Before there were dinosaurs, before trees covered the land, fish were already hard at work shaping Earth’s future. They did this with a single powerful innovation: jaws.



Jaws weren’t just for biting. Fish used them for all sorts of tasks - cracking shells, digging into the seafloor, defending themselves, and even carrying their young.



This one tool gave early vertebrates - including our distant ancestors - a huge advantage. But not all fish jaws evolved the same way.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-surprising-twist-in-fish-jaw-evolution">Surprising twist in fish jaw evolution</h2>



Roughly 400 million years ago, fish ruled the seas. Two big groups stood out: <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/coelacanth-ngamugawi-wirngarri-new-species-living-fossil-fish-survived-over-400-million-years/">lobe-finned fishes</a> and ray-finned fishes. 



Lobe-finned fishes had fleshy, muscular fins that helped them move in different ways. <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/319-million-year-old-fish-holds-clues-about-brain-evolution/">Ray-finned fishes</a> had lighter, more flexible fins supported by thin spines.



Today, ray-finned fishes dominate the oceans, rivers, and lakes. They include about 33,000 species - from goldfish to tuna. 



Lobe-finned fishes, on the other hand, are nearly extinct. Only eight species are known to exist today, including the coelacanth and the lungfish. But a new study from the <a href="https://umich.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Michigan</a> flips the story.



The research shows that between 359 and 423 million years ago, lobe-finned fishes were the ones leading the evolutionary race. 



Their jaws were changing fast, adapting in all sorts of new ways. Meanwhile, the ray-finned fishes were evolving far more slowly.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-finding-answers-in-ancient-jaw-bones">Finding answers in ancient jaw bones</h2>



The researchers used CT scans to create 3D models of 86 fossilized fish jaws from the Silurian and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/at-least-two-of-earths-mass-extinctions-caused-by-massive-supernova-explosions/">Devonian Periods</a> - dating back to around 443 million years ago. That’s older than the first forests.



The team digitally mapped these jaws to study both their shape and how they worked. To measure the strength of a fish's bite, they calculated something called mechanical advantage.



Emily Troyer is a postdoctoral researcher at the University of Michigan and lead author of the study. She explained that essentially, the higher the mechanical advantage of the jaw, the stronger the bite force.



The results showed something no one expected. "This is a really striking result, primarily because <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/lungfish-genome-discovery-explains-how-fish-first-walked-onto-land/">lungfish</a> and coelacanths today are represented by only eight living species, with not much jaw diversity going on," Troyer said. 



"However, if we look back in time 400 or so million years, we see this striking inversion. During the Devonian, we have a lot more species and a lot more innovation within their jaws." 



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/09/Dipterus-fish_whole-skeleton_credit-Troyer-UMichigan_1m.jpg"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/09/Dipterus-fish_whole-skeleton_credit-Troyer-UMichigan_1s.webp" alt="Whole skeleton of Dipterus, an extinct lungfish from the middle Devonian period. Specimen (UMMP 16140) from the University of Michigan Museum of Paleontology. Credit: E.M. Troyer/UMichigan" class="wp-image-1984595"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Whole skeleton of Dipterus, an extinct lungfish from the middle Devonian period. Specimen (UMMP 16140) from the University of Michigan Museum of Paleontology. Click image to enlarge. Credit: E.M. Troyer/UMichigan</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lungfish-jaws-lead-the-way">Lungfish jaws lead the way</h2>



Lungfish jaws, in particular, went through a major shift during the Devonian Period. Their jaws became larger, thicker, and packed with powerful muscles. This likely helped them crush hard-shelled prey, like early clams and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/tiny-crustaceans-have-what-it-takes-to-survive-climate-change/">crustaceans</a>.



"With their really hefty jaws, they were able to eat really hard food," Troyer said. "We think these new feeding strategies might be causing jaws to need to be shaped like this, and that some of these major innovations are associated with their ecosystems during this time."



Rafael Rivero-Vega, co-first author of the study and a recent doctoral graduate, scanned nearly every complete lobe-finned fish jaw fossil available. 



He mapped out their key features to study something called adaptive radiation. That’s when animals quickly evolve into many different forms because their environment pushes them to adapt.



Rivero-Vega saw clear patterns. "Some fishes were diversifying their jaws rapidly in shape and size, only later to stay essentially unchanged once they filled a specialized niche," he said. 



"Others had similar characteristics but a wider variety of shapes and sizes, and yet others had similar form but wouldn't change until after they had already transitioned onto land."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fish-jaw-innovation-changed-the-future">Fish jaw innovation changed the future</h2>



This research shows that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/discovery-evolution-not-random-can-be-predicted-pangenome-genetic-history/">evolution</a> doesn’t follow a straight line. Just because a group is successful now doesn’t mean it always was. 



Lobe-finned fishes once led the way in jaw innovation, helping set the stage for major changes in vertebrate life - including the eventual rise of amphibians, reptiles, birds, and mammals.



"When you're looking at evolution, you can learn so much from looking at the past," Troyer said. "Without the fossil record, we would have no idea of this inverted role reversal."



The study also highlights the importance of old bones. Even though only a few lobe-finned fishes are still around, their ancient fossils tell a story that would otherwise have been be lost.



"It's a great example of how innovations in shape, form, and function can be explored by different fish groups at their own pace, as long as they experience the appropriate evolutionary pressures," said Rivero-Vega. 



"All of this happened hundreds of millions of years before the dinosaurs. Fishes are awesome."



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0960982225010395" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Current Biology</a>.



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How ancient fish jaws built the path to modern land animals

Before there were dinosaurs, before trees covered the land, fish were already hard at work shaping Earth’s future. They did this with a single powerful innovation: jaws. Jaws weren’t just for biting. Fish used them for all sorts of tasks - cracking shells, digging into the seafloor, defending themselves, and even carrying their young. This one tool gave early vertebrates - including our distant ancestors - a huge advantage. But not all fish jaws evolved the same way. Surprising twist in fish jaw evolution Roughly 400 million...

Back,View,Of,Dog,Talking,To,Dog,Friends,In,Video

Spending time with dogs brings comfort. But can watching them virtually help too? A new study says yes. The researchers found that a five-minute video of a therapy dog can ease stress almost as much as an in-person visit.



Led by Dr. John-Tyler Binfet from&nbsp;<a href="https://ok.ubc.ca" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">UBC Okanagan</a>&nbsp;and Dr. Christine Tardif-Williams from&nbsp;<a class="" href="https://brocku.ca/">Brock University</a>, the study tested the impact of virtual <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/therapy-dogs-on-campus-help-students-manage-stress-and-anxiety/">dog</a> videos on both students and non-students. Over 1,000 people took part, showing clear stress relief across groups.



“Our findings demonstrate that even with a virtual session, there was a significant reduction in stress among both the student population and the general public, regardless of age,” said Dr. Binfet.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-therapy-dog-videos-created-calm">How therapy dog videos created calm</h2>



The virtual canine comfort modules were brief, calming, and thoughtfully made. They featured therapy dogs and handlers from the B.A.R.K. program, a known student well-being initiative.



Each video included a welcome message, land acknowledgment, gentle narration, and sensory prompts. Participants were asked to imagine petting the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/therapy-dogs-reduce-emotional-exhaustion-and-work-burnout/">dog</a> and were guided to reflect on their emotions.



This method mimicked real therapy dog sessions without needing in-person attendance. It also gave viewers flexibility to watch from anywhere and at any time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-therapy-dog-videos-lowered-stress">Therapy dog videos lowered stress</h2>



This study included two phases: student participants (N = 963) and community members (N = 122). Both groups reported lower stress levels after the session. 



For students, average stress dropped from 3.33 to 2.53 on a five-point scale. For community members, the reduction was from 3.07 to 2.43.



Interestingly, women in the student group experienced more stress relief than men. Before watching, women reported higher stress. After viewing, their stress dropped to levels similar to male participants. Age, however, had no major influence on results.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-beyond-the-pandemic-context">Beyond the pandemic context</h2>



This isn’t the first time virtual therapy <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/petting-a-dog-might-be-the-easiest-way-to-reduce-stress/">dog</a> sessions were studied. But this research took place after COVID-19 restrictions ended. That makes it more relevant today, as it reflects everyday conditions.



The findings confirm that people continue to benefit from virtual canine modules even when in-person options are available. 



The simplicity and low commitment of the videos help reduce stress without needing a formal setting.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-who-benefits-most-from-virtual-sessions">Who benefits most from virtual sessions?</h2>



This method works for students, busy adults, or anyone avoiding therapy due to stigma. 



For example, one participant said: “I have thought about attending an in-person session on campus before since I love dogs but the interacting with humans made me anxious."



"No offense to anyone but this virtual <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/interacting-with-dogs-can-ease-physical-pain/">dog</a> session removes the unknown human interaction that may make people nervous."



The videos can serve as an easy first step toward mental health care. Researchers believe this “foot in the door” model could help people eventually seek further support.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-short-and-effective-videos">Short and effective videos</h2>



The virtual modules were just five minutes long. Despite the short length, they led to measurable improvements in stress. 



Participants viewed videos on YouTube without scheduling anything. That made it very convenient and widely accessible.



This short duration also helped protect the welfare of therapy dogs. In virtual settings, dogs avoid the stress of busy live events. It’s better for them and still works for humans.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-inclusive-and-accessible-therapy-sessions">Inclusive and accessible therapy sessions </h2>



The sessions were inclusive in design. People from different age groups, ethnicities, and life situations took part. 



Virtual delivery helps reach rural residents, people with social anxiety, or those who simply prefer solitude.



Modules could be tailored further to suit marginalized or neurodiverse audiences. Researchers recommend more collaboration between mental health professionals and human-animal interaction experts to design targeted content.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-of-therapy-dog-research">Future of therapy dog research</h2>



The study had some limitations. It lacked a control group watching non-dog videos, so other calming factors weren’t ruled out. 



Also, long-term effects weren’t measured. Researchers want future work to track how long the stress relief lasts.



The gender imbalance in the sample also raises questions. Most participants were women, which matches past studies. Still, future research should explore how different genders experience virtual dog sessions.



Another future step could be combining these modules with mindfulness techniques. That might boost their calming impact even more.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-feeling-better-with-little-effort">Feeling better with little effort</h2>



Virtual canine comfort videos offer a short, calming break with meaningful benefits. They help reduce stress, particularly for women and those who avoid traditional therapy settings. 



The videos are easy to access, require no special tools, and can reach people from all backgrounds.



In a time when stress and mental health challenges are rising, a simple dog video may be more powerful than we thought.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.cabidigitallibrary.org/doi/10.1079/hai.2025.0015" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Human-Animal Interactions</a>.



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Scientists prove that simply watching dogs on video can reduce stress and anxiety, no contact required

Spending time with dogs brings comfort. But can watching them...

In the watery world of fish evolution, feeding is everything. Success depends on catching food efficiently, whether it's darting prey or algae stuck to rocks. 



A recent study published in the journal PLOS Biology&nbsp;shows that fish face a basic anatomical choice: grow big teeth or evolve mobile jaws - they can’t do both.



Nick Peoples and colleagues at <a href="https://www.ucdavis.edu/">UC Davis</a> used high-speed videography and evolutionary models to investigate this trade-off across 161 ray-finned fish species.



Ray-finned fishes dominate the aquatic world, forming about half of all vertebrate species. Their feeding success hinges on two traits: long teeth that help damage or grip prey, and extendable jaws that produce suction for capturing elusive prey. Yet both features rarely appear in the same species.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-bigger-teeth-less-mobile-jaws">Bigger teeth, less mobile jaws</h2>



The researchers analyzed videos to track how fish approached prey using three techniques: swimming forward (body ram), extending the jaws (jaw ram), or sucking prey in (suction). Most species (76%) relied on body ram, while suction rarely played a primary role.



The team found that tooth size closely matched feeding strategy. Fish with big teeth nearly always relied on body ram. Those with small teeth used jaw protrusion more effectively. 



There was no strong link between tooth size and suction use. The results support a simple pattern: the bigger the teeth, the less mobile the jaws.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tooth-size-limits-feeding-flexibility">Tooth size limits feeding flexibility</h2>



To explore the evolutionary basis of this mismatch, the team ran statistical models comparing species with different feeding behaviors. 



The results confirmed a tight trade-off: <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/small-fish-species-are-the-big-catch-of-the-future/">species</a> that use jaw ram evolved to have teeth four times smaller than species that rely on swimming strikes.



The study also showed that as teeth get larger, the diversity of feeding strategies drops sharply. Species with smaller teeth had more flexibility, combining jaw movement and suction in various ways. This flexibility was lost in fish with bigger teeth.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-jaw-structure-shapes-fish-evolution">Jaw structure shapes fish evolution</h2>



Most <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/319-million-year-old-fish-holds-clues-about-brain-evolution/">ray-finned fish</a> grow replacement teeth inside the jawbone. This requires extra space, especially if the teeth are big. But extendable jaws are slim and fast-moving, with little room for large internal replacements.



The result? Fish with mobile jaws can’t support very large teeth. “This presents a dilemma for species with high jaw protrusion," noted the researchers.



Slim jaws that allow fast strikes limit space for growing new, large teeth. To make things harder, large teeth could slow a suction strike by creating drag or interfering with water flow. Fish that use suction likely keep their teeth small on purpose.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fish-adapt-to-keep-big-teeth">Fish adapt to keep big teeth</h2>



Some species sidestep this problem using special modifications. These include fused teeth in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/what-grazing-halos-and-parrotfish-reveal-about-coral-reef-health/">parrotfish</a>, which form a beak, and stacked tooth structures in pufferfish that become dense cutting tools. 



Triggerfish attach teeth using soft tissue for more support, while butterflyfish evolved flexible tooth shafts.



These adaptations allow large-toothed species to exploit unique diets - like coral scraping, detritus collection, or even wood eating.



“When we looked into which species had exceptionally large teeth, we were surprised to find that they also have interesting modifications to the dental system, like the beak of parrotfish," said Peoples.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-feeding-success-has-limits">Feeding success has limits</h2>



Fish evolution illustrates a simple but powerful rule: you can't always have it all. Both big teeth and mobile jaws help fish survive, but trying to evolve both seems to backfire.



“Many feeding innovations have evolved in fishes, and our results show that it is important to consider the interactions between these traits as some may actually be incompatible with each other," noted Peoples.



“High-speed videography really provides a unique view into fish feeding. IIt often reveals subtle movements and behaviors that you would not notice if only observing the fish in the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/the-hidden-environmental-impacts-of-tropical-fish-aquariums/">aquarium</a>.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-bite-hard-or-strike-fast">Bite hard or strike fast</h2>



Fish species that evolved big teeth gave up jaw mobility but gained new dietary options. Species that evolved flexible jaws gained versatility but lost the power to grip or damage prey.



This study highlights how physical constraints can shape evolution. Even in a group as diverse as ray-finned fishes, nature imposes limits. 



Those limits may explain why fish face a fork in their evolutionary path: bite hard or strike fast - but never both.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosbiology/article?id=10.1371/journal.pbio.3003225" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">PLOS Biology</a>.



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Why fish can’t evolve both powerful jaws and big teeth

In the watery world of fish evolution, feeding is everything....

There is an apparent paradox in evolutionary theory. The rate of evolution seems to run like a sprinter over a few million years yet crawl over tens of millions, a pattern so regular that textbooks use it to link microevolution with macroevolution.&nbsp;



For decades, biologists treated that apparent increase in evolutionary rate as biological truth, arguing that young groups diversify faster than old ones, shed species more quickly, and tweak body plans at record pace. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-evolutionary-rate-paradox">Evolutionary rate paradox </h2>



Early molecular studies showed that mutation rates estimated from contemporary samples were 5-20 times higher than those calibrated with fossils drawn from deep <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/physicists-confirm-the-incredible-existence-of-time-mirrors/">time</a>, jolting confidence in the evolutionary “<a href="https://www.biorxiv.org/content/10.1101/2023.12.02.569704v1" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">clock</a>.” 



Paleontologists spotted the same mismatch in the rock record: the evolutionary rate in newly arisen dinosaur lineages seemed faster than in lineages that had persisted for tens of millions of years.



Some theorists proposed that ecological opportunity drives early bursts, while competitive saturation dulls the pace later on. 



Others hinted that developmental constraints lock traits into “optimal” configurations and slow further change, an idea that made intuitive sense but resisted firm testing.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-statistical-noise-warps-the-picture">Statistical noise warps the picture </h2>



A research team led by Brian C. O’Meara at the <a href="https://www.utk.edu/">University of Tennessee</a> and Jeremy M. Beaulieu at the <a href="https://www.uark.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Arkansas</a> has recently investigated this paradox of evolutionary theory. 



O’Meara and Beaulieu built a simulation that treats every evolutionary rate estimate as a fraction - change in trait divided by elapsed <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/negative-time-observed-measured-tangible-in-new-quantum-experiments/">time</a> - and then distributed measurement error evenly across every numerator.



Because the denominator (time) varies wildly while the error does not, the ratio traces a <a href="https://math.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Algebra/Algebra_and_Trigonometry_1e_(OpenStax)/12%3A_Analytic_Geometry/12.02%3A_The_Hyperbola" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">hyperbola</a> that plummets with age - exactly the pattern that inspired all those stories of adaptation.



“By employing a novel statistical approach, we found that this time‑independent noise … makes it seem like evolutionary rates increase over shorter time frames when, in fact, they do not,” explained O’Meara.&nbsp;



When the team randomized real datasets, shuffling trait differences while leaving times intact, the fake data reproduced more than 85 percent of the scatter found in genuine evolutionary rate studies. This level of mimicry stunned even longtime rate‑modelers.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-running-the-numbers">Running the numbers</h2>



The analysis covered molecular substitutions in birds and primates, body‑size shifts in mammals and lizards, speciation surges in flowering plants, and extinction tallies drawn from conservation lists.&nbsp;



Across five independent datasets totaling almost 9,000 evolutionary rate estimates, the fitted curves showed the same steep drop in the first 10 million years followed by a flattening tail, just what the noise model predicts.



In one mammal dataset, the median coefficient of variation for repeated measurements at the same age was 0.59, meaning the standard <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/traditional-computers-verify-errors-made-by-quantum-computers/">error</a> was more than half the mean value. 



Put differently, five percent of those “measurements” would have placed the Eiffel Tower shorter than a giraffe or taller than twice its real height - an error band that is wide enough to drown any subtle biological signal.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-viral-evolution-and-the-cosmos">Viral evolution and the cosmos</h2>



The statistical noise idea echoes work on viral evolution, where apparent mutation‑rate “decay” with time has been traced to mutational saturation and sampling bias rather than to fundamental shifts in replication chemistry.&nbsp;



Astronomers face a parallel dilemma: the “<a href="https://science.nasa.gov/missions/hubble/nasas-webb-hubble-telescopes-affirm-universes-expansion-rate-puzzle-persists/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Hubble tension</a>” arises because recent supernova surveys and ancient cosmic‑microwave‑background data give different expansion rates. 



Some physicists now attribute the Hubble discrepancy, at least partly, to mismatched error structures.



Both cases remind scientists that plotting a ratio (rate) against one of its components (<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/time-may-not-just-move-forward-experts-say-it-could-rewind/">time</a>) courts mathematical traps unless errors are modeled explicitly. 



The new study argues that evolutionary biology has been caught in just such a trap, mistaking geometry for genetics.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-next-steps-in-evolutionary-rate-research">Next steps in evolutionary rate research</h2>



Comparative methods that search a phylogeny for bursts of trait change may flag any young <a href="https://evolution.berkeley.edu/the-tree-room/evolutionary-trees-a-primer/clades-within-clades/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">clade</a> as “rapidly evolving” even when its true rate of change matches the background, simply because less time has accrued to dilute measurement error.



Diversification analyses that exclude small groups with zero speciation events risk overestimating average rates near the present, further skewing the perceived trend. 



O’Meara suggests that researchers of evolutionary theory adopt fixed‑window approaches, examining change per 100,000 years or per 1 million years, much as <a href="https://www.environmentalscience.org/dendrochronology-tree-rings-tell-us" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dendrochronologists</a> study tree rings, thereby holding the denominator constant.



He also urges journals to require explicit error terms for trait means, branch‑length estimates, and dating calibrations - allowing models to partition signal from noise instead of forcing error to zero by fiat.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-evolutionary-theory-matters">Why evolutionary theory matters</h2>



Far from closing the doors of research into evolution rates, the work clears the field to tackle fresh questions: which traits truly <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/quantum-tunneling-allow-particles-break-light-speed-barrier/">speed</a> up or slow down over time, and under what ecological or genetic circumstances? 



With the hyperbolic mirage out of the way, biologists can focus on signals that remain after accounting for error, signals that may illuminate how life diversifies, adapts, and sometimes stalls.



Tools developed for sequencing error in virology or for tip‑dating in paleogenomics could be repurposed to model measurement uncertainty in comparative datasets from diverse branches of the tree of life.&nbsp;



“Biology is rich in mysteries: actually answering one lets us move on to the next,” wrote the authors in an unpublished summary of their work. The statement highlights their view that solving the rate paradox frees, rather than constrains, evolutionary thought.



The study is published in <a href="https://journals.plos.org/ploscompbiol/article?id=10.1371/journal.pcbi.1012458" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">PLOS Computational Biology</a>.



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Scientists debunk key evolutionary theory as "statistical noise"

There is an apparent paradox in evolutionary theory. The rate...

Killer whales have been spotted doing something unexpected: using seaweed to massage one another.



Experts observed them breaking off pieces of kelp, placing it between themselves and another whale, and rolling it between their bodies. The behavior looks deliberate - and it’s something researchers had never seen before.



The discovery was made by scientists at the Center for Whale Research, working with the <a href="https://www.exeter.ac.uk/">University of Exeter</a>. They used high-quality drone footage to study southern resident killer whales in the Salish Sea, off the coast of Washington State. 



What they saw was new: pairs of whales using kelp together in a way that might count as tool use - a first for marine mammals.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-whales-shared-seaweed">Whales shared seaweed</h2>



Killer whales have long been known to engage in “<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/whales-play-with-seaweed-and-roll-in-its-antibacterial-properties/">kelping</a>,” a term used when they rub themselves with seaweed. But this new behavior goes further. The whales aren’t just grabbing kelp for themselves. They’re using it with each other - what the scientists are calling “allokelping.”



What makes this behavior stand out is how the kelp is used. Whales were seen selecting it, trimming it, and then coordinating with a partner to rub it between their bodies. That makes it more like tool-making than simple play.



“We were amazed when we first noticed this behavior,” said Dr. Michael Weiss of the <a href="https://www.whaleresearch.com/">Center for Whale Research</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-whales-favor-kin-for-kelping">Whales favor kin for "kelping"</h2>



The whales didn’t allokelp randomly. Most of the time, they did it with relatives - especially close maternal kin - or whales of similar age. The researchers think it may help strengthen social bonds or even benefit <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mysterious-skin-disease-threatens-endangered-killer-whales/">skin health</a>.



“Bull kelp stalk is firm but flexible, like a filled garden hose, with a slippery outer surface. I suspect these features make it an ideal grooming tool,” said Weiss.



“What I find remarkable about this behavior is just how widespread it is in the population. Males and females of all life stages and from all three southern resident pods were seen using kelp in this way. All evidence points to it being an important part of their social lives.”



Allokelping was seen on two-thirds of the observation days. Based on the consistency, the researchers think it might be universal within the group.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-quality-of-drone-footage">Quality of drone footage</h2>



So why hadn’t anyone noticed it before? The quality of drone footage made all the difference.



“This population of whales has been formally studied for 50 years - the best-studied <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sign-of-the-times-solitary-orcas-are-hunting-great-whites/">orcas</a> on the planet - and yet major new discoveries can still be made,” said Rachel John, a graduate student studying animal behavior at the University of Exeter.



According to John, the researchers hadn’t noticed ‘allokelping’ before because the videos being collected from their previous aircraft weren’t of high enough quality, but the footage we’re getting now shows this behavior in great detail.



She recalled the moment they realized what they were seeing: “Drone cameras allow us to see things that were invisible to us from boats or the shore. I was watching one of those really close-up videos when I saw something that looked like a brown stick between two whales that were in contact with each other."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-kelping-behavior-of-killer-whales">Kelping behavior of killer whales</h2>



John said her team didn’t think much of this at first, but they had also noticed pairs of whales staying in contact with each other for long periods - several minutes at a time.



"We looked back at lots of videos and realized that rubbing kelp between their bodies wasn’t just a one-off thing - it was happening all the time," she noted.



"Once we saw whales breaking off pieces of kelp intentionally, it became clear that this is not just play - this is something important in the social lives of the southern resident killer whales.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-importance-of-touch">The importance of touch </h2>



Professor Darren Croft, of the University of Exeter and the Center for Whale Research, thinks the answer lies in the importance of touch. “We know touch is really important," he said. “In primates - including humans - <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-discover-a-hidden-way-that-humans-feel-and-sense-touch/">touch</a> moderates stress and helps to build relationships."



“We know killer whales often make contact with other members of their group - touching with their bodies and fins - but using kelp like this might enhance this experience."



This behavior may also play a role in skin health. Whales and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dolphins-hear-special-whistles-and-change-their-behavior/">dolphins</a> use a variety of strategies to shed dead skin - and this could be yet another adaptation serving that purpose.



“Brown algae like bull kelp also have antibacterial and anti-inflammatory properties that may provide further benefits to the whales," Croft said.



Scientists are now working to confirm these initial findings and investigate the social and skin health benefits of this behavior.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-population-on-the-brink">A population on the brink</h2>



As of July 2024, there were only 73 southern resident killer whales left. They don’t breed with other killer whale groups. That makes them a closed population - and a critically endangered one.



Their main food source is <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/distinctly-different-chinook-salmon-are-part-of-the-same-population/">Chinook salmon</a>, which is also declining. The salmon face pressure from overfishing, habitat destruction, climate change, and pollution. On top of that, whales have to deal with noise and chemical pollution from boats and industry.



Dr. Weiss warned that without significant change, the future of southern resident killer whales looks grim.



“Under the status quo, all of our projections indicate the population will continue to decline," he said. “They are struggling to find enough of the large Chinook salmon needed to survive and successfully rear their young.



“We often think about biodiversity in terms of protecting the phenotypic variation we see in animal populations - such as differences in size, shape, and color. However, conserving cultural and behavioral variation may be just as important."



Dr. Weiss added that allokelping is yet another piece of evidence of the southern residents’ uniqueness. If we lose them, he said, we lose so much more than 73 individual animals or a genetic lineage.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-vanishing-kelp-forests">Vanishing kelp forests</h2>



The new findings also suggest that the future survival of southern resident killer whales may face an added threat: the decline of kelp forests they rely on for grooming tools. This decline is being driven by rising ocean temperatures linked to global warming.



Protecting the kelp forests where these whales craft their grooming tools could be vital to preserving their unique cultural behavior. It may also help ensure the long-term survival of the southern resident killer whale population.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/fulltext/S0960-9822(25)00450-6?_returnURL=https%3A%2F%2Flinkinghub.elsevier.com%2Fretrieve%2Fpii%2FS0960982225004506%3Fshowall%3Dtrue">Current Biology</a>.



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Killer whales use kelp to massage and groom each other

Killer whales have been spotted doing something unexpected: using seaweed...

The hairy frogfish looks more like a tuft of drifting seaweed than a hunter. Yet beneath the mop of filaments sits an anglerfish that can inhale prey faster than most cameras can blink.



Marine ecologist Dr. Maarten De Brauwer of <a href="https://research.csiro.au/environomics/our-people/early-career-researchers-separate-bios/dr-maarten-brauwer/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Curtin University</a> first noticed that the fish’s lure shines neon orange under blue light, while the rest of the body stays dull. 



His team’s 2016 field <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s00338-016-1493-1" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">survey</a> on Philippine reefs linked that glow to free‑swimming worms that share the same color and size.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hairy-frogfish-hides-by-copying-reef-textures">Hairy frogfish hides by copying reef textures</h2>



The hairy frogfish belongs to the anglerfish <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/frogfish-lure-their-prey-with-a-built-in-fishing-rod-and-bait/">family</a>, but instead of lurking in the deep it prowls coral rubble in tropical shallows. 



A coat of branching spinules lets it copy the texture of algae, sponge, or coral until the head seems to vanish into the seafloor.



Individuals can swap pattern and shade within weeks, shifting from lemon yellow to mottled black as sediment, light, and growth change around them. 



That rapid makeover is a textbook example of <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0022519323002801" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Batesian mimicry</a>, a tactic where harmless looks discourage predators while inviting unsuspecting prey.



Sight alone does not give the trick away, because even the fish’s eyes carry radiating stripes that obscure the pupil. 



Only the stubby “arm” formed by the first dorsal spine, called the <a href="https://www.britannica.com/science/illicium-zoology" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">illicium</a>, rises above the camouflage like a tiny fishing pole.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-the-glowing-lure-helps-the-hairy-frogfish">How the glowing lure helps the hairy frogfish</h2>



“These observations indicate a novel function, prey capture, for biofluorescence in coral reef fishes,” wrote De Brauwer. 



Under daylight the illicium ends in a dull worm‑shaped tassel, but blue‑filtered lamps reveal intense <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-020-59528-9" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">biofluorescence</a> that converts blue light to orange. 



The idea fits a wider pattern, because a survey of 180 fish species found <a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0083259" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">glowing pigments</a> clustered in cryptic reef lineages. 



<a href="https://www.amnh.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">American Museum of Natural History</a> ichthyologist <a href="https://www.amnh.org/research/staff-directory/john-s-sparks" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Dr. John Sparks</a> noted that “biofluorescence is especially common and morphologically variable in cryptically patterned coral‑reef lineages,” hinting at communication or hunting value.



By matching the fluorescent worms that drift over sandy bottoms at night, the lure likely acts as a living decoy. 



The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/deep-sea-anglerfish-defy-evolutionary-expectations/">fish</a> twitches the tip in arcs and pulses that copy the jellied plankton’s swim, drawing curious gobies and cardinalfish within lunging range.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fastest-strikes-on-record">Fastest strikes on record</h2>



Once a victim lines up, the mouth opens twelve times wider than its resting size, pulling in water and prey through rapid <a href="https://www.floridamuseum.ufl.edu/discover-fish/species-profiles/striated-frogfish/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">suction feeding</a>. 



High‑speed videos have timed the attack at just six milliseconds, making the frogfish one of the quickest predators recorded.



That burst happens because elastic ligaments around the jaw store energy while the fish crouches. Releasing the latch snaps the head forward, creating a pressure wave that drags prey inward before the target knows it moved. 



The stomach then stretches like a balloon, letting a four‑inch frogfish swallow a meal almost twice its own length. Mouth, stomach, and even gill covers reset within minutes, ready for the next ambush without swimming far.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hairy-frogfish-lives-without-swimming">Hairy frogfish lives without swimming</h2>



Frogfish seldom swim, preferring a slow shuffle powered by limb‑like pectoral and pelvic fins. The gait looks clumsy, yet it lets the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/world-frog-day-2025-protecting-natures-tiny-guardians/">animal</a> creep through branching corals or over sponges without stirring mud.



<a href="https://fishbase.se/summary/Antennarius-striatus.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">FishBase</a> records show the species from New Jersey to Brazil and across the Indo‑Pacific, at depths ranging from tide pools to 720 feet. 



Most adults settle below 100 feet where wave surge is gentle, but juveniles often lurk among shore grass beds that teem with shrimp.



Males change color during courtship, trailing females to the surface where a buoyant ribbon of up to 288,000 eggs drifts free. Larvae hatch in open water and later drop to the bottom, beginning the camouflage dance anew.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-the-findings-mean">What the findings mean</h2>



“Aggressive mimicry allows a predator to masquerade as something harmless to approach prey,” wrote marine zoologist <a href="https://zoolstud.sinica.edu.tw/Journals/44.3/299.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">John E. Randall</a>. Aggressive mimicry, where a predator disguises itself as the prey’s food, shows up in a handful of reef hunters.&nbsp;



The fluorescent lure adds a light signal to that illusion, effective only for animals with visual pigments tuned to blue and green. Future lab tests will measure how often fish reject non‑fluorescent lures compared with glowing ones, refining ideas about sensory ecology.



Understanding these cues may also improve non‑invasive survey methods that use fluorescence to spot cryptic species on night dives. Conservation teams already trial blue‑light transects to count seahorses and pipefish that vanish under white lamps.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-to-protect-hairy-frogfish">How to protect hairy frogfish</h2>



Antennarius striatus sits on the <a href="https://www.iucnredlist.org/species/16406979/115354869#assessment-information" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">IUCN list</a> as “Least Concern,” but habitat loss threatens local populations on polluted coasts. 



Collectors sometimes trawl adults for the aquarium trade, yet demand remains modest compared with bright reef staples like clownfish.



Protecting rubble fields and sea‑grass beds will likely benefit the frogfish alongside countless small invertebrates. Marine parks can also restrict night fishing with lights that might interfere with fluorescent signaling.



Citizen scientists armed with blue torches contribute valuable sightings through photo databases. Each image builds a map of occurrence, molt timing, and lure color that researchers can mine for long‑term trends.



The study is published in <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s00338-016-1493-1" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Coral Reefs</a>.



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Strangest fish in the ocean walks on the seafloor, changes colors, and uses a fishing lure

The hairy frogfish looks more like a tuft of drifting...

Organs are not molded like blobs of passive clay. They rise from busy landscapes where cells crawl, tug, and signal until form emerges. 



In new work with the humble fruit <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/flies-are-more-vulnerable-to-climate-change-than-bees/">fly</a>, researchers watched future muscle cells roam across a juvenile testis, squeeze it like a drawstring bag, and twist the tissue into its adult spiral.



What they learned about this roaming workforce may also explain how tumors invade distant sites. 



Dr. Maik Bischoff of the <a href="https://www.unc.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of North Carolina</a> at Chapel Hill, together with colleagues in the <a href="https://tarheels.live/peiferlab/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Peifer Laboratory</a>, led the project and captured the shape‑shifting drama in living <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earth-is-just-three-years-away-from-dangerous-carbon-milestone/">animals</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fruit-fly-organs-shaped-by-muscle-cells">Fruit fly organs shaped by muscle cells</h2>



The fruit fly <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/neuroscience/drosophila-melanogaster" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Drosophila melanogaster</a> starts with a smooth, oval testis. Within hours, waves of <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/engineering/mesenchymal-cell" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">mesenchymal cells</a> - motile precursors that resemble fibroblasts - glide over its surface.



These cells do not travel at random; they move as a sheet in a process known as <a href="https://journals.biologists.com/jcs/article/137/12/jcs261549/358091/perspectives-in-collective-cell-migration-moving" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">collective cell migration</a>. Coordination keeps gaps from forming and ensures every patch of the organ gets covered.



Most textbooks credit nearby <a href="https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/articles/22062-epithelium" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">epithelial cells</a> with the heavy lifting of organ building, because epithelial sheets act like bricks and mortar. 



The new study shows that migratory peers can be just as important, especially when an organ must change length, curvature, or torsion.



Each <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/sciadv.adu3741" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">precursor</a> advances roughly one body length every ten minutes, a pace that, scaled to human size, would equal a jog along a football field every hour.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cells-crawl-to-shape-the-fruit-fly-testis">Cells crawl to shape the fruit fly testis</h2>



“Trying to figure it out from static images is like learning the rules of basketball from a handful of screenshots,” said Bischoff. His team labeled the precursors with fluorescent markers and filmed them for six hours.



The videos of fruit fly organs forming revealed alternating bouts of advance and constriction: cells first crawled distally, then tightened the actin belt wrapped around the testis. 



To capture these speeds, the team used a spinning‑disk microscope paired with adaptive optics that collected volumetric stacks every 30 seconds without bleaching the tissue.



The group found that each precursor keeps at least three filopodia in contact with its neighbors, acting like fingers in a zip‑lock seam. When one cell stalled, the seam held firm and force propagated through the sheet, much like hikers roped together on ice. 



The choreography echoed <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/applied-mathematics-and-statistics/articles/10.3389/fams.2023.1163583/full" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">computer models</a> showing that follower‑guided migration remains robust even when leaders falter.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fruit-fly-organs-and-nerve-signals">Fruit fly organs and nerve signals</h2>



Unexpectedly, the roving precursors spoke in the chemical language best known from neural development. The key messenger is <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/neuroscience/semaphorin" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">semaphorin</a>, and its receptor <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/biochemistry-genetics-and-molecular-biology/plexin" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">plexin</a> sits in the cell membrane acting as a brake and steering wheel at the same time. 



Biochemists often study the pair for their role in guiding axons, but the same duo now turns up in gonad shaping.



Genetic tricks showed that reducing plexin made testis‑wrapping cells clump together, while too much plexin caused them to drift apart. Either imbalance opened holes in the muscle coat. 



The effect mirrors work in vertebrates where <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/39490515/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">semaphorin‑plexin circuits</a> can either loosen or tighten junctions depending on context.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-from-fruit-flies-to-mammals">From fruit flies to mammals</h2>



Intriguingly, fruit‑fly semaphorin‑1b seems to temper plexin rather than activate it, an antagonism that is echoed in mammalian <a href="https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC11482903/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">semaphorin‑6A</a> that fine‑tunes cortical neuron spacing. 



Downstream of plexin, the small <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/cr2012110" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">GTPase R‑Ras2</a> flips between on and off states to regulate integrin‑mediated grip on the underlying matrix, a mechanism previously linked to blood vessel stability.



The fruit‑fly result hints that the same switchboard may tune adhesion in very different tissues.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-cancer-cells-move">How cancer cells move</h2>



Cancer cells hijack developmental playbooks when they leave a primary tumor. They often assume a <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/nri2395" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">mesenchymal</a> identity, migrate collectively, and "talk" through semaphorin‑plexin signals that were turned down after birth. 



A 2024 <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0024320523001339" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">review</a> cataloged over a dozen tumors in which plexin signaling correlated with invasion depth and metastatic load.



“Mesenchymal cells are often overlooked in organ development, but they’re incredibly dynamic and influential,” noted senior author Dr. Mark Peifer.



Because the <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/21610676/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">fly testis</a> is easy to image and manipulate, it offers a rare window into how normal migratory sheets avoid tearing. Tumor clusters face the same engineering problem when they travel through cramped extracellular spaces.&nbsp;



The team’s discovery that a neuron‑style guidance cue balances cohesion and flexibility could explain why <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-025-91559-y" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">blocking</a> specific semaphorins slows breast cancer spread in mice. 



If the pathway keeps malignant cells together, disrupting it might splinter a cluster into cells too weak to survive alone.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fruit-flies-and-organ-development">Fruit flies and organ development </h2>



Beyond oncology, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dragonfly-larvae-expose-climates-hidden-influence-on-biology/">insights</a> from fruit flies add a control knob for future tissue‑engineering projects. Synthetic organoids usually rely on patterned growth factors and stiff scaffolds, yet they still collapse or fold unpredictably.



Tuning semaphorin or plexin activity could let bioengineers guide cell streams to carve channels, chambers, or helical shells without external molds. 



Pharmaceutical firms already test small‑molecule plexin inhibitors for neuropathic pain; the same toolbox now has potential in regenerative medicine if dosing can be localized.



The approach may also help repair injuries in adults. <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsbiomaterials.2c00039" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Endothelial sheets</a> that line blood vessels regenerate by collective migration, and aberrant R‑Ras signaling is tied to leaky capillaries in diabetes. 



Insights from fruit fly organ development could point to drug targets that restore vessel integrity after trauma or stroke.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-building-transplant-ready-tissues">Building transplant-ready tissues</h2>



Finally, Bischoff’s high‑speed imaging of fruit flies, which records thousands of cell paths in deep tissue, sets a new standard for studying morphogenesis. 



Combining it with optogenetic switches that toggle plexin within seconds might reveal how transient pulses of adhesion control long‑term shape.



 Such precision will be essential for building transplant‑ready tissues where every curve counts.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/sciadv.adu3741" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Science Advances</a>.



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Muscle cells crawl across fruit fly organs to build body structures

Organs are not molded like blobs of passive clay. They...

A hidden camera at Richard Underwood Nature Refuge in southwest Queensland has captured an unlikely scuffle: a juvenile northern hairy‑nosed wombat spun in circles while a short‑beaked echidna trundled past, seemingly unfazed. 



The playful yet tense scene, buried among 100 hours of footage, is more than viral bait, explains Andy Howe of the <a href="https://www.australianwildlife.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Australian Wildlife Conservancy</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-shy-wombat-steps-into-the-light">Shy wombat steps into the light</h2>



Only around 400 <a href="https://www.qld.gov.au/environment/plants-animals/conservation/threatened-species/featured-projects/northern-hairy-nosed-wombat2" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">northern hairy‑nosed wombats</a> remain after decades of painstaking work to reverse their decline.



“It’s very gratifying to know that one of the world’s most critically endangered animals is doing well and breeding within the safety of the fenced area,” said Howe, recalling that numbers bottomed out at just 35 animals in the late 1990s.



The joey’s smooth coat and sturdy build suggest plentiful forage and low stress, two metrics ecologists rarely get to confirm in the field. 



Because the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/endangered-species-act-faces-its-biggest-legal-shift-in-decades/">species</a> is nocturnal and wary, every clear daylight image helps researchers refine population models and track body condition.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-a-spiky-passerby-stayed-calm">Why a spiky passerby stayed calm</h2>



The echidna, one of only five egg‑laying mammals or monotremes, carried on as if nothing happened. 



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/monotremes-platypus-and-echidnas-break-mammal-rules-with-weird-sex-system/">Echidnas</a> deter attackers by erecting sharp spines and, when pressed, curling into a compact ball that exposes only hardened quills, a textbook defense noted by zoologists.



“It’s a nervous wombat and a happy echidna,” joked biologist <a href="https://australian.museum/about/history/exhibitions/trailblazers/tim-flannery/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Tim Flannery</a> of the <a href="https://australian.museum/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Australian Museum</a> after watching the clip.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-digging-for-survival">Digging for survival</h2>



The northern hairy‑nosed wombat is the largest burrowing <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/worlds-rarest-marsupial-is-fighting-for-survival-again/">marsupial</a>, stretching to a yard in length and weighing up to 77 pounds, with some individuals living three decades in the wild. 



Its barrel‑shaped body, forward‑facing pouch, and chisel‑like claws turn sandy soils into elaborate tunnel networks that buffer heat and predators.



Inside those networks the animals conserve water, ride out droughts, and minimize energy loss, emerging only at night to graze on native grasses. 



Because females raise a single joey no more than every two years, each new youngster represents a sizeable share of future genetic diversity.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-betting-on-new-homes">Betting on new homes</h2>



In 2009 conservationists launched an ambitious translocation, moving 15 wombats into the 320‑acre <a href="https://www.australianwildlife.org/sanctuaries/richard-underwood-nature-refuge" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Richard Underwood refuge</a> behind predator‑proof fencing. 



Fifteen years on, at least the same number now live there as residents rather than transplants, and the latest juvenile shows that second‑generation wombats are thriving without human hand‑feeding.



Camera traps, set low along open runways, let ecologists confirm pouch emergence dates, monitor health, and detect any intruding wild dogs before disaster strikes. 



Success at this site has revived plans for a third population farther west, reducing the risk that fire, disease, or floods could wipe out the species in a single blow.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-wombats-like-burrows">Why wombats like burrows</h2>



Wombats earn the label ecosystem engineer because their 300‑foot‑long burrows moderate temperature and humidity for many smaller animals; “burrows are essential for regulating underground temperature and humidity,” noted <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/scientific-contributions/David-D-Harper-12634637" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Dave Harper</a> of Queensland’s threatened species unit.



Researchers have since <a href="https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC11285166/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">documented</a> reptiles, small birds, and even introduced mammals using wombat tunnels as wildfire refuges and drought shelters. 



By churning sub‑soil to the surface the animals also aerate compacted ground and accelerate nutrient cycling, boosting grass growth for grazers that share their range.



Conservationists argue that restoring wombats across their former territories could amplify these soil benefits while giving embattled <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-dumbo-octopus-species-carnarvon-flapjack-discovered-in-very-deep-ocean-waters/">species new</a> hideouts during Australia’s increasingly severe heatwaves.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-conserving-charisma-free-species">Conserving charisma‑free species</h2>



Northern hairy‑nosed wombats lack the global fame of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/koalas-in-queensland-show-signs-of-immunity-to-deadly-retrovirus/">koalas</a>, yet their story shows how science, rural landholders, and careful media moments can rally support. 



Every fresh glimpse of a healthy joey, especially one tossing dirt at an indifferent <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bizarre-egg-laying-mammal-rediscovered-in-the-cyclops-mountains/">echidna</a>, helps translate spreadsheets of recovery targets into an image ordinary people remember.



<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://youtu.be/me3iPRM28hk?si=qLxqyEJerkXBP6Uv
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Ecologists at Australian Wildlife Conservancy (AWC) were ecstatic when they captured rare footage of a critically endangered, juvenile Northern Hairy-nosed Wombat strolling around Richard Underwood Nature Refuge (RUNR) in south-west Queensland. With only 400 individuals remaining in the world, every single wombat sighting counts.</figcaption></figure>



Long term, the program still hinges on predator control, genetic monitoring, and enough grassy habitat to feed expanding colonies, but small wins on trail cameras keep field teams motivated. 



If additional safe sites come online before the next severe drought, researchers believe the population can pass the 500‑animal threshold that lowers extinction risk.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-wombats-are-quickly-disappearing">Wombats are quickly disappearing</h2>



Before Europeans arrived, northern hairy‑nosed wombats ranged from central Queensland down into New South Wales and northern Victoria. 



But widespread land clearing for sheep and cattle grazing destroyed much of the open woodland they relied on for <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthpedia-articles/wombats-and-the-mystery-of-cubed-poop/">food and shelter</a>.



They were also directly targeted. In 1884, over a thousand wombats were shot on a single property in the Riverina region. 



Habitat loss, competition with livestock, and predation by dingoes and wild dogs pushed the species to the brink by the 1980s.



The images used for this news item have been taken from the<a href="https://www.australianwildlife.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"> Australian Wildlife Conservancy</a> channel.



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Camera captures video showing one of Australia's rarest and strangest mammals

A hidden camera at Richard Underwood Nature Refuge in southwest...

Mammals usually avoid sour flavors, but a robin can devour berries so tart they would make most of us pucker in pain. How do birds pull off this dietary feat?



A new study answers the riddle by showing that evolution has rewired birds' sour-taste machinery. 



The discovery not only reveals why avian diners relish fruits with pH values as low as lemon juice, it also hints that a molecular tweak in taste may have opened new ecological doors during <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bird-evolution-timeline-pushed-back-20-million-years-by-baminornis-zhenghensis-discovery/">bird evolution</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-sour-switch-in-birds">The sour switch in birds</h2>



To decode avian acid tolerance, scientists at the <a href="http://english.kiz.cas.cn/">Kunming Institute of Zoology</a>, the <a href="https://english.cas.cn/">Chinese Academy of Sciences</a>, and the <a href="https://www.bi.mpg.de/en">Max Planck Institute for Biological Intelligence</a> focused on OTOP1. It is the only known vertebrate receptor that detects <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/a-surprising-amount-of-adults-like-intensely-sour-flavors/">sour flavors</a>.



In mammals - including people - OTOP1 channels fire vigorously when acidity rises, sending a sharp warning to the brain. 



In many birds, however, OTOP1 does the opposite: as the surrounding fluid turns more acidic, the channel shuts down. With the bitter alarm silenced, beaks keep munching.



The team began by cataloging bird feeding habits across Asia, Europe, and South America. The data confirmed that many songbirds, pigeons, and parrots thrive on fruits whose pH dips below 3 - a level similar to vinegar.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-genes-that-change-taste">Genes that change taste</h2>



Genetic sequencing of their taste receptors revealed a cluster of four amino acid changes - H239, L306, H314, and G378 - that alter how the OTOP1 protein behaves under acid stress.



Functional tests delivered the clincher. When researchers used <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/crispr-used-to-remove-extra-chromosomes-in-down-syndrome-and-restore-cell-function/">CRISPR</a> to edit these mutations into the OTOP1 gene of laboratory mice, the rodents’ brain cells fired far less in response to sour liquids.



Conversely, when they blocked OTOP1 in pigeons and canaries with a targeted inhibitor, the birds promptly abandoned their usual acidic fare. The receptor is therefore both necessary and sufficient for avian acid tolerance.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-sour-and-sweet-together">Sour and sweet together</h2>



Tracing the family tree of OTOP1 revealed another twist. The last of the four mutations - G378 - arose only in songbirds, a lineage that today accounts for nearly half of all living bird species.



The timing is suggestive. Earlier work had shown that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/songbirds-benefit-from-social-networks-during-migration/">songbirds</a> also gained a sweet-taste receptor not found in most other birds. 



The new study raises the possibility that upgrades in both sour suppression and sweet perception co-evolved, enabling ancestral songbirds to exploit nectar and acidic fruit simultaneously. That ecological flexibility might help explain the group’s modern success.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-big-impacts-from-taste">Big impacts from taste</h2>



Why should anyone beyond ornithology circles care about a bird’s taste tolerance? For one, the findings illuminate how sensory systems evolve under dietary pressures.



Sour taste originally signaled unsafe or unripe food. Turning that alarm off required a molecular workaround - achieved with just a handful of amino acid swaps. This shows how rapidly chemosensory genes can reshape animal behavior and niche use.



There are broader ecosystem implications too. Birds that devour harshly acidic fruits are pivotal <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/insects-play-a-much-bigger-role-in-seed-dispersal-than-we-thought/">seed dispersers</a> in many tropical forests. Birds ability to stomach such fare ensures that plant species with defensive sour pulp still find willing couriers.



Understanding the molecular roots of that partnership refines predictions about how changing climates or fruit chemistry could cascade through food webs.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-blueprint-for-taste">A blueprint for taste</h2>



The study also provides a roadmap for probing taste evolution in other animals. Similar OTOP1 edits might help explain why some primates relish citrus while others avoid it, or why certain fish tolerate acidic streams. 



Meanwhile, the CRISPR-mouse model offers a living platform to test how sour aversion shapes diet, metabolism, and health.



For agricultural science, the insights could guide breeding of poultry or songbird populations used in pest control, tailoring feed formulations to their altered taste sensitivities. 



Plant biologists might likewise engineer fruit acidity to attract or deter specific avian consumers.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-taste-and-bird-evolution">Taste and bird evolution</h2>



Birds captivated biologists with their songs, colors, and aerial exploits. Now, thanks to a little proton-gated channel in the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/electronic-tongue-could-revolutionize-food-safety/">tongue</a>, they have added another evolutionary marvel: an internal dial that mutes the sting of acid.



Researchers found that tweaks to sour taste may have co-evolved with sweetness, reshaping how birds sense and seek food. Together, these changes helped propel birds into ecological niches overflowing with nectar and tangy fruit.



The work highlights a recurring theme in evolutionary biology: subtle molecular changes can yield sweeping macro-scale outcomes. 



A quartet of amino acid substitutions may sound trivial, yet it probably influenced what early songbirds ate, where they migrated, and how they diversified.



The next time you watch a thrush gulp down a crabapple or a tanager feast on still-green berries, remember their dauntless palate is the legacy of eons of microscopic tinkering. That subtle adaptation continues to shape forests and fields around the globe.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.adr7946">Science</a>.



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Why birds have an unusual appetite for sour foods

Mammals usually avoid sour flavors, but a robin can devour...

Marine pollution usually conjures images of oil slicks and plastic waste, but a new study shifts the focus from visible pollutants to the invisible metals and toxins that have infiltrated every ounce of water in our oceans. 



Researchers examining stranded dolphins on the southeastern coast of Brazil discovered that unborn calves already carry a cocktail of metals absorbed from their mothers’ <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/national-dolphin-day-2025-honoring-the-oceans-most-playful-minds/">bodies</a>.



The tissues of two dolphin species found stranded on the Brazilian coast over the period of a year were analyzed. 



Samples were taken from stranded Guiana dolphins (<a href="https://us.whales.org/whales-dolphins/species-guide/guiana-dolphin/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Sotalia guianensis</a>), as well as from franciscana dolphins (<a href="https://nmmf.org/marine-mammal/franciscana-dolphin/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Pontoporia blainvillei</a>).



The franciscana dolphin, also known as the La Plata dolphin, is a species of river dolphin that is endemic to the Southwestern Atlantic and is critically endangered. 



One unborn calf of a franciscana dolphin was also sampled in order to identify whether toxic metals cross the placenta.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-metals-cross-the-placenta-in-dolphin-calves">Metals cross the placenta in dolphin calves </h2>



The team detected copper, zinc, arsenic, vanadium, and mercury in the fetus recovered from the pregnant franciscana dolphin.  



“This is direct evidence of <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0048969721023585" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">transplacental transfer</a>,” stated Guilherme dos Santos Lima, a doctoral researcher at <a href="https://www.international.unesp.br/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">São Paulo State University</a> and first author of the work.



The one‑year monitoring data showed higher average levels of cadmium, mercury, and molybdenum in older calves, indicating that, although calves are first exposed to these metals while in utero, there is progressive <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/pharmacology-toxicology-and-pharmaceutical-science/bioaccumulation" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">bioaccumulation</a> in the bodies of individuals as they age.



Earlier <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/230616951_Mercury-Selenium_Relationships_in_Liver_of_Guiana_Dolphin_The_Possible_Role_of_Kupffer_Cells_in_the_Detoxification_Process_by_Tiemannite_Formation" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">investigations</a> of Guiana dolphin mother–fetus pairs in neighboring regions found mercury transfer ratios as high as 0.19, confirming the placenta is no barrier to certain <a href="https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC3409158/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">heavy metals</a>. 



Those metals can disrupt enzyme systems and neuronal development long before an animal even takes its first breath.



Franciscana populations are already shrinking because of gill‑net by‑catch and habitat loss. Adding in‑utero exposure to contaminants increases the odds of developmental <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-dolphin-brains-evolved-to-see-underwater-by-using-sound-echolocation/">problems</a> that could lower survival rates.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dolphins-are-sentinel-species">Dolphins are sentinel species</h2>



Cetaceans breathe air, nurse their young, and feed high on the food web. Their long lifespans and coastal habits make them ideal sentinels of ocean health. 



When scientists track toxin loads in dolphins, they gain a time‑averaged snapshot of everything moving through the local food chain.



<a href="https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC5644643/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Atlantic bottlenose dolphins</a>, for instance, helped researchers link mercury‑laden fish to neurodevelopmental delays in children who ate similar seafood. 



The same “one health” logic applies in Brazil: what harms a calf tethered to its mother by an umbilical cord could also harm communities that rely on coastal fisheries.



Lima’s group worked with Brazil’s long‑term <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0025326X23012821" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Beach Monitoring Project</a>, turning what would have been simple necropsies into an eight‑year contaminant record. Their approach echoes global calls for integrating wildlife toxicology with public‑health surveillance.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-unborn-dolphin-carried-high-levels-of-metals">Unborn dolphin carried high levels of metals</h2>



Copper and zinc are essential for growth, yet the fetal liver carried them at roughly five times the mother’s concentration, implying active transport across the placenta. 



By contrast, cadmium and mercury rose steadily with age, matching classical patterns of dietary uptake.



Laboratory <a href="https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC11274124/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">data</a> show that mercury can interfere with dolphin immune cells and cause hepatic damage at sub‑lethal doses.



Vanadium’s presence surprised the team because few marine‑mammal studies report it. Though needed only in trace amounts, prenatal vanadium exposure in humans has been <a href="https://www.figo.org/resources/figo-statements/toxic-chemicals-and-environmental-contaminants-prenatal-vitamins" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">linked</a> to lower birth weights and preterm delivery. 



Detecting the metal in a dolphin <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dolphins-face-serious-threats-from-chemical-pollution-and-ocean-warming/">fetus</a> suggests an unexplored risk pathway in marine food webs.



Spatial analysis showed little difference among the three São Paulo sub‑regions, indicating that ocean currents disperse effluents broadly along the 370‑mile (595-kilometer) stretch of coast. 



Only cadmium spiked in Guiana dolphins from the industrialized southern sector, a finding that is consistent with local phosphate‑fertilizer discharge records.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-shared-risks-and-next-steps">Shared risks and next steps</h2>



“The detection of metals in fetuses is not just a conservation red flag, but a potential indicator of broader ecosystem disruption,” noted Lima. 



Regulators could use such fetal markers as early‑warning signals, much as amphibian deformities once forecast pesticide problems on land.



For conservationists, the results argue for stricter catch limits on franciscana dolphins, and targeted cleanup of heavy‑industry outfalls. 



For scientists, they open questions about how mixed‑metal exposure interacts with other stressors such as warming seas and ship noise.



Several countries already track persistent organic pollutants in pinnipeds; incorporating trace metals in cetacean monitoring would complete the chemical picture. 



Long‑term health studies, including hormone assays and immune‑function tests, could reveal whether today’s metal burdens are likely to translate into tomorrow’s reproductive failures.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-metals-harm-dolphins-before-birth">Metals harm dolphins before birth</h2>



Recent conservation efforts often focus on visible threats like entanglement, overfishing, and habitat degradation. However, the presence of contaminants in unborn <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dolphins-hear-special-whistles-and-change-their-behavior/">dolphins</a> adds a new layer of urgency to these strategies. 



Without addressing chemical exposures during critical developmental windows, rehabilitation or population recovery plans may fall short.



Scientists studying other marine mammals have found that early exposure to pollutants can compromise neurological development, immune function, and growth rates. 



If dolphin calves and the offspring of other marine mammals are already burdened with toxic elements before birth, they ultimately face higher mortality and lower fitness, regardless of protections offered later in life.



The study is published in <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0048969724050034" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Science of The Total Environment</a>.



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Unborn dolphin calves have toxic metals in their blood, revealing horrific ocean pollution

Marine pollution usually conjures images of oil slicks and plastic...

Pets can’t tell you when they’re too hot, dizzy, or nauseous - or when something just feels off. As summer heats up, it’s up to you to recognize the signs and act fast if your pet shows symptoms of heatstroke.



Heatstroke is a medical emergency. It occurs when a pet's body overheats and is unable to cool down on itself. If you even suspect your pet may have it, you need to get in touch with your usual vet or an emergency animal health service immediately.



Researchers have been studying the <a href="https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC5800390/">impacts of heatstroke</a> on animals, and their conclusions are definite: heatstroke can harm just about every system in your pet's body.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-exactly-is-heatstroke">What exactly is heatstroke?</h2>



Heatstroke occurs when your dog's body temperature gets too high - over 105.8°F. This may be caused by heat, lack of ventilation, excessive exercise, or being left inside a hot area such as a car or garage.



Some of the earliest symptoms of heatstroke are excessive drooling, heavy panting, and vomiting or dry heaving. You may find that your pet's body is unusually hot, particularly around the head. 



They may begin to stumble, move in an uncoordinated manner, or collapse. In more severe cases, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dogs-detect-epileptic-seizures/">seizures</a> can happen, and some animals become unable to stand or walk at all.



If untreated, that the elevated temperature starts to disrupt essential functions such as circulation and digestion. It can spiral rapidly into organ damage - impacting the liver, kidneys, and digestive system - and can result in coma or death if left unaddressed in a timely manner.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-act-fast-don-t-wait">Act fast, don't wait</h2>



Start by getting your pet out of the heat. Bring them inside or move them to a shady area. Then, get them to a veterinarian immediately. Every second counts.



While preparing to leave, you can begin to gently cool them down. Wet towels with room temperature or cool (not cold) water and place them over your pet’s head and body. 



Keep air circulating by placing them in front of a fan or under air conditioning if available. The goal is to gradually reduce their temperature - not to shock the system.



Do not let active cooling efforts delay travel to your nearest veterinary support. Never submerge your pet in ice or cold water, as this can lead to shock.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-vets-treat-heatstroke">How vets treat heatstroke</h2>



Once at the clinic, your vet will assess the situation and begin treatment right away. In many cases, they will administer oxygen and start actively cooling the pet. 



They may provide fluids either intravenously or under the skin, depending on the severity of dehydration.



Some pets need medications to support their heart or gastrointestinal function. Vets will also run lab work to evaluate internal damage and may need to hospitalize the animal for monitoring and recovery.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-pets-get-heatstroke">How pets get heatstroke</h2>



Heatstroke doesn’t necessarily occur in extreme situations. It’s usually a result of a combination of heat, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/humidity-increases-urban-heat-stress/">humidity</a>, poor ventilation, and insufficient shade or access to drinking water. 



Cars are particularly perilous - even when the weather is not hot. The temperature in a parked car can quickly rise, making it a deadly trap.



Even though <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/expert-tips-how-to-keep-your-dog-safe-from-heatstroke-this-summer/">dogs</a> are more commonly afflicted, cats are also vulnerable. Cats don’t cool themselves with panting like dogs, so when they begin to pant, it means they're in distress. Stress or heat might be the reason.



Some animals are more susceptible than others. Short-snouted dogs - such as <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/english-bulldogs-are-suffering-from-poor-breeding-practices/">bulldogs</a> or pugs - will usually struggle more with body temperature control. Thickly coated pets, higher-weight pets, or pets who aren’t accustomed to warm temperatures are also at increased risk.



In a few situations, exertional heatstroke can occur in dogs from exercise, even on a cool day, if they have not acclimatized to the heat.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-prevention-starts-with-you">Prevention starts with you</h2>



Prevention of heatstroke is the simplest way to guard your pet. Always ensure your pet can get to shade and loads of fresh water if outside. Never leave them in a parked car for even a few minutes. 



If you’re walking your dog, try to do so early in the morning or later in the evening when the sun is less intense. When the weather is warm, keep things physically light and try to stay away from heavy exercise, particularly with pets that are most susceptible.



Our pets rely on us to protect them. Understanding how heatstroke occurs, how to recognize it, and what to do can be the difference between life and death.



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What every pet owner needs to know about heatstroke

Pets can’t tell you when they’re too hot, dizzy, or...

As Earth’s temperature rises, nature begins to shift. Butterflies, along with many animals and plants, now move north into places that were once too cold. Scientists are closely watching this trend to see how evolution shapes these movements - and where it might fall short.



A new study focuses on wall brown butterflies, which offer big clues about the role of evolution in climate-driven movement. Researchers wanted to know how much change the species could manage on its own



The research reveals that while evolution helps, it has its limits. Temperature remains a gatekeeper, keeping some places off-limits despite warming trends.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-butterflies-adapt-as-they-move-north">Butterflies adapt as they move north</h2>



The wall brown (Lasiommata megera) is a grassland <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/butterfly-hovering-technique-could-revolutionize-drone-design/">butterfly</a> found across Europe. In recent decades, it has become more common in parts of Scandinavia. Yet it has declined sharply in Western Europe. 



The butterfly's success in the north is not random. It has changed its life cycle to suit longer days and different seasonal patterns.



Mats Ittonen is one of the lead authors of the study, which was conducted by researchers in the Department of Zoology at <a href="https://www.su.se/english/education">Stockholm University</a>.



“Our results show that even though the butterflies adapt their life cycle as they move northwards, there are limits that evolution cannot easily overcome,” said Ittonen. 



Evolution seems to help the species match new environments. In particular, it allows the butterfly to respond to cues that remain steady, like the number of daylight hours. 



These cues are important because they guide dormancy and development. Still, not everything can change easily. Winters in northern regions continue to block further movement.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-does-evolution-help-butterflies-survive">Does evolution help butterflies survive?</h2>



To explore how the wall brown has changed over time, the researchers carried out detailed field experiments. They collected butterflies from both southern and northern parts of Sweden.



The southern group came from Skåne county. The northern group came from Södermanland and Uppland counties. Then, they placed the butterflies in cages in three places: Skåne, Södermanland, and southern Dalarna.



The goal was to see how each group fared when exposed to identical environmental conditions. 



Dalarna sits just beyond the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/national-learn-about-butterflies-day-an-enchanting-world-awaits/">species</a>’ current northern range. If butterflies from northern populations could survive there, it would suggest they had evolved better survival traits. The study looked at growth rate, timing of winter dormancy, and survival through the cold months.



“We wanted to know whether traits like faster growth, properly timed winter dormancy, and improved winter survival have evolved in northern butterflies, traits that could help them establish even further north,” said Professor Karl Gotthard.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-evolution-improved-some-butterfly-traits">Evolution improved some butterfly traits</h2>



The findings showed that northern caterpillars did indeed grow faster. Summers are shorter in higher latitudes, so a quicker life cycle helps. They also entered dormancy at the right time. 



But these advantages did not translate into long-term survival. When winter came, the caterpillars in Dalarna struggled. Most did not make it.



The researchers concluded that even though evolution had helped improve some of the butterfly's traits, it had not yet solved the problem of cold resistance. 



Insects need more than just good timing and growth to thrive through northern winters. Without <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/butterfly-migration-habits-are-not-determined-by-their-dna/">traits</a> that guard against extreme cold, they simply cannot expand further.



“These kinds of limits are important to recognize if we want to predict how far north other species, including pests and disease vectors, will be able to move in a future climate,” said Professor Gotthard.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-reality-of-environmental-pressures">The reality of environmental pressures</h2>



This study reveals something important about climate adaptation. Evolution can move quickly in insects, but it doesn’t always improve the right traits. 



Speed and timing matter, but without the ability to survive freezing temperatures, further expansion becomes impossible. Warmer summers help, but they do not guarantee success unless winters also become milder.



The butterflies serve as a reminder that not all environmental pressures can be overcome easily. Natural selection works with what’s available. 



If key genes for cold tolerance are rare or slow to spread, progress will stall. That seems to be the case with the wall brown butterfly. It has changed, but not enough.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-this-means-for-other-species">What this means for other species</h2>



Many insect species have shifted their ranges in the past few decades. Sweden, in particular, has seen a steady rise in insect diversity further north. But each species carries its own set of traits and limits. What works for one may not work for another.



“The wall brown is far from alone. Many other insect species have also expanded northward over the past few decades, both in Sweden and elsewhere," said Ittonen.



"Understanding both which traits evolve and which ones actually set the limits for where species can live is essential for predicting the future of ecosystems and biodiversity in a warming world."



If winters remain harsh, many species will hit similar boundaries. Their success will depend not just on temperature trends, but on how fast and in what direction evolution works. 



Predicting this will require close studies like this one, where fieldwork meets biology to trace nature’s next move.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-watching-the-edges-of-change">Watching the edges of change</h2>



The story of evolution in wall brown butterflies shows how nature reacts to climate change in small, careful steps. Evolution offers a path forward, but it is not a magic key. Cold winters still act as a wall. 



As climate change continues, scientists must ask not only if species can adapt, but whether those adaptations come in time.



For the wall brown and many others, survival at the edge depends not just on warming trends but also on biological timing, hidden traits, and chance. 



The cold sets a limit. And evolution, though powerful, sometimes stops short of breaking through.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.2418392122" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a>.



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Butterflies can adapt quickly - but evolution has its limits

As Earth’s temperature rises, nature begins to shift. Butterflies, along...

For centuries, scientists have tried to understand how sharks and other animals grow and function as they increase in size. 



At the heart of this inquiry lies a simple geometric principle: surface area grows more slowly than volume. The "two-thirds scaling law" captures this relationship, suggesting that surface area scales with volume to the power of 2/3. 



While the idea is elegant, proving it in large, complex animals like sharks has been a challenge.



Now, a new study led by researchers from James Cook University (JCU) and the <a href="https://www.umass.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Massachusetts</a> offers compelling proof that this rule holds true for one of the most diverse and ancient animal groups on the planet - sharks. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-sharks-grow-by-the-rules">Sharks grow by the rules</h2>



Using digital models of 54 shark species, the team uncovered remarkable consistency in how these animals scale in size. Their work not only strengthens a foundational principle in biology but also reveals hidden constraints that may shape evolution itself.



“We found that sharks follow what's known as the 'two-thirds scaling law' almost perfectly,” said Joel Gayford, lead author and PhD candidate at <a href="https://www.jcu.edu.au" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">JCU</a>.



This means that as the body of a shark gets larger, the surface area increases in a predictable way based on their volume.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-3d-models-map-the-shark-s-body">3D models map the shark's body</h2>



The team created high-resolution 3D meshes from CT scans and photogrammetry of museum specimens. The models were cleaned and processed in Blender software to remove distortions caused by preservation. Surface area and volume were measured digitally for accuracy.



The sample ranged from the tiny&nbsp;Euprotomicrus bispinatus&nbsp;to the massive&nbsp;Rhincodon typus, the whale shark. Across these, the team observed nearly perfect adherence to the expected geometric rule. 



They scaled every <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/prehistoric-sea-monster-shark-fossils-found-in-worlds-largest-cave-325-million-years/">species</a> to the same body length (500 cm) and still found minimal differences in surface area and volume. This step removed body length as a confounding factor.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-shark-scaling-stays-consistent">Shark scaling stays consistent</h2>



The study grouped sharks by habitat - pelagic, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/nearly-two-thirds-of-coral-reef-sharks-and-rays-face-extinction/">reef-associated</a>, demersal, and others. Most showed near-identical surface area-to-volume relationships. 



Only reef-associated sharks showed minor deviation, with a scaling exponent of 0.60. Pelagic sharks matched the theoretical 0.66 almost exactly.



The team also accounted for evolutionary history using phylogenetic generalized least squares (PGLS) analysis. This ensured close relatives did not skew the results. Even after this, the average scaling value was just 0.64, only 3% off from 0.66.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-biology-restricts-growth">Biology restricts growth</h2>



“This ratio is fundamental,” said Professor Jodie Rummer. “It underpins how animals breathe, regulate temperature, and process waste.” The near-perfect fit hints at deep-rooted evolutionary and developmental constraints.



Developmental limitations may prevent major changes in tissue distribution. Altering body geometry early in development is likely energy-intensive.



“Changing the way tissue is distributed throughout the body might require major changes during early embryonic development, and that's expensive, energetically speaking,” said Gayford.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-shape-stills-matters">Why shape stills matters</h2>



The two-thirds law is not just theoretical. It supports models predicting how <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sharks-may-benefit-from-rising-temperatures-but-not-from-rising-co2/">animals</a> regulate heat, absorb oxygen, or respond to climate change. 



“Surface area-to-volume ratios are key inputs in equations used to model how animals respond to climate change,” said Gayford. These equations can now be applied with greater confidence to sharks and other large animals.



The authors also observed that surface area in sharks did not follow phylogenetic patterns as strongly as volume did. This suggests that surface area may be more flexible but still constrained by developmental factors.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-shark-body-follows-deep-biology">Shark body follows deep biology</h2>



Despite massive variation in shark ecology and movement, some are sluggish bottom-dwellers and others fast-swimming predators, their surface-to-volume relationships stay constant. 



Even differences in shape and lifestyle do not seem to change the rule. That consistency points to deeper biological limits rather than ecological demands.



This study adds weight to the idea that body design follows strict physical and developmental rules. It also shows how new tools like <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/largest-ever-3d-map-of-human-brain-created-by-harvard-and-google/">3D imaging</a> can answer long-standing questions in biology. 



Although researchers still need to explore the energy costs of body shape changes, this study lays a strong foundation.



Sharks obey the geometry of life, their body surfaces grow in lockstep with volume in a way that supports a basic biological law. The rule holds true across shape, size, and ecological function.



That’s a rare kind of simplicity in biology and one that might apply far beyond sharks.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rsos.242205" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Royal Society Open Science</a>.



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How the shark's body grows with geometric precision

For centuries, scientists have tried to understand how sharks and...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE
</div></figure>



On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop and sunlight barely penetrates through the polar winter. It was here, however, that an international team of scientists found <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/predatory-worms-were-terror-beasts-half-a-billion-years-ago/#google_vignette" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evidence of sea monsters</a> that would change our understanding of ocean life in the past.



This video captures the discovery of Timorebestia fossils that had been hidden for more than 500 million years in the Sirius Passet formation. The "terror beasts," as they are called, are a hidden chapter in the evolutionary history of <a href="https://www.earth.com" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Earth</a>, showing that sophisticated predator-prey interactions occurred much earlier than previously envisioned.



Dr. Jakob Vinther and his research team at the <a href="https://www.bristol.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Bristol</a>, in collaboration with researchers at the <a href="https://eng.kopri.re.kr/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Korean Polar Research Institute</a>, braved extreme weather conditions at 82.5 north latitude to locate these giant creatures. Using sophisticated electron microprobe analysis, they revealed the detailed anatomy of the animals, including their muscle and nerve tissues.



The find upsets the traditional timeline of sea predators. Although we've long appreciated that Cambrian oceans were at one time ruled by <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jWI3-UgA3_o&amp;list=PL1QLQMW9MWDwpkFOnvgAmu7wT6rZmYqdJ&amp;index=19" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">arthropods</a>, these discoveries indicate that relatives of arrow worms were first to dominate the seas. These worms were building sophisticated food webs several million years before other predator groups arose.



Each fossil is a story of ancient hunger, with fossil stomach contents revealing these meter-long beasts dined on heavily armored arthropods regularly, cementing their place as the ocean's first apex predators.



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Worms dominated seas before dinosaurs

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">New York is the site of the world's oldest forest.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-385-million-year-old-trees-discovered">385-million-year-old trees discovered</h2>



Scientists have uncovered something extraordinary just two hours north of New York City. The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/worlds-oldest-forest-discovered-close-to-new-york-city/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">world's oldest forest</a>, dating back 385 million years, offers a window into how Earth's first complex forests shaped our planet's atmosphere.



Located near <a href="https://townofcairo.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cairo, New York</a>, in Greene County, these weren't merely primitive plants struggling to survive. These were sophisticated trees with root systems remarkably similar to modern forests. This ancient woodland predates dinosaurs by 140 million years.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-cairo-forest-discovery">The Cairo forest discovery</h2>



385 million years ago, upstate New York was a tropical paradise near the equator. Thanks to continental drift, this ancient forest has traveled thousands of miles to its current location.



The fossil forest sits in an abandoned quarry, roughly half the size of a football field. This represents just a slice of what was likely a massive forest system stretching from New York into Pennsylvania.



Charles Ver Straeten, curator of sedimentary rocks at the <a href="https://www.nysm.nysed.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">New York State Museum</a>, made the discovery in 2009. While scouting the former highway department property, his trained eye spotted wandering patterns in the stone that looked like marine features.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-revolutionary-age-and-preservation">Revolutionary age and preservation</h2>



The site contains 385-million-year-old rocks with fossilized woody roots forming horizontal patterns up to 18 feet (5.5 meters) wide. As Christopher Berry, a paleobotanist at Cardiff University, explains: "You are walking through the roots of ancient trees."



This discovery pushes back advanced tree evolution by millions of years. The research, published in <a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/home" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Current Biology</a> in December 2019, fundamentally changes our understanding of when complex forests first emerged.



Researchers believe a massive flood buried the forest floor, creating perfect fossilization conditions. Over millions of years, sediment hardened into rock, preserving these root patterns like nature's time capsule.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-meet-archaeopteris-the-first-modern-tree">Meet Archaeopteris: the first modern tree</h2>



The star of this ancient forest is Archaeopteris – not to be confused with the feathered dinosaur Archaeopteryx. This tree was far older and more revolutionary.



William Stein from <a href="https://www.binghamton.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Binghamton University</a> describes the roots as "strikingly modern, essentially what you'd see outside in my yard right now." These weren't simple root systems you'd expect from ancient plants.



Some fossilized roots are six inches (15 centimeters) in diameter, forming 36-foot-wide (11-meter) patterns. These giants grew up to 65 feet (20 meters) tall with five-foot-diameter (1.5-meter) trunks.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-changing-impact">Climate-changing impact</h2>



These trees fundamentally changed Earth's environment. Kevin Boyce, a Stanford University geoscientist, explains how their deep roots triggered "weathering," chemical reactions that pulled carbon dioxide from the atmosphere.



This process dropped atmospheric CO2 levels from 10-15 times higher than today to roughly modern concentrations. These ancient trees helped create atmospheric conditions that made complex life possible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ancient-forest-ecosystem">Ancient forest ecosystem</h2>



The forest was remarkably diverse. Scientists identified Eospermatopteris, palm tree-like plants with short roots that reached 30 feet (9 meters) tall but lacked woody structure. The forest also housed cladoxylopsids and a mysterious third species still being studied.



All reproduced through spores rather than seeds – millions of years before seeds evolved. This tropical environment had no grass, flowers, or flying insects, just towering trees creating Earth's first complex forest canopy.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-scientific-significance">Scientific significance</h2>



Before this finding, the Gilboa forest, located 25 miles (40 kilometers) away, held the "oldest forest" title. Cairo's trees are 2-3 million years older, showing that complex forest ecosystems developed much faster than scientists believed possible.



Patricia Gensel, a <a href="https://www.unc.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of North Carolina</a> paleobotanist, notes: "The size of those root systems is really changing the picture. Even 20 years ago, researchers assumed trees with such complex root systems didn't evolve so early."



The Cairo site presents three unique root systems, suggesting Devonian period forests were diverse ecosystems with different trees occupying different environmental niches, much like today's forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-modern-preservation-efforts">Modern preservation efforts</h2>



In 2022, New York State Senator Michelle Hinchey secured a $170,000 grant for the town of Cairo to construct specialized fencing around the fossil forest site. The town plans to conduct a feasibility study exploring the possibility of creating an educational center and working lab on-site.



Joe Hasenkopf, chair of the Cairo Planning Board, hopes to partner with educational institutions to create a research facility serving scientists, students, and the public.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lessons-for-today-s-climate">Lessons for today's climate</h2>



Why does a 385-million-year-old forest matter today? It shows how dramatically forests can change Earth's climate. These ancient woodlands created the atmospheric conditions supporting complex life.



Understanding how prehistoric forests transformed the planet helps us appreciate modern forests' critical role in addressing climate change. Forests remain Earth's most effective carbon capture systems.



These prehistoric trees changed Earth's atmosphere by pulling massive amounts of carbon dioxide from the air. As we face modern climate challenges, this ancient forest reminds us of trees' incredible power to transform our planet's environment.



The next time you walk through a forest, remember you're experiencing an ecosystem whose blueprint was established 385 million years ago in upstate New York. These ancient pioneers didn't just survive – they thrived and changed the world forever.



The full study was published in the journal Current Biology.



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Earth's oldest forest found in the United States

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ New York is the site of the world's oldest...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Acid rain and a crisis solved.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-don-t-we-ever-hear-about-acid-rain-anymore-the-environmental-crisis-that-was-solved">Why don't we ever hear about "acid rain" anymore? The environmental crisis that was solved</h2>



Remember the 1980s when acid rain dominated headlines? Dire warnings about rain eating buildings, killing fish, and destroying forests filled every news cycle. Then, almost like magic, acid rain vanished from public discourse. What happened? Did we actually solve one of the late 20th century's most pressing environmental challenges?



The answer might surprise you. Unlike many environmental issues that drag on indefinitely, acid rain represents one of modern history's most successful ecological recovery stories. It's a tale of science, politics, and technology working together to tackle what seemed impossible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What was acid rain?</h2>



Acid rain isn't regular rain having a bad day – it's precipitation that became significantly more acidic due to air pollution. When power plants, factories, and vehicles burn fossil fuels, they release sulfur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides (NOx) into the atmosphere.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The science behind it</h2>



Think of acid rain as nature's chemistry experiment gone wrong. These compounds react with water, oxygen, and other chemicals to form sulfuric and nitric acids. When mixed with water vapor in clouds, they create precipitation with dangerously low pH levels.



While clean rain has a pH of about 5.6, acid rain could drop as low as 4.2 to 4.4 – roughly as acidic as tomato juice or coffee. According to US Geological Survey documentation, Scottish chemist Angus Smith first coined "acid rain" in 1872, but it didn't become a household phrase until the 1960s and 1970s when Swedish scientist Svante Odén documented its devastating effects on Scandinavian lakes and European forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The crisis at its peak</h2>



During the height of public concern, environmental damage was both widespread and visible. This wasn't some abstract future threat – people could see destruction happening in real-time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Environmental devastation</h2>



The most dramatic impacts were impossible to ignore. Research documented by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation and the New York State Department of Environmental Conservation shows that in the Adirondack Mountains, more than 200 lakes became so acidic they couldn't support fish life. The Adirondack Council reports that 409 lakes once supported brook trout, but many lost their fish populations due to acid rain.



By 1976, when scientists cataloged all acidified lakes in the Adirondack Park, researchers found that half of the lakes over 2,000 feet above sea level had no fish, according to studies published in environmental journals. The acidification process worked like a slow-motion disaster. As acid rain fell into watersheds, it gradually lowered pH levels. Fish couldn't survive in acidic water, and their food sources died off too.



Trees at high elevations showed stress directly linked to acid rain. It weakened them by leaching nutrients and making them susceptible to disease. Historical records show Germany's Black Forest saw nearly half its trees damaged by the mid-1980s.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Economic impact</h2>



Acid rain wasn't just environmental – it was expensive. Acidic precipitation corroded infrastructure, buildings, and monuments. Historic stone structures deteriorated at accelerated rates. Tourism suffered as lakes became fishless and forests declined. EPA economic analyses from the period documented repair costs mounting into billions annually.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The solution: government action and technology</h2>



Transformation from crisis to success required unprecedented cooperation between governments, industries, and environmental groups.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The Clean Air Act of 1990</h2>



The turning point came with the Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990, signed by President George H.W. Bush. This represented a fundamentally new approach to environmental regulation, as documented in EPA historical records.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Cap-and-trade success</h2>



Instead of mandating specific technologies, the 1990 amendments introduced something revolutionary: a cap-and-trade system for sulfur dioxide emissions. EPA program documentation shows this market-based approach set overall limits but allowed companies to trade emission allowances.



The genius was harnessing market forces to find cost-effective pollution reduction. Companies reducing emissions cheaply could sell excess allowances to those facing higher costs. Research published in environmental economics journals and EPA progress reports shows this resulted in dramatic SO2 reduction at a fraction of projected costs.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Technology advances</h2>



Policy provided the framework, but technology made reductions possible. Studies in atmospheric science journals document the widespread adoption of flue gas desulfurization systems ("scrubbers") that removed sulfur dioxide before it reached the atmosphere. By the 2000s, new installations could remove over 95% of SO2 emissions, according to EPA technical reports.



The push coincided with cleaner energy development. Natural gas produces fewer sulfur compounds than coal. Wind and solar, emerging in the 1990s, captured growing market share, reducing reliance on high-sulfur coal.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-we-don-t-hear-about-it-today">Why we don't hear about it today</h2>



Why did acid rain disappear from headlines? Simple: the problem was largely solved.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Success doesn't make news</h2>



There's an old journalism saying: "If it bleeds, it leads." Environmental success stories don't generate urgency like crisis reporting. Media attention shifted to other challenges: climate change, plastic pollution, and biodiversity loss. There's only so much environmental anxiety the public can absorb, and newer concerns replaced acid rain.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Mission accomplished</h2>



The primary reason is beautifully simple: interventions worked. EPA monitoring data shows sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990. Academic research published in environmental science journals confirms pH levels in formerly affected areas returned closer to normal. This represents one of history's most dramatic environmental recoveries. Studies by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation show fishless lakes now support healthy populations. Forests recovered, and building damage slowed dramatically.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-is-it-really-gone">Is it really gone?</h2>



The crisis is largely resolved, but monitoring data shows the problem isn't completely eliminated – it's managed to acceptable levels. Some areas still experience occasional events during high pollution periods. International environmental research indicates that rapidly industrializing Asian countries face similar problems to what we experienced decades ago, though they're implementing successful strategies.



EPA research shows nitrogen oxide emissions proved more challenging than sulfur dioxide, coming from vehicles and mobile sources. Climate science studies suggest changing weather patterns add complexity to how acid rain forms and falls.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What this teaches us</h2>



The acid rain experience proves that seemingly intractable environmental problems can be solved with scientific understanding, political will, and technological innovation. Environmental monitoring data shows recovery speed was remarkable – within a decade, measurable improvements appeared in air quality and ecosystem health.



Success came from bipartisan support across party lines. Policy analysis studies show the market-based approach appealed to those preferring economic incentives while achieving environmental goals. This support created lasting policy surviving political changes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Conclusion</h2>



Acid rain's disappearance from public consciousness represents environmental science's greatest success stories. Through effective regulation, technological innovation, and international cooperation, we transformed an overwhelming crisis into a manageable challenge.



Today's silence isn't because we forgot – it's because we solved it. The 1990 Clean Air Act, combined with technology and energy market changes, reduced acid rain emissions over 90%, according to comprehensive EPA data analysis.



This success offers hope for current challenges. It proves complex problems can be solved when science, policy, and technology work together. As we face climate change and plastic pollution, acid rain reminds us that dramatic positive change is possible.



Next time someone asks whether environmental regulations work, remember acid rain. It's proof that sometimes, we get it right.



<hr class="wp-block-separator has-alpha-channel-opacity"/>



Sources: This article draws from EPA official documentation and progress reports, peer-reviewed research published in environmental and atmospheric science journals, historical data from the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation, New York State Department of Environmental Conservation records, US Geological Survey publications, policy analysis studies, and environmental monitoring data collected over three decades.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Frequently Asked Questions</h2>



1. Is acid rain completely gone? No, but EPA monitoring shows it's reduced to manageable levels. US sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990, making acid rain much less severe than the 1980s crisis.



2. How long did solving take? Environmental monitoring data shows significant improvements began within 5-10 years of 1990s emission controls. Full ecosystem recovery took longer – some areas need 20-30 years for complete recovery.



3. What made the solution successful? Clear scientific understanding, visible damage motivating action, bipartisan support, available technology, and innovative market-based policies like cap-and-trade.



4. Do other countries have acid rain problems? Yes, particularly rapidly industrializing Asian countries. However, international environmental research shows many implement similar successful control strategies.



5. Could acid rain return? Potentially, if regulations weaken or we return to high-sulfur coal without controls, though effects would take years to become severe according to environmental projections.



6. Can you recommend any teaching tools on the subject of "acid rain"? The United States Environmental Protection Agency produced a wonderful teacher's guide for ages 14 and under that you can find on the EPA website here: <a href="https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf</a>



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The environmental problem we actually solved

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk Acid rain and a crisis solved. Why don't we...

Fresh,Radish,Harvest,On,Soil,In,Garden.

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://youtu.be/Fi2OeEwuzRM?si=vTyd2m9FMmtyWkex
</div></figure>







Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving fall garden, and this guide lays out the best vegetables and herbs to plant now for a fruitful autumn harvest. 



Fast-growing leafy greens such as spinach, lettuce, kale, and arugula perform especially well in the waning summer heat, with harvests beginning as soon as 30 days. 



These cool-season crops relish the transition into fall, offering repeated yields with cut-and-come-again methods.



Root vegetables like radishes, carrots, and beets also excel during this period. Radishes deliver satisfaction in under a month, while carrots and beets mature in about two months. Employing succession planting ensures a continuous stream of produce deep into the cooler months. 



For a boost of fresh flavor, herbs like cilantro, basil, dill, and chervil are excellent picks. These heat-loving varieties flourish in July’s warmth and are harvest-ready in about 30 days, especially when sown continuously.



Gardeners in zones 6 through 9 can benefit from planting bush beans and snap peas, which don’t require trellising and are ideal for compact plots. 



Maturing in 50–60 days, they’re a smart choice for quick, protein-rich harvests. For those in hotter regions, heat-tolerant crops such as okra and southern peas provide reliable yields and thrive in scorching conditions.



This guide emphasizes more than crop selection—it highlights the importance of timing, soil preparation, and ongoing sowing techniques. 



With thoughtful planning and attention to regional climate needs, even late-summer gardeners can enjoy fresh salads, hearty stews, and the satisfaction of a robust, homegrown harvest well into fall.



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What to plant in your garden in mid-July

https://youtu.be/Fi2OeEwuzRM?si=vTyd2m9FMmtyWkex Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving...

Green,Ecoduct,Over,An,Empty,Highway,During,Sunset.

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://youtu.be/XYgiPzmNBTU?si=eFYY7gPHU1JznLvU
</div></figure>



A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that wildlife tunnels significantly reduce amphibian road mortality during seasonal migrations. 



Frogs and salamanders often cross roads to reach breeding ponds each spring, but many are killed by vehicles. 



Researchers from the <a href="https://www.uvm.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Vermont</a>, in collaboration with local citizens and the Vermont Agency of Natural Resources, installed two underpass tunnels in 2015. 



Over a 12-year monitoring period, they observed an 80.2% reduction in amphibian deaths, and up to 94% for non-climbing species like salamanders. 



The study used a before-after-control-impact design and documented more than 5,200 amphibians, highlighting the tunnels’ effectiveness even in nearby buffer zones.



Funded at $342,397 - far cheaper than wildlife crossings for large mammals - the project showcased the power of community-led conservation.



Local groups initiated the effort after observing mass amphibian deaths. Wildlife cameras later captured over 2,200 amphibians using a tunnel in just one spring, along with other species like raccoons and bobcats, indicating wider ecosystem benefits.



This marks the first peer-reviewed, long-term data set in the northeastern U.S. confirming amphibian-specific underpasses work. 



The study urges transportation departments to incorporate these designs into road planning and highlights how community action, thoughtful infrastructure, and persistence can make a real difference for biodiversity.



The full study was published in the <a href="https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1617138125000780" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal for Nature Conservation</a>.



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Wildlife tunnels save millions of amphibians

https://youtu.be/XYgiPzmNBTU?si=eFYY7gPHU1JznLvU A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that...

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing it with probiotics and prebiotics, aiming to create a treat that satisfies cravings while supporting gut health. 



The challenge lies in maintaining chocolate's beloved texture and flavor while adding health benefits.



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Probiotics - beneficial microbes that balance gut bacteria and aid digestion - are typically fragile and can be destroyed by stomach acid or processing. 



Prebiotics act as food for these microbes, helping them thrive. Together, they form "synbiotics," a powerful health combination.



Researchers Smriti Gaur and Shubhi Singh from India's Jaypee Institute of Information Technology took an innovative approach, using natural prebiotics like corn and honey instead of complex processing methods. 



They created five chocolate varieties: a control and four synbiotic versions containing different combinations of prebiotics, probiotics (Lactobacillus strains), and flavor enhancers (cinnamon or orange).



Laboratory simulations of human digestion showed the probiotics remained viable for over five hours, suggesting they could survive long enough to benefit gut health.



Taste tests were positive, with researchers particularly enjoying the orange-flavored variety, describing it as having "vibrant citrus notes" complementing the "rich cocoa" with a "luxurious" texture.



This research represents just the beginning. With further refinement of strains, textures, and flavors, chocolate could evolve beyond mere indulgence to become a functional food that nourishes while it delights.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.4c00741" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ACS Food Science &amp; Technology</a>.

Is chocolate the next nutritional powerhouse?

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

[sendtonews key="LvS8v8bp9z-2564889-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How does salt makes things taste better?

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Santiago, Chile in South America

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Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.



According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."



Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;



ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. 



Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

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Earth,Like,Exoplanet,3d,Render

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

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Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes Earth’s interconnected systems, and how this network is affected by rising temperatures.&nbsp;



During 2020, average global temperatures matched the hottest year on record. The hurricane season was also record-breaking, with many of the storms intensifying at extraordinary speeds. Hot water in the ocean is fuel for hurricanes. The satellite data shows that it's all one interconnected system showing how Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected.



According to NASA, dust swept up from Northern Africa plays a major role in the formation of hurricanes, and is also a key source of fertilization in the Amazon rainforest. As a result of<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seagrass-wasting-disease-is-fueled-by-climate-change/"> climate</a> change, dust plumes are expected to decline, which will have an effect on vegetation far away.&nbsp;



Images from Earth-observing satellites show how the world’s plant life is affected by natural disasters, fires, and deforestation. Satellites also reveal how widespread changes in vegetation impact waterways,&nbsp; the climate, air quality. Satellites communicate by using radio waves to send signals to the antennas on the Earth. "Earth From Space" is a groundbreaking two-hour special that reveals a spectacular new space-based vision of our planet. 



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected

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