit those simulations to radiocarbon timelines and to ancestry profiles from 618 ancient individuals.



The results allowed them to assign weight to two forces - movement of farming groups and adoption by foragers - and to test which combination best reproduced the record.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-farmers-moved-ideas-spread-slowly">Farmers moved, ideas spread slowly</h2>



The answer was clear. Migration dominated. Cultural transmission, the flow of practices without the movement of people, barely nudged the pace. 



The team’s estimates put the “cultural effect” at about half a percent. <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/stone-age-hunter-gatherers-had-a-very-organized-domestic-life/">Hunter-gatherers</a> in most places continued to forage even as farmsteads appeared nearby and, over generations, replaced their way of life.



“The assimilation rate, the rate at which hunter-gatherers were grafted into farming communities, was actually very low&nbsp; -&nbsp; only about one in 1,000 farmers converted a hunter-gatherer to farming each year,” Huber said.



“As a result, cultural transmission had almost no effect on how quickly farming spread. Still, even at this low rate, it left a lasting mark on the DNA of Europeans today and introduced useful genetic traits into the growing farming communities.”



That small but steady flow mattered biologically, even if it mattered little to the speed of the transition. 



Genes from local foragers entered the expanding farming populations. Some of those variants likely helped the newcomers adapt to new environments as they moved north into different climates and daylight regimes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-farming-and-foragers-rarely-mixed">Farming and foragers rarely mixed</h2>



The models also point to strong social boundaries. According to the team’s analysis, farmers overwhelmingly mated with farmers, and foragers with foragers. “Between-group” pairings were rare, on the order of less than three percent.



That pattern aligns with other ancient DNA studies showing persistent genetic differences between neighboring groups that shared landscapes for centuries.



Those findings help explain why the genetic imprint of the first farmers is so pervasive in Europe today. Once agricultural communities established themselves, their numbers grew more quickly than those of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/birth-of-farming-driven-by-humans/">foragers</a>. 



Even with little intermarriage or conversion, demographic momentum carried their ancestry far.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dna-helps-rewrite-early-history">DNA helps rewrite early history</h2>



“It's really interesting to be able to understand a time period before any written or oral history,” LaPolice said. “This intense interdisciplinary project allowed us to undertake a new kind of historical reconstruction.”



The approach tested not just a story but a set of mechanisms. It allowed the team to ask what combinations of movement, growth, and learning could produce the archaeological and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ancient-dna-reveals-human-migration-patterns-in-first-millennium-ad/">genetic patterns</a> we see. 



It also let them probe how sensitive their conclusions were to assumptions about mating, mobility, and population size.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-method-offers-tools-for-archaeology">Method offers tools for archaeology</h2>



The study adds to a growing body of work showing how ancient genomes can clarify human prehistory when paired with robust models.



It also echoes the team’s recent methodological papers assessing common ancestry tools - useful when applied carefully, but misleading when pushed beyond their limits.



“This research highlights the power of combining genetic data with archaeological models to uncover the complex behavioral mechanisms of our past,” Williams said. “Looking forward, I see this paving the way for a reevaluation of other major prehistoric cultural shifts.”



From metalworking to herding, from language dispersals to the rise of cities, many transformations reshaped ancient lives. The Penn State team’s framework offers a way to test whether those farming changes spread through people, ideas, or - most often - some blend of both.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-025-63172-0" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Communications</a>.



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Ancient DNA shows what really spread the farming revolution

Farming spread across prehistoric Europe mostly because farming communities moved,...

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