The sight of a whale shark, the largest fish alive today, leaves most people humbled. Its slow, graceful movements and gentle nature often make them symbols of the ocean’s mystery. Yet behind this serene image lies a struggle for survival.



Populations have fallen sharply, and their biology makes recovery slow. The findings of a new study from Indonesian waters not only reveal the scale of human impacts but also highlight why protecting whale sharks is vital for ocean health.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-whale-shark-decline-accelerates">Whale shark decline accelerates</h2>



Over the last 75 years, global whale shark numbers have dropped by more than half. In the Indo-Pacific, declines are even steeper. 



Hunting, habitat disruption, and entanglements push whale sharks closer to extinction. Because they take up to 30 years to mature, populations rebound very slowly. 



Large-bodied species like whale sharks face unique risks in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/silent-invasion-how-microplastics-are-disrupting-land-ecosystems/">ecosystems</a> since they grow slowly, reproduce late, and invest heavily in fewer offspring. 



The researchers noted that the disappearance of such giants can ripple through marine systems.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-injuries-trace-back-to-people">Injuries trace back to people</h2>



In the Bird’s Head Seascape of West Papua, the research team found 62 percent of whale sharks bore scars or wounds, mostly from human actions.



“We found that scars and injuries were mainly from anthropogenic causes, such as collisions with ‘bagans’ - traditional fishing platforms with lift nets - and whale shark-watching tour boats,” said Dr. Edy Setyawan of the <a href="https://www.elasmobranchinstitute.id" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Elasmobranch Institute Indonesia</a>.



“Relatively harmless minor abrasions were the most common. Serious injuries from natural causes such as predator attacks, or from boat propellers were much less common."



Patterns in ecology show that when human activities concentrate near feeding or breeding grounds, injury rates increase significantly. 



According to the study, direct human pressures such as vessel strikes and fishing gear interactions remain among the greatest global threats to megafauna. Whale sharks are no exception.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-following-the-gentle-giants">Following the gentle giants</h2>



Between 2010 and 2023, the scientists tracked whale sharks across Cenderawasih Bay, Kaimana, Raja Ampat, and Fakfak. This biodiversity hotspot hosts 26 marine protected areas. Using the distinctive spot patterns of each shark, the researchers identified 268 individuals.



Nearly all sightings occurred near bagans, where whale sharks fed on <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ocean-warming-threatens-the-global-fish-supply/">baitfish</a> like anchovies and sprats. Most were juvenile males, four to five meters long. More than half were resighted, including one young male recorded 34 times over three years.



From an ecological lens, these observations support a classic theory: young individuals often use coastal waters rich in food, while adults migrate offshore into deeper, less accessible habitats.



Such ontogenetic shifts are common across marine megafauna and are essential for population survival.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-injuries-reshape-populations">Injuries reshape populations</h2>



Of 206 sharks with scars, over 80 percent carried human-caused injuries. Serious wounds, including lacerations and blunt trauma, were rare but concerning. More often, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/whale-sharks-move-into-dangerous-territory-as-the-climate-warms/">sharks</a> bore superficial abrasions from rubbing against fishing gear and boats.



Studies across marine ecology emphasize that while minor wounds may not kill, cumulative injuries reduce overall fitness.



Injured animals often change behavior, avoid key feeding zones, or expend more energy healing. Over time, this shapes population dynamics.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-female-whale-sharks-live-in-deep-seas">Female whale sharks live in deep seas</h2>



A lingering question is the absence of females and older individuals, since previous studies show that adult whale sharks - especially females - prefer the deep ocean where they feed on prey like krill and schooling fish.



By contrast, younger males remain near shore in shallow, plankton-rich waters that help them grow quickly.



“Our own satellite tracking data also show that females and adults frequently use deep sea features such as canyons and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seamounts-are-gathering-hubs-for-ocean-predators/">seamounts</a>,” said study co-author Mochamad Iqbal Herwata Putra.



Ecological theory explains this pattern: sexual segregation often arises in large marine vertebrates, with males and females exploiting different ecological niches to reduce competition and improve survival chances. This strategy is a driver of population resilience across species.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tourism-brings-dangers-to-whale-sharks">Tourism brings dangers to whale sharks</h2>



Staying near coasts, whale sharks offer strong potential for ecotourism. 



“Whale sharks in Cenderawasih Bay and Triton Bay (Kaimana) had high rates of residency and resighting, indicating that they should be viewed as valuable tourism assets for local communities and governments,” said Dr. Mark Erdmann of Rewild.



However, unmanaged <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/animals-change-their-daily-schedules-when-tourists-are-watching/">wildlife tourism</a> can create a risky cycle: attraction leads to proximity, which heightens disturbance and injury risk.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-small-changes-big-impact">Small changes, big impact</h2>



The researchers recommend small but effective changes, such as modifying fishing platforms to remove sharp edges.



“We aim to work with the management authorities of the marine protected areas to develop regulations to require slight modifications to the bagans, including the removal of any sharp edges from boat outriggers and net frames," said Erdmann. "We believe those changes will greatly reduce scarring of whale sharks in the region."



Ecological models highlight that even minor adjustments in human practices can dramatically reduce stress on threatened populations. 



Protecting whale sharks is more than conserving one species. It safeguards a keystone component of marine food webs, maintains ecosystem balance, and secures benefits for communities who depend on healthy seas.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/marine-science/articles/10.3389/fmars.2025.1607027/full" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Frontiers in Marine Science</a>.



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Whale sharks are literally scarred by human activity

The sight of a whale shark, the largest fish alive today, leaves most people humbled. Its slow, graceful movements and gentle nature often make them symbols of the ocean’s mystery. Yet behind this serene image lies a struggle for survival. Populations have fallen sharply, and their biology makes recovery slow. The findings of a new study from Indonesian waters not only reveal the scale of human impacts but also highlight why protecting whale sharks is vital for ocean health. Whale shark decline accelerates Over the last 75...

For years, scientists have asked whether fossils record how ocean ecosystems actually worked, not just which species were there. A new study answers that question with a careful field test along the North Carolina coast.



The researchers found that the functional makeup of marine communities can be read from the fossil record with surprising accuracy. In other words, many marine species have performed the same jobs for millions of years. 



That result matters because managers often need a trustworthy baseline for restoration in places that have been altered for centuries. If fossils preserve which ecological jobs were present, then restoration targets can be set with more confidence.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-functional-diversity-of-marine-species">Functional diversity of marine species</h2>



The study was led by Carrie L. Tyler of the University of Nevada, Las Vegas (<a href="https://www.unlv.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">UNLV</a>), with collaborators from the University of Florida. 



Tyler’s group focused on functional diversity, the variety of ecological roles in a community, such as feeding modes and mobility, rather than only <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-an-ocean-of-fire-shaped-early-earths-core-according-to-a-new-study/">species</a> lists.



Across ecology, evidence suggests that functional information can sharpen how we judge stability, productivity, and resilience. The emerging field of conservation paleobiology uses geologic archives to set realistic baselines and to guide restoration in today’s stressed ecosystems.



Scientists did not reach this point overnight. Decades of <a href="https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.1403660112" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">work</a> comparing living seafloor communities to their nearby accumulations of shells and hard parts, called a death assemblage, showed that these remains often mirror local diversity patterns. 



That line of work helped build trust that nearshore fossils can serve as credible yardsticks of past conditions.



“Most of what we know, in terms of biases in the fossil record, is based on mollusks. We designed our study to determine whether those biases are consistent when you include many types of organisms, not just mollusks,” said Tyler. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-testing-fossils-against-living-species">Testing fossils against living species</h2>



The team surveyed 51 coastal sites in Onslow Bay, North Carolina. They sampled the live benthic community, the sympatric death assemblage on the seafloor, and the subset of species known to occur as fossils in the region.



The researchers cataloged more than 200 <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-model-reveals-dramatic-swings-in-ancient-sea-levels/">species</a> spanning six major invertebrate groups. For each species, they recorded traits that drive ecosystem processes, including feeding type, motility, and where an animal lives relative to the sediment.



From those traits, they computed a set of widely used functional metrics. These included how much trait space is occupied by the community, how evenly that space is filled, and how many unique functions are covered by one species versus many.



The researchers then asked a simple question. Do the dead and fossil subsets recover the same functional structure as the living community in the same places and habitats?



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-marine-species-kept-their-jobs">Marine species kept their jobs</h2>



The answer was yes, and not by a hair. Functional groups present in the living community were also present in the death and fossil samples, and the pattern of how many species filled each function was closely aligned.



The correlations between live, dead, and fossil functional groupings were strong, with reported rank concordance exceeding 0.85 and with P values far below 0.001 in formal tests. 



Functional richness, evenness, divergence, and dispersion were highly congruent across assemblages, with only modest contraction in the fossil subset.



Importantly, the traits that matter for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ancient-sunken-oceans-discovered-between-earth-core-and-mantle/">ecosystem</a> processes were retained. Suspension feeders, burrowers, and predators each maintained their footprint in trait space, which means trophic structure and sediment interaction roles were not washed out by preservation filters.



The team also evaluated functional vulnerability. When they treated functions with two or fewer species as vulnerable, the fossil subset approximated the vulnerability seen in the live community - a practical detail for risk assessment.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-it-matters-for-conservation">Why it matters for conservation</h2>



Modern baselines are often shifted by centuries of harvesting, pollution, and warming. Functional reconstructions drawn from the youngest fossil archives can show which ecological roles have been lost and, crucially, which roles still have redundancy to buffer change.



This trait focus is powerful for setting restoration goals that match how systems actually work. It helps managers ask not only which species are missing, but which functions are absent and need reintroduction or support.



Independent syntheses point in the same direction. Previous reviews have outlined how geohistorical data can clarify extinction risk, recovery windows, and the feasibility of rebuilding ecosystem functions in coastal habitats.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-study-limitations-and-next-steps">Study limitations and next steps</h2>



No single study can cover all settings. Communities dominated by soft-bodied organisms, or places with unusually patchy preservation, may show lower functional fidelity and need case by case checks.



The authors also caution about abundance weighting at small habitat scales. In their data, heavy weighting by a few abundant taxa suppressed some evenness metrics in specific <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earth-was-once-a-green-marble-before-its-oceans-turned-blue/">habitats</a>, so presence absence trait analyses may often be the more robust first pass.



There is room to expand these tests into reef, delta, and deep shelf systems where trait distributions differ. Applying the same framework can reveal where fossil baselines are reliable enough to guide restoration targets.



“There are no pristine ecosystems left on the planet, so when you are trying to restore an ecosystem that can be a difficult and challenging task without having any idea of what it looked like before,” said Tyler. 



“It hasn’t been free of human impacts or pristine for thousands of years, so we don’t have records of what that ecosystem is ‘supposed’ to look like. This study shows the fossil record can be used to give us an idea of what that ecosystem used to look like, and what functions are needed to keep it healthy.”



The study is published in <a href="https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.2405727122" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a>.



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Some marine species have had the same jobs for millions of years

For years, scientists have asked whether fossils record how ocean...

When people think of armored dinosaurs, images of lumbering creatures with clubbed tails and heavy plates come to mind. But the discovery of Spicomellus afer in Morocco has rewritten that image in ways scientists never imagined.



New research published in the journal Nature reveals this unusual <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/large-and-ornate-sail-on-istiorachis-dinosaurs-head-may-have-been-used-for-mating/">dinosaur</a> carried a unique set of weapons and ornaments that predate similar features in other species by more than 30 million years.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-discovery-of-spicomellus">Discovery of Spicomellus</h2>



Spicomellus lived about 165 million years ago in the Middle Jurassic near what is now Boulemane, Morocco. It is the earliest known ankylosaur and the first discovered on the African continent. 



Originally described in 2021 from a single rib bone, the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dinosaur-extinction-theories-are-challenged-by-new-research/">species</a> has now been fleshed out by new remains that reveal extraordinary features.



The dinosaur’s ribs fused with long spikes, some nearly 87 centimeters, creating a collar of outward-pointing blades around its neck. No other vertebrate, living or extinct, is known to share this adaptation.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-armor-like-no-other">Armor like no other</h2>



“To find such elaborate armor in an early ankylosaur changes our understanding of how these dinosaurs evolved. It shows just how significant Africa’s <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/life-on-earth-before-during-and-after-the-dinosaur-killing-asteroid-strike-mosasaurs/">dinosaurs</a> are, and how important it is to improve our understanding of them,” noted Susannah Maidment, a professor at the <a href="https://www.birmingham.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Birmingham</a>.



The new fossils highlight just how extreme this armor truly was. Spicomellus did not only carry spikes on its ribs but displayed a wide variety of protective and ornamental features across its body. Professor Maidment noted that nothing like this has ever been seen in any other animal.



“Spicomellus had a diversity of plates and spikes extending from all over its body, including meter-long neck spikes, huge upwards-projecting spikes over the hips, and a whole range of long, blade-like spikes, pieces of armor made up of two long spikes, and plates down the shoulder."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-puzzling-spicomellus-traits">Puzzling Spicomellus traits</h2>



What makes this especially odd is the timing. “It’s particularly strange as this is the oldest known ankylosaur, so we might expect that a later species might have inherited similar features, but they haven’t,” noted Professor Maidment.



Professor Richard Butler of the University of Birmingham echoed the shock of discovery. He said that seeing and studying the Spicomellus fossils for the first time was spine-tingling. 



"We just couldn’t believe how weird it was and how unlike any other <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/giant-dinosaur-skulls-reveal-unique-hunting-strategies/">dinosaur</a>, or indeed any other animal we know of alive or extinct," noted Professor Butler.



"It turns much of what we thought we knew about ankylosaurs and their evolution on its head and demonstrates just how much there still is to learn about dinosaurs."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-purpose-of-the-spikes">Purpose of the spikes</h2>



Scientists suggest the extravagant spikes likely played a role in attracting mates or intimidating rivals, rather than in defense. 



Later ankylosaurs shifted to simpler, tougher armor, probably in response to the rise of large predators such as advanced theropods, mammals, crocodiles, and snakes during the Cretaceous.



Despite these changes, one trait may have endured. Evidence from fused vertebrae in the tail hints that Spicomellus already had a primitive club, a weapon previously thought to appear only much later.



The combination of a spiked shield and potential tail weapon suggests that many defining features of ankylosaurs emerged earlier than paleontologists believed. 



This revelation highlights the role of the fossil record in tracking how survival strategies adapted across deep time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-local-and-global-importance">Local and global importance</h2>



Professor Driss Ouarhache of&nbsp;<a href="https://www.usmba.ac.ma/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Université Sidi Mohamed Ben Abdellah</a>, who co-led the Moroccan team, emphasized the importance of regional discoveries.



“This study is helping to drive forward Moroccan science. We’ve never seen dinosaurs like this before, and there’s still a lot more this region has to offer,” said Professor Ouarhache.



The remains were carefully prepared at the <a href="https://www.fsdmfes.ac.ma/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Department of Geology</a>, Dhar El Mahraz Faculty of Sciences in Fez, Morocco, with support from the University of Birmingham. They now remain preserved there for future study.



Spicomellus afer may be gone for over 160 million years, but its spikes and plates still spark wonder. Each fossil fragment reminds us how much remains hidden in Earth’s deep history, waiting for science to bring it to light.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-025-09453-6" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature</a>.



Image Credit: Matthew Dempsey



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World's weirdest dinosaur had a spike collar and secret tail weapon

When people think of armored dinosaurs, images of lumbering creatures...

Tiny, strange-looking, and almost impossible to spot in the wild, pygmy seahorses are one of nature’s most impressive masters of disguise. 



No bigger than your thumbnail, these tiny creatures cling to coral in the western Pacific Ocean. But don’t expect to find one easily - they’ve practically vanished into their surroundings.



What makes them nearly invisible isn’t just luck. It’s the result of millions of years of extreme evolutionary fine-tuning. 



A recent study finally cracked part of the code behind camouflage in pygmy seahorses, revealing surprising clues in their DNA.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-pygmy-seahorses-built-for-invisibility">Pygmy seahorses: Built for invisibility</h2>



Pygmy seahorses were not found until 1969, and it's no surprise they remained concealed for so long. Their bodies have tiny bumps that are the same texture as coral polyps. They're colored just like the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/what-grazing-halos-and-parrotfish-reveal-about-coral-reef-health/">coral</a>. 



The snouts of pygmy seahorses are even short and stubby - like the small coral knobs they call home. They do not resemble their larger relatives, which have tube-like, long snouts. 



Pygmy seahorses appear to be the same as the coral they attach themselves to, blending as though they are a part of it. Their camouflage is so strong that in the wild, they are virtually untrackable, and keeping them captive has proven to be a challenge.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-genetic-secrets-revealed">Genetic secrets revealed </h2>



The study was led by researchers from the <a href="https://www.uni-konstanz.de/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Konstanz</a> in Germany and the South China Sea Institute of Oceanology in Guangzhou, China. 



The team set out to answer a question that had puzzled scientists: How does a pygmy seahorse end up looking so much like coral?



To find out, the researchers studied the animals’ gene activity at different stages of development. They focused on one odd feature - the pygmy seahorse’s short snout. 



Normally, all seahorses start off with a baby-like face. But as they grow, most develop the long snout that gives them their name. Pygmy seahorses never go through that growth spurt.



“Normally, a combination of different genetic components causes the snout of a seahorse to grow proportionally faster than other parts of the body from a certain age and thus become elongated," noted study lead author Professor Axel Meyer.



"In the pygmy seahorse, however, we have now discovered that these different growth rates are suppressed because the hoxa2b gene has been lost."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-childlike-stage-of-life">A childlike stage of life</h2>



The team confirmed the gene was missing by using CRISPR <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rewriting-evolution-can-gene-editing-save-endangered-species/">gene-editing</a> technology on <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/secrets-of-zebrafish-heart-regeneration-could-transform-human-cardiac-care/">zebrafish</a>. The experiments showed that when the hoxa2b gene was removed, the fish retained shorter, baby-like features - just like the pygmy seahorse.



“The head of the pygmy seahorse remains stuck in the ‘childlike’ earlier stage of development. This shape mimicks the coral perfectly and makes it more difficult for predators to detect these animals on the corals,” explained Professor Meyer. 



“With its short snout, the pygmy seahorse merges visually with the coral. A long nose, on the other hand, would stand out and make camouflage less perfect.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-genes-tied-to-the-immune-system">Genes tied to the immune system</h2>



The snout isn’t the only thing that changed. The study also revealed that pygmy seahorses have lost a huge number of genes compared to their larger relatives. That includes genes tied to the immune system.



The researchers believe this happened for a reason. Coral can release toxins, and being able to tolerate those chemicals may actually help pygmy seahorses avoid harmful <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/23-new-marine-bacteria-species-discovered-that-influence-global-ocean-cycles/">bacteria</a>. In that case, a strong immune system isn’t as necessary.



“This is probably due to the fact that coral toxins can be tolerated by the pygmy seahorses and even provide them with protection against microbes. Consequently, their immune system no longer needs the corresponding genes,” said Professor Meyer.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-benefits-for-reproduction">Benefits for reproduction </h2>



There’s another twist. In seahorses, it’s the males that carry the eggs in a special pouch. Normally, the immune system would attack anything inside the body that doesn’t match its own cells. 



But if the immune system is weakened or altered, the male can carry the eggs without triggering a rejection.



“As, however, the eggs are not genetically identical to the cells of the male’s body, they would normally be attacked as foreign tissue. Losing immune-system genes was necessary to weaken the corresponding immune response,” said Meyer.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-evolution-of-the-pygmy-seahorse">Evolution of the pygmy seahorse </h2>



The changes seen in pygmy seahorses are an example of evolution at work. Some traits disappear, while others get stronger. Over time, these changes add up to something completely new.



“In all of these <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/for-the-first-time-climate-change-adaptation-is-discovered-at-the-genetic-level/">adaptations</a>, we see examples of massive gene losses and a seemingly paradoxical release of evolutionary creativity, which ultimately explains the unusual appearance and remarkable biology of these creatures,” said Professor Meyer.



Pygmy seahorses may be small, but they offer big insights into the surprising ways that life can evolve on Earth. By losing what they did not need to retain, these organisms developed something remarkable - the capacity to all but disappear in their own environment.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.2423818122">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a>.



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How pygmy seahorses became invisible to predators

Tiny, strange-looking, and almost impossible to spot in the wild,...

Roughly 390 million years ago, the ancient seas witnessed a dramatic change. Marine animals began moving into deeper waters that had long been uninhabitable. New research suggests this expansion was fueled by a lasting rise in deep-ocean oxygen. 



The source of that oxygen traces back to the spread of woody plants on land, the earliest forests on Earth. This environmental shift coincided with an explosion of new species, especially jawed fish. 



These fish became the ancestors of nearly all <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/greenland-sharks-survive-for-centuries-in-icy-waters/">vertebrates</a> alive today. The link between oxygen levels and evolutionary diversification offers fresh insight into how life reshaped the oceans.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-oxygen-rise-shaped-evolution">Oxygen rise shaped evolution</h2>



“It’s known that oxygen is a necessary condition for animal evolution, but the extent to which it is the sufficient condition that can explain trends in animal diversification has been difficult to pin down,” said co-lead author Michael Kipp, assistant professor at <a href="https://duke.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Duke University</a>.



“This study gives a strong vote that oxygen dictated the timing of early animal evolution, at least for the appearance of jawed vertebrates in deep-ocean habitats.”



For decades, scientists believed deep-ocean oxygenation occurred only once, at the start of the Paleozoic Era about 540 million years ago. 



Later evidence pointed instead to multiple phases. First, shallower waters became livable for breathing organisms, and only later did oxygen reach deeper environments.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rocks-reveal-ocean-oxygen-history">Rocks reveal ocean oxygen history</h2>



Kipp and his colleagues focused on timing by studying sedimentary rocks once buried beneath ancient oceans. 



They measured levels of selenium, an element that records traces of oxygen in the environment. Selenium occurs in different isotopes, and their ratios reveal whether <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sea-levels-are-rising-as-predicted-with-bigger-risks-ahead/">oxygen</a> levels were high enough to support animal life.



The team collected 97 rock samples dating from 252 to 541 million years ago, gathered from five continents. 



At the time, these sites lay along outer continental shelves, the zones where land tapered into the ocean before plunging steeply downward. By analyzing isotope ratios in the samples, the researchers tracked oxygen’s reach through time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-two-deep-sea-oxygen-waves">Two deep-sea oxygen waves</h2>



Results showed two distinct deep-ocean oxygenation events. One brief episode occurred during the Cambrian period, about 540 million years ago. 



The second began during the Middle Devonian, around 393 to 382 million years ago, and continues today. Between these events, oxygen dropped to inhospitable levels for most animals.



“The selenium data tell us that the second oxygenation event was permanent. It began in the Middle Devonian and persisted in our younger rock samples,” said co-lead author Kunmanee “Mac” Bubphamanee, a Ph.D. candidate at the <a href="https://www.washington.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Washington</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-vertebrates-thrived-with-more-oxygen">Vertebrates thrived with more oxygen</h2>



The Middle Devonian oxygen rise triggered what scientists call the “mid-Paleozoic marine revolution.” With oxygen now plentiful, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ancient-fish-had-flexible-joints-like-humans/">jawed fish</a> and other animals expanded into deeper waters and diversified. 



Fossil evidence also shows that many species grew larger, likely supported by the richer oxygen supply. One example is shown in the featured image of this article - a prehistoric jawed fish from the Late Devonian called <a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/08/Dunkleosteus_prehistoric-fish_deep-ocean-oxygen_N-Tamura_1m.jpg">Dunkleosteus</a>.



This geological shift aligned with another event on land: the spread of woody plants. 



“Our thinking is that, as these woody plants increased in number, they released more oxygen into the air, which led to more oxygen in deeper ocean environments,” Kipp said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-first-oxygen-wave-faded-fast">First oxygen wave faded fast</h2>



The earlier <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/cambrian-explosion-fossils-push-back-the-rise-of-complex-life/">Cambrian</a> oxygen surge remains puzzling. Its decline likely prevented animals from permanently establishing themselves in deeper waters at that time.



“What seems clear is that the drop in oxygen after that initial pulse hindered the spread and diversification of marine animals into those deeper environments of the outer continental shelves,” Kipp noted.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-oxygen-history-warns-about-today-s-oceans">Oxygen history warns about today’s oceans</h2>



Although the study looks far into the past, its message carries urgency now. 



“Today, there’s abundant ocean oxygen in equilibrium with the atmosphere," said Kipp. "But in some locations, ocean oxygen can drop to undetectable levels."



"Some of these zones occur through natural processes. But in many cases, they’re driven by nutrients draining off continents from <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/wildlife-may-be-the-answer-to-dwindling-fertilizer-ingredient/">fertilizers</a> and industrial activity that fuel plankton blooms that suck up oxygen when they decay.”



“This work shows very clearly the link between oxygen and animal life in the ocean. This was a balance struck about 400 million years ago, and it would be a shame to disrupt it today in a matter of decades.”



-----



Featured image: An artist’s rendering of a prehistoric jawed fish from the Late Devonian called Dunkleosteus. These sorts of large, active vertebrates evolved shortly after the deep ocean became well-oxygenated. Credit: 2008 N. Tamura/CC-BY-SA



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.2501342122" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a>.



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Ancient forests pumped oxygen into the ocean and helped deep-sea fish thrive

Roughly 390 million years ago, the ancient seas witnessed a...

A slender green snake remained mislabeled in a Brazilian collection for years before scientists realized they had discovered a new species. 



Researchers formally described the species in January 2025 after a reassessment of its features and genetics, and they placed it within the parrot snake genus, Leptophis.



What first grabbed attention was a bold black stripe across the snout that resembled a mustache. That facial marker, paired with other traits, separated the animal from look-alikes that roam the same Cerrado, a vast tropical savanna in central Brazil.



This work was led by Diego Santana at the Federal University of Mato Grosso do Sul (<a href="https://www.ufms.br/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">UFMS</a>), together with colleagues who analyzed museum material and recent vouchers.



The experts report a long, dark postocular stripe trailing behind the eye and a specific pattern of green side stripes split by a pale vertebral line. The scale and tooth counts, in combination, do not match other parrot snakes in the region.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-brazil-s-savanna-under-pressure">Brazil's savanna under pressure</h2>



Biogeographers have called the Cerrado the most biodiverse savanna on Earth. It earned this status through its extraordinary mix of plants and animals and its size, roughly 720,000 square miles.



Decades of conversion to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/forgotten-indigenous-crops-could-help-solve-modern-climate-issues/">soy fields</a> and cattle pasture have already stripped away about half of its native vegetation. Projections warn of more losses without stronger safeguards.



The trend has not reversed lately either, with Brazil’s National Institute for Space Research reporting a 45 percent jump in Cerrado deforestation in 2023 compared with 2022.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-leptophis-snakes-deserve-attention">Why Leptophis snakes deserve attention</h2>



The authors used taxonomy, an approach that tests a hypothesis of species status using multiple lines of evidence, including morphology, measurements, and DNA.



They sequenced DNA from the 16S gene, a common marker in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/twenty-new-species-of-frogs-identified-in-madagascar/">herpetology</a> when reference data for other genes are limited. The team then compared the sequences with related snakes to assess genetic divergence and relationships.



“We initially thought this was a known species, but when we examined its DNA and morphology, we realized it was something new,” said Santana.



Discoveries like this highlight why snakes are worth close attention. Sitting in the middle of food webs, they help regulate small vertebrates and other prey. This service can stabilize ecosystems and, in farming regions, reduce pressure from pest species.



When <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/lessons-from-the-past-predators-are-doomed-when-their-prey-vanishes/">predators decline</a>, the effects ripple, and recovering those balances is harder than keeping them intact in the first place.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-local-knowledge-and-connections">Local knowledge and connections</h2>



Beyond ecological roles, snakes in the Cerrado also intersect with local culture and rural traditions. 



Communities often carry folklore about snakes, sometimes leading to fear and persecution. In other areas, people respect them as protectors of crops because they keep rodent populations down.



The researchers note that involving local residents in monitoring programs and conservation projects can be crucial.



Knowledge from farmers, Indigenous groups, and community members helps scientists locate hard-to-find species and builds public support for keeping habitats intact.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/08/snake_new-species_Leptophis-genus_brazil_family-tree_PeerJ_1m.jpg"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/08/snake_new-species_Leptophis-genus_brazil_family-tree_PeerJ_1s.webp" alt="Gene tree for the genus Leptophis inferred from Bayesian analysis of the 16S mitochondrial gene fragment. Values adjacent to nodes indicate posterior probabilities. Scale bar represents number of substitutions per site. Grey bars represent each evolutionary entity delimited by the GMYC (Generalized Mixed Yule Coalescent). Photo credit: L. A. Silva" class="wp-image-1983602"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Gene tree for the genus Leptophis inferred from Bayesian analysis of the 16S mitochondrial gene fragment. Values adjacent to nodes indicate posterior probabilities. Scale bar represents number of substitutions per site. Grey bars represent each evolutionary entity delimited by the GMYC (Generalized Mixed Yule Coalescent). Click image to enlarge. Photo credit: L. A. Silva</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-protecting-leptophis-snakes">Protecting Leptophis snakes</h2>



Brazil’s legal framework protects a higher share of private land in the Amazon than in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/savanna-tree-cover-may-not-be-a-reliable-climate-strategy/">savanna</a> regions. As a result, large areas of the Cerrado remain legally open to conversion on private properties under current rules.



That policy gap matters for species that depend on forested enclaves within the savanna mosaic. These habitats are scattered and, once cleared, take time to return.



In this context, naming and classifying new species becomes more than an academic exercise - it is central to protecting biodiversity under pressure. 



Leptophis is a widespread Neotropical genus of slender, bright green snakes, but its taxonomy remains in flux as researchers continue to parse cryptic diversity with museum work and new sequencing. 



Naming a species does more than provide a label - it lays the foundation for evaluating conservation status, tracking range limits, and ensuring that protections target the right populations.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-snake-species-discovery-fuels-protection">Snake species discovery fuels protection</h2>



Each vetted species from the Cerrado adds resolution to a picture that has long been blurry. Sampling efforts have historically focused on the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/tree-rings-show-amazon-rainfall-is-getting-more-extreme/">Amazon</a> and the Atlantic Forest.



As herpetologists revisit old collections and fill gaps with targeted surveys, the list of unique snakes, lizards, and frogs from this savanna keeps growing. These discoveries continue to surprise even seasoned field biologists.



The researchers need more fieldwork to estimate populations, map distributions in Tocantins and Minas Gerais, and test habitat connectivity.



Those data inform practical choices, like where to place conservation easements, how to steer soy expansion toward already cleared lands, and how to align private incentives with biodiversity goals.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://peerj.com/articles/18528/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">PeerJ</a>.



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34-inch-long creature with a 'mustache' turns out to be a new species

A slender green snake remained mislabeled in a Brazilian collection...

The ocean is full of enigmas, guarding species that appear once and vanish for decades. One such case is the sailback houndshark, a rare shark distinguished by its unusually tall dorsal fin. 



The shark was first described in 1973 after a pregnant female was caught near the Gogol River in Papua New Guinea’s Astrolabe Bay. For 50 years, this single specimen was the only evidence of its <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/shark-awareness-day-protecting-the-balance-of-the-ocean/">existence</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-sailback-houndshark-rediscovered">Sailback houndshark rediscovered </h2>



In March 2020, researchers collaborating with local fishing communities came across a remarkable discovery. Fishers near the mouth of the Gogol River shared photographs of several unusual sharks, each with a strikingly tall dorsal fin. 



Upon closer examination, the images revealed five female sharks, all belonging to the long-lost sailback houndshark.



For decades, this species had only been known from a single specimen collected in the early 1970s. The 2020 sighting marked the first confirmed evidence that the species still survived in the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dead-cow-placed-on-the-deep-ocean-floor-filmed-sleeper-shark-unexpected/">wild</a>. 



Two years later, the discovery of a male in the same area further strengthened the finding, proving that this rare shark was not extinct but quietly persisting in the waters of Papua New Guinea.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fishers-spot-sailback-houndshark">Fishers spot sailback houndshark</h2>



While science had no records for decades, fishers in Astrolabe Bay occasionally encountered the species. 



Reports suggest the sharks are caught incidentally while targeting jewfish for the lucrative fish maw trade.



Most captures occur between March and July, and again in the dry season from August to November. Unlike other <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-the-sharks-body-grows-with-geometric-precision/">sharks</a>, their meat is not valued locally and is often given away, while their fins are of poor quality for the fin trade.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-species-with-limits">A species with limits</h2>



Surveys confirm that all modern records come from near the Gogol River mouth. The shark appears to prefer deeper waters close to the continental shelf, which is narrow in this part of Papua New Guinea. 



These deeper trenches bring the species into contact with small-scale fishers. Its apparent restriction to Astrolabe Bay suggests it may be microendemic, existing only in this limited area.



Some researchers believe its distribution may once have stretched further, across Papua New Guinea and perhaps even Indonesia. As David Ebert notes, it might now be reduced to “this last little remnant population.” 



Such contractions have parallels with other local shark <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/guitar-shaped-ray-species-discovered-for-the-first-time-lives-in-the-deep-ocean/">species</a>, including bamboo and epaulette sharks, that are also confined to small habitats.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-sailback-houndshark-under-threat">Sailback houndshark under threat</h2>



Overfishing and habitat pressures are among the biggest threats to sharks and rays worldwide. For the sailback houndshark, rising demand for fish maw presents a serious risk. 



Even if not directly targeted, regular bycatch could jeopardize its survival. Rare species with such limited ranges face heightened vulnerability when human activity intensifies.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-significance-of-the-shark">Significance of the shark</h2>



The sailback houndshark represents a unique evolutionary lineage within the triakid sharks, making it of high scientific interest. 



Two preserved specimens are now held at the University of Papua New Guinea, where researchers are preparing DNA analyses with colleagues in Australia and Florida.



“These efforts will help create a genetic baseline for future monitoring and guide protection strategies,” said Jack Sagumai, first author of a study describing the discovery.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-saving-the-sailback-houndshark">Saving the sailback houndshark</h2>



The rediscovery of the sailback houndshark after fifty years is both inspiring and concerning. On one hand, it shows that this rare species has managed to survive despite decades without a scientific record, offering hope that other elusive marine animals might still be found. 



On the other hand, its rarity and restricted range reveal how vulnerable it is to threats such as overfishing and habitat pressures. A species can vanish quietly when its population is small and localized, making urgent action essential. 



By combining scientific research, conservation strategies, and the knowledge of local communities, this shark has the potential to be more than just a rediscovered curiosity. 



It could become a powerful emblem of Papua New Guinea’s unique marine biodiversity and the importance of protecting fragile ecosystems before they are lost forever.



The study is published in the <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/jfb.70196" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal of Fish Biology</a>. 



Image Credit: Jack Sagumai et al. (2025)



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Rare shark rediscovered after 50 years

The ocean is full of enigmas, guarding species that appear...

Giraffatitan was a huge sauropod dinosaur, but its tail was not a stiff anchor bolted to the hips. New digital models show a tail that lifted, bent, and twisted with control, helping the animal move and stay stable.



The study was led by Dr. Verónica Díez-Díaz from the <a href="https://www.museumfuernaturkunde.berlin/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Museum of Naturkunde</a> in Berlin. Her team worked from a well preserved section of the tail, including 18 vertebrae and 14 associated bones beneath them. Their goal was to map how each joint could move, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/early-humans-ate-tough-plants-and-changed-the-world-forever/">bone</a> against bone, without guessing about soft tissues.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-giraffatitan-s-tail-movement">Giraffatitan’s tail movement</h2>



The researchers built precise 3D joints and rotated each vertebra until the bones would either separate or collide. That produced upper limits on bending upward, downward, sideways, and twisting, all based on what the skeleton itself allows.



They anchored the work in a specimen labeled MB.R.2921 from Tanzania’s Late Jurassic rocks. The researchers identified a mechanical observation: changing the location of each joint’s center of rotation altered the amount of safe motion.



They also compared several possible joint centers to see which ones produced the highest or most realistic ranges. That sensitivity test matters because in living <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/stone-tools-flint-created-400000-years-show-technological-advancement-of-early-humans/">animals</a> the true center can shift slightly as forces change during motion.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-special-tail-bones-limited-downward-bend">Special tail bones limited downward bend</h2>



Many sauropod dinosaurs have special tail bones called <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/veterinary-science-and-veterinary-medicine/haemal-arch" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">hemal arches</a>. These are thin, V shaped bones that hang under each tail vertebra and protect blood vessels while anchoring parts of the tail’s underside muscles.



“Our results highlight the importance of considering haemal arches as functional units and osteological constraints in ventroflexion of the tail,” wrote Díez-Díaz. Hemal arches acted like hard stops that limited how far the tail could bend downward.&nbsp;



That is not just a small tweak to a model. It changes how we picture tail posture in life, because downward bend is the motion that hemal arches most resist.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tail-helped-movement-and-lift">Tail helped movement and lift</h2>



The tail’s upper bend was strongest in the middle section and weaker close to the hips. That pattern fits the shape of the joints and the tall spines on the front vertebrae, which act like built-in stops.



Lateral bend and small amounts of twist were also possible, though both were capped by the facet joints called <a href="https://www.imaios.com/en/e-anatomy/anatomical-structures/zygapophyseal-joints-1160108#" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">zygapophyses</a> that interlock neighboring vertebrae. Those same joints are nature’s guardrails that keep the spine aligned when the animal moves.



Earlier work by this team mapped the big tail muscles on Giraffatitan, including the powerful <a href="https://scholarworks.lib.csusb.edu/meeting-minds/2014/poster-pres/37/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">caudofemoralis longus</a> that helps pull the hind legs back. That <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/earth-science/articles/10.3389/feart.2020.00160/full" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">reconstruction</a> showed where muscles attached and how they could have powered the base of the tail.



Put together, the current ranges of motion and the earlier muscle map point to a tail that stayed off the ground, stabilized the hips, and contributed to smooth strides. It was a moving part of the animal’s gait, not a dead weight.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-giraffatitan-s-tail-made-walking-efficient">Giraffatitan's tail made walking efficient</h2>



The baseline model suggested that the tails can even set the rhythm for efficient walking, at roughly 2.9 miles per hour (4.7 kilometers per hour) which would have been a comfortable walking pace.



The method uses the tail’s natural frequency to find the speed that costs the least energy, which emphasizes why tail mechanics matter beyond simple posture.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-myths-versus-real-giraffatitan-limits">Myths versus real Giraffatitan limits</h2>



Popular media often implies thunderclap tail whips that break the sound barrier. <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-022-21633-2" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Testing</a> of a diplodocid style tail found a top speed near 108 feet per second (33 meters per second), which is far below the speed of sound in air.



That converts to about 74 miles per hour (119 kilometers per hour) at the tip, which is fast but not supersonic. For Giraffatitan, the new joint limits suggest controlled, useful movement, not fragile, boom producing snaps.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-flexible-tails-matter">Why flexible tails matter</h2>



Across <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-early-homo-species-discovered-lived-with-australopithecus-challenges-human-evolution-theory/">animals</a>, tails serve for balance, maneuvering, signaling, swimming, and more. A broad integrative <a href="https://academic.oup.com/icb/article/61/2/352/6298228" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">review</a> points out that tails are multifunctional tools that have drawn less attention than limbs, even though they often do as much work.



Applying that mindset to sauropods helps explain why a flexible, lifted tail makes sense. It frees the hips to conserve energy, keeps the body stable on uneven ground, and gives room for small course corrections during turns.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-joints-changed-flexibility">How joints changed flexibility</h2>



The study shows that picking a joint’s centres of rotation is not a throwaway choice. Move the center a little, and the calculated range can grow or shrink, especially for upward bending and twisting.



By reporting several reasonable choices, the team made it easier for future studies to compare apples to apples. It also makes the results more transparent, so modelers can reproduce the work and test new ideas.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-museum-models-show-lifted-tails">Museum models show lifted tails</h2>



Museum mounts that let the tail float, not drag, are on the right track. The new limits match that look and give animators and exhibit designers numbers they can defend.



There is still more to learn. Soft tissues like cartilage, ligaments, and muscle bulks will trim these skeletal limits in life, but the bone based cap is a solid place to start.



When we picture how a giant moves, we change how we think about its world. A tail that can lift and steer alters group spacing, defense options, and even how tracks form in wet ground.



It also shows how science works on long-extinct animals. Careful modeling of real bones, step by step, beats catchy myths every time.



The study is published in <a href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rsos.250851" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Royal Society Open Science</a>.



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Giraffatitan's tail contributed to its stability and locomotion

Giraffatitan was a huge sauropod dinosaur, but its tail was...

A recent announcement has confirmed that 30 Tauros cattle will be released into Saksfjed Wilderness in Lolland, Denmark. The release area covers about 800 hectares, roughly 2,000 acres, and aims to restore natural grazing at a meaningful scale.



Aurochs, known scientifically as Bos primigenius, once roamed Europe, Asia, and North Africa. The last recorded animal died in 1627. 



Genetic <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/hdy201679" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">work</a> has traced cattle domestication to the Near East about 10,000 years ago and found signs that wild aurochs mixed with early European herds. That research was led by Jens-Christian Svenning of <a href="https://www.au.dk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Aarhus University</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-aurochs-matter-today">Why aurochs matter today</h2>



Large herbivores can suppress woody growth, change plant communities, and reshape landscapes when they reach sufficient densities, according to an ecological framework.



The presence of large herbivores can influence fire patterns, nutrient cycling, and habitat structure in ways that many smaller species cannot match.



Conservationists call these animals keystone species because their actions support many others. <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/livestock-grazing-is-changing-soil-plants-and-insect-populations/">Grazing</a>, trampling, and browsing create bare ground, short grass, and mixed patches that benefit plants, insects, birds, and fungi.



This Danish effort focuses less on individual animals and more on the processes they trigger. The question on the table is simple, and important for Europe: can free-ranging cattle analogs keep landscapes open without constant human mowing or machines.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-are-tauros-cattle">What are Tauros cattle?</h2>



Tauros are not cloned or engineered: they are produced by backbreeding. This means that hardy heritage cattle, chosen for traits that resemble aurochs, are crossed and then offspring that show those traits are selected over generations.



The result is a large, athletic bovine built for year-round life outdoors, with minimal inputs. Bulls can stand about 6 feet (1.8 meters) at the shoulder and weigh more than 3,000 pounds (1,360 kilograms). Their horns can top 3 feet (0.9 meters).



The herd headed to Lolland comes from Southern and Eastern European lines with robust frames and strong survival instincts. Those lines retained behaviors and body plans that modern dairy and beef breeds often lost under intensive <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/what-grazing-halos-and-parrotfish-reveal-about-coral-reef-health/">farming</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-learning-from-tauros-cattle">Learning from Tauros cattle</h2>



"The Tauros is not only a spectacular animal, but also an important key to understanding how large herbivores can enhance the effect of rewilding and promote biodiversity," said Jens-Christian Svenning. 



"The research program will provide us with important knowledge about large herbivores in today's ecosystems and lay the foundation for future nature management," he added. Aarhus University researchers will monitor ecological effects and animal behavior over multiple years.&nbsp;



Thor Hjarsen is a biologist and project lead for the Hempel Foundation’s biodiversity portfolio in Denmark. He noted that large herbivores such as wild cattle and similar wild animals have played a crucial role in nature for hundreds of thousands of years. 



"They are referred to as 'keystone species' because their impact is so important to other species," said Hjarsen.



Animal health checks preceded the move of the Tauros cattle, including screening for diseases of concern to European cattle. Field teams will continue welfare monitoring alongside vegetation and wildlife surveys. The site will also track costs and practicality for scaling up.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-ancient-dna-reveals">What ancient DNA reveals</h2>



Sequencing the DNA of a 6,750-year-old British aurochs documented gene flow into ancestors of British and Irish breeds. This strengthens the case that wild bulls occasionally bred into domestic herds. 



That <a href="https://genomebiology.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s13059-015-0790-2" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">work</a> also mapped how selection for behavior, growth, and immunity shaped modern cattle.



Ancient DNA from Iberia adds a wider view. Researchers report repeated interbreeding between domestic cattle and local aurochs since the Neolithic, with wild ancestry stabilizing around 20 percent over the past 4,000 years.



These findings help explain why some traditional European breeds still carry traits that fit living with rough forage and open range. They also support the logic behind choosing old, hardy lineages for a backbreeding program.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-when-grazing-restores-habitats">When grazing restores habitats</h2>



Ecologists expect to see more structural diversity, with short turf patches, tussock islands, and scrub shaved back in places. In other regions, controlled experiments suggest large <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/grazing-animals-have-an-unexpected-role-in-climate-change/">herbivores</a> can slow plant community change and help check diversity loss.



If Tauros cattle maintain open habitats, ground-nesting birds and sun-loving insects should benefit. Over time, managers will look for fewer mowing passes, lower brush cutting costs, and stronger natural regeneration where <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seaweed-supplements-reduce-methane-in-grazing-cattle/">grazing</a> patterns create safe microsites for seedlings.



The work will not answer every question about rewilding in one go. It can, however, deliver clear, measurable data that helps Denmark decide where big grazers fit into future nature policy.



The study is published in <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/hdy201679" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Heredity</a>.



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Tauros cattle released in Denmark to restore wild grazing habitats

A recent announcement has confirmed that 30 Tauros cattle will...

For millions of years, dinosaurs have left their bones behind, waiting to be discovered in the rocks and cliffs of Earth. One of the latest to grab attention is a flashy new dinosaur, Istiorachis, found on England’s Isle of Wight. 



This isn’t just any dinosaur - it’s a bold-looking plant-eater with a huge sail stretching down its back and tail.



It lived about 125 million years ago. The dinosaur's sail wasn’t for swimming or flying - it was likely all about appearance. Think fashion statement, not function.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-istiorachis-dinosaur-in-plain-sight">Istiorachis dinosaur in plain sight</h2>



For years, this dinosaur’s bones sat quietly at the Dinosaur Isle Museum. They had been labeled as part of a known species. But then, someone took a closer look. 



Jeremy Lockwood is a retired doctor who is now conducting Ph.D. work with the <a href="https://www.port.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Portsmouth</a> and the Natural History Museum in London. He spent time examining old fossils and noticed something odd about one skeleton’s spine.



“While the skeleton wasn’t as complete as some of the others that have been found, no one had really taken a close look at these bones before,” Lockwood said. 



“It was thought to be just another specimen of one of the existing species, but this one had particularly long neural spines, which was very unusual.”



The more he studied the bones, the clearer it became: this dinosaur was different. The tall spine bones suggested a large sail on its back - far taller than what’s seen in most <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-dinosaur-species-identified-on-the-isle-of-wight/">iguanodontian</a> dinosaurs.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-istiorachis-was-built-to-impress">Istiorachis was built to impress</h2>



The tall spines stretched over the animal’s back and tail, forming a sail-like structure. But what was it for? Cooling the body? Storing fat? Probably not.



“<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/unraveling-the-story-of-early-animal-evolution/">Evolution</a> sometimes seems to favor the extravagant over the practical,” Lockwood said. “While the exact purpose of such features has long been debated, researchers believe that the most likely explanation in this case is visual signaling, possibly as part of a sexual display.”



“In <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/reptiles-provide-new-clues-about-the-diets-of-extinct-animals/">modern reptiles</a>, sail structures often show up more prominently in males, suggesting that these attributes evolved to impress mates or intimidate rivals. We think Istiorachis may have been doing much the same.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tracing-sail-evolution-in-dinosaurs">Tracing sail evolution in dinosaurs</h2>



To test their theory, the researchers didn’t just stop at eyeballing the fossils. They created a massive database of dinosaur spine bones - photos, illustrations, and direct measurements. 



Then they built a family tree of iguanodontians to see how spine size changed over time.



“These methods let us move beyond simply describing the fossil and actually test hypotheses about its function,” Lockwood said. 



“We showed that Istiorachis’s spines weren’t just tall - they were more exaggerated than is usual in Iguanodon-like dinosaurs, which is exactly the kind of trait you'd expect to evolve through sexual selection.”



The new dinosaur got a name too: Istiorachis macarthurae. “Istiorachis” means “sail spine.” The second part, “macarthurae,” honors Dame Ellen MacArthur, a famous solo sailor from the Isle of Wight.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-busy-fossil-neighborhood">A busy fossil neighborhood</h2>



The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-species-of-ankylosaur-discovered-on-the-isle-of-wight/">Isle of Wight</a> has been turning up one dinosaur after another. It’s been the site of discoveries like Brighstoneus, Comptonatus, and the fierce predators Riparovenator and Ceratosuchops. 



All of this tells scientists that the island was once a lively, crowded place full of different dinosaurs living together.



According to the researchers, Istiorachis adds more color to that picture. It also hints at a larger trend in dinosaur evolution. 



The stretching of backbones - called neural spine elongation - started in the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/australia-had-huge-predatory-dinosaurs-during-the-late-jurassic/">Late Jurassic</a>. But this level of stretching, called hyper-elongation (where the spine is four times taller than the vertebra), was still pretty rare.



Still, there’s a clear connection between what Istiorachis had and what some lizards today use for showing off. 



“Istiorachis is a deep-time example of the same evolutionary pressures we see shaping display structures in modern animals,” Lockwood said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dusty-bones-tell-a-new-story">Dusty bones tell a new story</h2>



This discovery wasn’t made in the field. It came from looking again at fossils sitting in a museum.



“Jeremy’s careful study of fossils that have been in museum collections for several years has brought to life the iguandontian dinosaurs of the Isle of Wight," said paleontologist Susannah Maidment.



"Over the past five years, Jeremy has single-handedly quadrupled the known diversity of the smaller iguanodontians on the Isle of Wight, and Istiorachis demonstrates we still have much to learn about <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/colossal-new-dinosaur-was-hidden-in-spains-early-cretaceous-fossils/">Early Cretaceous</a> ecosystems in the UK.” 



These fossils come from the Wessex Formation, one of the richest deposits of ancient land animals from the Early Cretaceous anywhere in the world. 



This was a turning point in dinosaur history. Iguanodontians went from being relatively unknown in the Jurassic to becoming the rulers of the plant-eating world later in the Cretaceous.



For now, Istiorachis macarthurae stands tall - not just because of its sail, but because it shows how even fossils collecting dust can still surprise us.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/spp2.70034" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Papers in Palaeontology</a>.



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Large and 'ornate sail' on dinosaur's head may have been used for mating

For millions of years, dinosaurs have left their bones behind,...

The question of aging has always fascinated humanity. Why do some creatures seem to wear out faster while others retain vitality for longer? 



Recent research has taken a surprising turn by asking whether migration influences how animals <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/why-education-matters-for-healthy-aging-and-longevity/">age</a>. To find the answer, scientists turned to an unexpected teacher: the flamingo.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-migration-affects-aging-in-flamingos">Migration affects aging in flamingos</h2>



The greater flamingo, with its pink elegance, is a familiar sight in the Camargue wetlands of southern France. Here, researchers have been studying flamingos for over four decades, thanks to an extensive tagging program. 



This long-term observation has revealed an unexpected truth. Migratory flamingos <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-are-experimenting-with-new-approach-to-fight-and-stop-human-aging-necrosis/">age</a> more slowly than their resident counterparts.



Some flamingos remain in the Camargue year-round, while others travel seasonally along Mediterranean shores. 



At first, the residents appear to thrive. They enjoy safer winters in the lagoons, leading to higher survival and reproductive success in their early adult years. Yet this advantage fades with time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-cost-of-staying-home">The cost of staying home</h2>



As years pass, the residents decline faster. Their reproductive abilities drop, and their risk of death rises. Researchers calculated that resident flamingos experience about 40 percent greater aging than migrants. 



On average, the aging process begins earlier for residents, at 20.4 years, compared to 21.9 years for migratory birds.



The migrants, who travel to Italy, Spain, or North Africa for the winter, face tougher odds early in life. They have higher mortality rates and reproduce less in their youth. 



However, migrants gain a long-term advantage: slower aging later in life. Migration, while risky, seems to preserve <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/why-some-people-age-better-hundreds-of-genes-identified/">vitality</a> as the years accumulate.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-migration-helps-flamingos-age-slowly">Migration helps flamingos age slowly</h2>



The findings suggest that migration, a behavior shared by billions of animals worldwide, influences aging itself. Choosing to stay or go shapes life history. 



"This is probably linked to a compromise between performance when young and health in old age. Residents live intensely at first, but pay for this pace later on. Migrants, on the other hand, seem to age more slowly," noted Sébastien Roques, <a href="https://www.cnrs.fr/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">CNRS</a> researcher and co-author of the study.



The research highlights flamingos as more than iconic birds of the Camargue. With their long lifespan, sometimes exceeding 50 years, and their varied behaviors, they serve as a powerful model for studying aging.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-understanding-aging-in-animals">Understanding aging in animals</h2>



The study would not have been possible without dedication. "That's the whole point of having continued this study over the long term," said Arnaud Béchet and Jocelyn Champagnon, research directors at <a href="https://tourduvalat.org/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Tour du Valat</a>.



"Initiated in 1977 in the Camargue by tagging flamingos with rings that can be read from a distance with a telescope, this program still allows us to observe flamingos tagged that year."



The researchers noted that their unique dataset that is proving invaluable for understanding the mechanisms of aging in animal populations.



The dataset now provides rare insight into how <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/breakthrough-method-reverses-aging-in-human-cells-without-modifying-dna/">lifestyle</a> differences within the same species translate into distinct aging patterns.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-aging-differs">Why aging differs</h2>



The flamingo findings fit into the broader scientific quest to unravel senescence, or biological aging. 



"Understanding the causes of changes in the rate of aging is a problem that has obsessed researchers and polymath philosophers since ancient times. For a long time, we thought that these variations occurred mainly between species," noted Hugo Cayuela, a researcher at the <a href="https://www.ox.ac.uk" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Oxford</a>.



"But recently, our perception of the problem has changed. We are accumulating evidence showing that, within the same species, individuals often do not age at the same rate due to genetic, behavioral and environmental variations."



By studying how different animals live and die, researchers hope to reveal not just how flamingos age, but also how aging works across life.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-universal-question">A universal question</h2>



This discovery extends beyond flamingos, touching on one of biology’s most fundamental questions: why and how do living beings die? 



By showing that lifestyle choices, such as migration, influence the pace of aging, the study reveals that aging is not fixed but shaped by behavior and environment.



Flamingos, with their contrasting life strategies, highlight trade-offs between early success and long-term survival. These insights could help explain variation in aging across species, including humans. 



Understanding these patterns may eventually inform medicine, health, and longevity research, offering clues into how we might age more slowly or live healthier lives.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.2422882122" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a>.



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What flamingos can teach us about the mysteries of aging

The question of aging has always fascinated humanity. Why do...

3d,Illustration,Of,Salmonella,Bacteria,For,Medicine,Concept.

If Salmonella poisoning conjures thoughts of being deathly ill with an upset stomach from undercooked chicken or eggs, you’re not alone. Another type - Salmonella Dublin - is primarily associated with cattle and can cause more severe illness in people. 



Doctors see more bloodstream infections, longer hospital stays, and a higher risk of severe outcomes when this <a href="https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10803612/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dangerous bacteria</a> infects people, which it has started doing recently.



How does it get there? <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/drinking-raw-milk-health-hazard-pasteurization-important/">Unpasteurized milk</a> and undercooked beef are common routes, and contact with sick animals can spread it too. 



This is not only a farm issue; it is a public health issue because what happens around cattle does not always stay around cattle.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-humans-cattle-and-salmonella-dublin">Humans, cattle, and Salmonella Dublin</h2>



Scientists have wrestled with a practical question: Are the Salmonella Dublin strains in cattle, people, and farm-linked environments in the United States different or basically the same? 



The answer shapes how we prevent infections and how we handle antibiotics. If the strains match closely across settings, the effective approach should connect animal health, human health, and environmental monitoring - an idea many researchers call “<a href="https://www.cdc.gov/one-health/about/index.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">One Health</a>.”



This catchy phrase isn't just a slogan. If the same bug moves between species and spaces without changing much, targeting only one part of the supply chain system will not be enough. We need solutions that address the pathogen wherever it travels.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-studying-salmonella-dublin">Studying Salmonella Dublin</h2>



Researchers gathered Salmonella Dublin from three places: sick cattle, sick people, and environmental sites tied to farms or processing facilities. 



Then they sequenced the bacteria’s DNA to compare how closely the strains were related. 



In genetics, scientists track tiny letter-level changes called single nucleotide polymorphisms (<a href="https://medlineplus.gov/genetics/understanding/genomicresearch/snp/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">SNPs</a>), pronounced “snips.” Fewer SNP differences mean the strains likely share a recent common ancestor.



The goal was to see whether strains from cows, people, and the environment clustered into separate groups or stayed together. 



If they stayed together, that would point to active movement between hosts and places, not isolated pockets of disease.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-we-know-so-far">What we know so far</h2>



The team learned that strains from cattle, humans, and the environment in the U.S. were extremely similar - often differing by only a small number of SNPs. 



In a study published in Applied and Environmental Microbiology, the researchers reported that despite some genetic differences across 2,150 Salmonella Dublin strains, the bacteria remained highly similar.



"This similarity shows potential for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/reverse-zoonoses-humans-are-getting-their-pets-sick/">cross-transmission</a> between cattle, humans, and the environment," explained team leader and senior author Erika Ganda, an associate professor of food animal microbiomes in the Penn State <a href="https://agsci.psu.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">College of Agricultural Sciences</a>. 



“That’s important, because it shows that Salmonella Dublin is highly connected across humans, animals and the environment - so efforts to control it need to consider all three,” Ganda continued. 



“This study’s findings provide detailed genetic evidence that can help guide surveillance - tracking the bacteria, intervention strategies such as limiting <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/antibiotic-resistance-increasing-enterococci-looming-global-crisis/">antibiotic use</a> in livestock and public health policies.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-salmonella-dublin-has-a-tight-family-tree">Salmonella Dublin has a tight family tree</h2>



The genetic picture does not split into distant branches based on where or when strains were found. It looks like a “tight family tree.” That suggests ongoing movement between animals, people, and farm environments or equipment.



That kind of connected pattern matters for hospital readiness, farm policies, and everyday choices at the dinner table.



The team also examined <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-increases-threat-antimicrobial-resistance/">antimicrobial resistance</a>. They did not stop at asking whether resistance existed. 



They checked which resistance genes appeared and how those patterns differed among strains from cows, people, and the environment. They found meaningful differences across those sources.



That means control strategies should match the resistance patterns in each place. A one-size-fits-all antibiotic plan is unlikely to work. 



Responsible antibiotic use requires laboratory testing and clear guidelines, not guesswork, to protect drugs that still work.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-farms-families-and-food-chains">Farms, families, and food chains</h2>



Prevention starts before anyone gets sick. On farms, that includes biosecurity to keep new or sick animals from spreading infection, plus cleaning and disinfection that reach tough spots. In the food chain, the basics work: <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/most-americans-dont-know-the-dangers-of-raw-milk-and-bird-flu/">pasteurize milk</a> and cook beef thoroughly. 



For home kitchens, avoid raw milk and use a thermometer. Ground beef should reach 160°F, and whole cuts like steaks should reach 145°F with a rest.



For clinics and hospitals, rapid laboratory testing helps clinicians avoid antibiotics that will not work. When lab teams can see the resistance profile early, patients get better treatment sooner, and we save the stronger drugs for when they are truly needed.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-high-resolution-genome-map">High-resolution genome map</h2>



Genome sequencing turns thousands of bacterial samples into a high-resolution “map.” 



By comparing SNP differences across many strains, scientists can connect dots that older methods might miss, including hidden links between farm sources and human cases.



That means public health teams can focus on the pathways doing most of the harm. Targeted steps beat broad, blunt strategies, especially when resources and time are limited.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-salmonella-dublin-and-human-health">Salmonella Dublin and human health</h2>



This is not a fear story or some type of political stunt. It's a highly-coordinated scientific study driven by peer-reviewed evidence. 



The U.S. Salmonella Dublin population looks tightly knit and changes only a little as it spreads. 



That clarity helps, because it points to a shared job and a big "to-do" list.



Officials must strengthen surveillance that connects animal, human, and environmental samples; tailor antibiotic guidelines to the resistance patterns seen in each source; and block obvious transmission routes with pasteurization, thorough cooking, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-confirm-first-case-of-rare-parasite-in-pigs-posing-health-risks/">farm hygiene</a>, and smart infection control in clinics.



Put simply, the same pathogen keeps appearing in cows, people, and nearby environments, showing a nearly identical genetic profile. 



With a shared target and coordinated defenses, we stand a better chance of stopping it before it reaches pandemic levels by starting on someone’s dinner plate, ending up in the bloodstream, and spreading from there like wildfire.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://journals.asm.org/doi/10.1128/aem.00689-25" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Applied and Environmental Microbiology.</a>



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Bacteria strains that infect cattle are now also infecting humans, sounding alarm bells

If Salmonella poisoning conjures thoughts of being deathly ill with...

The ocean covers most of our planet, yet much of it remains out of reach. Scientists have long struggled to study life in the deep sea. Robotic equipment is expensive, and people cannot dive to extreme depths. 



These issues leave entire marine ecosystems unexplored. Nicole Xu, an engineer at <a href="https://www.colorado.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">CU Boulder</a>, is confident that her lab's "cyborg" moon jellyfish can help.



These sea creatures, also known as <a href="https://animaldiversity.org/accounts/Aurelia_aurita" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Aurelia aurita</a>, are simple but remarkable. They move with little effort, pulsing gently as their translucent bells expand and contract. Their tentacles drift behind them like threads, yet every motion is purposeful.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-creating-cyborg-moon-jellyfish">Creating "cyborg" moon jellyfish</h2>



Xu has watched jellyfish for years, first as a fascinated student and now as a researcher. She studies their movements not just to admire them, but to put them to work.



Her team attaches small electronic devices to the animals. These devices stimulate their <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/cell-and-developmental-biology/articles/10.3389/fcell.2016.00157/full" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">muscles</a> and allow researchers to steer them. Soon, the system may carry sensors to track temperature, acidity, and other ocean data.



That could send jellyfish into places humans rarely reach, and return information that is otherwise too costly to gather.



“Think of our device like a pacemaker on the heart,” Xu said. “We're stimulating the swim muscle by causing contractions and turning the animals toward a certain direction.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-survival-through-500-million-years">Survival through 500 million years</h2>



Climate change is hitting the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-ecosystem-sea-creatures-never-before-seen-revealed-antarctica-iceberg-breakup/?utm_source=chatgpt.com">ocean</a> hard. The water is getting warmer and more acidic as carbon dioxide levels rise. 



Marine life struggles to adapt, and many species are in danger. Scientists need to measure how these changes unfold. 



The challenge is scale. The ocean is vast, deep, and unpredictable. Sending ships or robots everywhere is simply not possible.



That is where jellyfish stand out. They are some of the most energy-efficient creatures alive. They have survived in their current form for more than 500 million years. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-moon-jellyfish-are-ideal-explorers">Moon jellyfish are ideal explorers</h2>



Jellyfish don’t have a brain or spine, but their basic organs and nerve nets keep them moving. 



They also lack nociceptors, so they don’t experience pain the way humans do. Their stings cannot break human skin, which makes them easier to work with.



Moon jellyfish live in many environments. They often float near shorelines where food is abundant. But they also dive to extreme depths, even as far as the <a href="https://ocean.si.edu/planet-ocean/seafloor/mariana-trench" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Mariana Trench</a>, 36,000 feet (10,900 meters) down.



That range makes them ideal for exploration. Xu first tested her biohybrid jellyfish in 2020, guiding them through shallow waters near Woods Hole, Massachusetts.



“There’s really something special about the way <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/this-blue-button-jellyfish-isnt-actually-a-jellyfish-so-what-is-a-porpita/?utm_source=chatgpt.com">moon jellies</a> swim. We want to unlock that to create more energy-efficient, next-generation underwater vehicles,” she said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-learning-how-moon-jellyfish-work">Learning how moon jellyfish work</h2>



Xu’s lab doesn't only focus on movement. She and her team study how jellyfish push water as they swim. To see this, they fill tanks with biodegradable particles like corn starch. They then shine lasers through the water.



The particles light up the flow patterns created by the jellyfish. This approach replaces older methods that used synthetic tracers such as glass beads. Those tracers were more toxic and less sustainable. Corn starch is safer, cheaper, and better for the animals.



Her group also works on improving steering in natural ocean conditions. The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seamounts-are-gathering-hubs-for-ocean-predators/">open sea</a> is far less predictable than a lab tank, so making the technology reliable outside is a big step. 



Xu believes these advances can lead to new tools that draw ideas from nature rather than replacing it. But the research is not only about technology - it also raises ethical questions.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/08/cyborg-moon-jellyfish_lab-tank_nicole-xu-scientist_CUBoulder_1m.jpg"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/08/cyborg-moon-jellyfish_lab-tank_nicole-xu-scientist_CUBoulder_1s.webp" alt="Nicole Xu stands behind the main jellyfish tank in her lab. (Credit: Glenn Asakawa)" class="wp-image-1983357"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Nicole Xu stands behind the main jellyfish tank in her lab. Click image to enlarge. Credit: Glenn Asakawa</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-caring-for-moon-jellyfish-in-labs">Caring for moon jellyfish in labs</h2>



For many years, scientists believed <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ocean-noise-can-be-fatal-to-marine-invertebrates/">invertebrates</a> could not feel pain. New evidence now suggests that some may react to harmful experiences. 



That means researchers must think carefully about how their experiments affect the animals they study. Xu takes this seriously.



She watches for signs of stress in her jellyfish. Stress usually causes them to produce extra mucus and stop reproducing. 



Her jellyfish show none of those patterns. Instead, they seem to be thriving. Inside her tanks, baby polyps the size of pinheads are growing, with tiny tentacles starting to appear. That growth suggests the jellyfish are healthy and reproducing naturally.



“It's our responsibility as researchers to think about these ethical considerations up front,” Xu said. “But as far as we can tell, the jellyfish are doing well. They're thriving.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-jellyfish-as-ocean-allies">Jellyfish as ocean allies</h2>



Jellyfish may look simple, but they represent a major shift in how humans can explore the ocean. By combining engineering with biology, Xu’s work shows that living creatures can serve as allies in research.



They move efficiently, survive in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/life-in-the-extreme-microbial-activity-discovered-in-old-faithful/">extreme environments</a>, and carry little risk to humans. Outfitted with sensors, they could one day map parts of the ocean we know almost nothing about.



This is not science fiction. Xu has already proven the concept in the field. Her next steps include refining the technology and expanding its capabilities. 



She sees jellyfish not only as data gatherers but also as inspiration. Their effortless swimming could shape how we design future underwater vehicles.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rethinking-research-tools">Rethinking research tools</h2>



The idea challenges how people think about research tools. Instead of building larger machines, we might adapt what already exists in nature. It is efficient, elegant, and potentially transformative. 



At the same time, Xu insists that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/animals-and-possibly-even-insects-have-emotions/">ethical care</a> for the animals must remain at the center of this work.



Her project stands as a reminder that progress and responsibility can go together. The moon jellyfish, a creature that has floated through Earth’s waters for half a billion years, may now help us understand how those waters are changing today.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://journals.aps.org/prfluids/abstract/10.1103/bg66-976x" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Physical Review Fluids</a>.



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Scientists create and control 'cyborg' moon jellyfish to study changes in Earth's oceans

The ocean covers most of our planet, yet much of...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE
</div></figure>



On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop and sunlight barely penetrates through the polar winter. It was here, however, that an international team of scientists found <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/predatory-worms-were-terror-beasts-half-a-billion-years-ago/#google_vignette" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evidence of sea monsters</a> that would change our understanding of ocean life in the past.



This video captures the discovery of Timorebestia fossils that had been hidden for more than 500 million years in the Sirius Passet formation. The "terror beasts," as they are called, are a hidden chapter in the evolutionary history of <a href="https://www.earth.com" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Earth</a>, showing that sophisticated predator-prey interactions occurred much earlier than previously envisioned.



Dr. Jakob Vinther and his research team at the <a href="https://www.bristol.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Bristol</a>, in collaboration with researchers at the <a href="https://eng.kopri.re.kr/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Korean Polar Research Institute</a>, braved extreme weather conditions at 82.5 north latitude to locate these giant creatures. Using sophisticated electron microprobe analysis, they revealed the detailed anatomy of the animals, including their muscle and nerve tissues.



The find upsets the traditional timeline of sea predators. Although we've long appreciated that Cambrian oceans were at one time ruled by <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jWI3-UgA3_o&amp;list=PL1QLQMW9MWDwpkFOnvgAmu7wT6rZmYqdJ&amp;index=19" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">arthropods</a>, these discoveries indicate that relatives of arrow worms were first to dominate the seas. These worms were building sophisticated food webs several million years before other predator groups arose.



Each fossil is a story of ancient hunger, with fossil stomach contents revealing these meter-long beasts dined on heavily armored arthropods regularly, cementing their place as the ocean's first apex predators.



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Worms dominated seas before dinosaurs

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">New York is the site of the world's oldest forest.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-385-million-year-old-trees-discovered">385-million-year-old trees discovered</h2>



Scientists have uncovered something extraordinary just two hours north of New York City. The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/worlds-oldest-forest-discovered-close-to-new-york-city/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">world's oldest forest</a>, dating back 385 million years, offers a window into how Earth's first complex forests shaped our planet's atmosphere.



Located near <a href="https://townofcairo.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cairo, New York</a>, in Greene County, these weren't merely primitive plants struggling to survive. These were sophisticated trees with root systems remarkably similar to modern forests. This ancient woodland predates dinosaurs by 140 million years.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-cairo-forest-discovery">The Cairo forest discovery</h2>



385 million years ago, upstate New York was a tropical paradise near the equator. Thanks to continental drift, this ancient forest has traveled thousands of miles to its current location.



The fossil forest sits in an abandoned quarry, roughly half the size of a football field. This represents just a slice of what was likely a massive forest system stretching from New York into Pennsylvania.



Charles Ver Straeten, curator of sedimentary rocks at the <a href="https://www.nysm.nysed.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">New York State Museum</a>, made the discovery in 2009. While scouting the former highway department property, his trained eye spotted wandering patterns in the stone that looked like marine features.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-revolutionary-age-and-preservation">Revolutionary age and preservation</h2>



The site contains 385-million-year-old rocks with fossilized woody roots forming horizontal patterns up to 18 feet (5.5 meters) wide. As Christopher Berry, a paleobotanist at Cardiff University, explains: "You are walking through the roots of ancient trees."



This discovery pushes back advanced tree evolution by millions of years. The research, published in <a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/home" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Current Biology</a> in December 2019, fundamentally changes our understanding of when complex forests first emerged.



Researchers believe a massive flood buried the forest floor, creating perfect fossilization conditions. Over millions of years, sediment hardened into rock, preserving these root patterns like nature's time capsule.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-meet-archaeopteris-the-first-modern-tree">Meet Archaeopteris: the first modern tree</h2>



The star of this ancient forest is Archaeopteris – not to be confused with the feathered dinosaur Archaeopteryx. This tree was far older and more revolutionary.



William Stein from <a href="https://www.binghamton.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Binghamton University</a> describes the roots as "strikingly modern, essentially what you'd see outside in my yard right now." These weren't simple root systems you'd expect from ancient plants.



Some fossilized roots are six inches (15 centimeters) in diameter, forming 36-foot-wide (11-meter) patterns. These giants grew up to 65 feet (20 meters) tall with five-foot-diameter (1.5-meter) trunks.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-changing-impact">Climate-changing impact</h2>



These trees fundamentally changed Earth's environment. Kevin Boyce, a Stanford University geoscientist, explains how their deep roots triggered "weathering," chemical reactions that pulled carbon dioxide from the atmosphere.



This process dropped atmospheric CO2 levels from 10-15 times higher than today to roughly modern concentrations. These ancient trees helped create atmospheric conditions that made complex life possible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ancient-forest-ecosystem">Ancient forest ecosystem</h2>



The forest was remarkably diverse. Scientists identified Eospermatopteris, palm tree-like plants with short roots that reached 30 feet (9 meters) tall but lacked woody structure. The forest also housed cladoxylopsids and a mysterious third species still being studied.



All reproduced through spores rather than seeds – millions of years before seeds evolved. This tropical environment had no grass, flowers, or flying insects, just towering trees creating Earth's first complex forest canopy.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-scientific-significance">Scientific significance</h2>



Before this finding, the Gilboa forest, located 25 miles (40 kilometers) away, held the "oldest forest" title. Cairo's trees are 2-3 million years older, showing that complex forest ecosystems developed much faster than scientists believed possible.



Patricia Gensel, a <a href="https://www.unc.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of North Carolina</a> paleobotanist, notes: "The size of those root systems is really changing the picture. Even 20 years ago, researchers assumed trees with such complex root systems didn't evolve so early."



The Cairo site presents three unique root systems, suggesting Devonian period forests were diverse ecosystems with different trees occupying different environmental niches, much like today's forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-modern-preservation-efforts">Modern preservation efforts</h2>



In 2022, New York State Senator Michelle Hinchey secured a $170,000 grant for the town of Cairo to construct specialized fencing around the fossil forest site. The town plans to conduct a feasibility study exploring the possibility of creating an educational center and working lab on-site.



Joe Hasenkopf, chair of the Cairo Planning Board, hopes to partner with educational institutions to create a research facility serving scientists, students, and the public.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lessons-for-today-s-climate">Lessons for today's climate</h2>



Why does a 385-million-year-old forest matter today? It shows how dramatically forests can change Earth's climate. These ancient woodlands created the atmospheric conditions supporting complex life.



Understanding how prehistoric forests transformed the planet helps us appreciate modern forests' critical role in addressing climate change. Forests remain Earth's most effective carbon capture systems.



These prehistoric trees changed Earth's atmosphere by pulling massive amounts of carbon dioxide from the air. As we face modern climate challenges, this ancient forest reminds us of trees' incredible power to transform our planet's environment.



The next time you walk through a forest, remember you're experiencing an ecosystem whose blueprint was established 385 million years ago in upstate New York. These ancient pioneers didn't just survive – they thrived and changed the world forever.



The full study was published in the journal Current Biology.



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Earth's oldest forest found in the United States

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ New York is the site of the world's oldest...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Acid rain and a crisis solved.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-don-t-we-ever-hear-about-acid-rain-anymore-the-environmental-crisis-that-was-solved">Why don't we ever hear about "acid rain" anymore? The environmental crisis that was solved</h2>



Remember the 1980s when acid rain dominated headlines? Dire warnings about rain eating buildings, killing fish, and destroying forests filled every news cycle. Then, almost like magic, acid rain vanished from public discourse. What happened? Did we actually solve one of the late 20th century's most pressing environmental challenges?



The answer might surprise you. Unlike many environmental issues that drag on indefinitely, acid rain represents one of modern history's most successful ecological recovery stories. It's a tale of science, politics, and technology working together to tackle what seemed impossible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What was acid rain?</h2>



Acid rain isn't regular rain having a bad day – it's precipitation that became significantly more acidic due to air pollution. When power plants, factories, and vehicles burn fossil fuels, they release sulfur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides (NOx) into the atmosphere.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The science behind it</h2>



Think of acid rain as nature's chemistry experiment gone wrong. These compounds react with water, oxygen, and other chemicals to form sulfuric and nitric acids. When mixed with water vapor in clouds, they create precipitation with dangerously low pH levels.



While clean rain has a pH of about 5.6, acid rain could drop as low as 4.2 to 4.4 – roughly as acidic as tomato juice or coffee. According to US Geological Survey documentation, Scottish chemist Angus Smith first coined "acid rain" in 1872, but it didn't become a household phrase until the 1960s and 1970s when Swedish scientist Svante Odén documented its devastating effects on Scandinavian lakes and European forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The crisis at its peak</h2>



During the height of public concern, environmental damage was both widespread and visible. This wasn't some abstract future threat – people could see destruction happening in real-time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Environmental devastation</h2>



The most dramatic impacts were impossible to ignore. Research documented by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation and the New York State Department of Environmental Conservation shows that in the Adirondack Mountains, more than 200 lakes became so acidic they couldn't support fish life. The Adirondack Council reports that 409 lakes once supported brook trout, but many lost their fish populations due to acid rain.



By 1976, when scientists cataloged all acidified lakes in the Adirondack Park, researchers found that half of the lakes over 2,000 feet above sea level had no fish, according to studies published in environmental journals. The acidification process worked like a slow-motion disaster. As acid rain fell into watersheds, it gradually lowered pH levels. Fish couldn't survive in acidic water, and their food sources died off too.



Trees at high elevations showed stress directly linked to acid rain. It weakened them by leaching nutrients and making them susceptible to disease. Historical records show Germany's Black Forest saw nearly half its trees damaged by the mid-1980s.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Economic impact</h2>



Acid rain wasn't just environmental – it was expensive. Acidic precipitation corroded infrastructure, buildings, and monuments. Historic stone structures deteriorated at accelerated rates. Tourism suffered as lakes became fishless and forests declined. EPA economic analyses from the period documented repair costs mounting into billions annually.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The solution: government action and technology</h2>



Transformation from crisis to success required unprecedented cooperation between governments, industries, and environmental groups.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The Clean Air Act of 1990</h2>



The turning point came with the Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990, signed by President George H.W. Bush. This represented a fundamentally new approach to environmental regulation, as documented in EPA historical records.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Cap-and-trade success</h2>



Instead of mandating specific technologies, the 1990 amendments introduced something revolutionary: a cap-and-trade system for sulfur dioxide emissions. EPA program documentation shows this market-based approach set overall limits but allowed companies to trade emission allowances.



The genius was harnessing market forces to find cost-effective pollution reduction. Companies reducing emissions cheaply could sell excess allowances to those facing higher costs. Research published in environmental economics journals and EPA progress reports shows this resulted in dramatic SO2 reduction at a fraction of projected costs.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Technology advances</h2>



Policy provided the framework, but technology made reductions possible. Studies in atmospheric science journals document the widespread adoption of flue gas desulfurization systems ("scrubbers") that removed sulfur dioxide before it reached the atmosphere. By the 2000s, new installations could remove over 95% of SO2 emissions, according to EPA technical reports.



The push coincided with cleaner energy development. Natural gas produces fewer sulfur compounds than coal. Wind and solar, emerging in the 1990s, captured growing market share, reducing reliance on high-sulfur coal.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-we-don-t-hear-about-it-today">Why we don't hear about it today</h2>



Why did acid rain disappear from headlines? Simple: the problem was largely solved.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Success doesn't make news</h2>



There's an old journalism saying: "If it bleeds, it leads." Environmental success stories don't generate urgency like crisis reporting. Media attention shifted to other challenges: climate change, plastic pollution, and biodiversity loss. There's only so much environmental anxiety the public can absorb, and newer concerns replaced acid rain.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Mission accomplished</h2>



The primary reason is beautifully simple: interventions worked. EPA monitoring data shows sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990. Academic research published in environmental science journals confirms pH levels in formerly affected areas returned closer to normal. This represents one of history's most dramatic environmental recoveries. Studies by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation show fishless lakes now support healthy populations. Forests recovered, and building damage slowed dramatically.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-is-it-really-gone">Is it really gone?</h2>



The crisis is largely resolved, but monitoring data shows the problem isn't completely eliminated – it's managed to acceptable levels. Some areas still experience occasional events during high pollution periods. International environmental research indicates that rapidly industrializing Asian countries face similar problems to what we experienced decades ago, though they're implementing successful strategies.



EPA research shows nitrogen oxide emissions proved more challenging than sulfur dioxide, coming from vehicles and mobile sources. Climate science studies suggest changing weather patterns add complexity to how acid rain forms and falls.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What this teaches us</h2>



The acid rain experience proves that seemingly intractable environmental problems can be solved with scientific understanding, political will, and technological innovation. Environmental monitoring data shows recovery speed was remarkable – within a decade, measurable improvements appeared in air quality and ecosystem health.



Success came from bipartisan support across party lines. Policy analysis studies show the market-based approach appealed to those preferring economic incentives while achieving environmental goals. This support created lasting policy surviving political changes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Conclusion</h2>



Acid rain's disappearance from public consciousness represents environmental science's greatest success stories. Through effective regulation, technological innovation, and international cooperation, we transformed an overwhelming crisis into a manageable challenge.



Today's silence isn't because we forgot – it's because we solved it. The 1990 Clean Air Act, combined with technology and energy market changes, reduced acid rain emissions over 90%, according to comprehensive EPA data analysis.



This success offers hope for current challenges. It proves complex problems can be solved when science, policy, and technology work together. As we face climate change and plastic pollution, acid rain reminds us that dramatic positive change is possible.



Next time someone asks whether environmental regulations work, remember acid rain. It's proof that sometimes, we get it right.



<hr class="wp-block-separator has-alpha-channel-opacity"/>



Sources: This article draws from EPA official documentation and progress reports, peer-reviewed research published in environmental and atmospheric science journals, historical data from the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation, New York State Department of Environmental Conservation records, US Geological Survey publications, policy analysis studies, and environmental monitoring data collected over three decades.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Frequently Asked Questions</h2>



1. Is acid rain completely gone? No, but EPA monitoring shows it's reduced to manageable levels. US sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990, making acid rain much less severe than the 1980s crisis.



2. How long did solving take? Environmental monitoring data shows significant improvements began within 5-10 years of 1990s emission controls. Full ecosystem recovery took longer – some areas need 20-30 years for complete recovery.



3. What made the solution successful? Clear scientific understanding, visible damage motivating action, bipartisan support, available technology, and innovative market-based policies like cap-and-trade.



4. Do other countries have acid rain problems? Yes, particularly rapidly industrializing Asian countries. However, international environmental research shows many implement similar successful control strategies.



5. Could acid rain return? Potentially, if regulations weaken or we return to high-sulfur coal without controls, though effects would take years to become severe according to environmental projections.



6. Can you recommend any teaching tools on the subject of "acid rain"? The United States Environmental Protection Agency produced a wonderful teacher's guide for ages 14 and under that you can find on the EPA website here: <a href="https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf</a>



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The environmental problem we actually solved

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk Acid rain and a crisis solved. Why don't we...

Fresh,Radish,Harvest,On,Soil,In,Garden.

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://youtu.be/Fi2OeEwuzRM?si=vTyd2m9FMmtyWkex
</div></figure>







Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving fall garden, and this guide lays out the best vegetables and herbs to plant now for a fruitful autumn harvest. 



Fast-growing leafy greens such as spinach, lettuce, kale, and arugula perform especially well in the waning summer heat, with harvests beginning as soon as 30 days. 



These cool-season crops relish the transition into fall, offering repeated yields with cut-and-come-again methods.



Root vegetables like radishes, carrots, and beets also excel during this period. Radishes deliver satisfaction in under a month, while carrots and beets mature in about two months. Employing succession planting ensures a continuous stream of produce deep into the cooler months. 



For a boost of fresh flavor, herbs like cilantro, basil, dill, and chervil are excellent picks. These heat-loving varieties flourish in July’s warmth and are harvest-ready in about 30 days, especially when sown continuously.



Gardeners in zones 6 through 9 can benefit from planting bush beans and snap peas, which don’t require trellising and are ideal for compact plots. 



Maturing in 50–60 days, they’re a smart choice for quick, protein-rich harvests. For those in hotter regions, heat-tolerant crops such as okra and southern peas provide reliable yields and thrive in scorching conditions.



This guide emphasizes more than crop selection—it highlights the importance of timing, soil preparation, and ongoing sowing techniques. 



With thoughtful planning and attention to regional climate needs, even late-summer gardeners can enjoy fresh salads, hearty stews, and the satisfaction of a robust, homegrown harvest well into fall.



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What to plant in your garden in mid-July

https://youtu.be/Fi2OeEwuzRM?si=vTyd2m9FMmtyWkex Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving...

Green,Ecoduct,Over,An,Empty,Highway,During,Sunset.

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://youtu.be/XYgiPzmNBTU?si=eFYY7gPHU1JznLvU
</div></figure>



A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that wildlife tunnels significantly reduce amphibian road mortality during seasonal migrations. 



Frogs and salamanders often cross roads to reach breeding ponds each spring, but many are killed by vehicles. 



Researchers from the <a href="https://www.uvm.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Vermont</a>, in collaboration with local citizens and the Vermont Agency of Natural Resources, installed two underpass tunnels in 2015. 



Over a 12-year monitoring period, they observed an 80.2% reduction in amphibian deaths, and up to 94% for non-climbing species like salamanders. 



The study used a before-after-control-impact design and documented more than 5,200 amphibians, highlighting the tunnels’ effectiveness even in nearby buffer zones.



Funded at $342,397 - far cheaper than wildlife crossings for large mammals - the project showcased the power of community-led conservation.



Local groups initiated the effort after observing mass amphibian deaths. Wildlife cameras later captured over 2,200 amphibians using a tunnel in just one spring, along with other species like raccoons and bobcats, indicating wider ecosystem benefits.



This marks the first peer-reviewed, long-term data set in the northeastern U.S. confirming amphibian-specific underpasses work. 



The study urges transportation departments to incorporate these designs into road planning and highlights how community action, thoughtful infrastructure, and persistence can make a real difference for biodiversity.



The full study was published in the <a href="https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1617138125000780" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal for Nature Conservation</a>.



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Wildlife tunnels save millions of amphibians

https://youtu.be/XYgiPzmNBTU?si=eFYY7gPHU1JznLvU A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that...

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing it with probiotics and prebiotics, aiming to create a treat that satisfies cravings while supporting gut health. 



The challenge lies in maintaining chocolate's beloved texture and flavor while adding health benefits.



<figure class="wp-block-embed aligncenter is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://youtu.be/Ug657J67iEo?si=w96YjGMsg939LD_3
</div></figure>



Probiotics - beneficial microbes that balance gut bacteria and aid digestion - are typically fragile and can be destroyed by stomach acid or processing. 



Prebiotics act as food for these microbes, helping them thrive. Together, they form "synbiotics," a powerful health combination.



Researchers Smriti Gaur and Shubhi Singh from India's Jaypee Institute of Information Technology took an innovative approach, using natural prebiotics like corn and honey instead of complex processing methods. 



They created five chocolate varieties: a control and four synbiotic versions containing different combinations of prebiotics, probiotics (Lactobacillus strains), and flavor enhancers (cinnamon or orange).



Laboratory simulations of human digestion showed the probiotics remained viable for over five hours, suggesting they could survive long enough to benefit gut health.



Taste tests were positive, with researchers particularly enjoying the orange-flavored variety, describing it as having "vibrant citrus notes" complementing the "rich cocoa" with a "luxurious" texture.



This research represents just the beginning. With further refinement of strains, textures, and flavors, chocolate could evolve beyond mere indulgence to become a functional food that nourishes while it delights.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.4c00741" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ACS Food Science &amp; Technology</a>.

Is chocolate the next nutritional powerhouse?

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

[sendtonews key="0ynNMYkMKa-2340414-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

[sendtonews key="G9bUoxcjr4-2511624-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="3upvlAaHgO-2256633-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How does salt makes things taste better?

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Santiago, Chile in South America

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Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.



According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."



Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;



ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. 



Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

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Earth,Like,Exoplanet,3d,Render

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

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Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes Earth’s interconnected systems, and how this network is affected by rising temperatures.&nbsp;



During 2020, average global temperatures matched the hottest year on record. The hurricane season was also record-breaking, with many of the storms intensifying at extraordinary speeds. Hot water in the ocean is fuel for hurricanes. The satellite data shows that it's all one interconnected system showing how Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected.



According to NASA, dust swept up from Northern Africa plays a major role in the formation of hurricanes, and is also a key source of fertilization in the Amazon rainforest. As a result of<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seagrass-wasting-disease-is-fueled-by-climate-change/"> climate</a> change, dust plumes are expected to decline, which will have an effect on vegetation far away.&nbsp;



Images from Earth-observing satellites show how the world’s plant life is affected by natural disasters, fires, and deforestation. Satellites also reveal how widespread changes in vegetation impact waterways,&nbsp; the climate, air quality. Satellites communicate by using radio waves to send signals to the antennas on the Earth. "Earth From Space" is a groundbreaking two-hour special that reveals a spectacular new space-based vision of our planet. 



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected

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