Before there were dinosaurs, before trees covered the land, fish were already hard at work shaping Earth’s future. They did this with a single powerful innovation: jaws.



Jaws weren’t just for biting. Fish used them for all sorts of tasks - cracking shells, digging into the seafloor, defending themselves, and even carrying their young.



This one tool gave early vertebrates - including our distant ancestors - a huge advantage. But not all fish jaws evolved the same way.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-surprising-twist-in-fish-jaw-evolution">Surprising twist in fish jaw evolution</h2>



Roughly 400 million years ago, fish ruled the seas. Two big groups stood out: <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/coelacanth-ngamugawi-wirngarri-new-species-living-fossil-fish-survived-over-400-million-years/">lobe-finned fishes</a> and ray-finned fishes. 



Lobe-finned fishes had fleshy, muscular fins that helped them move in different ways. <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/319-million-year-old-fish-holds-clues-about-brain-evolution/">Ray-finned fishes</a> had lighter, more flexible fins supported by thin spines.



Today, ray-finned fishes dominate the oceans, rivers, and lakes. They include about 33,000 species - from goldfish to tuna. 



Lobe-finned fishes, on the other hand, are nearly extinct. Only eight species are known to exist today, including the coelacanth and the lungfish. But a new study from the <a href="https://umich.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Michigan</a> flips the story.



The research shows that between 359 and 423 million years ago, lobe-finned fishes were the ones leading the evolutionary race. 



Their jaws were changing fast, adapting in all sorts of new ways. Meanwhile, the ray-finned fishes were evolving far more slowly.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-finding-answers-in-ancient-jaw-bones">Finding answers in ancient jaw bones</h2>



The researchers used CT scans to create 3D models of 86 fossilized fish jaws from the Silurian and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/at-least-two-of-earths-mass-extinctions-caused-by-massive-supernova-explosions/">Devonian Periods</a> - dating back to around 443 million years ago. That’s older than the first forests.



The team digitally mapped these jaws to study both their shape and how they worked. To measure the strength of a fish's bite, they calculated something called mechanical advantage.



Emily Troyer is a postdoctoral researcher at the University of Michigan and lead author of the study. She explained that essentially, the higher the mechanical advantage of the jaw, the stronger the bite force.



The results showed something no one expected. "This is a really striking result, primarily because <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/lungfish-genome-discovery-explains-how-fish-first-walked-onto-land/">lungfish</a> and coelacanths today are represented by only eight living species, with not much jaw diversity going on," Troyer said. 



"However, if we look back in time 400 or so million years, we see this striking inversion. During the Devonian, we have a lot more species and a lot more innovation within their jaws." 



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/09/Dipterus-fish_whole-skeleton_credit-Troyer-UMichigan_1m.jpg"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/09/Dipterus-fish_whole-skeleton_credit-Troyer-UMichigan_1s.webp" alt="Whole skeleton of Dipterus, an extinct lungfish from the middle Devonian period. Specimen (UMMP 16140) from the University of Michigan Museum of Paleontology. Credit: E.M. Troyer/UMichigan" class="wp-image-1984595"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Whole skeleton of Dipterus, an extinct lungfish from the middle Devonian period. Specimen (UMMP 16140) from the University of Michigan Museum of Paleontology. Click image to enlarge. Credit: E.M. Troyer/UMichigan</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lungfish-jaws-lead-the-way">Lungfish jaws lead the way</h2>



Lungfish jaws, in particular, went through a major shift during the Devonian Period. Their jaws became larger, thicker, and packed with powerful muscles. This likely helped them crush hard-shelled prey, like early clams and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/tiny-crustaceans-have-what-it-takes-to-survive-climate-change/">crustaceans</a>.



"With their really hefty jaws, they were able to eat really hard food," Troyer said. "We think these new feeding strategies might be causing jaws to need to be shaped like this, and that some of these major innovations are associated with their ecosystems during this time."



Rafael Rivero-Vega, co-first author of the study and a recent doctoral graduate, scanned nearly every complete lobe-finned fish jaw fossil available. 



He mapped out their key features to study something called adaptive radiation. That’s when animals quickly evolve into many different forms because their environment pushes them to adapt.



Rivero-Vega saw clear patterns. "Some fishes were diversifying their jaws rapidly in shape and size, only later to stay essentially unchanged once they filled a specialized niche," he said. 



"Others had similar characteristics but a wider variety of shapes and sizes, and yet others had similar form but wouldn't change until after they had already transitioned onto land."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fish-jaw-innovation-changed-the-future">Fish jaw innovation changed the future</h2>



This research shows that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/discovery-evolution-not-random-can-be-predicted-pangenome-genetic-history/">evolution</a> doesn’t follow a straight line. Just because a group is successful now doesn’t mean it always was. 



Lobe-finned fishes once led the way in jaw innovation, helping set the stage for major changes in vertebrate life - including the eventual rise of amphibians, reptiles, birds, and mammals.



"When you're looking at evolution, you can learn so much from looking at the past," Troyer said. "Without the fossil record, we would have no idea of this inverted role reversal."



The study also highlights the importance of old bones. Even though only a few lobe-finned fishes are still around, their ancient fossils tell a story that would otherwise have been be lost.



"It's a great example of how innovations in shape, form, and function can be explored by different fish groups at their own pace, as long as they experience the appropriate evolutionary pressures," said Rivero-Vega. 



"All of this happened hundreds of millions of years before the dinosaurs. Fishes are awesome."



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0960982225010395" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Current Biology</a>.



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How ancient fish jaws built the path to modern land animals

Before there were dinosaurs, before trees covered the land, fish were already hard at work shaping Earth’s future. They did this with a single powerful innovation: jaws. Jaws weren’t just for biting. Fish used them for all sorts of tasks - cracking shells, digging into the seafloor, defending themselves, and even carrying their young. This one tool gave early vertebrates - including our distant ancestors - a huge advantage. But not all fish jaws evolved the same way. Surprising twist in fish jaw evolution Roughly 400 million...

In 1859, Darwin proposed that evolution worked slowly - even for creatures like the worm. Tiny changes, stacked over time, led species to gradually become something new.



But even he had to admit the fossil record didn’t back that up. It was missing too many pieces - too many “in-between” species. He chalked it up to a broken archive: most of the story was lost.



Then, in 1972, scientists Stephen Jay Gould and Niles Eldredge made a bold claim. Maybe <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/octopuses-and-squids-defy-the-slow-pace-of-evolution/">species don’t evolve slowly</a> at all. Maybe they stay mostly the same for millions of years, and then - bang - something dramatic happens.



This idea, called “punctuated equilibrium,” could explain why so many transitional fossils are missing. But decades later, scientists still argue about whether it’s the rule or just a rare exception.



Now, researchers at the Institute of Evolutionary Biology (IBE) - a joint center between the <a href="https://www.csic.es/en/csic">Spanish National Research Council</a> (CSIC) and Pompeu Fabra University (UPF) - have found compelling genomic evidence that supports the “bang” theory of evolution. And the evidence comes from a very unexpected place: worms.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-worms-and-evolution-s-missing-chapter">Worms and evolution's missing chapter</h2>



The team sequenced, for the first time, high-quality genomes of several earthworm species. They compared these to the genomes of other annelids like <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/first-proof-of-leeches-jumping-captured-on-video/">leeches</a> and bristle worms. 



The work was painstaking - done at a level of detail usually reserved for human genome studies. And it filled a major gap. Until now, scientists lacked complete genomes for many invertebrates, which made it hard to study evolution at the chromosomal level.



That changed with this study. The new genomes allowed the researchers to look back more than 200 million years.



Rosa Fernández is the lead researcher of the IBE’s Metazoa Phylogenomics and Genome Evolution Lab.



“This is an essential episode in the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/breakthrough-discoveries-about-the-evolution-of-life-on-land/">evolution of life</a> on our planet, given that many species, such as worms and vertebrates, which had been living in the ocean, now ventured onto land for the first time,” she said. What the team found was not slow, steady change. It was upheaval.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-worms-that-broke-all-the-rules">Worms that broke all the rules</h2>



The worm genomes didn’t just shift gradually, as traditional Neo-Darwinian models would expect. They shattered. Then they reassembled in totally new ways.



“The enormous reorganization of the genomes we observed in the worms as they moved from the ocean to land cannot be explained with the parsimonious mechanism Darwin proposed; our observations chime much more with Gould and Eldredge’s theory of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/crocodiles-have-not-changed-much-in-200-million-years/">punctuated equilibrium</a>,” Fernández said.



In simple terms: these marine worms broke their DNA into pieces, stitched it back together in a new order, and kept going. It wasn’t just odd - it was unheard of.



Across most species, including sponges, corals, and mammals, genomic structure tends to stay surprisingly stable. This was something else entirely.



“The entire genome of the marine worms was broken down and then reorganized in a completely random way, in a very short period on the evolutionary scale,” said Fernández. “I made my team repeat the analysis again and again, because I just couldn’t believe it.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-surviving-dna-chaos">Surviving DNA chaos</h2>



Normally, that kind of chaos would spell extinction. But in this case, the worms didn’t just survive. They adapted. 



The research team found that annelid genomes are much more structurally flexible than those of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/over-half-of-the-worlds-vertebrates-reside-in-the-tropics/">vertebrates</a>. That flexibility could allow genes in different parts of the genome to change positions without losing function.



The shift to land was a massive environmental change. Suddenly, these animals had to breathe air, deal with sunlight, and navigate new terrains. The genomic rewiring may have helped them adapt quickly by creating new gene combinations.



“You could think that this chaos would mean the lineage would die out, but it’s possible that some species’ evolutionary success is based on that superpower,” said Fernández.



The study suggests that some genes didn’t just move - they fused with others. These new “genetic chimeras” may have played a role in helping the worms handle life on land.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-evolution-isn-t-orderly-for-worms">Evolution isn’t orderly for worms</h2>



This finding also raises a bigger question: is genome stability really all that important?



“It seems from this study that conserving the genomic structure at the linear level - i.e., where the genes are more or less in the same place in different species - may not be as essential as had been thought,” said Fernández. 



“In fact, stability could be the exception and not the rule in animals, which could benefit from a more fluid genome.”



That idea has serious implications. In humans, similar genomic breakdowns are seen in cancer. There’s even a term for it: chromoanagenesis. It refers to catastrophic chromosome reorganization in cancer cells. The difference? In humans, it's a disease. In these worms, it was a survival strategy.



The comparison could open up new ways to study how genomes work - and how they break.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dna-evidence-challenges-darwin">DNA evidence challenges Darwin</h2>



The debate between slow change and sudden leaps isn’t settled. But this study adds strong support for the idea that both models might be right, depending on the circumstances.



“Both visions, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/charles-darwins-complete-research-library-published-for-the-first-time/">Darwin’s</a> and Gould’s, are compatible and complementary," Fernández said. "While Neo-Darwinism can explain the evolution of populations perfectly, it has not yet been able to explain some exceptional and crucial episodes in the history of life on Earth."



"Those events included such as the initial explosion of animal life in the oceans over 500 million years ago, or the transition from the sea to land 200 million years ago in the case of earthworms. This is where the punctuated equilibrium theory could offer some answers.”



And this might just be the beginning. There are thousands of invertebrate species we know almost nothing about. Their genomes may hold more surprises - and more exceptions to the rules we thought we understood.



“There is a great diversity we know nothing about, hidden in the invertebrates, and studying them could bring new discoveries about the diversity and plasticity of genomic organization, and challenge dogmas on how we think genomes are organized,” Fernández concluded.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41559-025-02728-1">Nature Ecology &amp; Evolution</a>.



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Earthworm DNA is changing how we understand evolution, possibly proving Darwin wrong

In 1859, Darwin proposed that evolution worked slowly - even...

Female honey bees inherit genes from their father and mother (the queen), but they don't all end up playing the same role. 



Some female bees end up becoming queens that reproduce, while others become workers that never lay eggs, and spend their lives caring for their sisters. What causes this dramatic difference?



New research points to a tug-of-war between parental genes, with mother's and father's genes pulling the developing bee larva in different directions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-role-of-parental-genes-in-a-bee-s-fate">The role of parental genes in a bee's fate</h2>



Scientists at <a href="https://www.psu.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Penn State</a> have identified the molecular mechanism that tips the balance between <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/why-are-queen-honey-bees-failing-faster/">queen</a> and worker. The study reveals how the bee’s parents’ genes literally compete during a critical window of development.



“Imagine if your mother's genes and your father's genes were in constant disagreement about how you should develop - that is essentially what genomic imprinting is, and we see that it happens across the tree of life: from honey bees to humans,” explained Sean Bresnahan, lead author of the study.



“We found that this genetic ‘argument’ can be detected during a critical developmental window where a honey bee larva becomes either a queen or a worker.”



That window slams shut just 192 hours after the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/world-honey-bee-day-protecting-our-vital-pollinators/">egg</a> is laid. By then, the bee's genes lock it into its destiny.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-exploring-differences-in-bee-genes">Exploring differences in bee genes</h2>



To study the differences between the genes inherited from the mother bee (matrigenes) and those from the father bee (patrigenes), the researchers used a technique called instrumental insemination. It allowed them to control which queen mated with which drone.



The team then tracked how gene expression varied in the resulting bee larvae by analyzing RNA - the molecules that carry instructions from DNA to make proteins - and comparing gene activity based on whether it came from mother or father.



“We found patrigenes were expressed at higher levels in queen-destined larvae, and matrigenes were expressed at higher levels in worker-destined larvae,” Bresnahan said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-tug-of-war-between-bee-genes">A tug-of-war between bee genes</h2>



The team didn’t stop there. They wanted to know what these parent-specific genes were actually doing. By analyzing the cellular pathways that the genes influenced, they spotted a clear pattern.



“We saw a striking match between the expression of matrigenes and patrigenes in the same pathway,” noted Bresnahan.



“If a matrigene had increased expression then a patrigene would have decreased expression in the same pathway, or vice versa, showing that the two genes were working against each other."



"If one gene showed parent-specific expression, another gene in the same pathway showed parent-specific expression from the opposite parent.”



So it wasn’t just random. The maternal and paternal genes seemed to be locked in direct opposition, battling over the bee’s fate.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-not-dna-methylation-this-time">Not DNA methylation this time</h2>



In many <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/where-mammals-live-depends-more-on-climate-than-human-activities/">animals</a> and plants, the mechanism that drives this kind of genetic conflict is a process called DNA methylation. It adds chemical tags to DNA that affect whether genes are turned on or off. 



But in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/artificial-diet-offers-hope-for-saving-endangered-honey-bees/">honey bees</a>, previous research had shown that methylation doesn’t play this role. So the team looked at another possibility: histones. 



DNA isn’t just floating around loose in cells. It’s wound tightly around proteins called histones, forming a structure known as chromatin. The shape and structure of chromatin help regulate which genes are accessible and active.



Changes to histone proteins - through chemical tags placed on them - can also affect gene expression without altering the DNA itself.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-bee-genes-are-affected-by-histones">Bee genes are affected by histones</h2>



Using a technique developed by study co-author Shaun Mahony, the researchers targeted histone-bound DNA. They isolated and analyzed the tagged histone proteins and the DNA they interacted with.



“We found that, in honey bees, parent-of-origin expression is regulated by histone modifications,” Bresnahan said.



This means chemical changes to histones - not the DNA itself - help determine which parental genes are active. And those gene activities ultimately decide if a larva will become a queen or a worker.



“What we're seeing in honey bees isn't actually that unusual when you take a step back - histone-based mechanisms for parent-of-origin effects are more widely utilized across the tree of life than DNA methylation-based systems,” explained Bresnahan.



“We see these chromatin-mediated imprinting mechanisms in flowering plants and in placental mammals as well. So, honey bees, and maybe other social insects, might be using the more ancestral toolkit for mediating these genetic conflicts,” he stated.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-this-research-matters">Why this research matters</h2>



Understanding how this parental conflict works could have real-world implications. For example, it might lead to new ways to breed bees with desired traits, such as resilience or productivity.



Christina Grozinger, co-author on the study, said her lab plans to explore how these genetic dynamics affect behaviors like nursing, where some worker bees specialize in caring for young.



The project also has reach beyond insects. Bresnahan now studies how genetic conflict shapes traits in humans - especially those related to maternal-child health during pregnancy.



“The skills I developed studying parent-of-origin effects translate directly to my current studies of maternal-child health mediated through the placenta,” Bresnahan said. 



“I am particularly interested in parent-of-origin gene expression associated with placenta-mediated traits, like early-life programming of metabolic and neuropsychiatric disease risk, that could help us better understand pregnancy complications and offspring health outcomes.”



This study peels back another layer in the mystery of how similar <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-can-detect-insect-dna-in-air-samples/">DNA</a> can lead to dramatically different lives - whether in bees, humans, or plants. And it reminds us that the story of inheritance is not just about what genes we get, but also about which ones win the argument.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://genomebiology.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s13059-025-03628-0">Genome Biology</a>.



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Parental genes affect whether a bee becomes a queen or a worker

Female honey bees inherit genes from their father and mother...

At first glance, sea cucumbers seem like passive creatures. They sift along the ocean floor, slow-moving and peaceful. Much like sea snails, they tend to keep to themselves. 



But unlike sea cucumbers, some species of tiny sea snails aren't so harmless. These snails aren’t just bottom-feeders - they’re parasites. And for sea cucumbers, that makes them a serious nuisance. 



In Japan, where sea cucumbers are prized as seafood, scientists have spent years cataloging the various species of parasites that live on or inside them. 



But there's been a gap in the research: one species, Holothuria leucospilota, has been tough to study. Researchers at <a href="https://www.kyoto-u.ac.jp/en">Kyoto University</a> decided it was time to change that.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-identifying-snails-inside-a-sea-cucumber">Identifying snails inside a sea cucumber</h2>



Holothuria leucospilota defends itself by ejecting sticky threads known as Cuvierian tubules when it’s stressed. 



These threads can make dissection nearly impossible. So, to avoid triggering the defense, the team used menthol to gently anesthetize the animals before studying them.



The goal was to identify <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sea-snails-evolved-defenses-against-invasive-predators/">snails</a> from the genus Melanella that parasitize these sea cucumbers. They did this work in Shirahama, a popular beach area in Wakayama prefecture. 



After anesthetizing the sea cucumbers, the scientists examined both the outside and the inside of the animals. They identified the snails by looking at their shell shape and analyzing their mitochondrial <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/airborne-dna-can-track-wildlife-diseases-and-even-drugs/">DNA</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-four-snails-one-sea-cucumber">Four snails, one sea cucumber</h2>



The team discovered four species of Melanella <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/marine-parasites-are-vulnerable-to-warming-oceans/">parasites</a>. Two lived on the outside of the sea cucumber, and two more were found deep inside the body cavity. 



One of the external parasites was identified as Melanella spina - the first time this species has ever been recorded in Japan. The two internal parasites couldn’t be definitively identified yet.



"Our results represent the first record of eulimids exploiting the internal habitat of H. leucospilota," said study co-author Tomoyuki Nakano. 



"To the best of our knowledge, it is also the first record of a single holothurian species, like sea cucumbers, being utilized by both external and internal Melanella parasites."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-do-the-snails-get-in">How do the snails get in? </h2>



The researchers noted that these internal parasites are extremely rare - at least in Shirahama. They found two in 2022, but none in the following two years. That suggests the infection rate is low.



How these tiny snails manage to get inside the sea cucumbers is still unclear, but the team has a few leads. 



Both internal snails were found near the host’s mouth. Previous studies suggest that Melanella species often attach around this area. It's possible that the sea cucumbers accidentally ingest the snails while feeding, along with bits of sediment.



That’s one theory. Another possibility is more direct. One of the snails was found with part of its shell embedded in the sea cucumber’s body wall. That could mean it forced its way in by boring through tissue.



The invasion route is still a mystery - and that’s what the researchers want to investigate next.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-parasitism-across-the-animal-kingdom">Parasitism across the animal kingdom </h2>



What the researchers observed in sea cucumbers isn’t unique. Nature is full of strange and sometimes unsettling examples of animals parasitizing others - both in the ocean and on land.



One well-known ocean example is the tongue-eating louse (Cymothoa exigua), a parasite that enters a fish’s mouth, attaches to its tongue, and eventually replaces it. The fish continues to live and eat, even as the louse occupies a central role in its body.



On land, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/parasitic-wasp-had-a-flytrap-for-snatching-its-victims/">parasitic wasps</a> are notorious for their ruthless tactics. Some species lay their eggs inside caterpillars, and when the larvae hatch, they feed on the host from the inside out. In many cases, the host stays alive until the wasps are fully developed and ready to emerge.



Even in mammals, parasites play a role. Botflies, for instance, lay their eggs on animals like rodents or livestock, and the larvae burrow into the skin to grow.



These examples show that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/extreme-parasitism-balanophora-convinces-a-host-to-grow-into-its-tissue/">parasitism</a> is a successful - if grisly - survival strategy across the animal kingdom. What makes the Melanella-sea cucumber relationship fascinating is how subtle and understudied it remains. 



Scientists are only just beginning to understand how complex these interactions can be, especially when the host makes access so difficult.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://bioone.org/journals/zoological-science/volume-42/issue-4/zs250003/Co-Occurrence-of-Gastropods-of-the-Genus-Melanella-Mollusca/10.2108/zs250003.short">ZOOLOGICAL SCIENCE</a>.



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Parasitic snails are sneaking inside sea cucumbers

At first glance, sea cucumbers seem like passive creatures. They...

Dogs did not dash into South America with the first humans. Instead, they arrived slowly, traveling with early farmers. A new study uncovers this deliberate journey and connects it to the spread of agriculture and maize cultivation. 



A research team led by Dr. Aurélie Manin analyzed 70 mitochondrial genomes from ancient and modern dogs found between Mexico and Argentina.



The analysis revealed that dogs followed a slow southward path, not with hunter-gatherers, but with farming societies that were transforming the land around 7,000 to 5,000 years ago.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-all-ancient-dogs-came-from-one-lineage">All ancient dogs came from one lineage</h2>



The study also revealed a single maternal lineage, the A2b1 haplogroup, as the root of all pre-contact dogs in Central and South America. This lineage emerged after dogs entered North America and gradually split as they moved southward. 



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/famous-ice-age-puppies-are-not-actually-dogs-according-to-new-study/">Dogs</a> likely crossed cultural and ecological boundaries slowly, adapting as they traveled alongside human groups.



The researchers found no signs of other A2b subgroups in South America. Thirty-six archaeological dogs fell into A2b1, forming a tightly clustered clade, with no early presence in the Amazon Basin. 



Genetic data shows that dogs in North, Central, and South America stayed regionally distinct, indicating minimal female-dog movement between areas.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dogs-spread-with-ancient-maize-farmers">Dogs spread with ancient maize farmers</h2>



The arrival of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/humans-and-dogs-were-bonding-much-earlier-than-we-thought/">dogs</a> in South America matches the introduction of maize agriculture. According to the study, maternal lineages of northern and southern dogs split around 7,000 years ago - around the same time maize began its journey south.



The results suggest that dogs spread with farmers rather than earlier foraging groups.



“We show that their spread was slow enough to allow the dogs to structure genetically between north, central and south America,” said Dr Manin. “It opens new research avenues on the relationship that existed between dogs and these early agrarian societies.”



The researchers tested this with molecular clocks and population models. Their data showed a north to south diversification pattern in ancient dogs. 



The timing aligns with archaeological remains of ancient dogs found in Mexico, Peru, and Argentina - all appearing after the earliest human settlements.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-the-delay-in-arrival">Why the delay in arrival?</h2>



The study offers possible reasons for the delay in the arrival of dogs. Early foragers may not have needed dogs, or the tropical corridor posed too many risks such as disease, predators, or lack of food. 



European colonial records confirm that dogs remained vulnerable to these threats even in the 1700s.



This delay mirrors what happened in Europe, where Neolithic farmers replaced earlier <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/from-wolves-to-dogs-did-domestication-begin-without-human-help/">dog</a> lineages with ones from the Levant. The Americas may have seen a similar turnover during the farming transition.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-some-dogs-still-carry-ancient-dna">Some dogs still carry ancient DNA </h2>



Colonial contact brought European dog lineages, which quickly replaced most indigenous dogs. Yet, not everything was lost. 



Some modern Chihuahuas still carry mitochondrial DNA from the ancient A2b1 clade. One Chihuahua's maternal line traces back over 1,500 years to pre-contact Mesoamerican dogs.



The researchers also found dogs in modern Peru with mitochondrial DNA belonging to European lineages. These lineages first appeared in Europe over 14,000 years ago and now dominate the Americas.



Still, ancient bonds with dogs left deeper marks. In some regions, archaeological burials show how ancient dogs were cared for and mourned. 



Early farmers may have used ancient dogs for protection, meat, or companionship. Farming surpluses could have supported feral ancient dogs or drawn scavengers.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-journey-of-dogs-and-farming">The journey of dogs and farming</h2>



This study reshapes our view of dog-human history in the Americas. It places agrarian societies, not foragers, at the center of dog expansion. This pattern aligns with other regions like East Asia, where dog dispersal followed farming and surplus food.



The research also shows the fragility of early genetic lineages. Most pre-contact dog DNA is now gone, erased by colonial waves. But rare survivors, like the Chihuahua, still carry whispers of the past.



The study encourages further research using nuclear DNA analysis and isotopic methods. These advanced tools can reveal more than just the origins of ancient dogs. 



The tools can help scientists understand how ancient dogs lived, how they moved across regions, and how they interacted with early American communities.



This deeper knowledge could uncover the everyday roles ancient dogs played in human societies and how those relationships evolved over time.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rspb.2024.2443" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Proceedings of the Royal Society B Biological Sciences</a>.



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Scientists discover how dogs spread across the Americas

Dogs did not dash into South America with the first...

The skies were empty for most of Earth’s history, but then light‑boned reptiles mastered powered flight roughly 220 million years ago. 



A new analysis of fossil maps and computer climate models shows that warm, damp air, not desert heat, gave those first <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-fossil-fills-crucial-gap-in-pterosaur-evolution/">pterosaurs</a> the environmental boost they needed.



Davide Foffa of the <a href="https://www.birmingham.ac.uk/">University of Birmingham</a> led the work with Emma Dunne at Friedrich‑Alexander‑Universität Erlangen‑Nürnberg and Alessandro Chiarenza at University College London.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-pterosaurs-lived-in-humid-regions">Pterosaurs lived in humid regions </h2>



Foffa’s team plotted every Triassic pterosaur and <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0895981124001196" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">lagerpetid</a> fossil they could verify, covering what was then the single supercontinent <a href="https://www.usgs.gov/faqs/what-was-pangea" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Pangea</a>. 



The map revealed a pattern: early flyers cluster in low‑latitude sites that ancient climate simulations mark as humid, while their land‑bound cousins spread across drier belts.



Lagerpetids, rat‑ to dog‑sized sprinters, never left the ground yet roamed from today’s Brazil to the American Southwest. Ezcurra and colleagues confirmed in <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-020-3011-4" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">2020</a> that these agile reptiles form the sister branch to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/pterosaur-bones-biomimicry-could-inspire-better-aircraft-technology/">pterosaurs</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-pterosaur-flight-needed-humid-forests">Pterosaur flight needed humid forests</h2>



The question of why pterosaurs took flight when they did has puzzled researchers for decades. Their closest relatives, lagerpetids, had the anatomical tools for agility and climbing, but lacked the skeletal adaptations needed for powered flight.



Foffa’s team suggests it wasn’t just biology holding them back - it was the environment. Without expansive forest canopies and consistently humid ecosystems, early pterosaur <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/pterosaurs-took-flight-millions-of-years-before-birds/">ancestors</a> may have lacked both the resources and the ecological pressure to evolve wings sooner.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rainfall-surge-led-to-pterosaur-flight">Rainfall surge led to pterosaur flight</h2>



As carbon‑rich volcanism drove the <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7494334/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Carnian Pluvial Episode</a> about 234 million years ago, average rainfall spiked for roughly two million years. Forests thickened, insect populations jumped, and treetop launchpads multiplied exactly when the first pterosaur bones appear.



To test cause and effect, the authors fed Triassic geography into the <a href="https://www.metoffice.gov.uk/research/approach/modelling-systems/unified-model/climate-models/hadcm3" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">HadCM3L general circulation model</a>, a tool normally used for <a href="https://www.nhm.ac.uk/discover/the-cretaceous-period.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cretaceous</a> and future‑climate work. 



The simulation reproduced humid bands along the equator that matched every known <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0012825221002786" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Norian pterosaur</a> site within a margin of about 60 miles.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fossils-and-climate-maps-tell-the-story">Fossils and climate maps tell the story</h2>



To connect ancient reptile evolution with <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/cracking-the-code-of-pterosaur-flight-soaring-vs-flapping/">prehistoric</a> climate, the researchers needed more than just bones. They used global climate models that simulate temperature, precipitation, and seasonal variation from over 200 million years ago, then overlaid fossil data on those maps.



This approach revealed strong patterns. Pterosaur fossils linked to flight consistently appeared in regions the model predicted to be wet and forested.



On the other hand, lagerpetids showed up in a broader range of habitats, including dry, seasonal areas. These overlapping maps helped confirm the environmental preferences of each group.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-humid-air-and-the-rise-of-flying-reptiles">Humid air and the rise of flying reptiles</h2>



“Their wings catapulted them into every corner of the planet,” noted Chiarenza. Later Triassic decades saw wetter air creep poleward, and the fossil record follows: specimens pop up in what is now Greenland and Argentina, hundreds of miles from the original belt.



Marine <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-018-03996-1" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">records</a> show that the same wet pulse coincided with a 33 percent loss of ocean genera and rapid dinosaur diversification, hinting at a broader reshuffling. 



Dunne noted that climate change is a leading cause of biodiversity change, both in the present day and the geological past - a reminder that weather can redraw evolutionary maps.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-pterosaur-flight-aided-survival-for-some">Pterosaur flight aided survival for some</h2>



Lagerpetids tolerated scorchingly dry interiors yet vanished at the <a href="https://samnoblemuseum.ou.edu/understanding-extinction/mass-extinctions/end-triassic-extinction/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">end‑Triassic extinction</a>, while their winged relatives sailed through the crisis. Flight likely offered escape from predators and fire, plus access to scattered resources after forests burned.



The disappearance of lagerpetids at the end of the Triassic remains a mystery, especially since they had a broader climate tolerance and geographic range than early pterosaurs. 



Some scientists suggest they may have lacked the specialized adaptations - like flight - that helped other groups escape or adapt to rapid ecosystem changes.



Others think competition may have played a role. As pterosaurs and early dinosaurs spread into new environments, they may have outcompeted lagerpetids for food or territory, leaving the once-thriving reptiles with fewer niches to occupy.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-clues-for-future-fossil-hunts">Clues for future fossil hunts</h2>



“Model outputs flag humid Triassic pockets in Morocco, India, and the American Midwest where no pterosaur bones have been logged. Field crews may strike pay dirt there, especially in fine‑grained lake shales that entomb fragile skeletons whole,” explained Foffa.



The research links a short‑lived climate swing to a permanent ecological shake‑up in which pterosaur flight emerged, demonstrating how quickly new winners appear when habitats shift.



With modern CO₂ levels rising on a similar scale, today’s ecosystems could see equally swift turnovers, though not necessarily as majestic as a <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0895981124001196" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Pterosauromorpha</a> liftoff.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41559-025-02767-8" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Ecology &amp; Evolution</a>.



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Humid air gave pterosaurs the boost they needed to take flight

The skies were empty for most of Earth’s history, but...

Dolphins, like other toothed whales, live in a world of darkness where light fades fast. They stay oriented by sending out quick clicks and reading the echoes, a process known as echolocation. 



Each click acts like a tap on the water, letting their brains “feel” distant objects and fish through sound alone.



In a new study, a team of scientists led by the Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution (<a href="https://www.whoi.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">WHOI</a>) traced how this talent shows up inside the brain.



The study compares the neural wiring of echolocating dolphins to that of a species of non-echolocating baleen whale called a sei whale.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-understanding-echolocation-the-basics">Understanding echolocation - the basics</h2>



Echolocation in marine mammals is a sophisticated biological sonar system that allows animals like dolphins, whales, and porpoises to navigate, hunt, and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dolphins-must-shout-over-underwater-noise-to-communicate/">communicate</a> in dark or murky underwater environments. 



These mammals emit a series of high-frequency clicks that travel through the water and bounce off objects. By listening to the returning echoes, they can determine the size, shape, distance, speed, and even internal structure of their targets. 



This process gives them an incredibly detailed picture of their surroundings, often surpassing what sight alone could provide in deep or cloudy waters.



This adaptation is especially critical for species that live in environments where visibility is limited. For example, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bowhead-whales-dive-in-synchrony-even-when-out-of-acoustic-range/">deep-diving whales</a> rely on echolocation to locate prey thousands of feet below the surface, where light cannot penetrate. 



Echolocation also plays a key role in social behavior, helping individuals coordinate movements or avoid collisions while swimming in pods. 



Remarkably, some species can even adjust the frequency and intensity of their clicks to focus on specific tasks, much like humans adjusting the lens on a camera.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-studying-echolocation-in-dolphins">Studying echolocation in dolphins</h2>



Brain tissue from deceased, stranded animals is hard to obtain and even harder to scan. By partnering with the International Fund for Animal Welfare (<a href="https://www.ifaw.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">IFAW</a>), the team secured enough samples to begin charting auditory circuits in detail.



“Our research sought to understand how the pathways for auditory information differed between echolocating and non-echolocating whales," said lead author Sophie Flem. 



"In humans, primates, rodents, and dogs, we have well-established maps of what parts of the brain contribute to what kind of processing. We don't yet have those in dolphin brains, which are strikingly <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthpedia-articles/are-dolphins-smart-how-are-dolphins-intelligent/">unusual</a> compared to terrestrial animal brains," she added.



Researchers traced signals leaving the inferior colliculus, a mid-brain hub that all <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthpedia-articles/are-dolphins-sharks-and-whales-mammals/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">mammals</a> share. 



In dolphins, this region is oversized, making it an ideal place to follow sound information as it travels into the cortex.



The team found more cortical targets in dolphins than in the sei whale, yet the strength of those links was similar. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cerebellum-s-role-in-dolphin-echolocation">Cerebellum's role in dolphin echolocation</h2>



The biggest surprise lay in the pathways heading the other way - down toward the cerebellum.



“While neuroscientists used to think of the cerebellum largely as a center for balance and motor (muscle/movement) control, newer evidence strongly suggests that it serves as an integration center for sensory and motor information and, importantly, a rapid prediction center," explained co-author Peter Tyack, emeritus research scholar in biology at WHOI.



“Dolphins use echolocation to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/listening-to-amazon-river-dolphins-can-help-us-save-them/">interact with their world</a> and, unlike hearing and vision, they must produce the energy that then returns to their sensory receptors - echolocation is part hearing and part vocalization," explained Tyack.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/06/echolocation_dolphins_cerebellar-lobules_graphic_credit-PLOSOne_1m.jpg"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/06/echolocation_dolphins_cerebellar-lobules_graphic_credit-PLOSOne_1s.webp" alt="Color-coded diagram displaying cerebellar lobules targeted in the left, right, or bilateral cerebella in odontocete and mysticete specimens. Credit: PLOS One" class="wp-image-1974812"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Color-coded diagram displaying cerebellar lobules targeted in the left, right, or bilateral cerebella in odontocete and mysticete specimens. Click image to enlarge. Credit: PLOS One</figcaption></figure>



He likened the process to a person using a hand to produce the touch sense feedback that lets him or her find the light switch. 



In a similar manner, dolphins move around their echolocation beam to get the feedback they need to function in a dark, underwater environment.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-imaging-brains-the-size-of-suitcases">Imaging brains the size of suitcases</h2>



Scanning a sei whale brain - nearly three times heavier than a human brain - posed technical challenges.



Oxford’s Karla Miller developed high-signal diffusion sequences, while UC Berkeley’s Ben Inglis optimized collection protocols. 



The result is some of the clearest diffusion imagery ever captured from large <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/marine-mammals-in-the-us-are-highly-vulnerable-to-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">marine mammal</a> brains.



"Comparative neurobiologists have longed to examine the patterns of connections within dolphin and whale brains for years, believing that the unique evolutionary history of these species will provide new insights into how brains evolve," said senior author Peter Cook of <a href="https://www.ncf.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">New College of Florida</a>.



The technology is now available to begin tackling these mysterious nervous systems and finding out how they work. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mapping-dolphin-echolocation-regions">Mapping dolphin echolocation regions</h2>



Cook and colleagues already have more baleen and toothed whale brains queued for study. 



"It's believed that neural control of vocal output has totally shifted in dolphins as they evolved their unique nasal vocal apparatus. We can now map out vocal control in dolphins and how it differs from baleen whales," remarked Cook.



Both groups of animals have the rare ability to learn new vocal behavior, and dolphin <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dolphins-smile-at-each-other-when-they-are-feeling-playful/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">vocal systems</a> are some of the strangest in the animal kingdom. 



"Now that we can opportunistically and ethically look inside these animals' brains, they're just getting started teaching us," Cook concluded.



The team hopes that future maps of vocal pathways will reveal how sound production and perception blend together in one of nature’s most sophisticated sonar systems.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0323617" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">PLOS One</a>.



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Scientists learn how dolphin brains evolved to 'see' underwater by using sound

Dolphins, like other toothed whales, live in a world of...

Camels aren't just part of desert life - they are at the very heart of it, surviving where most cannot. On June 22, we observe World Camel Day. It’s a moment to honor their resilience, importance, and the vital role they play in sustaining communities across some of the world’s harshest landscapes.



In dry regions, the camel is extremely <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/what-animal-will-replace-humans-as-earths-dominant-species-this-scientist-has-an-idea/">crucial</a>. Whether the task is carrying loads, providing milk, or helping people travel, camels are reliable. With growing climate challenges, that reliability matters more than ever.



Camels have supported people for thousands of years. This day helps us remember and recognize that service.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-we-celebrate-world-camel-day">Why we celebrate World Camel Day</h2>



World Camel Day started in 2009 to raise awareness about the importance of camels. <a href="https://arkbiodiv.com" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Dr. Abdul Raziq Kakar</a> picked June 22 because it usually falls during the hottest days of the year. 



Camels are known for their ability to handle extreme heat, so this date fits the message. It symbolically connects the celebration to the kind of environment camels thrive in.



Since then, the event has grown. It is no longer just a scientist’s idea. Now, people from many backgrounds get involved. Camel farmers, students exploring desert ecosystems, climate scientists, and the herders who depend on camels every day all take part.



These groups organize events like camel <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/why-we-see-some-animals-as-more-human-than-others/">rides</a>, educational workshops, fun photo contests, and zoo visits where people can interact with camels and learn more. What began as a simple awareness campaign has turned into a global effort. 



The goal is clear. Remind everyone that camels are not just useful, but essential in many regions, especially in a changing climate.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-camels-support-daily-life">How camels support daily life</h2>



Camels can travel for hours without drinking water. They eat tough, dry plants that other animals avoid. They do not show signs of stress. They keep going and get the job done.



Camel milk is becoming more popular around the world. It contains more iron and vitamin C than cow milk. Many people who can't tolerate regular milk can drink camel milk without issues. Some health experts refer to it as a superfood because of its nutrients.



Camels also support daily life in many places. In India, they help farmers by pulling carts and plows. In African countries, they provide meat, milk, and financial support. In the Middle East, camels appear in cultural festivals and special events.



These <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/world-wildlife-day-2025-a-global-call-to-protect-nature/">animals</a> are not limited to one role. Camels adapt to different needs and situations and work wherever people need them.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-camels-are-built-for-extremes">Camels are built for extremes</h2>



A camel’s body is built for survival. Its wide, padded feet keep it steady on loose sand. Thick eyelashes shield its eyes from dust, and its nostrils can close to block out blowing sand during storms. 



The hump stores fat, which the camel uses when food is scarce. Every part serves a clear purpose.



Even when water is hard to find and food is limited, a camel keeps going. It continues to produce milk during drought and remains steady in extreme heat where other animals struggle.



Because of this, many farmers now choose camels instead of cows. Camels require fewer resources, cost less to maintain, and live longer in dry regions.



In today’s unpredictable climate, camels are proving to be a practical and dependable choice.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-camels-in-a-warming-world">Camels in a warming world</h2>



Climate change has made weather more extreme. Rainfall patterns have become harder to predict. Crops fail more often. Many animals cannot cope with these changes. But the camel continues to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fossil-discovery-pushes-back-reptile-evolution-by-40-million-years/">adapt</a> and survive.



In countries like Kenya and Somalia, more families are choosing to raise camels instead of cattle. This change helps them stay food secure during long dry periods. Camels also produce less methane than cows, which makes them a better option for the environment.



They need very little to survive. Yet they continue to provide milk, meat, and labor. That makes them ideal for regions dealing with rising temperatures and shrinking water supplies.



World Camel Day is not only about culture or tradition. It is also about recognizing the camel’s growing role in modern food systems.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-people-celebrate-world-camel-day">How people celebrate World Camel Day</h2>



World Camel Day is celebrated in many parts of the world. In London, zoos hold sessions where visitors learn how to care for camels. In Rajasthan, herders come together for fairs that highlight camel traditions. In New York, urban farms give children their first experience of meeting a camel.



Online, the celebration continues through photo contests and awareness campaigns. Hashtags like #WorldCamelDay help share stories, facts, and personal experiences. Educational groups upload videos, quizzes, and interviews to reach more people.



These events show something important. The camel is not only a symbol of the desert. It is also a part of the future.



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World Camel Day 2025: Celebrating a desert lifeline

Camels aren't just part of desert life - they are...

Oceanographers have long used a simple rule of thumb: green water teems with microscopic life, while ultramarine blue usually signals relative scarcity.



A fresh analysis of two decades of satellite images suggests that the dividing line between those hues is on the move. 



Scientists have determined that open-ocean waters are steadily <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/arctic-ocean-turning-green-thanks-to-climate-change-algae-blooms/">greening</a> at high latitudes and becoming bluer in the tropics and subtropics.



Because the tint of seawater tracks chlorophyll - the pigment that phytoplankton use for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/revealing-the-secrets-of-photosynthesis-through-pep/">photosynthesis</a> - the trend hints at a large-scale rearrangement of life at the base of marine food webs.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-our-oceans-shifting-color-code">Our oceans' shifting color code</h2>



The research team, led by <a href="https://duke.edu/">Duke University</a> post-doctoral scholar Haipeng Zhao, sifted through global data captured from 2003 to 2022. The data came from <a href="https://aqua.nasa.gov/modis">NASA’s MODIS-Aqua</a> instrument, which scans the planet every two days.



Each pass measures subtle shifts in reflected light that reveal chlorophyll concentration right at the surface. To avoid the optical noise of sediment-rich coastlines, the researchers focused exclusively on the open ocean.



“In the ocean, what we see based on satellite measurements is that the tropics and the subtropics are generally losing chlorophyll, whereas the polar regions - the high-latitude regions - are greening,” Zhao said.



In practical terms, that means less plankton in warm, blue waters flanking the equator and a rising abundance in polar waters.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-inventive-math-for-a-noisy-planet"><a></a>Inventive math for a noisy planet</h2>



Working with satellite imagery always involves gaps - patches of cloud, sensor dropouts, differences in daylight.



To tease out a coherent story, Zhao and colleagues borrowed a pair of statistical tools more often used to study household incomes: the Lorenz curve and the Gini coefficient.



Lead investigator Nicolas Cassar, a scientist at Duke, explained the leap from economics to oceanography: “We borrowed concepts from economics called the Lorenz curve and the Gini index, which together show how wealth is distributed in a society.



“We thought, let’s apply these to see whether the proportion of the ocean that holds the most chlorophyll has changed over time.”



The result? Over twenty years, the ‘chlorophyll rich’ zones - already green - grew greener, particularly in the northern hemisphere, while blue regions lost even more pigment. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-testing-the-climate-connections"><a></a>Testing the climate connections</h2>



Greener poles and bluer tropics might sound like a straightforward fingerprint of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/global-warming-is-accelerating-beyond-control-as-co2-levels-rise/">global warming</a>. However, the study stops short of that conclusion.



The authors compared chlorophyll shifts with four environmental variables: sea-surface water temperature, wind speed, light availability, and mixed-layer depth. 



Only warming tracked consistently with the observed color change; the others showed no strong association.



Even so, co-author Susan Lozier of <a href="https://www.gatech.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Georgia Tech</a> cautioned against a rush to label climate change the culprit. “The study period was too short to rule out the influence of recurring climate phenomena such as <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/el-nino-climate-shifts-date-back-250-million-years/">El Niño</a>,” Lozier said.



“Having measurements for the next several decades will be important for determining influences beyond climate oscillations.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-changing-plankton-big-impact">Changing plankton, big impact</h2>



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/invisible-forest-of-phytoplankton-thrives-in-a-warming-climate/">Phytoplankton</a> do more than tint the waves. Through photosynthesis, they absorb carbon dioxide and convert it to organic matter, sequestering carbon when dead cells sink.



A poleward migration of productivity could rearrange that natural pump. Cassar notes that the geographic shift may decide how long that captured carbon remains out of circulation.



“If carbon sinks deeper or in places where water doesn’t resurface for a long time, it stays stored much longer. In contrast, shallow carbon can return to the atmosphere more quickly, reducing the effect of phytoplankton on <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/carbon-storage-mystery-emerges-in-the-southern-ocean/">carbon storage</a>,” he said.



Food security is another concern. Many equatorial nations rely on rich fisheries sustained by plankton blooms. A steady drop in primary producers could disrupt the food web, reducing fish stocks vital to diets and economies.



“Phytoplankton are at the base of the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/oceans-twilight-zone-stabilizes-the-marine-food-chain/">marine food chain</a>. If they are reduced, then the upper levels of the food chain could also be impacted, which could mean a potential redistribution of fisheries,” Cassar warned.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ocean-color-shift-continues">Ocean color shift continues</h2>



The study adds the open ocean to a list of Earth systems already showing poleward ecological drift. On land, satellite records have documented expanding forests in high latitudes and stressed vegetation in the subtropics. 



Now, with the ocean’s own chlorophyll belt shifting, researchers see a consistent planetary story unfolding.



Still, the authors emphasize that two decades are only an opening chapter. Longer records, deeper observations, and improved models of phytoplankton physiology are needed to predict the full ecological impact.



The ocean’s color shift signals change - green in high latitudes, blue near the equator - as ecosystems quietly reorganize. It silently tracks a significant re-ordering of marine life that could reshape climate feedbacks and global fisheries alike.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1126/science.adr9715" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Science</a>.



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Ocean waters are changing colors and pushing marine life toward the poles

Oceanographers have long used a simple rule of thumb: green...

When a bonobo wrinkles its nose or lifts its browridge, those expressions do more than pose for the camera. Those flashes of movement form a language that researchers have struggled to pin down.



Now an international team has sharpened that language map by adapting a human facial‑coding toolkit to <a href="https://animaldiversity.org/accounts/Pan_paniscus/">Pan paniscus</a> (bonobos), cataloging 28 distinct moves and <a href="https://peerj.com/articles/19484/">showing</a> that 22 stem from specific muscles.



Dr. Catia Correia‑Caeiro of <a href="https://www.lw.uni-leipzig.de/institut-fuer-biologie" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Leipzig University’s Institute of Biology</a> leads the project, which unites experts from Germany, Switzerland, France, the United Kingdom, and the United States. 



The team borrowed the Facial Action Coding System, a 1978 catalog that labels every visible muscle shift with a numeric action unit, then upgraded the scheme for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bonobo-communication-shares-many-structural-similarities-with-human-language/">bonobos</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-bonobos-use-expressions-to-communicate">Bonobos use expressions to communicate</h2>



“This adaptation of <a href="https://www.animalfacs.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ChimpFACS</a> for bonobos fills an important gap in our ability to study facial expressions across different primate species,” said Dr. Correia‑Caeiro, who is also affiliated with the Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology. 



The new manual lets scientists compare <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/world-bonobo-day-a-celebration-of-love-peace-and-conservation/">bonobo</a>, chimpanzee, and human faces move for move.



Humans can muster about 30 action units, yet bonobos rival their chimpanzee cousins with 22, demonstrating the social weight of facial cues rather than sheer anatomical range. 



The catalog even adds a rarely recorded brow‑lowering move, <a href="https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC7790396/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">AU41</a>, that deepens the <a href="https://www.imaios.com/en/e-anatomy/anatomical-structures/glabella-1536895880#" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">glabella</a> without the human‑exclusive corrugation.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-bonobo-expressions-mirror-spoken-language">Bonobo expressions mirror spoken language </h2>



The team sifted through roughly 55 hours of high‑definition <a href="https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC12169169/#supplemental-information" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">video</a> featuring 241 bonobos in zoos, sanctuaries, and the wild, coding each frame by hand.



The footage revealed three independent ear gestures, ears forward, ears elevated, ears flattened, expanding the expressive palette beyond eyes and mouth. 



The researchers also spotted brief lid‑tightening blinks that accompany nose wrinkles, hinting at graded intensity in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bonobos-and-chimps-express-empathy-much-like-humans/">bonobo</a> signals.



The experts noticed that some action units, such as cheek‑raisers and glabella‑lowerers, often fire in rapid succession - suggesting combination rules that mirror syllables in spoken language.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-bonobos-needed-their-own-system">Why bonobos needed their own system</h2>



Despite their similarities to chimpanzees, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bonobos-are-more-endangered-than-previously-known/">bonobos</a> have distinct facial features that complicate direct comparison. 



Subtle traits, like lighter lip coloration, reduced brow-ridge prominence, and more flexible lower lips, affect how facial movements appear and are perceived. These differences can confuse coders if using chimpanzee references alone.



Without a dedicated coding system, earlier studies on bonobos varied wildly in the number of described expressions, from just 5 to as many as 46. 



That inconsistency made it hard to compare results or identify patterns. A tailored toolkit ensures more reliable tracking and opens the door to rigorous, reproducible analysis.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-decoding-expressions-helps-bonobo-care">Decoding expressions helps bonobo care</h2>



“By better understanding their facial expressions, we can more accurately evaluate their emotional states and overall well‑being,” Correia‑Caeiro explained. Caretakers can now read those signals with new confidence.&nbsp;



Bonobos are endangered, with population estimates hovering between 29,000 and 50,000 individuals according to the <a href="https://www.iucnredlist.org/species/15932/102331567" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">IUCN Red List</a>.



Knowing when a captive ape is tense or relaxed helps zoos tweak enrichment schedules, separate clashing individuals sooner, and design habitats that cut social friction before it spirals into injury.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-bonobo-expressions-and-social-units">Bonobo expressions and social units</h2>



Shared action units let scientists trace which facial abilities pre‑date the split between humans and the Pan lineage six million years ago. 



A 2020 multi‑species <a href="https://researchportal.port.ac.uk/files/19273293/Measuring_the_evolution.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">review</a> argues that facial mobility scales with social complexity, placing bonobos near the top of the primate scale.



Bonobos live in female‑bonded, relatively tolerant groups, so extra facial nuance may diffuse conflicts without resorting to violence, offering a living model for hypotheses on early human cooperation.



The <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.3758/s13428-021-01692-5" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NetFACS project</a> applies network analysis to thousands of coded faces, revealing that great‑ape expressions form dense interaction graphs where muscle combos shift with context. 



In bonobos, preliminary graphs show tighter clustering of play‑related units than threat units, hinting that relaxed social atmospheres encourage richer facial “vocabularies.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-facial-complexity-and-social-evolution">Facial complexity and social evolution</h2>



Computer‑vision engineers are training algorithms on the new bonobo library, aiming for real‑time welfare dashboards that flag stress before keepers can see it. 



The advanced systems could eventually watch forest camera traps, letting conservationists gauge mood across remote populations without intrusive tagging.



Comparative biologists plan to pit bonobo, chimpanzee, and human FACS data against group size, food‑sharing rates, and dominance styles. 



If facial complexity tracks tolerance as predicted, the findings could rewrite textbooks on primate social evolution.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://peerj.com/articles/19484/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">PeerJ</a>.



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Facial expressions of bonobos offer a window into their lives

When a bonobo wrinkles its nose or lifts its browridge,...

Bee populations around the world have been slipping for decades, even in areas with meadows. Across the United States, managed hives have dropped from about five million in the 1940s to 2.7 million in <a href="https://www.pollinator.org/threats" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">2023</a>.



Pollination keeps the produce aisle stocked, and honey bees alone add roughly <a href="https://www.usda.gov/about-usda/general-information/initiatives-and-highlighted-programs/peoples-garden/importance-pollinators/honey-bees" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">$15 billion</a> to the value of U.S. crops every year. 



Kathrin Czechofsky of the University of Göttingen says the latest <a href="https://besjournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/1365-2664.70074" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">fieldwork</a> shows there is still room for optimism when farms and conservation <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/world-bee-day-2025-protecting-the-pollinators-that-feed-the-world/">habitats</a> are planned together.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-bees-are-disappearing-despite-meadows">Bees are disappearing despite meadows</h2>



Habitat loss, pesticide exposure, and disease form a triple threat, yet land conversion remains the clearest driver of wild <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rising-dangers-threaten-the-survival-of-bees-and-pollinators/">bee</a> decline. 



Climate stress adds another layer, and recent work warns that many bumblebee broods fail when nest temperatures top 96 °F, a threshold that rising heat waves frequently exceed.



Fields blanketed in a single commodity crop create long floral dry spells that leave solitary bees hungry between brief bloom windows. 



Even well‑intended local actions, such as installing small flower strips, often struggle to reverse losses because bees forage across landscapes, not single fields.



Without a coordinated plan, conservation patches can cancel one another out or fail to meet nesting needs over an entire season.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-different-farm-types-were-tested">How different farm types were tested</h2>



To explore what really works, researchers at the <a href="https://www.uni-goettingen.de/">University of Göttingen</a> mapped 32 German farm landscapes roughly 0.6 mile across.



Each circular site combined different shares of organic cropland, annual flower strips, and <a href="https://xerces.org/sites/default/files/publications/23-028_01_Creating-Perennial-Habitat-Using-Plugs-FS_web.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">perennial habitat</a> dominated by long‑lived plants such as meadow knapweed.



Transects criss‑crossed wheat, clover, hedgerows, and the open lanes where <a href="https://www.bumblebeeconservation.org/learn-about-bumblebees/species-guide/red-tailed-bumblebee/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Bombus lapidarius</a> and dozens of lesser‑known species feed. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-overlapping-support-for-bees">Overlapping support for bees</h2>



Over three summer runs, the team recorded more than 4,500 individual bees, and then scaled those counts to the full landscape for a big‑picture view.



The design allowed the researchers to test whether habitats simply add, work together in a <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/engineering/synergistic-effect" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">synergistic effect</a>, or cancel each other out.



The analysis leaned on the same statistical muscle used in crop‑yield forecasting, but here the harvest metric was buzz and diversity. 



Organic acreage, flower strips, and perennial pockets each lifted flower cover, yet the payoff for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-are-highly-concerned-that-so-many-bee-hives-have-disappeared/">bees</a> hinged on how those elements overlapped.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-bees-thrive-when-farms-meet-meadows">Bees thrive when farms meet meadows</h2>



Organic fields, managed without synthetic pesticides, proved especially valuable when at least five percent of the surrounding land also held perennial <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bees-sleep-like-humans-with-similar-brain-patterns/">habitat</a>. 



Densities of non‑bumblebee wild species climbed steeply under that mix, evidence of a synergy between pesticide‑free forage and nearby nesting ground.



“This study offers important guidance for shaping future measures for agriculture and the environment. It highlights the value of coordinated, landscape‑scale planning,” noted Dr. Annika Haß, a lead scientist on <a href="https://www.uni-goettingen.de/en/646422.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">the ComBee project</a>.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-stable-meadow-edges-support-bees">Stable meadow edges support bees </h2>



Organic plots alone boosted bumblebee numbers too, yet the gains were additive rather than synergistic. 



Many common Bombus species nest flexibly in grass margins or old rodent burrows, so they profit from pesticide‑free blossoms even without extra meadows. 



For orchard managers in the United States pondering organic transitions, the message is clear: pesticide reduction helps, but pairing it with stable meadow edges helps even more.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-flower-strips-meadows-and-mixed-signals">Flower strips, meadows, and mixed signals</h2>



Annual flower fields, those bright strips tilled and reseeded every spring, sound perfect on paper but told a more tangled story in practice. 



When large flower strips were paired with broad organic acreage, overall bee numbers often plateaued rather than doubled because both habitats bloom at similar times. Redundancy in food, without added nesting sites, meant no bonus for pollinators.



Perennial meadows, by contrast, flower in staggered waves and offer bare or lightly vegetated soil where ground‑nesting bees dig. Their long-lived stems survive winter, protecting larvae and overwintering adults. 



That structural difference explains why meadows completed the resource puzzle alongside organic crops, while annual strips sometimes crowded it.



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/honey-bees-spread-viruses-to-bumblebees-in-the-spring/">Bumblebees</a>, with their social colonies and bigger flight ranges, took advantage of annual strips only in simple landscapes that lacked meadows. For solitary bees with shorter foraging ranges, perennial patches again tipped the scale.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-benefits-of-diversified-landscapes">Benefits of diversified landscapes</h2>



The ComBee team calculated practical thresholds: organic farming starts to raise species richness when annual strips cover less than five acres inside a 500‑acre landscape. 



Synergy with perennial meadows kicks in once those meadows reach about 12 acres. These numbers translate neatly to many Midwestern farm sections or European parish blocks, giving planners concrete targets instead of guesswork.



Because budgets are limited, the authors argue for steering organic incentives toward places where annual flower strips are scarce, while investing separate funds to create long‑term meadows in regions already rich in organic acreage.



Such mixing of functionally different habitats promises the biggest biological return per dollar. Beyond bees, diversified landscapes cushion farms against drought, improve soil structure, and harbor predators that curb <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bats-assist-farmers-by-consuming-harmful-pests/">crop pests</a>.



Policies that reward cooperation among neighboring landowners, rather than isolated actions, could therefore yield multiple wins.



The study is published in the <a href="https://besjournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/1365-2664.70074" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal of Applied Ecology</a>.



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Organic farms and meadows can help save wild bees

Bee populations around the world have been slipping for decades,...

Since 2014, June 21 has been observed globally as World Giraffe Day. Chosen deliberately for its distinction as the longest day of the year, the date honors the world’s tallest land mammal. The symbolism is compelling, but the message is urgent. 



Giraffes are undergoing a rapid and largely unrecognized population decline. While often admired for their appearance, their ecological importance and conservation status remain overlooked by the global public.



The <a href="https://giraffeconservation.org" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Giraffe Conservation Foundation</a> emphasizes that celebrating giraffes must go hand-in-hand with acknowledging the threats they face. Current trends suggest that without widespread intervention, these <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/giraffes-are-suffering-a-silent-extinction-and-need-more-protection/">animals</a> could disappear within our lifetime.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ecological-roles-of-giraffes">Ecological roles of giraffes </h2>



Giraffes may be quiet and unassuming, but they play a vital role in nature. They perform key ecological functions that support <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/its-world-giraffe-day-celebrate-the-worlds-tallest-animal-on-the-earths-longest-day/">biodiversity</a> in savanna ecosystems.



While feeding, giraffes naturally trim tree canopies, allowing more sunlight to reach the plants below. This promotes understory growth and enhances the structural diversity of the ecosystem.



As giraffes move across landscapes, they disperse seeds, contributing to forest regeneration.



Giraffes help many other animals by changing their surroundings. Birds, insects, and mammals all benefit. Yet, much like their silent presence, the decline of giraffes has largely gone unnoticed.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-world-giraffe-day-a-quiet-decline">World Giraffe Day: A quiet decline</h2>



Over the past three decades, giraffe <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/giraffes-gained-their-long-necks-for-food-not-sex/">populations</a> have declined by nearly one third. They have been extirpated from at least seven African countries. Despite this, their situation has received minimal public attention. Conservationists have described this phenomenon as a “silent extinction,” noting the contrast between the giraffe’s visibility in tourism and media, and its invisibility in conservation policy.



In comparison to elephants and rhinos, which receive considerable international focus, giraffes rarely appear in global <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/giraffes-hate-slopes-and-its-threatening-their-survival/">conservation</a> discourse. Their quiet presence may be contributing to their neglect. Yet, the threats they face are no less severe.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-drivers-of-population-loss">Drivers of population loss</h2>



Habitat fragmentation is a primary driver of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/giraffes-have-gut-bacteria-that-are-unaffected-by-their-diet/">population</a> decline. Human expansion through agriculture, infrastructure, and urban development has significantly reduced the land available to giraffes. 



Poaching also persists. Some giraffes are killed for meat; others for tails, which are used as charms or tools.



Climate change compounds these pressures. Droughts force giraffes to approach farmlands, leading to human-wildlife conflict. In these cases, crop protection often results in giraffe fatalities. 



The cumulative effect of these stressors is a gradual erosion of giraffe populations across the continent.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-emerging-scientific-urgency">Emerging scientific urgency</h2>



Recent genetic studies have shifted scientific understanding of giraffe taxonomy. What was once considered a single species with subspecies is now recognized as four distinct <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/study-reveals-four-unique-giraffe-species-across-africa/">species</a>. 



This taxonomic clarification carries conservation implications. Protection strategies must now be tailored to individual species, as threats and habitat needs vary. 



With improved clarity comes a renewed obligation to act swiftly. Several giraffe species are critically endangered, with populations below 2,000 individuals.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-supporting-active-conservation-efforts">Supporting active conservation efforts</h2>



The Giraffe Conservation Foundation leads key interventions across Africa. One major strategy involves tracking giraffes using GPS collars to map their movement patterns and identify ecological corridors. These insights inform landscape-level protection strategies.



Translocation efforts have also proven successful. In areas where populations are especially vulnerable, small herds have been moved to protected zones with favorable conditions. 



Though resource-intensive, this approach has led to successful breeding and the birth of new calves, offering cautious optimism.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-public-action-on-world-giraffe-day">Public action on World Giraffe Day </h2>



Public involvement remains essential. While direct participation in fieldwork is not feasible for most individuals, awareness-raising remains powerful. 



Sharing verified information, supporting conservation organizations, and advocating for sustainable tourism all contribute to broader efforts.



Educators can also play a key role by integrating giraffe conservation into curricula. Artists, writers, and communicators can amplify messages that connect people emotionally and intellectually with the issue.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cultural-significance-of-giraffes">Cultural significance of giraffes</h2>



Beyond biology, giraffes hold symbolic importance in many African cultures. Their image appears in rock art, oral traditions, and modern storytelling. 



Often associated with grace, patience, and heightened vision, giraffes represent qualities that humans value deeply.



In this sense, their disappearance would constitute not only an ecological loss but also a cultural one. Preserving giraffes means preserving shared human heritage.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-more-than-a-celebration">More than a celebration </h2>



This observance offers more than celebration. It invites reflection. Why has the decline of such an iconic animal gone largely unnoticed? What assumptions have shaped our collective inaction? And more importantly, how do we shift from admiration to responsibility?



The extra daylight on June 21 becomes a metaphor for awareness. The question is whether we will use it wisely. We already have the tools and science is catching up. 



Protecting giraffes isn’t just about saving a species - it’s about preserving the wild itself. We can’t afford to wait. What stands tall today could disappear tomorrow.



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World Giraffe Day 2025 calls for urgent action to save giraffes

Since 2014, June 21 has been observed globally as World...

A single fossil of a giant Appalachian salamander has been discovered by scientists at East Tennessee State University. 



Millions of years ago, this 16-inch salamander with a powerful bite threaded its way through the soft earth of what is now northeastern Tennessee.



The salamander tunnels criss-crossed ancient forests, and its appetite likely shaped the mix of smaller <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/saving-amphibians-wildlife-tunnels-prevent-road-deaths/">amphibians</a> in the surrounding ecosystems.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fossil-may-explain-salamander-diversity">Fossil may explain salamander diversity </h2>



Today, the fossil of this new species may help explain how the region's salamanders became so diverse. The specimen surfaced at the Gray Fossil Site &amp; Museum, a dig next door to <a href="https://www.etsu.edu/ehome/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">East Tennessee State University</a> (ETSU).



After careful study, researchers described the animal - Dynamognathus robertsoni - in a publication in the journal Historical Biology.



The work comes from a team that includes assistant collections manager Davis Gunnin, professor of geosciences Dr. Blaine Schubert, head curator Dr. Joshua Samuels, museum specialist Keila Bredehoeft, and assistant collections manager Shay Maden.



“Our researchers are not only uncovering ancient life, they are modeling the kind of collaboration and curiosity that define ETSU,” said Dr. Joe Bidwell, dean of the College of Arts and Sciences. 



“This exciting find underscores the vital role our university plays in preserving and exploring Appalachia’s deep natural history.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-species-named-for-its-powerful-jaw">Species named for its powerful jaw</h2>



Dynamognathus robertsoni ranks among the largest of the lungless salamanders from the family Plethodontidae. It exchanged gases through its skin and the lining of its mouth, rather than by means of lungs. 



The jaw anatomy of the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/salamanders-can-adapt-better-to-climate-change-than-previously-thought/">ancient salamander</a> suggests a striking bite force, which would have made it a formidable predator.



“This group of salamanders has unusual cranial anatomy that gives them a strong bite force, so the genus name, Dynamognathus – Greek for ‘powerful jaw,’ is given to highlight the great size and power of the salamander compared to its living relatives,” explained Maden.



The species name honors Wayne Robertson, a longtime volunteer who spotted the first bone and has sifted through more than 50 tons of sediment since 2000.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-appalachia-s-surprising-salamander-legacy">Appalachia’s surprising salamander legacy</h2>



Today, the Southern Appalachian forests host more than 50 salamander species - about one-eighth of all known salamanders on Earth. 



Many of them are <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/agricultural-and-biological-sciences/plethodontidae" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">plethodonts</a> like the new fossil species. Scientists have long wondered how so many species could have arisen in this small corner of the world.



“Finding something that looks like a Red Hills salamander here in East Tennessee was a bit of a surprise,” Gunnin said. 



“Today they’re only found in a few counties in southern Alabama, and researchers thought of them as a highly specialized dead-end lineage, not particularly relevant to the evolution of the dusky salamanders."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-evolution-of-salamander-communities">Evolution of salamander communities </h2>



The discovery of Dynamognathus robertsoni in Southern Appalachia indicates that this type of relatively large, burrowing salamander was once more widespread in eastern North America, explained Gunnin.



He noted that this may have had a profound impact on the evolution of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/three-new-black-bellied-salamanders-were-hidden-in-plain-sight/">Appalachian</a> salamander communities.



Modern dusky salamanders max out at about seven inches (18 centimeters) - less than half the length of the fossil giant. The research team suspects that predators like D. robertsoni drove smaller stream-dwellers to diversify rapidly, setting the stage for today’s variety.



“The warmer climate in Tennessee 5 million years ago, followed by cooling during the Pleistocene <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/disastrous-climate-changes-of-the-last-ice-age-could-happen-again/">Ice Ages</a>, may have restricted large, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/red-backed-salamanders-will-struggle-to-adapt-to-climate-warming/">burrowing salamanders</a> to lower latitudes, like southern Alabama, where the Red Hills salamander lives today,” said Samuels.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-significance-of-the-salamander-fossil">Significance of the salamander fossil</h2>



“The latest salamander publication is a testament to this teamwork and search for answers,” said Schubert. 



“When Davis Gunnin, the lead author, began volunteering at the museum as a teenager with an interest in fossil salamanders, I was thrilled because this region is known for its salamander diversity today, and we know so little about their fossil record."



From high-school volunteers to seasoned faculty, the Gray Fossil Site team keeps uncovering stories buried beneath Appalachian soil.



The stories explain why a walk through a modern Tennessee stream still reveals more salamander shapes and colors than almost anywhere else on Earth.



This shared effort blends curiosity, dedication, and local pride in a way that brings science to life. With each new find, the team adds another piece to the puzzle of Appalachia’s <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/triassic-fossils-shed-new-light-on-ancient-ecosystems/">ancient ecosystems</a>.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/08912963.2025.2501332" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Historical Biology</a>.



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Giant salamander fossil reveals deep roots of Appalachian diversity

A single fossil of a giant Appalachian salamander has been...

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https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE
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On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop and sunlight barely penetrates through the polar winter. It was here, however, that an international team of scientists found <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/predatory-worms-were-terror-beasts-half-a-billion-years-ago/#google_vignette" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evidence of sea monsters</a> that would change our understanding of ocean life in the past.



This video captures the discovery of Timorebestia fossils that had been hidden for more than 500 million years in the Sirius Passet formation. The "terror beasts," as they are called, are a hidden chapter in the evolutionary history of <a href="https://www.earth.com" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Earth</a>, showing that sophisticated predator-prey interactions occurred much earlier than previously envisioned.



Dr. Jakob Vinther and his research team at the <a href="https://www.bristol.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Bristol</a>, in collaboration with researchers at the <a href="https://eng.kopri.re.kr/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Korean Polar Research Institute</a>, braved extreme weather conditions at 82.5 north latitude to locate these giant creatures. Using sophisticated electron microprobe analysis, they revealed the detailed anatomy of the animals, including their muscle and nerve tissues.



The find upsets the traditional timeline of sea predators. Although we've long appreciated that Cambrian oceans were at one time ruled by <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jWI3-UgA3_o&amp;list=PL1QLQMW9MWDwpkFOnvgAmu7wT6rZmYqdJ&amp;index=19" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">arthropods</a>, these discoveries indicate that relatives of arrow worms were first to dominate the seas. These worms were building sophisticated food webs several million years before other predator groups arose.



Each fossil is a story of ancient hunger, with fossil stomach contents revealing these meter-long beasts dined on heavily armored arthropods regularly, cementing their place as the ocean's first apex predators.



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Worms dominated seas before dinosaurs

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">New York is the site of the world's oldest forest.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-385-million-year-old-trees-discovered">385-million-year-old trees discovered</h2>



Scientists have uncovered something extraordinary just two hours north of New York City. The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/worlds-oldest-forest-discovered-close-to-new-york-city/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">world's oldest forest</a>, dating back 385 million years, offers a window into how Earth's first complex forests shaped our planet's atmosphere.



Located near <a href="https://townofcairo.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cairo, New York</a>, in Greene County, these weren't merely primitive plants struggling to survive. These were sophisticated trees with root systems remarkably similar to modern forests. This ancient woodland predates dinosaurs by 140 million years.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-cairo-forest-discovery">The Cairo forest discovery</h2>



385 million years ago, upstate New York was a tropical paradise near the equator. Thanks to continental drift, this ancient forest has traveled thousands of miles to its current location.



The fossil forest sits in an abandoned quarry, roughly half the size of a football field. This represents just a slice of what was likely a massive forest system stretching from New York into Pennsylvania.



Charles Ver Straeten, curator of sedimentary rocks at the <a href="https://www.nysm.nysed.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">New York State Museum</a>, made the discovery in 2009. While scouting the former highway department property, his trained eye spotted wandering patterns in the stone that looked like marine features.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-revolutionary-age-and-preservation">Revolutionary age and preservation</h2>



The site contains 385-million-year-old rocks with fossilized woody roots forming horizontal patterns up to 18 feet (5.5 meters) wide. As Christopher Berry, a paleobotanist at Cardiff University, explains: "You are walking through the roots of ancient trees."



This discovery pushes back advanced tree evolution by millions of years. The research, published in <a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/home" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Current Biology</a> in December 2019, fundamentally changes our understanding of when complex forests first emerged.



Researchers believe a massive flood buried the forest floor, creating perfect fossilization conditions. Over millions of years, sediment hardened into rock, preserving these root patterns like nature's time capsule.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-meet-archaeopteris-the-first-modern-tree">Meet Archaeopteris: the first modern tree</h2>



The star of this ancient forest is Archaeopteris – not to be confused with the feathered dinosaur Archaeopteryx. This tree was far older and more revolutionary.



William Stein from <a href="https://www.binghamton.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Binghamton University</a> describes the roots as "strikingly modern, essentially what you'd see outside in my yard right now." These weren't simple root systems you'd expect from ancient plants.



Some fossilized roots are six inches (15 centimeters) in diameter, forming 36-foot-wide (11-meter) patterns. These giants grew up to 65 feet (20 meters) tall with five-foot-diameter (1.5-meter) trunks.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-changing-impact">Climate-changing impact</h2>



These trees fundamentally changed Earth's environment. Kevin Boyce, a Stanford University geoscientist, explains how their deep roots triggered "weathering," chemical reactions that pulled carbon dioxide from the atmosphere.



This process dropped atmospheric CO2 levels from 10-15 times higher than today to roughly modern concentrations. These ancient trees helped create atmospheric conditions that made complex life possible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ancient-forest-ecosystem">Ancient forest ecosystem</h2>



The forest was remarkably diverse. Scientists identified Eospermatopteris, palm tree-like plants with short roots that reached 30 feet (9 meters) tall but lacked woody structure. The forest also housed cladoxylopsids and a mysterious third species still being studied.



All reproduced through spores rather than seeds – millions of years before seeds evolved. This tropical environment had no grass, flowers, or flying insects, just towering trees creating Earth's first complex forest canopy.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-scientific-significance">Scientific significance</h2>



Before this finding, the Gilboa forest, located 25 miles (40 kilometers) away, held the "oldest forest" title. Cairo's trees are 2-3 million years older, showing that complex forest ecosystems developed much faster than scientists believed possible.



Patricia Gensel, a <a href="https://www.unc.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of North Carolina</a> paleobotanist, notes: "The size of those root systems is really changing the picture. Even 20 years ago, researchers assumed trees with such complex root systems didn't evolve so early."



The Cairo site presents three unique root systems, suggesting Devonian period forests were diverse ecosystems with different trees occupying different environmental niches, much like today's forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-modern-preservation-efforts">Modern preservation efforts</h2>



In 2022, New York State Senator Michelle Hinchey secured a $170,000 grant for the town of Cairo to construct specialized fencing around the fossil forest site. The town plans to conduct a feasibility study exploring the possibility of creating an educational center and working lab on-site.



Joe Hasenkopf, chair of the Cairo Planning Board, hopes to partner with educational institutions to create a research facility serving scientists, students, and the public.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lessons-for-today-s-climate">Lessons for today's climate</h2>



Why does a 385-million-year-old forest matter today? It shows how dramatically forests can change Earth's climate. These ancient woodlands created the atmospheric conditions supporting complex life.



Understanding how prehistoric forests transformed the planet helps us appreciate modern forests' critical role in addressing climate change. Forests remain Earth's most effective carbon capture systems.



These prehistoric trees changed Earth's atmosphere by pulling massive amounts of carbon dioxide from the air. As we face modern climate challenges, this ancient forest reminds us of trees' incredible power to transform our planet's environment.



The next time you walk through a forest, remember you're experiencing an ecosystem whose blueprint was established 385 million years ago in upstate New York. These ancient pioneers didn't just survive – they thrived and changed the world forever.



The full study was published in the journal Current Biology.



-----



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Earth's oldest forest found in the United States

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ New York is the site of the world's oldest...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Acid rain and a crisis solved.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-don-t-we-ever-hear-about-acid-rain-anymore-the-environmental-crisis-that-was-solved">Why don't we ever hear about "acid rain" anymore? The environmental crisis that was solved</h2>



Remember the 1980s when acid rain dominated headlines? Dire warnings about rain eating buildings, killing fish, and destroying forests filled every news cycle. Then, almost like magic, acid rain vanished from public discourse. What happened? Did we actually solve one of the late 20th century's most pressing environmental challenges?



The answer might surprise you. Unlike many environmental issues that drag on indefinitely, acid rain represents one of modern history's most successful ecological recovery stories. It's a tale of science, politics, and technology working together to tackle what seemed impossible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What was acid rain?</h2>



Acid rain isn't regular rain having a bad day – it's precipitation that became significantly more acidic due to air pollution. When power plants, factories, and vehicles burn fossil fuels, they release sulfur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides (NOx) into the atmosphere.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The science behind it</h2>



Think of acid rain as nature's chemistry experiment gone wrong. These compounds react with water, oxygen, and other chemicals to form sulfuric and nitric acids. When mixed with water vapor in clouds, they create precipitation with dangerously low pH levels.



While clean rain has a pH of about 5.6, acid rain could drop as low as 4.2 to 4.4 – roughly as acidic as tomato juice or coffee. According to US Geological Survey documentation, Scottish chemist Angus Smith first coined "acid rain" in 1872, but it didn't become a household phrase until the 1960s and 1970s when Swedish scientist Svante Odén documented its devastating effects on Scandinavian lakes and European forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The crisis at its peak</h2>



During the height of public concern, environmental damage was both widespread and visible. This wasn't some abstract future threat – people could see destruction happening in real-time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Environmental devastation</h2>



The most dramatic impacts were impossible to ignore. Research documented by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation and the New York State Department of Environmental Conservation shows that in the Adirondack Mountains, more than 200 lakes became so acidic they couldn't support fish life. The Adirondack Council reports that 409 lakes once supported brook trout, but many lost their fish populations due to acid rain.



By 1976, when scientists cataloged all acidified lakes in the Adirondack Park, researchers found that half of the lakes over 2,000 feet above sea level had no fish, according to studies published in environmental journals. The acidification process worked like a slow-motion disaster. As acid rain fell into watersheds, it gradually lowered pH levels. Fish couldn't survive in acidic water, and their food sources died off too.



Trees at high elevations showed stress directly linked to acid rain. It weakened them by leaching nutrients and making them susceptible to disease. Historical records show Germany's Black Forest saw nearly half its trees damaged by the mid-1980s.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Economic impact</h2>



Acid rain wasn't just environmental – it was expensive. Acidic precipitation corroded infrastructure, buildings, and monuments. Historic stone structures deteriorated at accelerated rates. Tourism suffered as lakes became fishless and forests declined. EPA economic analyses from the period documented repair costs mounting into billions annually.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The solution: government action and technology</h2>



Transformation from crisis to success required unprecedented cooperation between governments, industries, and environmental groups.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The Clean Air Act of 1990</h2>



The turning point came with the Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990, signed by President George H.W. Bush. This represented a fundamentally new approach to environmental regulation, as documented in EPA historical records.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Cap-and-trade success</h2>



Instead of mandating specific technologies, the 1990 amendments introduced something revolutionary: a cap-and-trade system for sulfur dioxide emissions. EPA program documentation shows this market-based approach set overall limits but allowed companies to trade emission allowances.



The genius was harnessing market forces to find cost-effective pollution reduction. Companies reducing emissions cheaply could sell excess allowances to those facing higher costs. Research published in environmental economics journals and EPA progress reports shows this resulted in dramatic SO2 reduction at a fraction of projected costs.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Technology advances</h2>



Policy provided the framework, but technology made reductions possible. Studies in atmospheric science journals document the widespread adoption of flue gas desulfurization systems ("scrubbers") that removed sulfur dioxide before it reached the atmosphere. By the 2000s, new installations could remove over 95% of SO2 emissions, according to EPA technical reports.



The push coincided with cleaner energy development. Natural gas produces fewer sulfur compounds than coal. Wind and solar, emerging in the 1990s, captured growing market share, reducing reliance on high-sulfur coal.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-we-don-t-hear-about-it-today">Why we don't hear about it today</h2>



Why did acid rain disappear from headlines? Simple: the problem was largely solved.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Success doesn't make news</h2>



There's an old journalism saying: "If it bleeds, it leads." Environmental success stories don't generate urgency like crisis reporting. Media attention shifted to other challenges: climate change, plastic pollution, and biodiversity loss. There's only so much environmental anxiety the public can absorb, and newer concerns replaced acid rain.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Mission accomplished</h2>



The primary reason is beautifully simple: interventions worked. EPA monitoring data shows sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990. Academic research published in environmental science journals confirms pH levels in formerly affected areas returned closer to normal. This represents one of history's most dramatic environmental recoveries. Studies by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation show fishless lakes now support healthy populations. Forests recovered, and building damage slowed dramatically.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-is-it-really-gone">Is it really gone?</h2>



The crisis is largely resolved, but monitoring data shows the problem isn't completely eliminated – it's managed to acceptable levels. Some areas still experience occasional events during high pollution periods. International environmental research indicates that rapidly industrializing Asian countries face similar problems to what we experienced decades ago, though they're implementing successful strategies.



EPA research shows nitrogen oxide emissions proved more challenging than sulfur dioxide, coming from vehicles and mobile sources. Climate science studies suggest changing weather patterns add complexity to how acid rain forms and falls.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What this teaches us</h2>



The acid rain experience proves that seemingly intractable environmental problems can be solved with scientific understanding, political will, and technological innovation. Environmental monitoring data shows recovery speed was remarkable – within a decade, measurable improvements appeared in air quality and ecosystem health.



Success came from bipartisan support across party lines. Policy analysis studies show the market-based approach appealed to those preferring economic incentives while achieving environmental goals. This support created lasting policy surviving political changes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Conclusion</h2>



Acid rain's disappearance from public consciousness represents environmental science's greatest success stories. Through effective regulation, technological innovation, and international cooperation, we transformed an overwhelming crisis into a manageable challenge.



Today's silence isn't because we forgot – it's because we solved it. The 1990 Clean Air Act, combined with technology and energy market changes, reduced acid rain emissions over 90%, according to comprehensive EPA data analysis.



This success offers hope for current challenges. It proves complex problems can be solved when science, policy, and technology work together. As we face climate change and plastic pollution, acid rain reminds us that dramatic positive change is possible.



Next time someone asks whether environmental regulations work, remember acid rain. It's proof that sometimes, we get it right.



<hr class="wp-block-separator has-alpha-channel-opacity"/>



Sources: This article draws from EPA official documentation and progress reports, peer-reviewed research published in environmental and atmospheric science journals, historical data from the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation, New York State Department of Environmental Conservation records, US Geological Survey publications, policy analysis studies, and environmental monitoring data collected over three decades.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Frequently Asked Questions</h2>



1. Is acid rain completely gone? No, but EPA monitoring shows it's reduced to manageable levels. US sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990, making acid rain much less severe than the 1980s crisis.



2. How long did solving take? Environmental monitoring data shows significant improvements began within 5-10 years of 1990s emission controls. Full ecosystem recovery took longer – some areas need 20-30 years for complete recovery.



3. What made the solution successful? Clear scientific understanding, visible damage motivating action, bipartisan support, available technology, and innovative market-based policies like cap-and-trade.



4. Do other countries have acid rain problems? Yes, particularly rapidly industrializing Asian countries. However, international environmental research shows many implement similar successful control strategies.



5. Could acid rain return? Potentially, if regulations weaken or we return to high-sulfur coal without controls, though effects would take years to become severe according to environmental projections.



6. Can you recommend any teaching tools on the subject of "acid rain"? The United States Environmental Protection Agency produced a wonderful teacher's guide for ages 14 and under that you can find on the EPA website here: <a href="https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf</a>



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The environmental problem we actually solved

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk Acid rain and a crisis solved. Why don't we...

Fresh,Radish,Harvest,On,Soil,In,Garden.

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://youtu.be/Fi2OeEwuzRM?si=vTyd2m9FMmtyWkex
</div></figure>







Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving fall garden, and this guide lays out the best vegetables and herbs to plant now for a fruitful autumn harvest. 



Fast-growing leafy greens such as spinach, lettuce, kale, and arugula perform especially well in the waning summer heat, with harvests beginning as soon as 30 days. 



These cool-season crops relish the transition into fall, offering repeated yields with cut-and-come-again methods.



Root vegetables like radishes, carrots, and beets also excel during this period. Radishes deliver satisfaction in under a month, while carrots and beets mature in about two months. Employing succession planting ensures a continuous stream of produce deep into the cooler months. 



For a boost of fresh flavor, herbs like cilantro, basil, dill, and chervil are excellent picks. These heat-loving varieties flourish in July’s warmth and are harvest-ready in about 30 days, especially when sown continuously.



Gardeners in zones 6 through 9 can benefit from planting bush beans and snap peas, which don’t require trellising and are ideal for compact plots. 



Maturing in 50–60 days, they’re a smart choice for quick, protein-rich harvests. For those in hotter regions, heat-tolerant crops such as okra and southern peas provide reliable yields and thrive in scorching conditions.



This guide emphasizes more than crop selection—it highlights the importance of timing, soil preparation, and ongoing sowing techniques. 



With thoughtful planning and attention to regional climate needs, even late-summer gardeners can enjoy fresh salads, hearty stews, and the satisfaction of a robust, homegrown harvest well into fall.



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What to plant in your garden in mid-July

https://youtu.be/Fi2OeEwuzRM?si=vTyd2m9FMmtyWkex Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving...

Green,Ecoduct,Over,An,Empty,Highway,During,Sunset.

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://youtu.be/XYgiPzmNBTU?si=eFYY7gPHU1JznLvU
</div></figure>



A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that wildlife tunnels significantly reduce amphibian road mortality during seasonal migrations. 



Frogs and salamanders often cross roads to reach breeding ponds each spring, but many are killed by vehicles. 



Researchers from the <a href="https://www.uvm.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Vermont</a>, in collaboration with local citizens and the Vermont Agency of Natural Resources, installed two underpass tunnels in 2015. 



Over a 12-year monitoring period, they observed an 80.2% reduction in amphibian deaths, and up to 94% for non-climbing species like salamanders. 



The study used a before-after-control-impact design and documented more than 5,200 amphibians, highlighting the tunnels’ effectiveness even in nearby buffer zones.



Funded at $342,397 - far cheaper than wildlife crossings for large mammals - the project showcased the power of community-led conservation.



Local groups initiated the effort after observing mass amphibian deaths. Wildlife cameras later captured over 2,200 amphibians using a tunnel in just one spring, along with other species like raccoons and bobcats, indicating wider ecosystem benefits.



This marks the first peer-reviewed, long-term data set in the northeastern U.S. confirming amphibian-specific underpasses work. 



The study urges transportation departments to incorporate these designs into road planning and highlights how community action, thoughtful infrastructure, and persistence can make a real difference for biodiversity.



The full study was published in the <a href="https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1617138125000780" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal for Nature Conservation</a>.



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Wildlife tunnels save millions of amphibians

https://youtu.be/XYgiPzmNBTU?si=eFYY7gPHU1JznLvU A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that...

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing it with probiotics and prebiotics, aiming to create a treat that satisfies cravings while supporting gut health. 



The challenge lies in maintaining chocolate's beloved texture and flavor while adding health benefits.



<figure class="wp-block-embed aligncenter is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://youtu.be/Ug657J67iEo?si=w96YjGMsg939LD_3
</div></figure>



Probiotics - beneficial microbes that balance gut bacteria and aid digestion - are typically fragile and can be destroyed by stomach acid or processing. 



Prebiotics act as food for these microbes, helping them thrive. Together, they form "synbiotics," a powerful health combination.



Researchers Smriti Gaur and Shubhi Singh from India's Jaypee Institute of Information Technology took an innovative approach, using natural prebiotics like corn and honey instead of complex processing methods. 



They created five chocolate varieties: a control and four synbiotic versions containing different combinations of prebiotics, probiotics (Lactobacillus strains), and flavor enhancers (cinnamon or orange).



Laboratory simulations of human digestion showed the probiotics remained viable for over five hours, suggesting they could survive long enough to benefit gut health.



Taste tests were positive, with researchers particularly enjoying the orange-flavored variety, describing it as having "vibrant citrus notes" complementing the "rich cocoa" with a "luxurious" texture.



This research represents just the beginning. With further refinement of strains, textures, and flavors, chocolate could evolve beyond mere indulgence to become a functional food that nourishes while it delights.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.4c00741" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ACS Food Science &amp; Technology</a>.

Is chocolate the next nutritional powerhouse?

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="0ynNMYkMKa-2340414-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

[sendtonews key="0ynNMYkMKa-2340414-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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How does salt makes things taste better?

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Santiago, Chile in South America

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Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.



According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."



Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;



ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. 



Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

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Earth,Like,Exoplanet,3d,Render

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

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Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes Earth’s interconnected systems, and how this network is affected by rising temperatures.&nbsp;



During 2020, average global temperatures matched the hottest year on record. The hurricane season was also record-breaking, with many of the storms intensifying at extraordinary speeds. Hot water in the ocean is fuel for hurricanes. The satellite data shows that it's all one interconnected system showing how Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected.



According to NASA, dust swept up from Northern Africa plays a major role in the formation of hurricanes, and is also a key source of fertilization in the Amazon rainforest. As a result of<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seagrass-wasting-disease-is-fueled-by-climate-change/"> climate</a> change, dust plumes are expected to decline, which will have an effect on vegetation far away.&nbsp;



Images from Earth-observing satellites show how the world’s plant life is affected by natural disasters, fires, and deforestation. Satellites also reveal how widespread changes in vegetation impact waterways,&nbsp; the climate, air quality. Satellites communicate by using radio waves to send signals to the antennas on the Earth. "Earth From Space" is a groundbreaking two-hour special that reveals a spectacular new space-based vision of our planet. 



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected

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