The sight of a whale shark, the largest fish alive today, leaves most people humbled. Its slow, graceful movements and gentle nature often make them symbols of the ocean’s mystery. Yet behind this serene image lies a struggle for survival.



Populations have fallen sharply, and their biology makes recovery slow. The findings of a new study from Indonesian waters not only reveal the scale of human impacts but also highlight why protecting whale sharks is vital for ocean health.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-whale-shark-decline-accelerates">Whale shark decline accelerates</h2>



Over the last 75 years, global whale shark numbers have dropped by more than half. In the Indo-Pacific, declines are even steeper. 



Hunting, habitat disruption, and entanglements push whale sharks closer to extinction. Because they take up to 30 years to mature, populations rebound very slowly. 



Large-bodied species like whale sharks face unique risks in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/silent-invasion-how-microplastics-are-disrupting-land-ecosystems/">ecosystems</a> since they grow slowly, reproduce late, and invest heavily in fewer offspring. 



The researchers noted that the disappearance of such giants can ripple through marine systems.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-injuries-trace-back-to-people">Injuries trace back to people</h2>



In the Bird’s Head Seascape of West Papua, the research team found 62 percent of whale sharks bore scars or wounds, mostly from human actions.



“We found that scars and injuries were mainly from anthropogenic causes, such as collisions with ‘bagans’ - traditional fishing platforms with lift nets - and whale shark-watching tour boats,” said Dr. Edy Setyawan of the <a href="https://www.elasmobranchinstitute.id" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Elasmobranch Institute Indonesia</a>.



“Relatively harmless minor abrasions were the most common. Serious injuries from natural causes such as predator attacks, or from boat propellers were much less common."



Patterns in ecology show that when human activities concentrate near feeding or breeding grounds, injury rates increase significantly. 



According to the study, direct human pressures such as vessel strikes and fishing gear interactions remain among the greatest global threats to megafauna. Whale sharks are no exception.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-following-the-gentle-giants">Following the gentle giants</h2>



Between 2010 and 2023, the scientists tracked whale sharks across Cenderawasih Bay, Kaimana, Raja Ampat, and Fakfak. This biodiversity hotspot hosts 26 marine protected areas. Using the distinctive spot patterns of each shark, the researchers identified 268 individuals.



Nearly all sightings occurred near bagans, where whale sharks fed on <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ocean-warming-threatens-the-global-fish-supply/">baitfish</a> like anchovies and sprats. Most were juvenile males, four to five meters long. More than half were resighted, including one young male recorded 34 times over three years.



From an ecological lens, these observations support a classic theory: young individuals often use coastal waters rich in food, while adults migrate offshore into deeper, less accessible habitats.



Such ontogenetic shifts are common across marine megafauna and are essential for population survival.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-injuries-reshape-populations">Injuries reshape populations</h2>



Of 206 sharks with scars, over 80 percent carried human-caused injuries. Serious wounds, including lacerations and blunt trauma, were rare but concerning. More often, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/whale-sharks-move-into-dangerous-territory-as-the-climate-warms/">sharks</a> bore superficial abrasions from rubbing against fishing gear and boats.



Studies across marine ecology emphasize that while minor wounds may not kill, cumulative injuries reduce overall fitness.



Injured animals often change behavior, avoid key feeding zones, or expend more energy healing. Over time, this shapes population dynamics.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-female-whale-sharks-live-in-deep-seas">Female whale sharks live in deep seas</h2>



A lingering question is the absence of females and older individuals, since previous studies show that adult whale sharks - especially females - prefer the deep ocean where they feed on prey like krill and schooling fish.



By contrast, younger males remain near shore in shallow, plankton-rich waters that help them grow quickly.



“Our own satellite tracking data also show that females and adults frequently use deep sea features such as canyons and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seamounts-are-gathering-hubs-for-ocean-predators/">seamounts</a>,” said study co-author Mochamad Iqbal Herwata Putra.



Ecological theory explains this pattern: sexual segregation often arises in large marine vertebrates, with males and females exploiting different ecological niches to reduce competition and improve survival chances. This strategy is a driver of population resilience across species.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tourism-brings-dangers-to-whale-sharks">Tourism brings dangers to whale sharks</h2>



Staying near coasts, whale sharks offer strong potential for ecotourism. 



“Whale sharks in Cenderawasih Bay and Triton Bay (Kaimana) had high rates of residency and resighting, indicating that they should be viewed as valuable tourism assets for local communities and governments,” said Dr. Mark Erdmann of Rewild.



However, unmanaged <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/animals-change-their-daily-schedules-when-tourists-are-watching/">wildlife tourism</a> can create a risky cycle: attraction leads to proximity, which heightens disturbance and injury risk.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-small-changes-big-impact">Small changes, big impact</h2>



The researchers recommend small but effective changes, such as modifying fishing platforms to remove sharp edges.



“We aim to work with the management authorities of the marine protected areas to develop regulations to require slight modifications to the bagans, including the removal of any sharp edges from boat outriggers and net frames," said Erdmann. "We believe those changes will greatly reduce scarring of whale sharks in the region."



Ecological models highlight that even minor adjustments in human practices can dramatically reduce stress on threatened populations. 



Protecting whale sharks is more than conserving one species. It safeguards a keystone component of marine food webs, maintains ecosystem balance, and secures benefits for communities who depend on healthy seas.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/marine-science/articles/10.3389/fmars.2025.1607027/full" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Frontiers in Marine Science</a>.



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Whale sharks are literally scarred by human activity

The sight of a whale shark, the largest fish alive today, leaves most people humbled. Its slow, graceful movements and gentle nature often make them symbols of the ocean’s mystery. Yet behind this serene image lies a struggle for survival. Populations have fallen sharply, and their biology makes recovery slow. The findings of a new study from Indonesian waters not only reveal the scale of human impacts but also highlight why protecting whale sharks is vital for ocean health. Whale shark decline accelerates Over the last 75...

A previously unknown Jurassic sea reptile has been uncovered from Germany's renowned Posidonia Shale fossil beds. The discovery sheds new light on the oceans around about 183 million years ago.



Scientists at the <a href="https://namu-ev.de/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Naturkunde‑Museum Bielefeld</a>, working with colleagues from the Polish Academy of Sciences, examined a nearly complete skeleton that has preserved traces of soft tissue.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-sea-creature-with-distinctive-features">Sea creature with distinctive features</h2>



While unearthed back in 1978 from Holzmaden quarry, the distinctive aspects of the fossil have been overlooked.



“This specimen has been in collections for decades, but previous studies never fully explored its distinctive anatomy,” said Sven Sachs, lead author of the study. 



“Our detailed examination revealed an unusual combination of skeletal features that clearly distinguish it from all previously known plesiosaurs.”



The species has been named Plesionectes longicollum, which translates to long‑necked near‑swimmer." The creature represents a new species within the plesiosauroid group - a lineage of long‑necked marine reptiles that sailed Earth’s seas during the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mammal-social-behavior-dates-back-to-the-age-of-dinosaurs/">age of dinosaurs</a>.



Despite representing an immature individual, the fossils’ anatomical traits were pronounced enough to confirm a new genus and species.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-are-plesiosaurs">What are plesiosaurs?</h2>



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plesiosaur-fossils-are-the-first-evidence-of-jurassic-vertebrates-in-texas/">Plesiosaurs</a> were marine reptiles that lived during the time of the dinosaurs. They first appeared in the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-did-not-impact-dinosaur-abundance-in-the-triassic/">Late Triassic</a> and became especially common in the Jurassic period. These animals lived in oceans all over the world and could grow to impressive sizes.



There are two major body types among plesiosaurs. Some had small heads, long necks, and wide bodies with four flippers - like the newly identified Plesionectes longicollum. 



Others had shorter necks, larger heads, and strong jaws built for powerful bites. Both types were excellent swimmers, using their flippers to glide through water in a motion similar to underwater flying.



They likely fed on fish, squid, and other small marine creatures. Their fossils have been found on every continent, which shows how widespread they were. 



Despite their success, plesiosaurs eventually went extinct at the end of the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/discovery-of-a-cretaceous-ostrich-mexidracon-longimanus-with-extremely-long-arms/">Cretaceous</a> period - around the same time as the dinosaurs.



This makes every new discovery, like Plesionectes longicollum, important for understanding how these animals lived, evolved, and fit into ancient ocean ecosystems.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-insights-from-the-jurassic-reptile">Insights from the Jurassic reptile</h2>



This reptile is now the oldest known plesiosaur from the Holzmaden region. The study shows that the Posidonia Shale holds even more diversity than scientists realized. 



Although other plesiosaurs have been found in the same formation - five in total from all three major plesiosaur lineages - this new specimen reveals yet another branch on the family tree of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/jurassic-dinosaurs-had-specialized-diets-to-coexist-peacefully/">Jurassic</a> marine life.



“This discovery adds another piece to the puzzle of marine ecosystem evolution during a critical time in Earth's history,” explained Dr. Daniel Madzia of the Polish Academy of Sciences. 



“The early <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/global-warming-mass-extinctions/">Toarcian</a> period when this animal lived was marked by significant environmental changes, including a major oceanic anoxic event that affected marine life worldwide.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-fossils-like-this-still-matter">Why fossils like this still matter</h2>



Uncovering a new species is always exciting - but what makes the Plesionectes longicollum fossil even more remarkable is how it reminds us that science is always evolving.



Museum collections everywhere contain thousands of specimens that were tagged, shelved, and perhaps forgotten for years. As instrumentation improves and new questions are asked, these old discoveries can gain new significance.



Re-examining fossils with modern techniques allows scientists to spot differences that might have been missed before. 



In this case, those differences were enough to rewrite part of the plesiosaur family tree. The research shows how much we still have to learn - not just from new digs, but from existing collections.



Fossils like this one offer more than a glimpse into extinct species - they provide insight into how life adapted to past climate shifts, ocean changes, and extinction events. Ultimately, they help scientists better anticipate how modern ecosystems might respond to the environmental challenges we face today.



The Plesionectes longicollum fossil - catalogued as specimen SMNS 51945 - is on permanent display at the Staatliches Museum für Naturkunde Stuttgart (Stuttgart State Museum of Natural History).



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://peerj.com/articles/19665/">PeerJ</a>.



Image Credit: Peter Nickolaus



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Jurassic fossil reveals a long-necked sea monster

A previously unknown Jurassic sea reptile has been uncovered from...

Why did our earliest ancestors begin walking upright? For decades, the textbook answer pointed to shrinking trees and widening grasslands. 



As East Africa dried out, the story went, apes were forced onto open ground, and two-legged strides proved more efficient than knuckle-walking over the hot savanna.



Yet fossil ankles and finger bones tell a more complicated tale. Some of the first hominins able to stand tall - species such as Ardipithecus and Australopithecus - still carried shoulders, curved fingers, and flexible feet ideal for climbing. If the trees were gone, why keep the tree gear?



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-human-ancestors-in-patchy-forests">Human ancestors in patchy forests</h2>



A recent field study of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/what-wild-chimpanzees-can-teach-us-about-parenting/">chimpanzees</a> in western Tanzania offers a fresh piece of the puzzle.



Working in the remote Issa Valley, a team led by Rhianna Drummond-Clarke from the <a href="https://www.eva.mpg.de/index/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology</a> followed a community of wild chimps.



These chimpanzees live in a habitat that is strikingly similar to the patchy woodland thought to be inhabited by early hominins six to eight million years ago.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-feeding-keeps-chimps-in-trees">Feeding keeps chimps in trees</h2>



The results show that even when the landscape looks open and the next trunk stands many feet away, large apes still spend huge chunks of their day aloft. They balance, hang, and sometimes stand bipedally on branches to reach fruit, leaves, and seeds.



“For decades it was assumed that bipedalism arose because we came down from the trees and needed to walk across an open savanna,” Drummond-Clarke said. 



“We show safely and effectively navigating the canopy can remain very important for a large, semi-arboreal ape, even in open habitat."



"Adaptations to arboreal, rather than terrestrial, living may have been key in shaping the early <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/human-evolution-was-shaped-by-competition-not-just-climate-change/">evolution</a> of the human lineage.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-chimps-mapped-branch-by-branch">Chimps mapped branch by branch</h2>



The Issa Valley lies on a high plateau northwest of Lake Tanganyika. Rainfall is seasonal. Along streams, ribbon-like galleries of evergreen forest persist, but the hills between are covered by “savanna-mosaic” - tall grasses studded with single trees or small clumps.



Previous GPS and accelerometer work by the same team revealed that Issa chimpanzees spend just as much time <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/study-shows-early-humans-climbed-trees-and-worked-with-stone/">climbing</a> as their cousins in dense equatorial jungle. The new study set out to ask why.



Observers shadowed adult males and females through the 2022 dry season, recording every feeding bout in detail. They measured each tree’s height, trunk diameter, crown spread, and the thickness of branches that chimps ventured onto.



Back at camp, the researchers sorted photographs and notes into a vast spreadsheet. They recorded what food item was taken, how long the ape stayed, and which postures - hanging, clambering, upright balancing - were used to reach it.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fruit-drives-upright-tree-behavior">Fruit drives upright tree behavior</h2>



Patterns soon emerged. The animals are, first and foremost, fruit connoisseurs. Soft pulp accounted for most mouthfuls, followed by young leaves and occasional flowers or seeds. Those items grow at the very tips of branches, where supports taper from wrist-thick to finger-thin.



To exploit them safely, chimps often adopt a suspensory style. They hang or stand bipedally, using nearby limbs or the trunk for support while reaching for food.



The longer a feeding session lasted, the larger and more food-laden the tree tended to be. Large fruit-laden trees, full of ripe figs or drupes, tempted chimps to invest extra time and more acrobatic maneuvers.



“We suggest our bipedal gait continued to evolve in the trees even after the shift to an open habitat,” Drummond-Clarke explained. “Observational studies of great apes demonstrate they can walk on the ground for a few steps, but most often use bipedalism in the trees."



"It’s logical that our early hominin relatives also engaged in this kind of bipedalism, where they can hold onto branches for extra balance.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-trees-offered-food-and-safety">Trees offered food and safety</h2>



Classic depictions of human origins show early humans standing upright on an empty plain, scanning for predators. The Issa observations point to a more nuanced scenario: mixed woodland offered both risk and reward.



Staying in trees gave access to rich food, making traits like <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/discovery-of-a-cretaceous-ostrich-mexidracon-longimanus-with-extremely-long-arms/">long arms</a>, grasping toes, and flexible spines advantageous. Bipedal balance on a branch could be a stepping-stone, literally and figuratively, toward efficient walking on the ground.



The study also underscores the role of seasonality. During the dry months the Issa chimps actually used the open miombo woodland more than the riverine forest, because fruiting peaks there at that time. Whether wet-season patterns look the same remains to be tested.



“This study only looked at foraging behavior during the dry season,” Drummond-Clarke cautioned. 



She and her colleagues plan to replicate their methods during rains, add nutritional analysis of foods, and compare Issa chimps with other savannah-dwelling populations in Uganda and Senegal.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-habitats-with-evolutionary-insights">Habitats with evolutionary insights</h2>



Understanding how today’s apes solve the challenges of a drying world carries modern as well as paleoanthropological relevance.



East Africa is warming; <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/wild-bees-are-active-in-woodland-tree-tops/">woodlands</a> are being fragmented by farms and roads. If chimps rely heavily on large fruiting trees even in sparse habitat, conserving those keystone species becomes critical. 



Protecting corridor forests could safeguard not only an endangered ape but also a living analogue for our own distant past.



“Importantly, this is also only one community of chimpanzees,” Drummond-Clarke noted. “Future studies of other chimpanzees living in such dry, open habitats will be vital to see if these patterns are truly a savanna-mosaic signal or unique to Issa.”



Whatever the outcome, the Issa data remind us that the path to humanity did not leap instantly from branch to prairie. It meandered through a landscape where climbing and walking, hanging and balancing, all mattered - where survival meant mastering both the ground beneath and the canopy above.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/ecology-and-evolution/articles/10.3389/fevo.2025.1561078/full" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Frontiers in Ecology and Evolution</a>.



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Walking upright may have started in the trees, not on land

Why did our earliest ancestors begin walking upright? For decades,...

Sulphur,Crested,Cockatoo,In,Sydney

Captive cockatoos do more than mimic voices. They also dance - and not just randomly. A recent study led by Natasha Lubke at <a href="https://www.csu.edu.au" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Charles Sturt University</a> reveals that cockatoos show a wide array of unique dance moves. 



From headbanging to body rolls, these birds put on a performance that rivals human creativity.



The researchers analyzed 45 online videos and observed zoo <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/large-flightless-birds-are-more-intelligent-than-we-realized/">birds</a> exposed to music and other audio. The team identified 30 distinct movements, with 17 newly documented in scientific literature.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cockatoos-dance-with-music">Cockatoos dance with music</h2>



These dances aren’t just reflexes - they involve brain systems that link sound to movement. Entrainment - the ability to match body movement with rhythm - appears in humans and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/parrots-have-a-unique-voice-print-similar-to-humans/">parrots</a>. This skill depends on vocal learning, a rare trait across animals.



“By analyzing dance behavior of cockatoos from 45 YouTube videos as well as cockatoos at Wagga Wagga Zoo and Aviary, I showed that dancing behavior is more common in cockatoos than previously thought and was seen in 10 of the 21 cockatoo species," said Lubke. 



"My analysis also indicated that dancing is far more complex and varied than previously thought.” 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dancing-and-mating-habits">Dancing and mating habits</h2>



In the wild, many parrots use rhythm in courtship. For example, male palm cockatoos drum with sticks to impress females. 



The study found that captive dancing often mirrors such courtship displays. Movements like “downward,” “side to side,” and “sidestep” echo behaviors seen in red-tailed black cockatoos during mating rituals.



Some researchers suggest these behaviors are redirected <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/some-birds-use-biofluorescence-glowing-brightly-to-attract-mates-birds-of-paradise/">courtship displays</a> aimed at human companions. However, dancing was observed even without people present, hinting at deeper motivations.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cockatoos-dance-when-they-feel-happy">Cockatoos dance when they feel happy</h2>



The big question is whether dancing feels good to cockatoos. The study points out that dancing may reflect positive emotional states. 



Animal welfare science considers play - voluntary, repeated, and seemingly fun activities - as a sign of well-being.



Dancing may count as play. It occurs without reward, appears self-reinforcing, and involves creativity. The researchers observed rare moves seen in only one bird each, suggesting individual flair and possible expressions of creativity.



“The similarities with human dancing make it hard to argue against well-developed cognitive and emotional processes in parrots, and playing music to parrots may improve their welfare,” said Freire.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-music-may-not-be-essential">Music may not be essential </h2>



The researchers ran an experiment with six cockatoos from three species. The birds heard music, podcasts, or silence. Surprisingly, all birds danced across all conditions. 



The study found no statistical difference in dance frequency between the three audio types.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/08/cockatoos_dance-moves_performance-styles_illustration_credit-PLOS-One_1m.jpg"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/08/cockatoos_dance-moves_performance-styles_illustration_credit-PLOS-One_1s.webp" alt="Illustration of the 10 most common recorded dance movements. Ethogram descriptors based on Keehn et al. [3] and illustrations by Zenna Lugosi. Credit: Lubke et al., 2025, PLOS One" class="wp-image-1980791"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Illustration of the 10 most common recorded dance movements. Ethogram descriptors based on Keehn et al. [3] and illustrations by Zenna Lugosi. Click image to enlarge. Credit: Lubke et al., 2025, PLOS One</figcaption></figure>



That doesn’t mean music has no effect. It's possible the birds hadn’t heard enough music to develop a strong response. 



Or they may have focused on their partners instead of the audio. The chosen song or repeated use of the same track could also have reduced impact.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hormones-may-fuel-dancing">Hormones may fuel dancing</h2>



In the video analysis, “downward” was the most common move, seen in half the birds. “Sidestep” came next, followed by moves like “foot lift” and “head circle.”



Less common moves included “jump turn,” “body roll,” and “head figure 8.” Some birds performed combinations of these moves in sequences, similar to human choreography.



Cluster analysis showed no clear link between dance style and genetic closeness. Goffin’s and white cockatoos danced most similarly, though they’re not closely related. This suggests culture or environment may influence dance style more than genetics.



The study also considered whether <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/female-birds-need-a-male-hormone-for-sexual-development/">hormones</a> might play a role. Courtship behaviors in many birds depend on hormones like testosterone. 



It’s possible dancing stimulates similar systems. If true, this would explain how and why parrots keep dancing, even without mates or music.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-boogie-not-boredom">Boogie, not boredom</h2>



Parrots in captivity often show repetitive behaviors linked to stress. These include feather plucking or pacing. To avoid misclassifying such behaviors, the researchers looked for variety. 



The cockatoos displayed enough movement diversity to suggest genuine dance - not stress-based repetition.



Still, the researchers emphasize the need for clearer definitions. Future studies should distinguish dancing from repetitive, purposeless movements to avoid confusion.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-insights-from-dancing-cockatoos">Insights from dancing cockatoos </h2>



“Playing music to parrots may provide a useful approach to enrich their lives in captivity, with positive effects on their welfare,” said Lubke.



That enrichment might help <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/virtual-forest-bathing-can-reduce-stress-and-improve-mood/">reduce stress</a> and offer stimulation. But not just any music will do. The right rhythm, beat, and style likely matter. Further studies could explore how cockatoos react to different genres, tempos, and musical patterns.



Cockatoos may dance for joy, attention, instinct - or all three. They dance alone or with company, to music or silence. They improvise, repeat, and invent new moves. 



These behaviors may open doors to understanding bird emotions, creativity, and cognitive capacity.



As we learn more, one thing becomes clear: the bird boogie isn’t just entertaining - it’s science in motion.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0328487" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">PLOS One</a>.



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Cockatoos have at least 30 different dance moves that they use to communicate

Captive cockatoos do more than mimic voices. They also dance...

Scientists have captured a remarkable glimpse into the high-speed lives of red-footed boobies. These seabirds, native to the Indian Ocean’s remote Chagos Archipelago, have been filmed mid-flight, catching flying fish. 



The footage confirms a long-held suspicion: these birds can snatch fish directly from the air.



Researchers fitted two boobies with lightweight cameras. Of 15 prey capture attempts, 14 were aerial pursuits. Only one was a dive. 



“The cameras recorded footage of the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plastic-is-harming-seabirds-even-more-than-we-realized/">birds</a> catching flying fish just above the surface of the water, while on the wing," said Dr. Ruth Dunn, the study’s lead author from <a href="https://www.hw.ac.uk" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Heriot-Watt University</a>.



"We suspected this happened, but this is the first time we’ve had bird-borne footage showing them foraging and catching fish mid-air. It could suggest they are catching a significant portion of their diet in this way."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-optimal-winds-for-catching-fish">Optimal winds for catching fish</h2>



The study combined GPS and accelerometer trackers on 18 additional birds. The researchers tracked 45 foraging trips in total. The birds typically traveled hundreds of kilometers during each outing. These trips showed clear wind preferences.



Red-footed boobies are flap-gliding seabirds. They alternate between flapping and gliding flight. This style makes them efficient in tailwinds and crosswinds but not headwinds. 



When heading out from the colony, they strongly preferred crosswinds or tailwinds. On their way back, they still used crosswinds but showed more flexibility.



The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seabirds-have-highly-sensitive-beaks-to-locate-food/">birds</a> did not rely on familiar feeding spots. Their prey - mostly flying fish - is patchily distributed and unpredictable. Selecting optimal winds helps reduce <a href="https://www.int-res.com/articles/meps_oa/m723p073.pdf">energy costs</a> during these long journeys.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-riding-the-wind-to-save-energy">Riding the wind to save energy</h2>



The analysis revealed a strong link between wind direction, speed, and flight behavior. Boobies flapped more when flying into headwinds. 



The birds flapped less in crosswinds, and even less in tailwinds. These choices helped them maintain higher speeds while spending less energy.



The average ground speed reached about 22 miles per hour. When <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/shrinking-sea-ice-makes-it-harder-for-seabirds-to-find-food/">birds</a> flew with crosswinds at high wind speeds, they moved fastest and glided more. In contrast, headwinds forced them to flap harder and slowed them down.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-seabird-behavior-linked-to-wind">Seabird behavior linked to wind</h2>



Red-footed boobies were more likely to feed in windy conditions. Their feeding behavior - especially capturing flying fish - appeared closely linked to wind. 



Flying fish can glide farther and stay aloft longer when supported by strong winds. This increases their exposure and gives boobies a better chance of catching them.



In fact, human fishers also report better catch rates for flying fish during high winds and larger swells. These conditions improve flying fish habitats through nutrient-rich upwellings.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-role-of-wave-direction">The role of wave direction</h2>



Waves also played a role. Though wind and wave height were often linked, birds reacted differently depending on wave direction. 



When waves aligned with the birds’ movement, feeding became more likely. The interaction between wind and wave direction likely affects both the birds and their prey.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/08/seabird-flight-camera_red-footed-booby_credit-Lancaster-U_1m.jpg"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/08/seabird-flight-camera_red-footed-booby_credit-Lancaster-U_1s.webp" alt="Bird-borne video camera footage of a red-footed booby Sula sula rubripes (a) flying close to a yellowfin tuna (Thunnus albacares) as it breaches the water’s surface, (b) foraging near a conspecific that is catching an exocoetid flying fish, (c) chasing a flying fish and (d) capturing the flying fish. Credit: Lancaster University" class="wp-image-1980799"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Bird-borne video camera footage of a red-footed booby Sula sula rubripes (a) flying close to a yellowfin tuna (Thunnus albacares) as it breaches the water’s surface, (b) foraging near a conspecific that is catching an exocoetid flying fish, (c) chasing a flying fish and (d) capturing the flying fish. Click image to enlarge. Credit: Lancaster University</figcaption></figure>



Boobies have relatively low aspect-ratio wings. This gives them better turning agility, an advantage when chasing flying fish. In windy seas, such agility becomes even more important.



Outbound trips are less fixed. Boobies can experiment with wind choices while seeking prey. But inbound journeys are more direct. Even so, birds often chose crosswinds to return faster.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-seabirds-in-a-changing-world">Seabirds in a changing world</h2>



As climate change alters global wind patterns, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/nearly-all-seabirds-have-ingested-microplastics/">seabird behavior</a> will likely shift. Some models predict stronger storms and higher wind speeds. 



Others suggest long-term global stilling. Either way, red-footed boobies may benefit from increased winds on the ocean - at least up to a point.



“Gaining a clearer understanding of such environmental effects will enable us to predict how they will cope in the future,” said Professor Stephen Votier.



Extreme conditions such as cyclones may test these birds’ limits. Yet boobies seem more resilient to storms than many tropical seabirds. Their ability to catch aerial prey in strong winds gives them a potential edge.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-feeding-zones-need-protection">Feeding zones need protection</h2>



This study links wind with both flight efficiency and feeding success, and shows how red-footed boobies use nature’s forces to boost survival. 



With wind as both ally and obstacle, their future will depend on how the climate continues to shift.



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/marine-protected-areas-fall-short-on-2030-biodiversity-targets/">Marine conservation</a> should consider not just breeding islands but also wind-affected feeding zones. Protecting these dynamic habitats will be key to the long-term survival of this flying fish specialist.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rspb.2025.0774" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Proceedings of the Royal Society B Biological Sciences</a>.



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Seabird flights and amazing feeding behavior in the ocean captured with tiny cameras

Scientists have captured a remarkable glimpse into the high-speed lives...

Human eyes are masterpieces of biological engineering, but once damaged, they cannot rebuild themselves. Golden apple snails, by contrast, routinely replace an entire camera-type eye within a month.



In a new study, molecular and cellular biologist Alice Accorsi and colleagues at the <a href="https://www.ucdavis.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of California, Davis</a>, show that snail and human eyes share both anatomical architecture and many of the genes that guide development.



By pairing those insights with new <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/crispr-gene-editing-gets-a-revolutionary-upgrade-with-new-tool/">CRISPR-Cas9</a> genome-editing tools, the team has created a tractable system for probing the genetic logic of whole-eye regeneration. This knowledge could ultimately inform therapies for people who lose vision through injury or disease.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-invasion-becomes-inspiration">Invasion becomes inspiration</h2>



Pomacea canaliculata, native to South America but now invasive across the tropics, breeds fast, thrives in captivity, and possesses large, lens-bearing eyes mounted on stalks.



“Apple snails are resilient, their generation time is very short, and they have a lot of babies,” Accorsi said. 



Those practical advantages overcome many of the hurdles that have deterred previous attempts to use gastropods in regenerative biology.



“When I started reading about this, I was asking myself, why isn’t anybody already using snails to study <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/study-sheds-light-on-the-pathways-of-plant-regeneration/">regeneration</a>? I think it’s because we just hadn’t found the perfect snail to study - until now,” she explained.



Unlike planarians, which can regrow primordial light-sensing spots, or <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/giant-salamander-fossil-reveals-deep-roots-of-appalachian-diversity/">salamanders</a>, which regenerate a functional retina but not an entire globe, the apple snail rebuilds every element of a complex camera-type eye. These include the transparent cornea, refractive lens, layered retina, and optic nerve.



That layout mirrors the vertebrate eye and sets the stage for meaningful cross-species comparisons.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-snail-eyes-mirror-ours">Snail eyes mirror ours</h2>



Accorsi’s group combined high-resolution histology with transcriptome sequencing to map the similarities.



“We did a lot of work to show that many genes that participate in human eye development are also present in the snail,” she noted.



Canonical regulators such as the pax6, sox2, otx, and six gene families appear in the mollusc’s genome and activate during eye formation. Once regeneration is complete, “the morphology and gene expression of the new eye is pretty much identical to the original one.”



From the moment an <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-camera-technology-lets-us-see-colors-of-the-world-through-the-eyes-of-animals/">eye</a> stalk is amputated, the snail initiates replacement through coordinated phases. Wound closure seals the cut within 24 hours. Proliferating undifferentiated cells then invade the site, and by about day 15 the nascent organ shows recognizable lens fibers, retinal layers, and a reconnecting optic nerve.



Although fully formed, the tissue continues to mature for several more weeks. RNA profiling captured this transition: roughly 9,000 genes change expression early, but 1,175 remain different after 28 days, suggesting late-stage remodeling.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-editing-snail-genes-for-answers">Editing snail genes for answers</h2>



To test gene function directly, the researchers established CRISPR-Cas9 mutagenesis in apple snail embryos.



“The idea is that we mutate specific genes and then see what effect it has on the animal,” Accorsi said.



As proof of principle, they knocked out pax6. Hatchlings carrying two inactive copies lacked eyes altogether. This demonstrates that, as in vertebrates and flies, pax6 is indispensable for initial eye assembly in snails.



The lab can now deploy the same strategy to explore whether pax6 or other regulators are also critical during regrowth in adults.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rebuilding-eyes-from-scratch">Rebuilding eyes from scratch</h2>



Imaging shows that regeneration begins with a burst of cell migration and proliferation near the stump. Accorsi hypothesizes that some of those cells originate from a reserve of stem-like cells at the base of the eye stalk. Others may derive from the surrounding epidermis or even blood-borne hemocytes.



Unraveling their lineage, and what signals tell them to adopt lens versus <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rare-retinal-cells-explain-complex-color-perception/">retina</a> fates, will be a next challenge. With CRISPR, the team can tag cells or block signals to observe how regeneration stalls or progresses.



Behavioral tests are also on the agenda. “We still don't have conclusive evidence that they can see images, but anatomically, they have all the components that are needed to form an image,” Accorsi said.



Designing assays that reveal light-guided behavior - perhaps tracking movement toward shaded refuges - will confirm functional recovery. These tests will also set benchmarks for comparing successful and failed genetic manipulations.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-from-snails-to-human-sight">From snails to human sight</h2>



Humans carry the same developmental genes, but in mammals they're mostly silenced after embryogenesis ends. Identifying reactivation signals may reveal molecular switches to coax human eye tissues into self-repair.



“If we find a set of genes that are important for eye regeneration, and these genes are also present in vertebrates, in theory we could activate them to enable eye regeneration in humans,” Accorsi remarked.



That long-term vision will require bridging vast evolutionary and physiological gaps, yet the new model provides a rare example of full organ restoration in a complex eye.



Because the apple snail’s genetics, life cycle, and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/secrets-of-killifish-regeneration-may-help-us-heal-humans/">regenerative</a> capacity are now accessible, it offers a powerful research model. It promises to illuminate not only ophthalmology but also broader questions of stem-cell plasticity, immune modulation, and scar-free healing.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-pest-becomes-a-pioneer">A pest becomes a pioneer</h2>



Accorsi’s project also illustrates how curiosity-driven exploration can expand the experimental repertoire of biomedicine. 



A problem that seems intractable in standard lab rodents may yield to an unexpected organism with the right combination of traits.



As Accorsi’s lab continues to map the genetic circuitry of eye regrowth - and perhaps inspire other groups to adopt the apple snail - what began as an invasive pest could become a luminous guide to restoring sight.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-025-61681-6">Nature Communications</a>.



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Apple snails regrow their eyes - and may help humans do the same

Human eyes are masterpieces of biological engineering, but once damaged,...

A dull stretch of silty seafloor off Southern California hides a surprise that would fit on a pencil eraser. Here, three new sea spiders in the genus <a href="https://animaldiversity.org/accounts/Sericosura/classification/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Sericosura</a> have learned to live on the greenhouse gas methane, thanks to a cloak of bacteria that carpets their limbs.



The work comes from marine biologist <a href="https://www.oxy.edu/academics/faculty/shana-goffredi" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Shana Goffredi</a> at <a href="https://www.oxy.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Occidental College</a>, whose team used remotely operated vehicles to collect the translucent arachnid cousins nearly 3,350 feet down. They then tracked carbon from labeled methane directly into the spiders’ tissues.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-deep-dark-habitat">Deep, dark habitat</h2>



Light never reaches the Pacific <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/massive-new-source-of-methane-emissions-discovered-glacial-fracking-arctic/">methane</a> seep, a spot where gas seeps through cracked sediment instead of burning in kitchen stoves. 



In such places, free-living microbes turn methane and oxygen into simple sugars, laying the energy groundwork for whole communities.



Most animals here hunt or filter food, but the palm-sized Sericosura do neither. Their proboscis lacks the piercing teeth used by other sea <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/giant-species-joro-spiders-has-invaded-the-united-states-heres-what-to-look-for/">spiders</a> to drain jellyfish, so the team looked for a different menu.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-sea-spiders-and-a-methane-buffet">Sea spiders and a methane buffet</h2>



Under an electron microscope, each spider leg resembles rough sandstone, dotted with thousands of tiny “volcano” pits. 



Every pit holds a tuft of methanotroph cells encased in sticky gel, stacked like poker chips and spaced about five-hundredths of an inch apart.



The pattern is no accident. <a href="https://www.mpi-bremen.de/en/Nanoscale-Secondary-Ion-Mass-Spectrometer-NanoSIMS.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NanoSIMS</a> imaging showed the bacteria gulping heavy-carbon methane and multiplying rapidly. 



They then disappeared in patches, leaving clear tooth marks that match the spider’s flexible mouthparts.



“Just like you would eat eggs for breakfast, the sea spider grazes the surface of its body, and it munches all those bacteria for nutrition,” said Goffredi.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-methane-fuels-spider-meals">Methane fuels spider meals</h2>



Methanotrophs oxidize methane, releasing both carbon dioxide and a dash of methanol. 



Secondary bacteria on the spider, mainly <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Methylophaga" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Methylophagaceae</a>, slurp the methanol, forming a two-tier farm much like the mixed crops found on deep-sea tubeworms and yeti crabs.



Labeling experiments ran for five days in chilled seawater. By then, carbon from the methane had already reached the spider’s digestive diverticula. 



This proved that the animal swallows its tenants rather than absorbing leftovers through its skin.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-spider-eggs-carry-bacteria">Spider eggs carry bacteria</h2>



Male Sericosura brood strings of eggs around their knees like charm bracelets. Goffredi’s team noticed the same bacterial mix coating the egg sacs, suggesting parents seed their young with food before the larvae ever crawl.



Vertical transfer of symbionts is common in deep-sea mussels and hydrothermal vent crabs. 



Finding the pattern in a pycnogonid hints that inheritance of microbiomes may be older and more widespread than researchers thought.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/08/sea-spiders_new-species_ocean-floor_eat-methane_credit-PNAS_1m.jpg"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/08/sea-spiders_new-species_ocean-floor_eat-methane_credit-PNAS_1s.webp" alt="Sericosura sea spiders examined in this study. (A) Map of the Southern California seep locations. (B) Map of the Sanak Seep site off of the Aleutian Islands. (C) A female from the Del Mar seep clearly showing swollen femora with eggs (arrow). (D) A male from the Sanak seep clearly showing egg brood (arrowhead). (E) An inconspicuous Sericosura male specimen walking on a carbonate rock at the Del Mar seep (the arrowhead denotes egg brood). (Scale bars: A, 80 km. B, 300 km. and C–E, 2 mm.) Photo credits: C and E, Bianca Dal Bó; D, Greg Rouse (SIO)." class="wp-image-1980720"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Sericosura sea spiders examined in this study. (A) Map of the Southern California seep locations. (B) Map of the Sanak Seep site off of the Aleutian Islands. (C) A female from the Del Mar seep clearly showing swollen femora with eggs (arrow). (D) A male from the Sanak seep clearly showing egg brood (arrowhead). (E) An inconspicuous Sericosura male specimen walking on a carbonate rock at the Del Mar seep (the arrowhead denotes egg brood). (Scale bars: A, 80 km. B, 300 km. and C–E, 2 mm.) Click image to enlarge. Photo credits: C and E, Bianca Dal Bó; D, Greg Rouse (SIO).</figcaption></figure>



“Even if 80 percent of the population are eaten, it’s worth it for the 20 percent to keep surviving and reproducing,” said <a href="https://www.mpg.de/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Max Planck</a> symbiosis expert <a href="https://www.mpi-bremen.de/en/Nicole-Dubilier.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nicole Dubilier</a>, who reviewed the data but was not involved in the fieldwork.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-methane-spiders-reshape-theory">Methane spiders reshape theory</h2>



The fact that sea <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/worlds-first-gene-edited-spiders-spin-red-silk/">spiders</a> graze their own bodies for fuel points to an overlooked path in the global carbon cycle. 



Until now, most methane-fed ecosystems were thought to rely on internal symbionts or sediment-dwelling microbes, not animals farming bacteria on their skin.



Because methane seeps span thousands of miles of coastline, even small-bodied grazers like Sericosura could collectively process meaningful amounts of gas before it escapes to the surface. 



That adds a new twist to how scientists model <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/methane-leaks-surge-amid-record-fossil-fuel-production/">methane</a> flux in oceanic systems and may influence how future conservation zones are drawn.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-small-farmers-global-effects">Small farmers, global effects</h2>



Each bacterial layer that ends up inside a spider is a layer that never reaches the atmosphere as methane. 



Deep-sea sponges at asphalt seeps can already lock away up to 22 percent of local emissions through similar partnerships.



Hundreds of seeps dot the Pacific margin, and many companies have slated them for mineral surveys. 



Because the newly described <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rethinking-arachnid-evolution-the-surprising-history-of-spiders/">spiders</a> sit in pockets no bigger than a two-car garage, any disturbance risks wiping out entire populations and their methane filters overnight.



Goffredi hopes the unique chemical signature in the spiders’ bodies will help crews spot hidden methane seeps before drilling starts. 



This method has already helped identify other deep-sea hotspots, like sponge fields and tubeworm colonies.



Methane may spell trouble in the sky, yet in the deep it fuels intricate symbiosis that strings bacteria, spiders, and climate together. 



Tiny as they are, the Sericosura colonies remind us that saving obscure life forms can pay off far above their dark, pressurized homes.



The study is published in <a href="https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.2501422122" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a>.



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Sea spiders discovered on the ocean floor that survive without light and eat methane

A dull stretch of silty seafloor off Southern California hides...

Thinking of the rainforest, you probably picture parrots, orchids, maybe a lazy jaguar on a branch. What you don’t see - because most of us never notice them - are the multitudes of insects, spiders, millipedes, and other arthropods that make the rainforest run.



These little laborers till the soil, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/pollinators-are-disappearing-and-its-bad-news-for-plants/">pollinate flowers</a>, recycle dead leaves, and serve as breakfast, lunch, and dinner for just about everything that hops, flies, or slithers.



For years, scientists in Europe and North America have sounded alarms that insect numbers are sliding. But no one knew whether the planet’s richest wildlife real estate - the tropical belt - was suffering the same fate. A new study argues it is, and that should set off alarms well beyond the equator.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-global-detective-story"><a></a>A global detective story</h2>



The research stitched together results from more than 80 long-term projects in undisturbed rainforests stretching from the Amazon to Borneo. 



No chainsaws, no pesticides, no plantations - just old-growth jungle. By stacking decades of moth counts here and spider surveys there, the team could spot patterns that any single project would miss.



Those patterns are, unfortunately, grim. Whether you look at <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/butterfly-populations-are-disappearing-and-its-happening-fast/">butterflies</a>, beetles, or orb-weaving spiders, the story is the same: fewer species, fewer individuals.



Leaf-eating caterpillars are chewing less foliage these days, and the tiny cleanup crews that shred fallen leaves are also dwindling. Even in forests so remote you need days of hiking or a helicopter to reach them, life in miniature is thinning out.



Adam Sharp, the <a href="https://www.hku.hk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Hong Kong</a> (HKU) data scientist who wrangled the spreadsheets, didn’t sugarcoat it: “To find such large declines over many studies is really bad news."



"Our results strongly suggest that the immense <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/what-are-the-biggest-drivers-of-biodiversity-loss/">biodiversity</a> of tropical forest arthropods is immediately threatened,” he said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-uncut-forests-still-losing-arthropods">Uncut forests still losing arthropods</h2>



Because these field sites are virtually untouched, the usual villain - direct habitat destruction - doesn’t explain the loss. Instead, the researchers traced the problem to the sky.



Tropical weather is famously moody thanks to the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/el-nino-climate-shifts-date-back-250-million-years/">El Niño</a>–Southern Oscillation (ENSO), the swing between hot, dry El Niño years and cooler, wetter La Niña years. Historically, that back-and-forth kept communities in balance. Some insects love soggy conditions, while others thrive in drought, but neither side ever totally disappears.



Climate change is messing with that rhythm. El Niño events are arriving more often and hitting harder, stretching dry seasons and scorching understory plants. 



Arthropod groups that prefer the gentler La Niña phase are getting pummeled each time the pendulum sticks on the hot, dry side. 



“In these tropical forests that haven’t otherwise been physically modified by humans, we can rule out habitat loss, pesticides, pollution, and various other threats," said lead author Mike Boyle, a biologist at HKU. "In these places, El Niño seems to be the prime suspect.” 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-arthropods-hold-the-forest-together">Arthropods hold the forest together</h2>



It may be hard to feel sentimental about a stick insect, but your well-being is more entangled with them than you might guess. Insects and their kin keep nutrient cycles turning. 



Arthropods are the garbage disposal that prevents the rainforest from choking on their own leaves. They pollinate cacao trees and coffee bushes. They are the protein bars that power baby birds and hunting frogs. Lose enough, and you don’t just lose species - you hobble entire ecosystems.



“Arthropods are essential components of functioning ecosystems, carrying out vital processes including decomposition, herbivory, and pollination," said study co-author Louise Ashton.



When those processes sputter, forests store less carbon, streams change course, and the dominoes keep falling.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-local-lessons-from-global-loss">Local lessons from global loss</h2>



Roger Kitching at <a href="https://www.griffith.edu.au/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Griffith University</a> helped lead the Australian part of the study and sees a lesson for his own backyard.



The Wet Tropics of Queensland and the lush forests of northern New South Wales haven’t been logged in decades, yet nobody is really counting their insects.



“The crucial message for Australia is the need to monitor the biodiversity in our <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/the-amazon-rainforest-is-approaching-widespread-collapse/">rainforests</a> – revisiting previous surveys is the key,” said Kitching.



Long-running datasets like the ones underpinning this study are important because they reveal slow, silent shifts that annual snapshots miss. Without them, declines can cruise under the radar until they’re drastic - and harder to fix.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-helping-the-rainforest-s-smallest-workers">Helping the rainforest’s smallest workers</h2>



First, keep forests intact and healthy. Dense canopies maintain cooler, moister microclimates that offer insects a refuge when El Niño roasts the region. Restoring battered edges and stamping out invasive plants add extra buffers.



Second, get serious about monitoring. New gadgets - automated camera traps that “listen” for insect wingbeats, DNA snippets caught in river water - could track populations without needing an army of taxonomists.



Most importantly, tackle the root problem. The runaway greenhouse gases heating up oceans are also increasing El Niño’s effects. Curbing <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/cutting-emissions-could-save-250000-lives-a-year-in-europe/">emissions</a> slows that feedback loop and gives forests - and their six-legged stewards - a fighting chance.



 Rainforest arthropods survived asteroid strikes and ice ages, but the speed of modern climate change is a different beast. Their decline isn’t just a tropical tragedy - it’s a preview of broader ecological unraveling.



The bugs may be small, but their absence would leave a very big hole in the biosphere - and in the services humans quietly rely on every day.



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Moths to millipedes: Why are arthropods declining in untouched forests?

Thinking of the rainforest, you probably picture parrots, orchids, maybe...

On a summer tide-flat in southern Portugal, a 3D-printed intruder called Wavy Dave poked his single oversized claw above the mud and began to wave. 



Wavy Dave is not a real fiddler crab; he is a Bluetooth-controlled replica designed by behavioral ecologist Joe Wilde during the COVID lockdown. But he was convincing enough to fool hundreds of wild male Afruca tangeri guarding nearby burrows.



With two cameras recording every gesture, Wilde and colleagues have now shown that males monitor a rival’s actual performance, not merely his presence. 



They fine-tune both their signaling effort and their willingness to remain exposed when the cost-benefit balance looks favorable.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-crab-claws-courtship-and-competition">Crab claws, courtship, and competition</h2>



The findings, reported in a new study led by the Center for Research in Animal Behavior at the <a href="https://www.exeter.ac.uk/research/groups/psychology/crab/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Exeter</a>, add fresh detail to sexual selection theory.



The study also demonstrates how low-cost, biomimetic robots can pry apart the decision rules that are used by animals in crowded, competitive arenas.



Robotic models have been deployed with lizards, birds, and even fish, but the fiddler crab test is one of the first to run in the open, chaotic field. Dozens of live males, hundreds of meters of tunnels, overhead predators, and a baking sun all complicate carefully scripted experiments.



Fiddler crabs live on the border between land and sea. Each male digs and defends a burrow that shelters him from extreme temperature swings, sudden rain, and the constant threat of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/experts-help-incubate-and-raise-chicks-for-critically-endangered-white-bellied-heron-species/">herons</a> or gulls.



The burrow is also his calling card for choosy females that cruise the flat at low tide. When females are likely watching, males emerge and begin rotating an enormous, energetically costly claw in the air.



Past research shows females prefer bigger claws, and faster wave speeds can boost a male’s attractiveness. The unanswered question was whether males react to how a nearby rival is advertising - not simply to the fact that a rival is present.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-creating-the-robotic-crab">Creating the robotic crab</h2>



Because every male on a mudflat may be waving at once, a genuine test requires a focal subject to see a rival whose display parameters are under the researcher’s control. Wavy Dave provided exactly that.



Wilde found open-source 3D scans of fiddler crabs and printed a life-size shell. He then built a rotatable <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/strawberry-claws-the-hermit-crab-that-sings-underwater/">claw</a> that could clip on in two sizes: a modest limb matching mid-ranking males and a giant showpiece that dwarfed most live competitors.



The team developed a phone app that could trigger the claw to rotate either slowly - one wave roughly every two seconds - or rapidly, doubling that pace.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-crabs-face-off-with-the-robot">Crabs face off with the robot</h2>



Fieldwork began by positioning the robot 12 inches from a resident male’s burrow. Thousands of real crabs share these flats, allowing the team to run dozens of independent 20-minute trials. Each trial was divided into four phases: no waving, slow wave, fast wave, and a final no-wave control.



Throughout, two high-definition cameras captured how long the subject stayed above ground, how often he waved and how fast, and whether he retreated when gulls shadowed overhead.



The behavioral shifts were striking. “We know many animals adjust their sexual displays if rivals are nearby, but less is known about how they react to the actual displays themselves,” Wilde explained.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-competing-in-a-dynamic-environment">Competing in a dynamic environment </h2>



In the presence of a waving <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/robots-cannot-outrun-animals-but-theyre-evolving-faster/">robot</a>, males stayed outside longer and, crucially, they lengthened their signaling bouts. They did not, however, speed up individual waves. Wave rate matters - it’s costly, and adding strokes per minute uses more energy than waving longer at a normal pace.



Wilde interpreted the pattern through a shopkeeper analogy. “If you own a shop and your rivals start selling things really cheaply, you might have to change how you run your business."



"The same might be true for males signaling to attract females - and our study suggests males do indeed respond to competition.”



“Our findings reveal the subtle ways in which these crabs adjust their behavior to compete in a dynamic environment, investing more in signaling when it is likely to be most profitable.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-risk-shifts-with-rival-size">Risk shifts with rival size</h2>



Risk assessment also shifted. Compared with baseline periods, males were less likely to dive into their tunnels - and they resurfaced sooner - when Wavy Dave brandished the smaller claw. 



When the robot showed the gigantic claw, many focal crabs chose caution, cutting their display time or, in several cases, rushing forward to grapple the plastic intruder.



“The females realized he was a bit odd, and some of the males tried to fight him,” Wilde said. “One male broke Wavy Dave by pulling off his claw. We had to abandon that trial and reboot the robot.”



These interactive tests reveal two intertwined decision rules. First, males gauge relative weapon size: a bigger-clawed rival is probably hard to out-signal, so effort may be wasted or fighting danger high.



Second, the behavioral state of that rival matters. A <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ants-hold-a-grudge-against-aggressive-rivals/">rival</a> that is already waving indicates that receptive females may be close, so extending one’s own bout becomes worthwhile - provided the competition looks beatable.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-robotics-is-reshaping-animal-research">Robotics is reshaping animal research</h2>



The project showcases the power of DIY robotics in field ethology. The robotic crab began as what Wilde calls a “pipe dream” during lockdown: a printed shell, a micro-servo, a hobbyist Bluetooth module.



Yet the budget build yielded high-resolution insights that traditional staging or restrained-rival methods struggle to match. As off-the-shelf parts get cheaper and software more intuitive, researchers foresee fleets of programmable animal proxies probing complex social contests from coral reefs to bird leks.



For now, the Portuguese mudflat has returned to ordinary business, males rotating their claws in the sun as a new generation of larvae drifts out to sea.



But the experiment leaves a lasting message: even creatures with <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/brain-organoids-mrbo-mimic-early-brain-development-to-decode-disease-origins/">tiny brains</a> monitor their marketplace and update tactics on the fly. They balance energy, danger, and opportunity in ways that are not so different from our own strategic choices.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rspb.2025.1570" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences</a>.



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Robotic crab named 'Wavy Dave' stirs up courtship drama with a real fiddler crab

On a summer tide-flat in southern Portugal, a 3D-printed intruder...

Great white sharks almost didn’t make it. Around 25,000 years ago, with sea levels 130 feet lower than they are today, the oceans shrank. 



Much of the oceanic habitat white sharks relied on disappeared under massive glaciers. What was left became a tight squeeze for one of the world’s top predators.



White sharks survived - but just barely. And how they bounced back still puzzles scientists today.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-happened-to-great-white-sharks">What happened to great white sharks?</h2>



A new genetic study sheds light on that history. The work reveals that great whites were once reduced to a single, mixed population in the southern Indo-Pacific. Then, around 7,000 years ago, that group began splitting into smaller, isolated populations. 



Today, there are three genetically distinct populations of white sharks: one around Australia and South Africa, one in the North Atlantic, and one in the North Pacific. They are widespread, but still scarce.



Study co-author Gavin Naylor is director of the Florida Program for Shark Research at the <a href="https://www.floridamuseum.ufl.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Florida Museum of Natural History</a>.



“There are probably about 20,000 individuals globally,” said Naylor. “There are more fruit flies in any given city than there are great white sharks in the entire world.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-genetic-mystery-of-white-sharks">Genetic mystery of white sharks </h2>



Back when glaciers covered huge parts of the planet, sea levels dropped drastically. This left white sharks boxed into limited areas with shrinking access to food and breeding grounds. 



As apex predators, they were already few in number. When space got tight, their numbers plummeted even further.



Something odd happened when the climate warmed. Sea levels rose, and white sharks rebounded. Yet when scientists tried to understand the genetic changes during this rebound, they found something that didn’t add up.



The researchers expected to find evidence of philopatry - a breeding pattern in which females return to the same location to reproduce. 



This behavior had previously helped explain why nuclear DNA (inherited from both parents) appears nearly identical across white shark populations, while mitochondrial DNA (passed down only from mothers) shows striking variation.



But when Naylor and his team searched for signs of philopatry using the largest dataset of white shark DNA to date, it didn’t hold up.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-white-shark-dna-doesn-t-make-sense">White shark DNA doesn’t make sense</h2>



The story starts in 2001. A research team analyzed DNA from white sharks in Australia, New Zealand, and South Africa. They saw that while nuclear DNA was similar, mitochondrial DNA - passed down only from mothers - showed clear differences between regions.



The results suggested that male sharks roamed freely and spread their genes, while females stayed close to home when it came time to breed. That would explain why mitochondrial DNA looked more isolated and unique, while nuclear DNA looked more mixed.



The theory made sense and held up for years. But no one had done a full test on great whitesharks - until now.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-new-data-same-genetic-mystery">New data, same genetic mystery</h2>



In 2012, the Florida team began sequencing the white shark genome using samples collected from across the Atlantic, Pacific, and Indian oceans. They analyzed both mitochondrial and nuclear DNA.



What they found matched older patterns: nuclear DNA was consistent across regions, but mitochondrial DNA showed sharp regional differences.



To test if philopatry was causing this, the team looked at the nuclear DNA from <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/female-whale-sharks-grow-slower-yet-larger-than-males/">female sharks</a>. If females returned to the same location to breed, a subtle signal should show up in that data too.



“But that wasn’t reflected in the nuclear data at all,” Naylor said. So, the experts ran simulations to see if 10,000 years - roughly the time since the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/disastrous-climate-changes-of-the-last-ice-age-could-happen-again/">last Ice Age</a> - was enough for philopatry to drive the changes seen in the mitochondrial DNA. Turns out, it wasn’t.



Next, the team considered reproductive skew - the possibility that only a few female white sharks were producing most of the next generation. This has been seen in species like <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/decoding-secret-language-of-meerkats/">meerkats</a> and some <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/worlds-oldest-fish-coelacanth-presumed-extinct-for-60-million-years-before-rediscovery/">fish</a>, but the explanation didn't fit for great white sharks. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-natural-selection-is-an-unlikely-cause">Natural selection is an unlikely cause</h2>



The team also considered natural selection. Maybe specific versions of mitochondrial DNA helped some sharks survive better than others. 



That would mean any slight difference in a mitochondrial sequence could be deadly, weeding out variation and locking each population into its own genetic path. It’s possible, but unlikely.



For selection to be that powerful in such small populations, the pressure would have to be overwhelming. If it is the causative agent, the selective force would have to be brutally lethal, explained Naylor. 



“If you collect enough mass in a concentrated space, say on the order of a black hole, the otherwise benign force of gravity becomes powerful enough to devour light."



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/lifes-rules-natural-selection-change-significantly-often-daphnia/">Natural selection</a>, in this case, would need to act like that - destroying any slight deviation from the favored mitochondrial type before it had a chance to spread.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-mystery-remains-unsolved">The mystery remains unsolved</h2>



White sharks still keep much of their history hidden beneath the surface. The mitochondrial mystery remains. 



None of the known explanations - philopatry, reproductive skew, or natural selection - fully accounts for the genetic disconnect. "The honest scientific answer is we have no idea,” Naylor said.



There’s a lot to learn. But with more data, scientists hope to finally piece together how these rare and powerful animals survived near-extinction and bounced back.



“These white sharks come along, get a nice blubbery sausage. They fatten up, they breed, and then they move off around the ocean,” Naylor said. That part, at least, is clear. The rest is still out there - waiting to be found.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.2507931122" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a>.



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Great white sharks survived the Ice Age - but it changed them forever

Great white sharks almost didn’t make it. Around 25,000 years...

Tyrannosaurus rex had a skull like a sledgehammer. The skulls of spinosaurs and allosaurs, by contrast, worked like blades. A new study shows that giant meat-eating dinosaurs didn’t all crush bones with their skulls like T. rex. Some dinosaurs sliced flesh instead.



Researchers examined bite strength in 18 species of theropod <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dinosaur-tracks-reveal-tyrannosaurs-stalking-their-prey/">dinosaurs</a>. They found that while T. rex had a skull suited for short, powerful bites, others relied on different strategies. 



Despite their massive size, spinosaurs and allosaurs had much weaker bites. They didn’t need to crush prey. They slashed and ripped instead.



“Tyrannosaurs evolved skulls built for strength and crushing bites,” said Andrew Rowe of the <a href="https://www.bristol.ac.uk" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Bristol</a>. “Other lineages had comparatively weaker but more specialized skulls.”



These findings challenge the idea that all giant <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/shri-rapax-dinosaur-discovered-that-killed-with-potent-thumbs-instead-of-foot-claws/">predators</a> hunted the same way. Instead, large carnivorous dinosaurs followed separate evolutionary routes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-two-ways-to-hunt">Two ways to hunt</h2>



The researchers used advanced 3D models to test skull biomechanics. Their work reveals two main strategies among giant predators. Tyrannosaurs had strong skulls with high stress tolerance. Others evolved to reduce skull stress instead of increasing power.



The skull of T. rex allowed powerful muscles to deliver bone-crushing bites, even at the cost of stress. By contrast, megalosauroids and allosauroids developed slender skulls that dispersed pressure more evenly. They focused on slicing flesh rather than smashing bone.



These two feeding strategies reflect deep ecological <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ancient-predator-dissacus-praenuntius-ate-bones-adapting-to-climate-shock/">divergence</a>. Tyrannosaurs likely hunted large, armored prey. They needed brute strength. Spinosaurs and allosaurs, on the other hand, went for mobility and flexibility.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dinosaur-skulls-and-bite-strength">Dinosaur skulls and bite strength</h2>



The study also tested how skull stress changed with dinosaurs body size. Surprisingly, bigger skulls didn’t always mean more stress. In fact, smaller theropods often experienced more cranial strain. That happened because their skull shapes weren’t built to manage strong bite forces.



The researchers scaled all skulls to the same size to isolate shape effects. Herrerasaurus and Ceratosaurus, both small, showed the highest stress. In contrast, giants like Spinosaurus and Acrocanthosaurus had low stress levels.



T. rex stood out. Despite high stress levels, its skull could manage the pressure. Its anatomy - fused bones, deep jaws, expanded skull rear - helped stabilize the force. This let it crush bones efficiently.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-dinosaurs-used-their-skulls">How dinosaurs used their skulls </h2>



“I tend to compare Allosaurus to a modern Komodo dragon in terms of feeding style,” Rowe said. “Large tyrannosaur skulls were instead optimized like modern crocodiles with high bite forces that crushed prey.”



Unlike their bone-crushing <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/with-teeth-like-knives-this-giant-kept-the-young-tyrannosaurs-at-bay/">cousins</a>, allosaurs had wider gapes and more flexible skulls. They likely used a slash-and-tear technique. Spinosaurs, possibly semi-aquatic, had long snouts and narrow skulls. These helped them twist and shake prey, possibly even catching fish.



Even among tyrannosaurs, not all had the same build. Some, like Alioramus, kept slender skulls into adulthood. They may have gone after smaller, faster prey, avoiding direct conflict with bulkier relatives.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-jaw-mechanics-of-large-dinosaurs">Jaw mechanics of large dinosaurs </h2>



The researchers also studied jaw mechanics. T. rex and its relatives had jaws that got more stressed with size. But other dinosaurs didn’t follow that trend. Allosaur jaws, for instance, showed a clear pattern of reduced stress as they grew.



The mandible played a key role in feeding. In tyrannosaurs, stress built up in the back of the jaw. In others, like Allosaurus, pressure concentrated near the front. This difference hints at how they bit, held, and processed food.



Interestingly, the study found that mandibles generally experienced more stress than skulls. That makes sense, since jaws deal directly with the prey during feeding.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-skull-shape-mattered-more-than-size">Skull shape mattered more than size</h2>



The research also explored the role of skull shape. Even when scaled to equal size, differences remained. Shape - not just size - affected how much stress the skulls endured. Spinosaurus and Acrocanthosaurus performed well, showing strong but low-stress skulls.



Some medium-sized predators, like Neovenator, had surprisingly high stress levels. Others, like Giganotosaurus, managed stress better, suggesting a more balanced design.



Skull ornamentation didn’t seem to affect stress much. Features like crests or horns, seen in dinosaurs like Dilophosaurus, had little impact on bite mechanics.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-evolution-shaped-more-than-looks">Evolution shaped more than looks</h2>



These findings show that dinosaur feeding performance was shaped by more than size or skull strength. Tyrannosaurs evolved skulls built for force and domination. Other dinosaurs survived through flexible skulls and specialized feeding. The coexistence of different dinosaurs likely reduced direct competition.



This biomechanical diversity suggests dinosaur ecosystems supported many hunting strategies. 



“Carnivorous dinosaurs took very different paths as they evolved into giants in terms of feeding biomechanics and possible behaviors,” said Rowe.



In the end, evolution didn’t choose one right way to hunt. It allowed many. Some dinosaurs crushed bones, and others sliced meat. Their success as apex predators came through diverse biomechanical adaptations.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/fulltext/S0960-9822(25)00811-5" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Current Biology</a>.



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How giant dinosaurs turned their skulls into weapons

Tyrannosaurus rex had a skull like a sledgehammer. The skulls...

Cicadas are early risers. Their synchronized choruses often mark the start of a summer morning. But new research has revealed just how precisely they coordinate this ritual. 



Scientists have found that cicadas begin singing not just around dawn - but exactly when the sun is 3.8 degrees below the horizon. This moment, called civil twilight, creates just the right light level to trigger their song.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cicadas-sing-at-early-morning-light">Cicadas sing at early morning light</h2>



The study was conducted by researchers from India, the UK, and Israel. They recorded <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-find-a-47-million-year-old-cicada-fossil-with-preserved-wing-details/">cicada</a> sounds over several weeks near Bangalore, India. 



The team analyzed the data using tools from physics. Their approach was similar to how phase transitions in materials are studied.



Study co-author Raymond Goldstein is a professor in the Department of Applied Mathematics and Theoretical Physics at the <a href="https://www.damtp.cam.ac.uk/damtp">University of Cambridge</a>.



“We’ve long known that animals respond to sunrise and seasonal light changes. But this is the first time we’ve been able to quantify how precisely <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/cicadas-grew-super-wings-to-dodge-ancient-birds/">cicadas</a> tune in to a very specific light intensity - and it’s astonishing," noted Professor Goldstein.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cicadas-sing-at-the-same-light-level">Cicadas sing at the same light level</h2>



Cicadas don’t just start singing slowly. The full intensity of their chorus builds within 60 seconds. The midpoint of that rise occurs consistently at the same solar angle, no matter when sunrise actually happens. 



The research showed that cicadas respond when light intensity hits a narrow range, varying by just 25 percent.



This means <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/cicada-wings-inspire-new-antibacterial-technologies/">cicadas</a> are not just reacting to vague brightness. They are tuned to a precise visual signal in their environment. Direct measurements placed this critical light intensity at about 4–6 lux. The timing remains stable even with minor shifts in temperature or humidity.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-light-tells-cicadas-when-to-sing">Light tells cicadas when to sing</h2>



To analyze cicada decision-making, the researchers used a signal-processing method. They calculated an “order parameter” based on the chorus sound's amplitude over time. This parameter grew in a sigmoidal pattern, rising sharply during the transition from quiet to full chorus.



When the light levels crossed a specific threshold, the sound amplitude jumped rapidly. This suggested the presence of a narrow decision window. 



The researchers described this transition using a susceptibility curve - a concept borrowed from thermodynamics. The peak in this curve indicated high sensitivity to small changes in light.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cicadas-listen-to-each-other">Cicadas listen to each other</h2>



This sharp transition could not be explained by individual <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/trillions-of-cicadas-set-to-emerge-in-historic-u-s-invasion/">reactions</a> alone. The scientists proposed a group decision-making process. Cicadas rely not just on light, but also on the sounds of nearby insects. This idea mirrors how midge swarms or firefly groups coordinate.



To support this theory, the team built a statistical model inspired by magnetism. In this model, each cicada behaves like a “spin” influenced by both the external light field and the activity of others. 



As light increases, individual cicadas become more likely to sing - especially when others already have.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-working-together-to-sing-better">Working together to sing better</h2>



The model showed that moderate levels of interaction between cicadas created the best match to real-world data. Too little interaction resulted in slow, disorganized responses. Too much created spontaneous singing unrelated to light levels.



When tuned just right, the group amplified weak signals and responded swiftly and accurately. This behavior mimics a type of “group intelligence.” 



According to the model, the strength of this interaction determines how precisely the entire chorus reacts to dawn.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-science-of-decision-making">The science of decision making</h2>



This work ties insect choruses to broader theories of collective behavior. Similar dynamics appear in ant colonies choosing new homes, birds flocking, and even human financial decisions. Each system involves individuals with partial information, guided by shared cues and local signals.



By studying cicadas and their singing patterns, researchers now better understand how organisms balance personal perception and social feedback. As the Earth rotates and light levels change, these insects make fast, precise choices - together.



“Rakesh’s observations have paved the way to a quantitative understanding of this fascinating type of collective behavior,” said Professor Goldstein. “There’s still much to learn, but this study offers key insights into how groups make decisions based on shared environmental cues.”



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://journals.aps.org/pre/abstract/10.1103/4y4d-p32q" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Physical Review E</a>.



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Cicadas wait for this exact moment each morning to sing

Cicadas are early risers. Their synchronized choruses often mark the...

Neanderthals may not have relied as heavily on meat in the diet as previously believed. Earlier studies, based on analysis of nitrogen isotope ratios in their bones, suggested a diet that was dominated by animal protein.



However, new interpretations indicate they may have followed a more balanced and varied omnivorous diet that included plants and a hitherto unexpected ingredient: maggots.



“Masses of maggots are these easily scoopable, collectible, nutrient-rich resource,” said Melanie Beasley at <a href="https://www.purdue.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Purdue University</a>, Indiana. These insects offered essential nutrients and were likely simple to harvest.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-understanding-maggots-the-basics">Understanding maggots - the basics</h2>



Maggots are the squirmy, legless larvae of flies - usually houseflies or blowflies. They hatch from eggs laid in decaying organic matter, like rotting food, animal carcasses, or even open wounds. 



As gross as they seem, maggots serve a real purpose in nature. 



They devour dead tissue and break down decomposing material, playing a key role in the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/microbes-involved-in-decomposition-may-help-solve-crimes/">circle of life</a>. Without them, our environment would pile up with organic waste far quicker than you'd expect.



But maggots aren’t just trash cleaners. In medicine, doctors have used sterile maggots in a therapy called maggot debridement to clean out infected wounds. 



These little creatures eat only dead tissue, leaving healthy cells untouched. It’s creepy, but effective. People may recoil at the sight of them, but maggots can be surprisingly helpful - both in hospitals and in the great outdoors.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-delicacy-across-cultures">A delicacy across cultures</h2>



Evidence shows that maggots have long been part of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/humans-and-neanderthals-species-face-structure-evolved-differently/">human</a> diets in various cultures. Beasley explained that reindeer hunters still cultivate the maggots of particular fly species as a delicacy.



In Sardinia, a traditional cheese called casu martzu even contains live maggots and remains highly prized.



Ethnohistoric accounts suggest that Indigenous groups not only tolerated but actively sought out maggot-infested animal foods - often regarding them as a delicacy despite the overpowering smell.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-high-nitrogen-wrong-conclusions">High nitrogen, wrong conclusions</h2>



Nitrogen has two stable isotopes: nitrogen-14 and nitrogen-15. As organic matter moves up the food chain, the proportion of nitrogen-15 increases.



When scientists examined the isotope ratios in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/neanderthal-skull-traits-cause-modern-brain-conditions/">Neanderthal fossils</a>, they discovered a very high ratio of nitrogen-15 - higher than the ratios found in apex predators like lions and hyenas.



“So there became this narrative that Neanderthals were these hypercarnivores, very focused on big game hunting,” explained Beasley.



But not all researchers accepted this conclusion - especially since prehistoric Homo sapiens had similar isotope levels, despite their varied diets.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-neanderthals-required-maggots">Neanderthals required maggots</h2>



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/neanderthal-evolution-was-more-complex-than-previously-thought/">Humans</a> cannot survive on lean meat alone. “It’s actually physically not possible,” said Beasley.



"If humans eat as much protein as hypercarnivores do over long periods, without consuming enough other nutrients, it can lead to protein poisoning - a debilitating, <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/0278-4165(83)90006-5" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">even lethal</a> condition historically known as “<a href="https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4419-6733-6" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">rabbit starvation</a>.”



High protein diets cause dangerous levels of toxic byproducts like ammonia, which make survival unsustainable without fats and carbohydrates.



Studies of Neanderthal <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/neanderthal-genes-influence-the-development-of-modern-teeth/">dental</a> calculus also revealed plant remains, supporting the theory that they consumed more than just meat. This raises questions about the cause of their unusually high nitrogen-15 levels.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rot-brought-protein-rich-maggots">Rot brought protein-rich maggots</h2>



Ethnographic evidence suggests that Neanderthals likely cached or stored animal foods for long periods, often in rock piles, pits, or aboveground structures.



Over time, these caches would rot and attract flies, leading to maggot infestations. This behavior explains both the presence of maggots and the nitrogen isotope anomalies.



In 2017, John Speth from the <a href="https://www.umich.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Michigan</a> proposed that consuming rotting meat might explain the isotope enrichment. 



Beasley tested this idea at the University of Tennessee’s “<a href="https://fac.utk.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">body farm</a>,” where she also studied maggots feeding on decomposing remains.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-maggots-raised-nitrogen-levels">Maggots raised nitrogen levels</h2>



Together with Speth and Julie Lesnik at <a href="https://wayne.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Wayne State University</a>, Beasley found that while rotting meat showed only modest nitrogen-15 increases, the maggots that fed on that meat showed extremely high enrichment.



Their values often exceeded two trophic levels above typical herbivores, reaching as high as 43.2 percent.



“These are just initial results, but they show that eating a diet very high in meat isn’t the only possible explanation for the isotope ratios in Neanderthals and ancient <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/tinshemet-cave-discovery-neanderthals-early-humans-sharing-and-complex-interactions/">Homo sapiens</a>,” said Beasley.



She believes their diets likely combined multiple factors: meat storage, processing, cooking, and maggot consumption.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-maggots-helped-stretch-neanderthal-resources">Maggots helped stretch Neanderthal resources</h2>



The study also highlights that Neanderthals, like other <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/our-hunter-gatherer-ancestors-did-much-more-gathering-than-hunting/">hunter-gatherers</a>, could not sustain high protein intake. They would have deliberately targeted fatty prey parts like tongues, marrow, entrails, and organs, often discarding lean muscle.



Maggots, rich in both protein and fat, would have been a valuable dietary supplement for Neanderthals, especially during resource-scarce seasons.



“This is an exciting new study, and I think it goes a long way toward making sense of the strange results that have come out of isotope studies in Neanderthals and other Stone Age hominins over the last couple of decades,” said Herman Pontzer of <a href="https://duke.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Duke University</a> in North Carolina.



“I find the evidence here pretty convincing, that consumption of maggots and similar larvae explains the ‘hypercarnivore’ signal we’ve been seeing in previous fossil isotope work.”



The findings suggest that those following a so-called paleo diet may need to reconsider their choices. 



“All the people who want to go true ‘palaeo,’ they need to start thinking about fermenting their meat and letting the flies access them,” suggested Beasley.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-neanderthals-complex-food-system">Neanderthals' complex food system</h2>



This research reframes how we view Neanderthal <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/each-neanderthal-community-had-their-own-food-and-butchery-traditions/">diets</a>. High nitrogen-15 levels do not necessarily mean they were strict carnivores.



Instead, their eating habits likely involved a mix of fatty animal parts, plants, rotting meat and maggots from stored and decomposing food.



This complex food system reflects both survival needs and cultural practices shaped by unpredictable hunting returns.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/sciadv.adt7466" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Science Advances</a>.



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Neanderthals got most of their protein from a nauseating food source

Neanderthals may not have relied as heavily on meat in...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE
</div></figure>



On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop and sunlight barely penetrates through the polar winter. It was here, however, that an international team of scientists found <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/predatory-worms-were-terror-beasts-half-a-billion-years-ago/#google_vignette" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evidence of sea monsters</a> that would change our understanding of ocean life in the past.



This video captures the discovery of Timorebestia fossils that had been hidden for more than 500 million years in the Sirius Passet formation. The "terror beasts," as they are called, are a hidden chapter in the evolutionary history of <a href="https://www.earth.com" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Earth</a>, showing that sophisticated predator-prey interactions occurred much earlier than previously envisioned.



Dr. Jakob Vinther and his research team at the <a href="https://www.bristol.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Bristol</a>, in collaboration with researchers at the <a href="https://eng.kopri.re.kr/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Korean Polar Research Institute</a>, braved extreme weather conditions at 82.5 north latitude to locate these giant creatures. Using sophisticated electron microprobe analysis, they revealed the detailed anatomy of the animals, including their muscle and nerve tissues.



The find upsets the traditional timeline of sea predators. Although we've long appreciated that Cambrian oceans were at one time ruled by <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jWI3-UgA3_o&amp;list=PL1QLQMW9MWDwpkFOnvgAmu7wT6rZmYqdJ&amp;index=19" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">arthropods</a>, these discoveries indicate that relatives of arrow worms were first to dominate the seas. These worms were building sophisticated food webs several million years before other predator groups arose.



Each fossil is a story of ancient hunger, with fossil stomach contents revealing these meter-long beasts dined on heavily armored arthropods regularly, cementing their place as the ocean's first apex predators.



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Worms dominated seas before dinosaurs

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">New York is the site of the world's oldest forest.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-385-million-year-old-trees-discovered">385-million-year-old trees discovered</h2>



Scientists have uncovered something extraordinary just two hours north of New York City. The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/worlds-oldest-forest-discovered-close-to-new-york-city/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">world's oldest forest</a>, dating back 385 million years, offers a window into how Earth's first complex forests shaped our planet's atmosphere.



Located near <a href="https://townofcairo.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cairo, New York</a>, in Greene County, these weren't merely primitive plants struggling to survive. These were sophisticated trees with root systems remarkably similar to modern forests. This ancient woodland predates dinosaurs by 140 million years.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-cairo-forest-discovery">The Cairo forest discovery</h2>



385 million years ago, upstate New York was a tropical paradise near the equator. Thanks to continental drift, this ancient forest has traveled thousands of miles to its current location.



The fossil forest sits in an abandoned quarry, roughly half the size of a football field. This represents just a slice of what was likely a massive forest system stretching from New York into Pennsylvania.



Charles Ver Straeten, curator of sedimentary rocks at the <a href="https://www.nysm.nysed.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">New York State Museum</a>, made the discovery in 2009. While scouting the former highway department property, his trained eye spotted wandering patterns in the stone that looked like marine features.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-revolutionary-age-and-preservation">Revolutionary age and preservation</h2>



The site contains 385-million-year-old rocks with fossilized woody roots forming horizontal patterns up to 18 feet (5.5 meters) wide. As Christopher Berry, a paleobotanist at Cardiff University, explains: "You are walking through the roots of ancient trees."



This discovery pushes back advanced tree evolution by millions of years. The research, published in <a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/home" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Current Biology</a> in December 2019, fundamentally changes our understanding of when complex forests first emerged.



Researchers believe a massive flood buried the forest floor, creating perfect fossilization conditions. Over millions of years, sediment hardened into rock, preserving these root patterns like nature's time capsule.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-meet-archaeopteris-the-first-modern-tree">Meet Archaeopteris: the first modern tree</h2>



The star of this ancient forest is Archaeopteris – not to be confused with the feathered dinosaur Archaeopteryx. This tree was far older and more revolutionary.



William Stein from <a href="https://www.binghamton.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Binghamton University</a> describes the roots as "strikingly modern, essentially what you'd see outside in my yard right now." These weren't simple root systems you'd expect from ancient plants.



Some fossilized roots are six inches (15 centimeters) in diameter, forming 36-foot-wide (11-meter) patterns. These giants grew up to 65 feet (20 meters) tall with five-foot-diameter (1.5-meter) trunks.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-changing-impact">Climate-changing impact</h2>



These trees fundamentally changed Earth's environment. Kevin Boyce, a Stanford University geoscientist, explains how their deep roots triggered "weathering," chemical reactions that pulled carbon dioxide from the atmosphere.



This process dropped atmospheric CO2 levels from 10-15 times higher than today to roughly modern concentrations. These ancient trees helped create atmospheric conditions that made complex life possible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ancient-forest-ecosystem">Ancient forest ecosystem</h2>



The forest was remarkably diverse. Scientists identified Eospermatopteris, palm tree-like plants with short roots that reached 30 feet (9 meters) tall but lacked woody structure. The forest also housed cladoxylopsids and a mysterious third species still being studied.



All reproduced through spores rather than seeds – millions of years before seeds evolved. This tropical environment had no grass, flowers, or flying insects, just towering trees creating Earth's first complex forest canopy.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-scientific-significance">Scientific significance</h2>



Before this finding, the Gilboa forest, located 25 miles (40 kilometers) away, held the "oldest forest" title. Cairo's trees are 2-3 million years older, showing that complex forest ecosystems developed much faster than scientists believed possible.



Patricia Gensel, a <a href="https://www.unc.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of North Carolina</a> paleobotanist, notes: "The size of those root systems is really changing the picture. Even 20 years ago, researchers assumed trees with such complex root systems didn't evolve so early."



The Cairo site presents three unique root systems, suggesting Devonian period forests were diverse ecosystems with different trees occupying different environmental niches, much like today's forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-modern-preservation-efforts">Modern preservation efforts</h2>



In 2022, New York State Senator Michelle Hinchey secured a $170,000 grant for the town of Cairo to construct specialized fencing around the fossil forest site. The town plans to conduct a feasibility study exploring the possibility of creating an educational center and working lab on-site.



Joe Hasenkopf, chair of the Cairo Planning Board, hopes to partner with educational institutions to create a research facility serving scientists, students, and the public.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lessons-for-today-s-climate">Lessons for today's climate</h2>



Why does a 385-million-year-old forest matter today? It shows how dramatically forests can change Earth's climate. These ancient woodlands created the atmospheric conditions supporting complex life.



Understanding how prehistoric forests transformed the planet helps us appreciate modern forests' critical role in addressing climate change. Forests remain Earth's most effective carbon capture systems.



These prehistoric trees changed Earth's atmosphere by pulling massive amounts of carbon dioxide from the air. As we face modern climate challenges, this ancient forest reminds us of trees' incredible power to transform our planet's environment.



The next time you walk through a forest, remember you're experiencing an ecosystem whose blueprint was established 385 million years ago in upstate New York. These ancient pioneers didn't just survive – they thrived and changed the world forever.



The full study was published in the journal Current Biology.



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Earth's oldest forest found in the United States

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ New York is the site of the world's oldest...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Acid rain and a crisis solved.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-don-t-we-ever-hear-about-acid-rain-anymore-the-environmental-crisis-that-was-solved">Why don't we ever hear about "acid rain" anymore? The environmental crisis that was solved</h2>



Remember the 1980s when acid rain dominated headlines? Dire warnings about rain eating buildings, killing fish, and destroying forests filled every news cycle. Then, almost like magic, acid rain vanished from public discourse. What happened? Did we actually solve one of the late 20th century's most pressing environmental challenges?



The answer might surprise you. Unlike many environmental issues that drag on indefinitely, acid rain represents one of modern history's most successful ecological recovery stories. It's a tale of science, politics, and technology working together to tackle what seemed impossible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What was acid rain?</h2>



Acid rain isn't regular rain having a bad day – it's precipitation that became significantly more acidic due to air pollution. When power plants, factories, and vehicles burn fossil fuels, they release sulfur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides (NOx) into the atmosphere.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The science behind it</h2>



Think of acid rain as nature's chemistry experiment gone wrong. These compounds react with water, oxygen, and other chemicals to form sulfuric and nitric acids. When mixed with water vapor in clouds, they create precipitation with dangerously low pH levels.



While clean rain has a pH of about 5.6, acid rain could drop as low as 4.2 to 4.4 – roughly as acidic as tomato juice or coffee. According to US Geological Survey documentation, Scottish chemist Angus Smith first coined "acid rain" in 1872, but it didn't become a household phrase until the 1960s and 1970s when Swedish scientist Svante Odén documented its devastating effects on Scandinavian lakes and European forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The crisis at its peak</h2>



During the height of public concern, environmental damage was both widespread and visible. This wasn't some abstract future threat – people could see destruction happening in real-time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Environmental devastation</h2>



The most dramatic impacts were impossible to ignore. Research documented by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation and the New York State Department of Environmental Conservation shows that in the Adirondack Mountains, more than 200 lakes became so acidic they couldn't support fish life. The Adirondack Council reports that 409 lakes once supported brook trout, but many lost their fish populations due to acid rain.



By 1976, when scientists cataloged all acidified lakes in the Adirondack Park, researchers found that half of the lakes over 2,000 feet above sea level had no fish, according to studies published in environmental journals. The acidification process worked like a slow-motion disaster. As acid rain fell into watersheds, it gradually lowered pH levels. Fish couldn't survive in acidic water, and their food sources died off too.



Trees at high elevations showed stress directly linked to acid rain. It weakened them by leaching nutrients and making them susceptible to disease. Historical records show Germany's Black Forest saw nearly half its trees damaged by the mid-1980s.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Economic impact</h2>



Acid rain wasn't just environmental – it was expensive. Acidic precipitation corroded infrastructure, buildings, and monuments. Historic stone structures deteriorated at accelerated rates. Tourism suffered as lakes became fishless and forests declined. EPA economic analyses from the period documented repair costs mounting into billions annually.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The solution: government action and technology</h2>



Transformation from crisis to success required unprecedented cooperation between governments, industries, and environmental groups.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The Clean Air Act of 1990</h2>



The turning point came with the Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990, signed by President George H.W. Bush. This represented a fundamentally new approach to environmental regulation, as documented in EPA historical records.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Cap-and-trade success</h2>



Instead of mandating specific technologies, the 1990 amendments introduced something revolutionary: a cap-and-trade system for sulfur dioxide emissions. EPA program documentation shows this market-based approach set overall limits but allowed companies to trade emission allowances.



The genius was harnessing market forces to find cost-effective pollution reduction. Companies reducing emissions cheaply could sell excess allowances to those facing higher costs. Research published in environmental economics journals and EPA progress reports shows this resulted in dramatic SO2 reduction at a fraction of projected costs.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Technology advances</h2>



Policy provided the framework, but technology made reductions possible. Studies in atmospheric science journals document the widespread adoption of flue gas desulfurization systems ("scrubbers") that removed sulfur dioxide before it reached the atmosphere. By the 2000s, new installations could remove over 95% of SO2 emissions, according to EPA technical reports.



The push coincided with cleaner energy development. Natural gas produces fewer sulfur compounds than coal. Wind and solar, emerging in the 1990s, captured growing market share, reducing reliance on high-sulfur coal.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-we-don-t-hear-about-it-today">Why we don't hear about it today</h2>



Why did acid rain disappear from headlines? Simple: the problem was largely solved.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Success doesn't make news</h2>



There's an old journalism saying: "If it bleeds, it leads." Environmental success stories don't generate urgency like crisis reporting. Media attention shifted to other challenges: climate change, plastic pollution, and biodiversity loss. There's only so much environmental anxiety the public can absorb, and newer concerns replaced acid rain.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Mission accomplished</h2>



The primary reason is beautifully simple: interventions worked. EPA monitoring data shows sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990. Academic research published in environmental science journals confirms pH levels in formerly affected areas returned closer to normal. This represents one of history's most dramatic environmental recoveries. Studies by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation show fishless lakes now support healthy populations. Forests recovered, and building damage slowed dramatically.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-is-it-really-gone">Is it really gone?</h2>



The crisis is largely resolved, but monitoring data shows the problem isn't completely eliminated – it's managed to acceptable levels. Some areas still experience occasional events during high pollution periods. International environmental research indicates that rapidly industrializing Asian countries face similar problems to what we experienced decades ago, though they're implementing successful strategies.



EPA research shows nitrogen oxide emissions proved more challenging than sulfur dioxide, coming from vehicles and mobile sources. Climate science studies suggest changing weather patterns add complexity to how acid rain forms and falls.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What this teaches us</h2>



The acid rain experience proves that seemingly intractable environmental problems can be solved with scientific understanding, political will, and technological innovation. Environmental monitoring data shows recovery speed was remarkable – within a decade, measurable improvements appeared in air quality and ecosystem health.



Success came from bipartisan support across party lines. Policy analysis studies show the market-based approach appealed to those preferring economic incentives while achieving environmental goals. This support created lasting policy surviving political changes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Conclusion</h2>



Acid rain's disappearance from public consciousness represents environmental science's greatest success stories. Through effective regulation, technological innovation, and international cooperation, we transformed an overwhelming crisis into a manageable challenge.



Today's silence isn't because we forgot – it's because we solved it. The 1990 Clean Air Act, combined with technology and energy market changes, reduced acid rain emissions over 90%, according to comprehensive EPA data analysis.



This success offers hope for current challenges. It proves complex problems can be solved when science, policy, and technology work together. As we face climate change and plastic pollution, acid rain reminds us that dramatic positive change is possible.



Next time someone asks whether environmental regulations work, remember acid rain. It's proof that sometimes, we get it right.



<hr class="wp-block-separator has-alpha-channel-opacity"/>



Sources: This article draws from EPA official documentation and progress reports, peer-reviewed research published in environmental and atmospheric science journals, historical data from the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation, New York State Department of Environmental Conservation records, US Geological Survey publications, policy analysis studies, and environmental monitoring data collected over three decades.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Frequently Asked Questions</h2>



1. Is acid rain completely gone? No, but EPA monitoring shows it's reduced to manageable levels. US sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990, making acid rain much less severe than the 1980s crisis.



2. How long did solving take? Environmental monitoring data shows significant improvements began within 5-10 years of 1990s emission controls. Full ecosystem recovery took longer – some areas need 20-30 years for complete recovery.



3. What made the solution successful? Clear scientific understanding, visible damage motivating action, bipartisan support, available technology, and innovative market-based policies like cap-and-trade.



4. Do other countries have acid rain problems? Yes, particularly rapidly industrializing Asian countries. However, international environmental research shows many implement similar successful control strategies.



5. Could acid rain return? Potentially, if regulations weaken or we return to high-sulfur coal without controls, though effects would take years to become severe according to environmental projections.



6. Can you recommend any teaching tools on the subject of "acid rain"? The United States Environmental Protection Agency produced a wonderful teacher's guide for ages 14 and under that you can find on the EPA website here: <a href="https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf</a>



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The environmental problem we actually solved

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk Acid rain and a crisis solved. Why don't we...

Fresh,Radish,Harvest,On,Soil,In,Garden.

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https://youtu.be/Fi2OeEwuzRM?si=vTyd2m9FMmtyWkex
</div></figure>







Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving fall garden, and this guide lays out the best vegetables and herbs to plant now for a fruitful autumn harvest. 



Fast-growing leafy greens such as spinach, lettuce, kale, and arugula perform especially well in the waning summer heat, with harvests beginning as soon as 30 days. 



These cool-season crops relish the transition into fall, offering repeated yields with cut-and-come-again methods.



Root vegetables like radishes, carrots, and beets also excel during this period. Radishes deliver satisfaction in under a month, while carrots and beets mature in about two months. Employing succession planting ensures a continuous stream of produce deep into the cooler months. 



For a boost of fresh flavor, herbs like cilantro, basil, dill, and chervil are excellent picks. These heat-loving varieties flourish in July’s warmth and are harvest-ready in about 30 days, especially when sown continuously.



Gardeners in zones 6 through 9 can benefit from planting bush beans and snap peas, which don’t require trellising and are ideal for compact plots. 



Maturing in 50–60 days, they’re a smart choice for quick, protein-rich harvests. For those in hotter regions, heat-tolerant crops such as okra and southern peas provide reliable yields and thrive in scorching conditions.



This guide emphasizes more than crop selection—it highlights the importance of timing, soil preparation, and ongoing sowing techniques. 



With thoughtful planning and attention to regional climate needs, even late-summer gardeners can enjoy fresh salads, hearty stews, and the satisfaction of a robust, homegrown harvest well into fall.



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What to plant in your garden in mid-July

https://youtu.be/Fi2OeEwuzRM?si=vTyd2m9FMmtyWkex Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving...

Green,Ecoduct,Over,An,Empty,Highway,During,Sunset.

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://youtu.be/XYgiPzmNBTU?si=eFYY7gPHU1JznLvU
</div></figure>



A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that wildlife tunnels significantly reduce amphibian road mortality during seasonal migrations. 



Frogs and salamanders often cross roads to reach breeding ponds each spring, but many are killed by vehicles. 



Researchers from the <a href="https://www.uvm.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Vermont</a>, in collaboration with local citizens and the Vermont Agency of Natural Resources, installed two underpass tunnels in 2015. 



Over a 12-year monitoring period, they observed an 80.2% reduction in amphibian deaths, and up to 94% for non-climbing species like salamanders. 



The study used a before-after-control-impact design and documented more than 5,200 amphibians, highlighting the tunnels’ effectiveness even in nearby buffer zones.



Funded at $342,397 - far cheaper than wildlife crossings for large mammals - the project showcased the power of community-led conservation.



Local groups initiated the effort after observing mass amphibian deaths. Wildlife cameras later captured over 2,200 amphibians using a tunnel in just one spring, along with other species like raccoons and bobcats, indicating wider ecosystem benefits.



This marks the first peer-reviewed, long-term data set in the northeastern U.S. confirming amphibian-specific underpasses work. 



The study urges transportation departments to incorporate these designs into road planning and highlights how community action, thoughtful infrastructure, and persistence can make a real difference for biodiversity.



The full study was published in the <a href="https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1617138125000780" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal for Nature Conservation</a>.



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Wildlife tunnels save millions of amphibians

https://youtu.be/XYgiPzmNBTU?si=eFYY7gPHU1JznLvU A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that...

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing it with probiotics and prebiotics, aiming to create a treat that satisfies cravings while supporting gut health. 



The challenge lies in maintaining chocolate's beloved texture and flavor while adding health benefits.



<figure class="wp-block-embed aligncenter is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://youtu.be/Ug657J67iEo?si=w96YjGMsg939LD_3
</div></figure>



Probiotics - beneficial microbes that balance gut bacteria and aid digestion - are typically fragile and can be destroyed by stomach acid or processing. 



Prebiotics act as food for these microbes, helping them thrive. Together, they form "synbiotics," a powerful health combination.



Researchers Smriti Gaur and Shubhi Singh from India's Jaypee Institute of Information Technology took an innovative approach, using natural prebiotics like corn and honey instead of complex processing methods. 



They created five chocolate varieties: a control and four synbiotic versions containing different combinations of prebiotics, probiotics (Lactobacillus strains), and flavor enhancers (cinnamon or orange).



Laboratory simulations of human digestion showed the probiotics remained viable for over five hours, suggesting they could survive long enough to benefit gut health.



Taste tests were positive, with researchers particularly enjoying the orange-flavored variety, describing it as having "vibrant citrus notes" complementing the "rich cocoa" with a "luxurious" texture.



This research represents just the beginning. With further refinement of strains, textures, and flavors, chocolate could evolve beyond mere indulgence to become a functional food that nourishes while it delights.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.4c00741" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ACS Food Science &amp; Technology</a>.

Is chocolate the next nutritional powerhouse?

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How does salt makes things taste better?

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Santiago, Chile in South America

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Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.



According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."



Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;



ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. 



Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

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Earth,Like,Exoplanet,3d,Render

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

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Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes Earth’s interconnected systems, and how this network is affected by rising temperatures.&nbsp;



During 2020, average global temperatures matched the hottest year on record. The hurricane season was also record-breaking, with many of the storms intensifying at extraordinary speeds. Hot water in the ocean is fuel for hurricanes. The satellite data shows that it's all one interconnected system showing how Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected.



According to NASA, dust swept up from Northern Africa plays a major role in the formation of hurricanes, and is also a key source of fertilization in the Amazon rainforest. As a result of<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seagrass-wasting-disease-is-fueled-by-climate-change/"> climate</a> change, dust plumes are expected to decline, which will have an effect on vegetation far away.&nbsp;



Images from Earth-observing satellites show how the world’s plant life is affected by natural disasters, fires, and deforestation. Satellites also reveal how widespread changes in vegetation impact waterways,&nbsp; the climate, air quality. Satellites communicate by using radio waves to send signals to the antennas on the Earth. "Earth From Space" is a groundbreaking two-hour special that reveals a spectacular new space-based vision of our planet. 



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected

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