The sight of a whale shark, the largest fish alive today, leaves most people humbled. Its slow, graceful movements and gentle nature often make them symbols of the ocean’s mystery. Yet behind this serene image lies a struggle for survival.



Populations have fallen sharply, and their biology makes recovery slow. The findings of a new study from Indonesian waters not only reveal the scale of human impacts but also highlight why protecting whale sharks is vital for ocean health.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-whale-shark-decline-accelerates">Whale shark decline accelerates</h2>



Over the last 75 years, global whale shark numbers have dropped by more than half. In the Indo-Pacific, declines are even steeper. 



Hunting, habitat disruption, and entanglements push whale sharks closer to extinction. Because they take up to 30 years to mature, populations rebound very slowly. 



Large-bodied species like whale sharks face unique risks in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/silent-invasion-how-microplastics-are-disrupting-land-ecosystems/">ecosystems</a> since they grow slowly, reproduce late, and invest heavily in fewer offspring. 



The researchers noted that the disappearance of such giants can ripple through marine systems.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-injuries-trace-back-to-people">Injuries trace back to people</h2>



In the Bird’s Head Seascape of West Papua, the research team found 62 percent of whale sharks bore scars or wounds, mostly from human actions.



“We found that scars and injuries were mainly from anthropogenic causes, such as collisions with ‘bagans’ - traditional fishing platforms with lift nets - and whale shark-watching tour boats,” said Dr. Edy Setyawan of the <a href="https://www.elasmobranchinstitute.id" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Elasmobranch Institute Indonesia</a>.



“Relatively harmless minor abrasions were the most common. Serious injuries from natural causes such as predator attacks, or from boat propellers were much less common."



Patterns in ecology show that when human activities concentrate near feeding or breeding grounds, injury rates increase significantly. 



According to the study, direct human pressures such as vessel strikes and fishing gear interactions remain among the greatest global threats to megafauna. Whale sharks are no exception.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-following-the-gentle-giants">Following the gentle giants</h2>



Between 2010 and 2023, the scientists tracked whale sharks across Cenderawasih Bay, Kaimana, Raja Ampat, and Fakfak. This biodiversity hotspot hosts 26 marine protected areas. Using the distinctive spot patterns of each shark, the researchers identified 268 individuals.



Nearly all sightings occurred near bagans, where whale sharks fed on <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ocean-warming-threatens-the-global-fish-supply/">baitfish</a> like anchovies and sprats. Most were juvenile males, four to five meters long. More than half were resighted, including one young male recorded 34 times over three years.



From an ecological lens, these observations support a classic theory: young individuals often use coastal waters rich in food, while adults migrate offshore into deeper, less accessible habitats.



Such ontogenetic shifts are common across marine megafauna and are essential for population survival.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-injuries-reshape-populations">Injuries reshape populations</h2>



Of 206 sharks with scars, over 80 percent carried human-caused injuries. Serious wounds, including lacerations and blunt trauma, were rare but concerning. More often, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/whale-sharks-move-into-dangerous-territory-as-the-climate-warms/">sharks</a> bore superficial abrasions from rubbing against fishing gear and boats.



Studies across marine ecology emphasize that while minor wounds may not kill, cumulative injuries reduce overall fitness.



Injured animals often change behavior, avoid key feeding zones, or expend more energy healing. Over time, this shapes population dynamics.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-female-whale-sharks-live-in-deep-seas">Female whale sharks live in deep seas</h2>



A lingering question is the absence of females and older individuals, since previous studies show that adult whale sharks - especially females - prefer the deep ocean where they feed on prey like krill and schooling fish.



By contrast, younger males remain near shore in shallow, plankton-rich waters that help them grow quickly.



“Our own satellite tracking data also show that females and adults frequently use deep sea features such as canyons and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seamounts-are-gathering-hubs-for-ocean-predators/">seamounts</a>,” said study co-author Mochamad Iqbal Herwata Putra.



Ecological theory explains this pattern: sexual segregation often arises in large marine vertebrates, with males and females exploiting different ecological niches to reduce competition and improve survival chances. This strategy is a driver of population resilience across species.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tourism-brings-dangers-to-whale-sharks">Tourism brings dangers to whale sharks</h2>



Staying near coasts, whale sharks offer strong potential for ecotourism. 



“Whale sharks in Cenderawasih Bay and Triton Bay (Kaimana) had high rates of residency and resighting, indicating that they should be viewed as valuable tourism assets for local communities and governments,” said Dr. Mark Erdmann of Rewild.



However, unmanaged <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/animals-change-their-daily-schedules-when-tourists-are-watching/">wildlife tourism</a> can create a risky cycle: attraction leads to proximity, which heightens disturbance and injury risk.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-small-changes-big-impact">Small changes, big impact</h2>



The researchers recommend small but effective changes, such as modifying fishing platforms to remove sharp edges.



“We aim to work with the management authorities of the marine protected areas to develop regulations to require slight modifications to the bagans, including the removal of any sharp edges from boat outriggers and net frames," said Erdmann. "We believe those changes will greatly reduce scarring of whale sharks in the region."



Ecological models highlight that even minor adjustments in human practices can dramatically reduce stress on threatened populations. 



Protecting whale sharks is more than conserving one species. It safeguards a keystone component of marine food webs, maintains ecosystem balance, and secures benefits for communities who depend on healthy seas.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/marine-science/articles/10.3389/fmars.2025.1607027/full" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Frontiers in Marine Science</a>.



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Whale sharks are literally scarred by human activity

The sight of a whale shark, the largest fish alive today, leaves most people humbled. Its slow, graceful movements and gentle nature often make them symbols of the ocean’s mystery. Yet behind this serene image lies a struggle for survival. Populations have fallen sharply, and their biology makes recovery slow. The findings of a new study from Indonesian waters not only reveal the scale of human impacts but also highlight why protecting whale sharks is vital for ocean health. Whale shark decline accelerates Over the last 75...

Giraffes are instantly recognizable with their tall necks, patterned coats, and slow strides across African plains. For a long time, scientists believed they were all one species. New research shows that’s not the case.



A detailed analysis shows that giraffes aren’t one single group, but four separate species. This discovery reshapes conservation and forces a fresh look at Africa’s most iconic <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/world-giraffe-day-2025-calls-for-urgent-action-to-save-giraffes/">animal</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-discovery-of-four-giraffe-species">Discovery of four giraffe species</h2>



After years of genetic <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/giraffes-have-gut-bacteria-that-are-unaffected-by-their-diet/#google_vignette">analysis</a>, researchers have identified four distinct giraffe species. These include Northern giraffes, reticulated giraffes, Masai giraffes, and Southern giraffes.



Michael Brown from the International Union for Conservation of Nature (<a href="https://iucn.org" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">IUCN</a>) explained why the split matters. 



“Each species has different population sizes, threats and conservation needs,” said Brown. “When you lump giraffes all together, it muddies the narrative.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-giraffes-face-various-threats">Giraffes face various threats</h2>



Northern and Masai giraffes face very different pressures. Northern giraffes live in South Sudan, Democratic Republic of Congo, and Central African Republic, where conflict and poaching continue to shrink their populations. 



Masai giraffes in Kenya and Tanzania confront another problem - rapid habitat loss. Expanding farms and cattle grazing steadily replace open savannas, leaving less room for giraffes to roam. 



These contrasting threats highlight why conservation cannot treat all giraffes as one group.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-unique-conservation-needs-of-giraffes">Unique conservation needs of giraffes</h2>



Each species lives in unique conditions, shaped by political, social, and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/giraffes-hate-slopes-and-its-threatening-their-survival/">environmental factors</a>, and each requires tailored strategies to prevent further decline and secure its future in the wild.



In Uganda’s Kidepo Valley National Park, Northern giraffes show just how fragile the situation has become. 



Stuart Pimm, an ecologist from <a href="https://duke.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Duke University</a>, praised the new classification. “Considering four giraffe species is absolutely the right decision, and it’s long overdue,” he said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-modern-science-reveals-differences">Modern science reveals differences</h2>



Old studies focused on the giraffe’s coat. Spots seemed like a clue, but they were not considered strong enough evidence to define multiple species.



In more recent studies, researchers used genetic sequencing and skull comparisons to find differences. Even the giraffe’s bony head protrusions, often mistaken for horns, carry distinctions.



The task force behind the current study argued that taxonomy is never just academic. It shapes how funds get used, how laws protect animals, and how people understand risk. Getting the classification wrong means protecting the wrong populations.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-genetics-reshape-giraffe-conservation">Genetics reshape giraffe conservation</h2>



Stephanie Fennessy from the&nbsp;<a href="https://giraffeconservation.org/">Giraffe Conservation Foundation</a>&nbsp;highlighted how falling sequencing costs transformed giraffe research. Two decades ago, analyzing a single genome cost tens of thousands of dollars, making large-scale studies nearly impossible. 



Today, the cost is around $100, a dramatic drop that opened access for nonprofit groups and conservationists. 



With this affordability, researchers gathered over 2,000 genetic samples from giraffes across Africa, building a vast dataset that reshaped understanding of giraffe diversity. But the assessment emphasized that genetics alone cannot carry the burden of taxonomy.



Strong conclusions need multiple forms of evidence. Anatomy, such as skull differences, and ecological patterns, like habitat ranges, must align with genetic data to build a reliable picture. If classifications depend only on one source, conservation planning risks misdirection. 



By combining disciplines, scientists ensure that strategies reflect reality, giving giraffes a better chance at survival in an increasingly pressured environment.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-population-counts-show-urgency">Population counts show urgency</h2>



Population counts reveal the stakes. Northern <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/giraffes-are-suffering-a-silent-extinction-and-need-more-protection/">giraffes</a> are the scarcest, with around 7,000 left. "It’s one of the most threatened large mammals in the world,” said Fennessy. 



Reticulated giraffes number around 21,000, while Masai giraffes total nearly 44,000. Southern giraffes have the strongest population, with about 69,000 individuals remaining.



These numbers show why the new classification matters. Without separating species, losses in one group hide behind stability in another. With clarity, strategies can actually match the dangers each group faces.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-protecting-giraffes-individually">Protecting giraffes individually</h2>



The story of giraffes and their conservation is no longer simple. “If not all giraffes are the same, then we have to protect them individually," said Fennessy.



A change in perspective could determine giraffes’ future in Africa - either remaining a familiar presence or vanishing from the wild. 



Science now provides conservationists with stronger tools to act. The pressing challenge is simple yet urgent: will these tools be applied effectively before it becomes too late?



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Recognizing different giraffe species is crucial for conservation

Giraffes are instantly recognizable with their tall necks, patterned coats,...

Extinction stories are not just about the past. They tell us how fragile survival can be. The cave bear that once dominated Europe was adaptable, widespread, and seemed secure. Yet around 25,000 years ago it disappeared.



Cave <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/polar-bear-cubs-are-emerging-earlier-from-dens/">bears</a> vanished after climate change, dwindling resources, and human pressure collided. This deadly mix shows survival requires more than adaptability. 



Modern bears now face similar overlapping threats. Their future depends on reducing these pressures before resilience alone proves insufficient - as history already warned with the extinction of cave bears.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-cave-bear-bones-revealed">What cave bear bones revealed</h2>



The study was led by <a href="https://www.uclan.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Central Lancashire</a>&nbsp;archaeologist Dr. Jennifer Jones, along with colleagues from Spain, Serbia, and&nbsp;<a href="https://www.ucl.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University College London</a>. 



The team examined cave bear remains from Šalitrena Pećina in Serbia. The bones, more than 40,000 years old, still held chemical traces of the bears’ diets.



The study overturned old assumptions, showing cave bears were flexible eaters. Instead of relying on one food, they consumed plants from forests, open landscapes, and even lichens. 



This adaptability should have improved their survival odds, yet environmental upheaval and human pressures proved stronger than their dietary range.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-adaptable-but-not-invincible">Adaptable but not invincible</h2>



During the last Ice Age, Europe’s climate shifted dramatically, with colder temperatures, longer winters, and shrinking vegetation reduced food supplies.



At the same time, humans expanded into their <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/brown-bears-move-where-their-food-grows/">habitats</a>, competing for shelter and hunting bears. Neanderthals and modern humans occupied caves once essential for hibernation. 



Predators like hyenas further stressed populations by preying on vulnerable cubs. Each threat alone might have been manageable, but together they overwhelmed even a resilient species. 



The combination of climate stress, human pressure, and natural predation pushed cave bears past their survival threshold.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-pressure-from-every-side">Pressure from every side</h2>



"Our study found that cave bears were flexible and could adapt to local conditions, much more so than previously thought. But when large-scale climate change was combined with human expansion, even a resilient species couldn't cope," said Dr. Jones. 



"This should serve as a warning for us as we explore ways of protecting endangered bears today."



Cave bears were strong, but they were not immune. Humans occupied caves, cut into their territory, and hunted them. The bears’ story is not just about climate, but about pressure from every side.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-modern-bears-at-risk">Modern bears at risk</h2>



Today, six out of eight bear <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/grizzly-bears-help-huckleberries-thrive-in-a-changing-climate/">species</a> face the same kind of squeeze. In Europe, only about 17,000 to 20,000 brown bears remain. They live across more than 20 countries, but in small, scattered groups. Some survive in mountains, others in forest patches, but few live in strong connected populations.



Habitat loss, poaching, and conflict with humans keep pushing them back. Climate change adds new stress. Isolation weakens their genetic strength. Every problem stacks on top of the last. 



Groups like the&nbsp;International Union for Conservation of Nature (<a href="https://www.iucn.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">IUCN</a>)&nbsp;and the&nbsp;<a href="https://www.worldwildlife.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">World Wildlife Fund</a>&nbsp;track these populations and warn of their growing vulnerability.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lessons-for-bear-survival">Lessons for bear survival</h2>



The cave bear’s extinction reveals that survival collapses under overlapping pressures, not a single cause. Climate, habitat loss, and human conflict together prove fatal. 



Today, brown bears and their relatives face the same dangerous mix, standing at a crossroads where combined threats could decide their future survival.



"We need to recognize that adaptability isn't enough for bear species to survive, if the threats against them continue to mount," said Dr. Jones. 



"The more pressure that we pile on today's wildlife like aggressive habitat loss, climate change and ongoing human conflicts, the smaller their chance of survival is."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-urgent-action-needed-to-protect-bears">Urgent action needed to protect bears </h2>



The past makes one point clear. Protecting today’s bears means lifting some of the heavy weight. That includes bigger habitats, safer food sources, and less conflict with humans. 



The study on cave bear extinction shows what happens when every margin of survival is erased. If we want brown bears to endure, the time to act is now.



Organizations like <a href="https://rewildingeurope.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Rewilding Europe</a>&nbsp;already work to secure habitats and reconnect populations, but much more remains to be done.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/14614103.2025.2521944" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Environmental Archaeology</a>.



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Extinct cave bears reveal threats to modern bears

Extinction stories are not just about the past. They tell...

From the songs of dawn to the soaring silhouettes over oceans, birds often inspire us with grace and freedom. Yet, beyond their beauty lies a deeper role: they act as movers of nutrients, linking land, sea, and sky. 



Just as whales recycle nutrients through their excretions, seabirds may quietly influence <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seabird-flights-and-amazing-feeding-behavior-in-the-ocean-captured-with-tiny-cameras/">marine life</a> with something far less glamorous: their droppings.



While bird guano has long been known as a rich fertilizer for land and coastal ecosystems, what happens in the open sea is still a mystery. 



Researchers recently turned their eyes to an unlikely subject, bathroom habits of seabirds far from shore. What they uncovered sheds light on how even the smallest actions can ripple across vast ecosystems.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-seabirds-that-only-poop-midair">Seabirds that only poop midair</h2>



On Japan’s remote islands, researchers noticed something unusual about streaked shearwaters. Instead of relieving themselves while floating, these seabirds poop midair. 



The study revealed that the birds follow this routine every 4 to 10 minutes. This aerial approach may keep them clean and at the same time fertilize the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plastic-is-harming-seabirds-even-more-than-we-realized/">ocean</a> below.



Study lead author Leo Uesaka from the <a href="https://www.u-tokyo.ac.jp/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Tokyo</a> explained that the initial focus of the research had nothing to do with bird waste. 



“I was studying how seabirds run on sea surface to take off,” said Uesaka. “While watching the video, I was surprised that they dropped feces very frequently. I thought it was funny at first, but it turned out to be more interesting and important for marine ecology.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-seabird-poop-and-ocean-nutrients">Seabird poop and ocean nutrients</h2>



Seabird droppings are rich in nitrogen and phosphorus. On land, they enhance soils and boost coastal ecosystems. Yet, their impact at sea remains less explored. 



Streaked shearwaters and their relatives, with populations totaling around 424 million, may deliver a steady nutrient supply to the open <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seabirds-have-highly-sensitive-beaks-to-locate-food/">ocean</a>. These nutrients support plankton - the foundation of marine life.



The new study compared this process to the “whale pump,” in which whales recycle nutrients through their excretion.



Just like whales, vast seabird populations may shape marine productivity through their waste. This makes their periodic bathroom habits more than just a quirk - they could influence entire food webs.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-seabirds-avoid-pooping-in-water">Seabirds avoid pooping in water</h2>



The team strapped tiny backward-facing cameras, the size of erasers, to 15 shearwaters. They recorded nearly 200 bathroom events. 



The footage showed that the birds usually relieved themselves after takeoff. Some even took off briefly just to poop, returning to the water moments later.



Interestingly, nearly all excretion occurred midair. Only one recorded event happened while floating. This suggests the birds actively avoid releasing waste on the surface. 



Researchers believe this may help seabirds keep feathers clean, reduce pathogen risks, avoid predators, and release nutrients into the ocean. The flight posture may also make it easier to exert gut pressure compared to floating.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-patterns-and-body-weight">Patterns and body weight</h2>



“Streaked shearwaters have very long and narrow wings, good for gliding, not flapping,” said Uesaka. 



“They have to flap their wings vigorously to take off, which exhausts them. This means the risk of excreting on the sea surface outweighs the effort to take off. There must be a strong reason behind that.”



The research uncovered another surprising detail: the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/shrinking-sea-ice-makes-it-harder-for-seabirds-to-find-food/">birds</a> kept a steady rhythm, often every few minutes, regardless of how much time passed after eating. Each bird excreted about 30 grams per hour, more than 5% of its body weight. 



That rapid loss could help lighten their load mid-flight, making gliding more efficient. This finding challenges earlier land-based estimates, which suggested lower excretion rates.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-ecosystems">Implications for ecosystems</h2>



While the waste of a single bird seems trivial, the collective output of millions becomes immense. Their droppings may transport nutrients far from breeding colonies, enriching distant ocean waters. This influence might be crucial in areas where seabirds gather in large numbers.



The study also raises a health dimension. Seabird feces can carry pathogens like avian influenza. If excreted in shared feeding grounds, they might spread diseases across colonies. 



This possibility highlights how seabird behavior links not only to nutrient cycles but also to marine epidemiology.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-seabirds-and-hidden-nutrients">Seabirds and hidden nutrients</h2>



“We don’t know why they keep this excretion rhythm, but there must be a reason,” said Uesaka. 



He plans to expand studies with longer-lasting cameras and GPS to map where droppings fall at sea. "Feces are important. But people don’t really think about it," said Uesaka.



Ultimately, the study shows that even small, seemingly insignificant behaviors can shape ecosystems. What seems trivial may hold vital clues to how life sustains itself across the oceans.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/abstract/S0960-9822(25)00818-8" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Current Biology</a>.



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Seabirds only poop when they are flying, and that's a great thing for the ocean

From the songs of dawn to the soaring silhouettes over...

Birds may seem to be singing randomly, but new research suggests their vocalizations may follow hidden rules similar to those that govern human language.



Over the past three decades, scientists have used birdsong as models to understand how humans acquire and transmit language.&nbsp;



Birdsong even serves as a tool for studying <a href="https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/diseases/speech-impairment" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">speech disorders</a> in humans because it shares biological similarities with human speech. Unlike human subjects, birds can be studied in natural conditions without significant ethical or logistical barriers.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-birds-sing-through-notes-and-calls">Birds sing through notes and calls</h2>



But do birds follow the same linguistic rules as we do? To explore this question, it helps to first understand how birds structure their songs.



Notes are continuous sounds separated by short pauses, while phrases are short sequences of notes that always appear together.



Calls are typically short, innate sounds, whereas songs are longer sequences of learned <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/music-triggers-unique-prediction-zones-in-the-brain/">notes</a> or phrases. Bouts are series of similar calls or songs separated by longer rests.



But do these patterns reflect true linguistic rules? One of the best candidates is Zipf's law of abbreviation (ZLA), a principle that shows up in nearly every human language. 



ZLA predicts that frequently used words or sounds tend to be shorter, while rare ones are longer. A team of researchers, including Rebecca Lewis of the <a href="https://www.manchester.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Manchester</a>, set out to put ZLA to the test.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-human-language-pattern-in-bird-songs">Human language pattern in bird songs</h2>



The researchers developed a new method to test ZLA. They introduced an R package called ZLAvian and analyzed songs from 11 populations across seven species archived in the Bird-DB.



Overall, the results showed a weak but consistent tendency to use shorter sounds more frequently. However, at the individual population level, only one out of eleven showed strong evidence of ZLA.



Studying ZLA in birdsong presented several challenges that are absent in human language. Most <a href="https://birdsoftheworld.org/bow/news/new-study-finds-where-birds-are-declining-most-some-locales-with-positive-trends" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">bird populations</a> use only a few note types compared to our many words, making it difficult to see clear links between sound length and frequency.



Because birds copy songs from others rather than creating them, any variations could reflect shared learning rather than something that emerged independently.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mixed-results-in-different-bird-species">Mixed results in different bird species</h2>



More than three decades ago, Jack P. Hailman and colleagues noticed that black-capped chickadees often produced shorter bouts of calls frequently than longer ones, but the pattern did not clearly match Zipf's Law.



Later studies showed mixed results. A 2013 study found no evidence of ZLA in common ravens, while a 2020 study of captive African penguins suggested shorter notes were more common.



More recently, some researchers found no evidence of ZLA in the calls of domesticated Java sparrows, while others reported evidence in wild house finches.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-bigger-question-of-language">The bigger question of language</h2>



The challenges lead to the bigger question. Do birds really follow ZLA, or should we even expect them to? In humans, it is one of the most consistent patterns in language.



The idea of ZLA comes from the Law of Least Effort, which suggests that people naturally choose the path of least resistance to achieve a goal.&nbsp;



Interestingly, ZLA is not only applicable to spoken words but also to written symbols and texts. However, when it comes to animals - including primates, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dolphins-and-whales-got-new-backbones-for-life-in-the-water/">cetaceans</a>, bats, and even hyraxes - the evidence is unclear. Very few studies have tested whether ZLA holds true for birds.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-bird-talk-can-t-be-simplified">Bird talk can’t be simplified</h2>



For humans, shortening words rarely changes their meaning - “television” and “TV” both convey the same idea. But in birdsong, the exact sound of a note can carry crucial information. 



In some species, females interpret particular notes as signals of male quality, and because these notes may be difficult to produce, even slight alterations could distort the message and affect mate choice. This sensitivity might explain why the linguistic principle of Zipf’s Law of Abbreviation (ZLA) is not consistently observed in birdsong. 



While the study found some hints of the pattern in certain species and populations, others showed no evidence at all, suggesting that if ZLA exists in birdsong, it is far less consistent than in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ai-generated-birdsongs-may-shed-new-light-on-human-language/">human language</a>. 



Future research with larger datasets and broader sampling will be essential to determine whether this linguistic rule truly applies to birds when they communicate.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://journals.plos.org/ploscompbiol/article?id=10.1371/journal.pcbi.1013228" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">PLOS Computational Biology</a>.



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Birds may follow a hidden pattern of human language

Birds may seem to be singing randomly, but new research...

Bowhead whales can live more than 200 years. Tiny shrews barely make it a year. Some sea sponge species are over 15,000 years old. That gap raises a straightforward question: what’s different at the biological level? 



Instead of hunting for a single “longevity gene,” researchers looked for patterns across sets of related genes that might scale up in species with long lives.



Biologists call these sets “<a href="https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC1762380/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">gene families</a>.” Over evolutionary time, genes sometimes duplicate. Extra copies can shift how strongly a function shows up in the body - a higher “dose” - or create room for small tweaks that help cells respond more flexibly.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-studying-lifespan-potential">Studying lifespan potential</h2>



Dr. Benjamin Padilla-Morales, from the <a href="https://www.bath.ac.uk/research-centres/milner-centre-for-evolution/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Milner Center for Evolution</a> and the University of Bath's Department of Life Sciences, was the first author. 



The study compared 46 mammalian species with high-quality, well-curated genomes. 



For each species, the team used maximum lifespan potential (MLSP), defined as the longest confirmed age any individual of that species has reached, and matched it to the sizes of thousands of gene families. 



They also accounted for traits that often track with lifespan, including body size, brain size relative to body size, how <a href="https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10634735/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">long pregnancy lasts</a>, and when animals first reproduce.



This design allowed them to ask a clear question: across mammals, do certain families get larger in species that live longer, and if so, which ones?



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-immune-system-and-lifespan-potential">Immune system and lifespan potential</h2>



The strongest signal centered on the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/human-immune-systems-have-a-fountain-of-youth-and-scientists-are-trying-to-activate-it/">immune system</a>. The gene families that tended to be larger in long-lived mammals were involved in immune surveillance and clearance.



These functions help detect threats and clear cellular debris that accumulates with age.



The immune system does more than fight infections. It also removes damaged or <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/system-that-identifies-and-kills-dying-cells-before-they-harm-you-has-huge-anti-aging-potential/">“senescent” cells</a> that stop dividing and release stress signals, and it helps identify early cancer cells before they grow out of control.



As an animal ages, those jobs matter more. Expanding the families that handle them can help tissues maintain stability over many decades.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-brain-size-link-plays-a-role">Brain size link plays a role</h2>



Across mammals, species with bigger brains for their body size often live longer. In this study, many of the same gene families that grow with lifespan also grow with relative brain size. 



A large brain uses substantial energy and oxygen and produces more metabolic byproducts. Extra immune and housekeeping capacity supports this load and helps keep neural tissue stable.



The link implies a shared genetic background: immune-related expansions may support both long life and the demands of a large, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fueling-the-mind-new-map-reveals-where-the-brain-gets-its-energy/">energy-hungry brain</a>.



Padilla-Morales explained that scientists have long known relative brain size is linked to longevity. He said the two traits share an evolutionary path, with larger brains offering potential behavioral advantages.



He also noted that bigger-brained species don’t just live longer because of ecological factors. Their genomes show parallel expansions in genes tied to survival and maintenance. 



“This shows that brain size and immune resilience seem to have walked hand-in-hand in the evolutionary journey toward longer lives,” Padilla-Morales explained.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lifespan-potential-what-doesn-t-matter">Lifespan potential - what doesn't matter</h2>



Body mass itself - big versus small - did not account for the gene-family trends once other factors were included. 



Life-history timings such as gestation length and age at first reproduction didn’t drive the expansions either. 



Those traits do correlate with lifespan in general, but they weren’t behind which gene families got larger in this analysis.



The team checked a basic concern: maybe long-lived species just carry more genes overall. They do not. The pattern wasn’t a blanket “more genes everywhere.” It was specific to certain families tied to maintenance and defense.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/05/animals_lifespan_chart-infographic_maximum-lifespan-potential_MLSP_Scientific-Reports_1m.webp"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/05/animals_lifespan_chart-infographic_maximum-lifespan-potential_MLSP_1s.webp" alt="Phylogenetic distribution of life history and morphological traits (maximum lifespan potential, relative brain size, body mass, gestation time and age at sexual maturity) in mammals. A phylogenetic tree for 46 mammal species with fully sequenced genomes is shown. Bars show the relative value of each variable, including log10 values of maximum lifespan potential (MLSP, green), relative brain size (orange), body mass (purple), gestation time (pink), and age at sexual maturity (blue). See Supplementary Table 1 for raw data and silhouette species names. Credit: Scientific Reports" class="wp-image-1983103"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Phylogenetic distribution of life history and morphological traits (maximum lifespan potential, relative brain size, body mass, gestation time and age at sexual maturity) in mammals. A phylogenetic tree for 46 mammal species with fully sequenced genomes is shown. Bars show the relative value of each variable, including log10 values of maximum lifespan potential (MLSP, green), relative brain size (orange), body mass (purple), gestation time (pink), and age at sexual maturity (blue). See Supplementary Table 1 for raw data and silhouette species names. Click image to enlarge. Credit: Scientific Reports</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-humans-and-longevity-genes">Humans and longevity genes</h2>



The researchers looked at how these <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-transfer-longevity-gene-hoping-to-extend-human-lifespan/">longevity-linked genes</a> behave in people. Human versions tend to be more active and produce more transcript variants - different “edits” of the same gene that yield slightly different proteins.



That diversity gives cells more ways to fine-tune responses, which fits the idea of a vigilant, flexible maintenance system.



The team compared their gene lists with earlier aging databases. The overlap wasn’t perfect, which is common, but the functions aligned. 



Prior work points to DNA damage responses, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fasting-helps-the-body-fight-inflammation-and-chronic-diseases/">inflammation control</a>, and programmed cell death (apoptosis). The expanded families in this study cluster within the same biological pathways.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-maximum-lifespan-potential-limitations">Maximum lifespan potential limitations</h2>



This is not “the cure for aging.” The results show correlations, not causes. Evolution is complicated, and a gene family can expand for one reason and later take on another role. 



Maximum lifespan potential is a record-holder measure, not an average, and records can reflect limited data or unusual individuals.



Even with those limits, the same immune-related signal shows up across dozens of species, and that deserves attention. It shifts the focus from a single switch to scaled-up maintenance.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-of-species-lifespan-research">Future of species lifespan research</h2>



Overall, the findings point to systems-level resilience. Long-lived mammals don’t rely on a magic change in metabolism. 



They tend to carry more copies of genes that help detect problems early, remove damaged cells, and keep tissues - especially the brain - stable for many years.



For anyone thinking about healthy aging, this suggests a practical target. Immune surveillance and cellular housekeeping may be as important as tweaking metabolism or chasing one-off genetic fixes. 



It’s a reminder that evolution didn’t grant immortality. It boosted the systems that prevent small problems from turning into big ones, and it did so in ways we can measure - across 46 species, using maximum lifespan potential, and with clear links to brain size and immune function.



The study is published in the journal&nbsp;<a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-025-98786-3" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Scientific Reports</a>.



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Why do some animals live just days while others live thousands of years? Scientists think they know

Bowhead whales can live more than 200 years. Tiny shrews...

For centuries, wolves and humans have lived in a kind of uneasy balance. Wolves roam, and ranchers try to keep their livestock safe. But over the last few decades, that balance has gotten shakier. 



As wolf populations rebound across parts of the U.S., the question keeps coming up: should hunting wolves be part of the solution?



A new study puts some numbers behind the heated debate. The research team found that while wolf hunting has some effect on livestock losses, the results are spotty at best. In fact, killing wolves barely moves the needle when it comes to protecting <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/cattle-farming-expansion-could-expose-more-than-a-billion-cows-to-heat-stress/">cattle</a> or sheep.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-modern-return-of-the-wolves">A modern return of the wolves</h2>



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/gray-wolves-are-a-crucial-component-of-the-american-west/">Gray wolves</a> were once nearly wiped out in the lower 48 states. But thanks to the Endangered Species Act and major reintroduction efforts in the 1990s, especially in the Northern Rockies, wolves have made a comeback. 



Some states, like Idaho and Montana, now have healthy-enough populations that wolf hunting is legal under state laws.



But this comeback has also led to more wolf-livestock run-ins. When a rancher wakes up to find a dead calf or dozens of sheep gone overnight, it’s a serious blow. This is why many ranchers push for hunting as a way to control wolf numbers.



What this study shows, though, is that hunting doesn’t really do what people hope it does - at least not very well.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hunting-wolves-doesn-t-help-livestock">Hunting wolves doesn't help livestock</h2>



On average, for every wolf hunted, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/livestock-grazing-is-changing-soil-plants-and-insect-populations/">livestock</a> loss drops by two percent. That might sound like progress, but it’s a pretty weak effect. In real numbers, that works out to protecting less than one-tenth of one animal - just 0.07 livestock - for each wolf killed.



And in counties where wolves live, ranchers typically lose 3 to 4 animals per year to predation. So that bump is not exactly a game-changer.



“<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/hunting-can-help-stabilize-wildlife-populations/">Hunting</a>, on the whole, is not removing negative impacts associated with wolves. It does have some effect on rates of livestock loss, but the effect is not particularly consistent, widespread or strong,” the authors note.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tracking-wolves-and-livestock">Tracking wolves and livestock</h2>



This research was led by a team at the <a href="https://umich.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Michigan</a>, supported by various institutions. They pulled data from four states between 2005 and 2021 - Idaho and Montana (where hunting is legal) and Oregon and Washington (where it’s mostly not).



The researchers compared counties with and without hunting and looked at changes before and after hunting became legal. 



They also analyzed whether hunting influenced “lethal removals” - government-led efforts to take out wolves after serious attacks. The data showed no reduction in lethal removals due to hunting.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ranchers-face-losses">Ranchers face losses</h2>



Even though the average livestock loss is just a few animals a year, that number can jump dramatically. One Idaho rancher reportedly lost 65 sheep in a single night. That’s devastating - not just financially, but emotionally.



“The cost can be really high to an individual rancher, even over very short time periods,” said lead author&nbsp;Leandra Merz, assistant professor at San Diego State University. “We don’t want to minimize that.”



“We're not necessarily saying that we shouldn't be hunting and I want to be clear about that, because there are other motivations for hunting. But if the goal is to reduce livestock predation and we're using hunting for that, it's not as effective as we would like.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-else-can-be-done">What else can be done?</h2>



Some nonlethal tools are showing promise. Things like “fladry” - wavy flags on fences that can be electrified - can keep wolves out. So can drones, increased human activity, and even unusual sounds. These ideas might sound strange, but they’ve worked in field tests.



However, nonlethal methods cost money, and those costs often fall on the ranchers. Hunting, by contrast, costs ranchers nothing.



That’s part of the puzzle. “We just need to be a little bit more creative in how we redistribute some of the costs and benefits,” Merz said. “I think outside of managing wildlife, we do that a lot in society.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-debate-on-wolf-management">Debate on wolf management</h2>



The wolf issue isn’t just a science problem - it’s a political and emotional one. Lawsuits about wolf protections are constantly being filed and overturned. 



In 2020, wolves lost federal protection. In 2022, a court order reversed that. The back-and-forth continues.



“There are timely things happening related to wolf management, both domestically and internationally,” said Professor Neil Carter, the study's senior author. 



“Stakeholders involved in wolf management are bringing up the topic of hunting wolves and it's an imminent conversation we'll be having.”



At the center of that conversation is a key takeaway from this study: if we want to stop wolves from killing livestock, we need to question our assumptions. 



Hunting might be part of the picture, but it’s far from a fix-all. There are no easy answers - but there is room for smarter, more creative ones.



The research was supported by the <a href="https://www.nsf.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">U.S. National Science Foundation</a>.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/sciadv.adu8945" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Science Advances</a>



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Hunting wolves to protect livestock: Does it really work?

For centuries, wolves and humans have lived in a kind...

Few animals inspire as much fear as the black mamba, one of Africa’s most notorious snakes. But behind its deadly reputation lies a story that challenges our assumptions - and reveals the snake’s surprising role in science and conservation.



Known as Africa’s fastest and most dangerous snake, its name alone is frightening. But researchers have discovered something surprising: black mambas might be one of our best allies for tracking pollution.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-scales-reveal-signs-of-pollution">Scales reveal signs of pollution</h2>



Scientists recently found that black mambas carry a hidden record of pollution in their bodies - specifically, in their scales. Heavy metals like lead, arsenic, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/elevated-mercury-levels-discovered-in-dolphins/">mercury</a>, and cadmium build up in their tissues over time.



This happens as the snakes eat prey - such as birds and rodents - that have already absorbed these metals from their environment.



Graham Alexander is a professor and herpetologist at the <a href="https://www.wits.ac.za/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of the Witwatersrand</a> in Johannesburg, South Africa. 



“Black mambas are common in the Durban area, and individuals often live in the same refuge for years,” said Professor Alexander. “If the body tissue of individuals contain high levels of heavy metals, it is a strong sign that the local environment is under threat.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-city-green-spaces-protect-snakes">City green spaces protect snakes</h2>



The study was led by environmental chemist Professor Marc Humphries. The team collected scale samples from live snakes relocated from homes, businesses, and factories by local snake expert Nick Evans. 



The researchers also used tissue samples from snakes that had died due to road accidents or human conflict. They found a clear connection between land use and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dragonflies-reveal-mercury-pollution-levels-in-national-parks/">pollution levels</a>.



“We found a clear association between land use and heavy metal exposure in black mambas," said Humphries. 



"Snakes living in connected <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/surprising-mental-health-benefits-of-living-near-green-spaces/">green spaces</a> around the city generally had significantly lower heavy metal concentrations in their scales compared to those in more industrial and commercial areas.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-simple-test-on-black-mambas">Simple test on black mambas</h2>



Professor Humphries said it's exciting that a quick, harmless scale clipping is all that's needed to test for pollutants. "It’s safe for the snake and could be used in cities across Africa where snakes are already being relocated from homes and businesses.”



The findings suggest that cities with more green space not only help wildlife survive - but also help protect them from pollutants. 



With snakes like the black mamba acting as environmental indicators, researchers can better track toxic exposure without hurting animals or disturbing natural ecosystems.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-black-mambas-help-ecosystems">Black mambas help ecosystems</h2>



A second study revealed something else: black mambas aren’t just top predators. They shape the ecosystems around them. 



These <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/snakes-use-invisible-colors-to-outsmart-predators/">snakes</a> often return to the same hideouts for years - places like termite mounds, hollow trees, and old buildings. By staying in one area, they create stability in the local food chain.



They also help control <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/chicagos-rodents-are-evolving-with-the-city/">rodent</a> populations and even aid in the control of Rock Hyrax numbers. That is significant because rodents and hyraxes can damage crops and spread diseases.



By keeping their populations in check, black mambas contribute to public health and food security - without anyone really noticing.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mamba-sightings-on-the-rise">Mamba sightings on the rise</h2>



Over the past few decades, there’s been a steady rise in mamba sightings across Durban. Nick Evans, who works with KwaZulu-Natal Amphibian and Reptile Conservation, receives between 100 and 120 calls each year for black mambas across the eThekwini Municipality.



“Humans often make their properties appealing to mambas by dumping rubbish over their fences, in their gardens, or by having messy sheds or garages that create rat-breeding grounds,” said Evans.



“Durban also has high numbers of feral cats, and mambas feed on their kittens. So there is suitable habitat and an abundance of food.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-experts-urge-caution-not-killing">Experts urge caution, not killing</h2>



Despite their reputation, unprovoked bites are extremely rare. Evans estimates only three to five bites happen each year, and most are not fatal. “Almost all patients survive, unless they do not go to hospital. Some of the bites are dry bites, warning bites where no <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/cobra-venom-just-became-less-deadly-thanks-to-a-common-drug/">venom</a> is injected.”



Experts believe that changing how we see these snakes could help shift public attitudes from fear to understanding.



“People are understandably scared of mambas, as they are one of Africa’s most dangerous snakes, but if we treat them correctly, they can be a valuable tool to assess pollution levels,” said Professor Alexander. 



“Snakes in general can play a valuable role as biomarkers for environmental health, and should preferably be left to live in peace in their natural environments.”



Evans urges residents not to take matters into their own hands. “Attempting to kill or capture a black mamba puts you at higher risk of being bitten. Black mambas are animals that just want to be left alone, in which case, they actually pose very little risk to humans.”



He also advises <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/do-pet-owners-care-more-for-dogs-than-cats/">pet owners</a> to stay alert. “Please keep dogs away from all snakes, especially black mambas, should you see the snake before your dog does.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-nature-s-overlooked-allies">Nature’s overlooked allies</h2>



This research is part of a growing understanding that snakes - especially big ones like the black mamba - aren’t just part of the environment. They’re essential to it. 



Ultimately, snakes serve as powerful ecological indicators. When black mambas carry high levels of heavy metals in their scales, it’s a warning sign that the environments we share with them are under threat.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0269749125011030" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Environmental Pollution</a>.



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Black mambas carry a record of pollution in their scales

Few animals inspire as much fear as the black mamba,...

For a long time, the story of evolution has centered on chance - mutations arrive without a plan, and natural selection keeps the winners. That view isn’t wrong, but it’s incomplete.



A recent study shows that parts of evolution look orderly. Not every genetic outcome is a coin toss. Some genes tend to show up together while others stay separate. 



Those tendencies add structure to how genomes change over time, making evolution predictable to a certain extent.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-deciphering-the-pangenome">Deciphering the pangenome</h2>



Bacterial species carry two kinds of genes: a core set shared by all members and an accessory set that changes from strain to strain. The full collection is called a pangenome.



Accessory genes matter because bacteria can exchange them through horizontal gene transfer. That process spreads useful traits quickly, including resistance to antibiotics, new ways to use nutrients, and tools to handle stress.



The study was led by Professor James McInerney and Dr. Alan Beavan from the School of Life Sciences at the <a href="https://www.nottingham.ac.uk/life-sciences/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Nottingham</a>, and Dr. Maria Rosa Domingo-Sananes from <a href="https://www.ntu.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nottingham Trent University</a>.



"The implications of this research are nothing short of revolutionary," enthused Professor McInerney, the lead author of the study. 



"By demonstrating that evolution is not as random as we once thought, we've opened the door to an array of possibilities in synthetic biology, medicine, and environmental science."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-using-ai-to-make-gene-predictions">Using AI to make gene predictions</h2>



The researchers compiled thousands of E. coli genomes and recorded which accessory genes each strain carries. They turned this into a large presence-absence matrix, with rows for strains and columns for genes.



They trained a machine-learning method called a <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/engineering/random-forest" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">random forest</a> to predict whether a gene is present based on the rest of a genome’s accessory gene profile. They trained and tested the model many times to guard against chance splits.



The model succeeded for a substantial portion of the accessory genome. It could reliably predict the presence or absence of many genes based on the broader gene pattern. 



Some genes tend to co-occur, likely because they work on connected steps of the same task. Others seldom appear together, often because they overlap in function or interfere with one another.



"We found that some gene families never turned up in a genome when a particular other gene family was already there, and on other occasions, some genes were very much dependent on a different gene family being present," explained Dr. Domingo-Sananes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-gene-interactions-and-evolution">Gene interactions and evolution</h2>



The study does not claim that every gene is predictable. Many accessory genes still look erratic, either because local history matters or because there isn’t yet enough data to capture their rules. 



A correct forecast does not imply fate. It points to structure - constraints and tendencies - inside which change still happens.



The patterns held across different parts of the species’ family tree, supporting the idea that selection and gene-gene interactions - not just shared ancestry - shape these outcomes. 



"These interactions between genes make aspects of evolution somewhat predictable, and furthermore, we now have a tool that allows us to make those predictions," added Dr. Domingo-Sananes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-evolution-genes-and-healthcare">Evolution, genes, and healthcare</h2>



Public health teams track antibiotic resistance genes to stay ahead of infections. If certain accessory genes tend to accompany a resistance gene, tests can scan for that supporting set. 



That approach can flag trouble earlier, because partner genes may appear before the main gene becomes common.



In <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/immunology-and-microbiology/applied-microbiology" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">applied microbiology</a>, teams build strains that make medicines, recycle waste, or capture pollutants. Knowing which gene combinations tend to work well together - and which combinations tend to clash - saves time and money. 



"From this work, we can begin to explore which genes 'support' an <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-is-fueling-antibiotic-resistance-in-our-soils/">antibiotic resistance</a> gene, for example. If we are trying to eliminate antibiotic resistance, we can target not just the focal gene but also its supporting genes," Dr. Beaven concluded.



"This approach can help synthesize new genetic constructs that may lead to new drugs or vaccines. Knowing what we now know has opened the door to many other discoveries."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-to-read-results">How to read results</h2>



Across many genomes, some genes keep showing up together. That’s co-occurrence, and it usually means the genes work on the same job.



Other pairs almost never share a genome. That’s mutual exclusion. They likely clash or do duplicate work. These patterns leave a fingerprint across the whole pangenome, and a computer model can learn that fingerprint.



Methods matter. Scientists group related genes into families and adjust for how closely strains are related.



They also test distant branches of the E. coli family tree. When the patterns still hold, it points to selection and real gene interactions - not just inheritance.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-genes-evolution-and-future-studies">Genes, evolution, and future studies</h2>



Practical tools can build on this framework. Diagnostic panels can add partner genes that often travel with targets of concern. 



Surveillance can watch for early warning signs in hospital isolates and wastewater. Engineering teams can map friendly and unfriendly gene pairings before they build strains.



The broader takeaway remains consistent. In bacteria, a significant slice of the accessory genome behaves in patterned ways. 



Those patterns reflect how genes interact and how selection keeps useful partnerships while avoiding costly overlaps. Evolution still surprises, but it also leaves tracks that careful analysis can read.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.2304934120" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a>.



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Study shows evolution isn't random and can be predicted: 'nothing short of revolutionary'

For a long time, the story of evolution has centered...

Bees are the quiet workers behind much of the world’s food. Their role in pollination underpins ecosystems and agriculture alike. Yet honeybee populations are shrinking due to climate stress, pesticides, diseases, and loss of floral diversity. This crisis now threatens global food security.



A new international study led by the <a href="https://www.ox.ac.uk" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Oxford</a> introduces an innovative food supplement for honeybees. Using engineered yeast, the researchers recreated essential sterols usually found in pollen, creating a diet that supports healthier, more resilient <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/heat-and-pollution-are-changing-the-buzz-of-bees/">colonies</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-sterols-matter">Why sterols matter</h2>



Honeybees cannot make sterols on their own. Unlike most <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/when-bees-arrive-late-flowers-may-vanish/">insects</a> that convert dietary sterols into cholesterol, bees must directly consume them. These molecules are critical for cell membranes and hormones. Without them, colonies fail to reproduce and collapse.



Normally, bees obtain sterols from pollen stored as bee bread. Nurse bees digest this pollen, transfer sterols into their glands, and then feed larvae through glandular secretions. 



Despite the diversity of sterols in pollen, only six dominate in bee tissues: 24-methylenecholesterol, campesterol, isofucosterol, β-sitosterol, cholesterol, and desmosterol.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-yeast-based-bee-diet">Yeast-based bee diet</h2>



To replace these rare compounds, scientists turned to Yarrowia lipolytica, a yeast already considered safe in aquaculture. Using CRISPR-Cas9 editing, they reprogrammed its metabolic pathways to produce the precise sterols <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/science-is-giving-beekeepers-a-better-way-to-fight-colony-collapse/">bees</a> require. 



This involved deleting certain genes and introducing others from plants, algae, and even bacteria. Over several steps, the yeast was redesigned to yield a mixture of all six sterols.



The yeast biomass was then dried into powder and added to artificial diets. This made it possible to deliver complete nutrition without harvesting natural pollen at unsustainable scales.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-feeding-trials-in-glasshouses">Feeding trials in glasshouses</h2>



Colonies were placed in controlled glasshouses and fed only these diets for three months. The results were clear: bees given the sterol-rich yeast raised up to 15 times more larvae than those on standard substitutes. 



These colonies also kept brood production going long after sterol-deficient colonies had stopped.



Interestingly, when researchers measured sterols in the larvae, they matched those found in naturally foraging colonies. This showed that bees selectively transfer only the most vital sterols to their young.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-yeast-diets-help-bees-outdoors">Yeast diets help bees outdoors</h2>



Additional semi-field trials reinforced the results. <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bees-sleep-like-humans-with-similar-brain-patterns/">Colonies</a> fed the mixed-sterol yeast diet maintained strong brood production into late summer, while control groups dwindled. 



Even when a heatwave reduced bee numbers across all groups, supplemented colonies recovered more quickly once nurse bees were added back.



Sterols from the engineered yeast accumulated in nurse bees but were selectively passed to the brood, confirming a fine-tuned biological mechanism. 



The sterol surrogate produced during yeast engineering, tetrahymanol, was consumed but never appeared in larvae, suggesting bees filter out unnecessary molecules.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-competition-for-limited-pollen">Competition for limited pollen</h2>



Honeybees pollinate more than 70% of leading crops, including almonds, apples, and cherries. Yet losses in U.S. colonies have reached nearly half per year, with forecasts predicting even higher numbers. 



For honeybees, poor nutrition amplifies the damage caused by mites, viruses, and pesticides.



“Honey bees are critically important pollinators for the production of crops such as almonds, apples, and cherries and so are present in some crop locations in very large numbers, which can put pressure on limited wildflowers," said study co-author Professor Phil Stevenson.



"Our engineered supplement could therefore benefit wild bee species by reducing competition for limited pollen supplies.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-bee-diets-and-food-security">Bee diets and food security</h2>



“We rely on honey bees to pollinate one in three bites of our food, yet bees face many stressors," said Danielle Downey of Project Apis m., who was not involved in the study. 



"Good nutrition is one way to improve their resilience to these threats, and in landscapes with dwindling natural forage for bees, a more complete diet supplement could be a game changer.”



The yeast biomass also offers proteins, fats, and vitamins. The researchers suggest it could be further engineered to add antioxidants, carotenoids, or beneficial fatty acids, creating a truly holistic feed for pollinators.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-of-bees-and-yeast-nutrition">Future of bees and yeast nutrition</h2>



While the results are promising, large-scale field studies are still needed. These will test how colonies perform in open environments and measure long-term pollination effects. If successful, farmers could see this supplement within two years.



Beyond honeybees, this approach could extend to other pollinators or even farmed insects, strengthening the foundation of sustainable agriculture worldwide. 



What began as a molecular tweak in yeast could reshape the survival prospects of pollinators and, in turn, our global food future.



The research was in collaboration with <a href="https://www.kew.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Kew Gardens</a>, the <a href="https://www.gre.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Greenwich</a>, and the Technical University of Denmark.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-025-09431-y" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature</a>.



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Engineered bee diets can help protect global food security

Bees are the quiet workers behind much of the world’s...

Cities do not sleep. Streetlights glow, billboards shimmer, and skies rarely turn fully dark. For humans, this makes late-night activity easier. For wildlife, especially birds, this shift in natural light can change the rhythm of life itself.



A new study shows that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/tropical-bird-populations-are-rapidly-shrinking-and-now-scientists-know-why/">birds</a> are singing later into the night in areas where artificial light brightens the sky.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-light-pollution-and-bird-activity">Light pollution and bird activity</h2>



Brent Pease, assistant professor in Southern Illinois University’s <a href="https://sfh.siu.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">School of Forestry and Horticulture</a>, and Neil Gilbert, assistant professor of biology at Oklahoma State University, gathered global data on more than 180 million bird vocalizations.



The researchers compared these calls with satellite imagery to study how birds respond to artificial night light.



“We were shocked by our findings: Under the brightest night skies, a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/birds-may-be-using-quantum-physics-for-migration/">bird</a>’s day is extended by nearly an hour,” Pease said. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-classroom-project-that-grew">A classroom project that grew</h2>



Pease began this project as a creative way to spark interest among undergraduates. He installed a microphone at Touch of Nature Outdoor Education Center, sending live birdsong into the Agriculture Building miles away. Soon, students could watch <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/birds-are-struggling-to-keep-pace-with-a-warming-climate/">species</a> activity on building monitors.



To advance the effort, Pease used <a href="https://birdweather.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">BirdWeather</a> devices. These tools, linked with Wi-Fi, GPS, and sensors, connect to BirdNET, a system developed by the Cornell <a href="https://www.birds.cornell.edu/home/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Lab of Ornithology</a> and Chemnitz University of Technology. The dashboard revealed in real time which birds were nearby.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-birds-act-under-light">How birds act under light</h2>



“We started seeing - in real time - which birds were at Touch of Nature, right in our Agriculture Building,” Pease said. 



“I realized that I stumbled upon something really important for wildlife research. All of a sudden, we not only know where species are but how they are behaving 24/7.”



Pease explained that BirdWeather allowed researchers to study bird behavior across vast regions and time spans, much like trail cameras transformed mammal research decades ago.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-golden-age-of-bird-conservation">Golden age of bird conservation </h2>



“We are just now entering the golden age of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bird-evolution-timeline-pushed-back-20-million-years-by-baminornis-zhenghensis-discovery/">avian</a> conservation, all through machine learning and participatory science,” Pease said. He has long worked with citizen-science projects, including sound monitoring during the April 8, 2024 eclipse.



With BirdNET, researchers transformed audio recordings into spectrograms that visually capture each bird’s unique call. These were compared against a database of over 6,000 species.



Please noted that the machine learning algorithm makes it possible to analyze 24/7 audio recordings, which would otherwise take lifetimes to listen to.



“Neil and I are the first, to our knowledge, to apply and analyze the BirdWeather data in this way," said Pease.



"We have many research options, but first we focused on how birds are responding to global light pollution, which is a growing concern for humans and wildlife alike.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-big-eyed-birds-react-more-to-light">Big-eyed birds react more to light</h2>



The study revealed that the average delay in rest was about one hour, but not all species reacted equally.



“The next question was: why?” Pease said. “What is driving this response by birds? We had the idea that maybe it was a species’ photoreceptor sensitivity - their eyesight. And this turned out to be a key factor." 



"Species with large eyes relative to their body size had a disproportionately stronger response to artificial light at night. They were more sensitive to light at night than species with small eyes.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-pollution-s-effect-on-birds">Pollution's effect on birds</h2>



The supplementary analysis also looked at <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/some-birds-get-road-rage-when-exposed-to-traffic-noise/">noise pollution</a>, which often accompanies artificial light. Birds near roads behaved differently than those farther away, suggesting that noise can shift vocal activity.



However, the researchers concluded that the most consistent behavioral shifts were tied to light, not sound.



Interestingly, nocturnal species showed the opposite pattern. In bright landscapes, they vocalized less and shortened their nightly activity. 



For example, in the darkest settings a nocturnal bird might call around 1.6 times per night, while in bright environments it dropped closer to 1.1 times. Moonlight also played a role, amplifying or reducing activity depending on its phase.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-citizen-science-at-its-best">Citizen science at its best</h2>



Whether these changes benefit or harm birds is not yet clear. Extended time awake might provide more opportunities to feed or attract mates, but it could also mean reduced sleep and higher stress.



“This is citizen-science at its best,” Pease said. “A technology designed for people to check out the species in their own backyards has acquired an unprecedented amount of data since 2021 - over 1.4 billion vocalizations from more than 11,000 locations across the globe."



"Neil and I are determined to continue to apply the technology for wildlife conservation.”



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.adv9472" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Science</a>.



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Light pollution makes birds around the world sing longer each day

Cities do not sleep. Streetlights glow, billboards shimmer, and skies...

A fish built for the margins just turned up in a Canadian river that does not need any new surprises. Fisheries and Oceans Canada (<a href="https://www.dfo-mpo.gc.ca/index-eng.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">DFO</a>) confirmed a pond loach, also called the oriental weatherfish, in the LaHave River near New Germany, Nova Scotia, the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/non-native-species-are-spreading-at-an-exponential-rate/">first record</a> for the Maritimes.



This species breathes air using part of its intestine, which helps it weather poor water conditions and even brief time on wet land. 



“The Japanese weatherloach can exchange gases with air via the posterior region of the alimentary canal,” wrote <a href="https://journals.biologists.com/jeb/article/133/1/371/5412/Respiratory-Physiology-of-Intestinal-Air-Breathing" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Brian McMahon</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-pond-loach-survival-skills">Pond loach survival skills</h2>



It can endure drought by burrowing and surviving extended dry spells in mud, which is unusual for a freshwater fish. 



In <a href="https://scholarworks.boisestate.edu/bio_facpubs/252/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Idaho</a>, individuals survived more than 81 days without water or food in experiments that tracked real, wild fish from local populations.



Cold offers little relief. Laboratory tests estimated a critical thermal minimum, the lowest temperature at which normal function is possible, between 30.2 and 28.4 degrees Fahrenheit, with fish surviving in direct contact with ice.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-this-fish-worries-canada">Why this fish worries Canada</h2>



Nicholas E. Mandrak, University of Toronto Scarborough (<a href="https://www.utsc.utoronto.ca/home/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">UTSC</a>), studies <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sea-lampreys-help-scientists-decode-stem-cell-origins/">aquatic invasive fishes</a> in Canada. His work has helped shape national screening and detection approaches that aim to keep high risk species out of local waters.



Once established, pond loach can change the character of still and slow waters by rooting through bottom sediments for food. 



Controlled experiments in Australia reported significant cuts to macroinvertebrates, the small animals without backbones that feed fish and amphibians, along with higher turbidity and nitrogen levels in the water column.



The species also moves parasites around the world. A team working in New York found Asian monogenean flatworms on feral weatherfish, found evidence that introduced fish can ferry nonnative parasites with risks for other fishes and possibly amphibians when host switching occurs.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-it-beats-tough-conditions">How it beats tough conditions</h2>



Air breathing is not a party trick here, it is a physiology. Intestinal breathing complements gills and skin, and the gut also plays a role in moving ammonia out of the body, a key reason weatherfish keep going in oxygen poor backwaters where many species stall.



These traits add up to flexibility. The fish can use shallow, silty margins, slip into <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/invasive-aquatic-weed-is-spreading-rapidly-in-the-northeastern-u-s/">aquatic plant</a> beds, and wait out heat, cold, or low oxygen in ways that give it options when conditions swing.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-a-single-female-does-not-tell-us">What a single female does not tell us</h2>



One fish does not make a population. A single, egg-bearing female is a warning flag, but by itself it does not prove the species is established or spreading in Nova Scotia.



Reproduction in this species is more complicated than a slogan. Most populations reproduce sexually, yet some lineages are triploid clones that use <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12130809/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">gynogenesis</a>, egg development triggered by sperm without incorporating the sperm’s DNA, which allows clonal females to produce offspring once the developmental switch is flipped.



Hybridization matters too. In Europe, crossing experiments between the native weatherfish Misgurnus fossilis and the nonnative M. anguillicaudatus found “no evidence for postzygotic barriers,” wrote <a href="https://neobiota.pensoft.net/article/67708/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Josef Wanzenböck</a>.



Fecundity (the possible number of offspring that can be produced over a lifetime) in introduced North American populations can be high by small fish standards. 



In New York, unmated females sampled from feral waters carried about 150 to 18,000 oocytes, and ovary weight reached up to 19 percent of body weight, which helps explain how local numbers can ramp up once conditions suit them.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-where-pond-loaches-live">Where pond loaches live</h2>



The species is already present in British Columbia, with confirmed records in the Lower Fraser Valley and clear provincial rules that prohibit possession, breeding, release, sale, or transport of live weatherfish.



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/northern-pike-are-sneaking-through-the-ocean-to-invade-new-lakes/">South of the border</a>, long running records show it can settle in different kinds of habitats. A published note from Washington <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/286872334_An_oriental_weatherfish_Misgurnus_anguillicaudatus_population_established_in_Washington_State" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">documented</a> an established population in the Lake Washington system at the turn of the century.



On the other side of the country, field work in the Hudson River Valley found feral populations using vegetated, silty stream reaches, with stomach contents dominated by small invertebrates.



These threads show a pattern. Pond loach thrives where current is gentle, bottoms are soft, and food is small and abundant, the very places many native minnows, sunfish, and amphibians also need.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-people-can-do-now">What people can do now</h2>



Never release aquarium fish, bait, or water into local streams or ponds, and do not move live fish between waterbodies. In British Columbia, for example, those actions are <a href="https://www.cabidigitallibrary.org/doi/full/10.1079/cabicompendium.75075" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">illegal</a> because of the risk of establishment and spread.



Costs pile up when invaders gain a foothold. A 2025 analysis linked species ranges and macroeconomic data to estimate global economic costs of biological invasions over the last six decades.



This underscores how prevention and early <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/giant-murder-hornets-eradicated-us-invasion-officially-stopped/">detection pay off</a> compared with long cleanups.



“The costs could have reached 35 billion dollars per year over the last 60 years,” noted the <a href="https://enveurope.springeropen.com/articles/10.1186/s12302-023-00750-3" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Doñana Biological Station</a> press office.



The biodiversity stakes are not hypothetical. A major intergovernmental assessment concluded invasive alien species have contributed to about 60 percent of recorded global extinctions, a stark reminder that moving species around has consequences that reach far beyond a single creek bend.



The study is published in <a href="https://nas.er.usgs.gov/queries/factsheet.aspx?SpeciesID=498" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Ecology &amp; Evolution</a>.



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Invasive fish breathes through its intestines and carries dangerous parasites

A fish built for the margins just turned up in...

Sixty-six million years ago, North America saw long, dark winters. Fossils now suggest tiny primates were already there, coping with ice and snow.



A new <a href="https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.2423833122" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">analysis</a> turns the usual tropical origin story on its head. The research combines hundreds of fossils with climate models to track primate <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/most-endangered-primate-species-identified-in-new-report/">ancestors</a> through time.



“Our findings flip that narrative entirely,” said Jorge Avaria-Llautureo, an evolutionary biologist at the <a href="https://www.reading.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Reading</a>. His team traced the primate family tree back to chilly northern forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-primates-adapted-to-freezing-climates">Primates adapted to freezing climates</h2>



The team worked with the <a href="https://www.noaa.gov/jetstream/global/climate-zones/jetstream-max-addition-k-ppen-geiger-climate-subdivisions" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Köppen-Geiger</a> climate system, a scheme that sorts environments by average heat and rain. Their maps place the earliest true primates in a zone with hot summers and sub-freezing winters.



That habitat fits today’s upper Midwest more than a steamy jungle. It means our lineage started where annual temperature swings could reach 70 degrees Fahrenheit.



These ancestors likely looked like nimble squirrel-sized <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/female-dominance-in-primates-is-more-common-than-we-thought/">creatures</a>. They foraged at night, avoiding daytime chill.



Statistical models show a 70% chance that the first crown primates lived in what is now North America, with 30% pointing to Western Europe - territories then sitting near 45° N before plate motion. Their later travels reflect how moving land and changing skies steered evolution.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fossils-reveal-primate-movement">Fossils reveal primate movement</h2>



Fossils alone cannot solve the puzzle because they capture animals only where sediments preserve bones. The new study adds computer methods that simulate how <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/visually-striking-primate-features-ease-tension-and-reduce-conflict/">species</a> move across shifting landmasses.



By feeding 902 living and extinct species into BayesTraits software, the group estimated branch-by-branch journeys. They then matched positions with climate layers produced by the Hadley climate model.



The results indicate that early primates stayed in cold or temperate zones for at least 18 million years. Tropical forests entered the picture much later.



Warmer global temperature spikes such as the Paleocene-Eocene Thermal Maximum did not speed their spread. Instead, local temperature swings mattered most.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-early-primates-made-long-journeys">Early primates made long journeys</h2>



When ancestral lineages ventured into new climate categories, they tended to roam farther. Major moves often involved crossing climate boundaries rather than continents.



Median treks reached roughly 349 miles, compared with 85 miles for moves within familiar conditions. The bigger jumps exposed populations to novel <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/primates-face-an-uncertain-future-due-to-climate-change/">habitats</a> and pressures.



Such leaps helped generate new species by separating kin groups long enough for them to drift apart genetically. The pattern echoes broad ecological models that link dispersal to diversification.



Independent work on North American mammals predicts roughly 9 % of species will fail to outrun current warming trends, underlining the cost of slow feet. Swift past wanderers hint at which modern lineages could thrive.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-primates-survived-cold">How primates survived cold </h2>



How could small primates endure months of scarce food and sub-freezing nights? One answer is hibernation, a state in which body temperature and metabolism plunge.



Today’s dwarf lemurs in Madagascar sleep underground for up to seven months each year, a strategy first documented in <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15215852/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">2004</a>.



Later <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/srep01768" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">fieldwork</a> showed that other dwarf lemur species also hibernate when mountain air turns icy.



These living examples show that primate physiology can slow to bear-like torpor, supporting the idea that ancient relatives did something similar.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fast-climate-shifts-caused-changes">Fast climate shifts caused changes</h2>



The Reading group found that the rate, not the direction, of local change predicted primate success. Rapid swings in heat or rain pushed species to travel or perish.



That insight matters today because many forests are shifting faster than ever measured. Flexible species may cope, while specialists could hit a wall.



The study also separates global averages from local reality. A place can warm overall yet still see harsher cold snaps or erratic storms that jar wildlife.



Conservation planners often model future ranges with coarse climate grids. The new work argues for finer, neighborhood-scale maps.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-old-origin-ideas-were-wrong">Old origin ideas were wrong</h2>



Textbooks have long tied primate origins to lush equatorial canopies. That view leaned on early fossil finds labeled “paratropical” without rigorous climate checks.



By applying a single classification standard, the team showed that many supposed rain-forest sites were actually cool mixed forests.



The conclusion challenges popular origin theories like “visual predation,” which assume dense, warm vegetation shaped grasping hands and forward eyes. Those traits may have first evolved among conifers instead.



The researchers also found that <a href="http://cwd.huck.psu.edu/Bio414/Rosids.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">rosid</a> plants, common in temperate woods, diversified around the same time, offering fruit and sap to budding primates.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-primates-adapted-to-shifting-climates">Primates adapted to shifting climates</h2>



Early primates were tougher and more mobile than usually portrayed. They met freezing dawns, marched hundreds of miles, and only later settled in the tropics where most descendants remain.



Their story suggests resilience has always underpinned primate history, yet it came with extinctions for lineages that failed to keep pace.



Modern humans, one branch of that hardy clan, now drive the climate engine. Understanding our icy roots may remind us how quickly fortune can flip.



The study is published in <a href="https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.2423833122" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a>.



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Early primates evolved in cold climates, not tropical jungles

Sixty-six million years ago, North America saw long, dark winters....

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE
</div></figure>



On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop and sunlight barely penetrates through the polar winter. It was here, however, that an international team of scientists found <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/predatory-worms-were-terror-beasts-half-a-billion-years-ago/#google_vignette" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evidence of sea monsters</a> that would change our understanding of ocean life in the past.



This video captures the discovery of Timorebestia fossils that had been hidden for more than 500 million years in the Sirius Passet formation. The "terror beasts," as they are called, are a hidden chapter in the evolutionary history of <a href="https://www.earth.com" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Earth</a>, showing that sophisticated predator-prey interactions occurred much earlier than previously envisioned.



Dr. Jakob Vinther and his research team at the <a href="https://www.bristol.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Bristol</a>, in collaboration with researchers at the <a href="https://eng.kopri.re.kr/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Korean Polar Research Institute</a>, braved extreme weather conditions at 82.5 north latitude to locate these giant creatures. Using sophisticated electron microprobe analysis, they revealed the detailed anatomy of the animals, including their muscle and nerve tissues.



The find upsets the traditional timeline of sea predators. Although we've long appreciated that Cambrian oceans were at one time ruled by <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jWI3-UgA3_o&amp;list=PL1QLQMW9MWDwpkFOnvgAmu7wT6rZmYqdJ&amp;index=19" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">arthropods</a>, these discoveries indicate that relatives of arrow worms were first to dominate the seas. These worms were building sophisticated food webs several million years before other predator groups arose.



Each fossil is a story of ancient hunger, with fossil stomach contents revealing these meter-long beasts dined on heavily armored arthropods regularly, cementing their place as the ocean's first apex predators.



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Worms dominated seas before dinosaurs

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">New York is the site of the world's oldest forest.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-385-million-year-old-trees-discovered">385-million-year-old trees discovered</h2>



Scientists have uncovered something extraordinary just two hours north of New York City. The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/worlds-oldest-forest-discovered-close-to-new-york-city/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">world's oldest forest</a>, dating back 385 million years, offers a window into how Earth's first complex forests shaped our planet's atmosphere.



Located near <a href="https://townofcairo.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cairo, New York</a>, in Greene County, these weren't merely primitive plants struggling to survive. These were sophisticated trees with root systems remarkably similar to modern forests. This ancient woodland predates dinosaurs by 140 million years.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-cairo-forest-discovery">The Cairo forest discovery</h2>



385 million years ago, upstate New York was a tropical paradise near the equator. Thanks to continental drift, this ancient forest has traveled thousands of miles to its current location.



The fossil forest sits in an abandoned quarry, roughly half the size of a football field. This represents just a slice of what was likely a massive forest system stretching from New York into Pennsylvania.



Charles Ver Straeten, curator of sedimentary rocks at the <a href="https://www.nysm.nysed.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">New York State Museum</a>, made the discovery in 2009. While scouting the former highway department property, his trained eye spotted wandering patterns in the stone that looked like marine features.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-revolutionary-age-and-preservation">Revolutionary age and preservation</h2>



The site contains 385-million-year-old rocks with fossilized woody roots forming horizontal patterns up to 18 feet (5.5 meters) wide. As Christopher Berry, a paleobotanist at Cardiff University, explains: "You are walking through the roots of ancient trees."



This discovery pushes back advanced tree evolution by millions of years. The research, published in <a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/home" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Current Biology</a> in December 2019, fundamentally changes our understanding of when complex forests first emerged.



Researchers believe a massive flood buried the forest floor, creating perfect fossilization conditions. Over millions of years, sediment hardened into rock, preserving these root patterns like nature's time capsule.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-meet-archaeopteris-the-first-modern-tree">Meet Archaeopteris: the first modern tree</h2>



The star of this ancient forest is Archaeopteris – not to be confused with the feathered dinosaur Archaeopteryx. This tree was far older and more revolutionary.



William Stein from <a href="https://www.binghamton.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Binghamton University</a> describes the roots as "strikingly modern, essentially what you'd see outside in my yard right now." These weren't simple root systems you'd expect from ancient plants.



Some fossilized roots are six inches (15 centimeters) in diameter, forming 36-foot-wide (11-meter) patterns. These giants grew up to 65 feet (20 meters) tall with five-foot-diameter (1.5-meter) trunks.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-changing-impact">Climate-changing impact</h2>



These trees fundamentally changed Earth's environment. Kevin Boyce, a Stanford University geoscientist, explains how their deep roots triggered "weathering," chemical reactions that pulled carbon dioxide from the atmosphere.



This process dropped atmospheric CO2 levels from 10-15 times higher than today to roughly modern concentrations. These ancient trees helped create atmospheric conditions that made complex life possible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ancient-forest-ecosystem">Ancient forest ecosystem</h2>



The forest was remarkably diverse. Scientists identified Eospermatopteris, palm tree-like plants with short roots that reached 30 feet (9 meters) tall but lacked woody structure. The forest also housed cladoxylopsids and a mysterious third species still being studied.



All reproduced through spores rather than seeds – millions of years before seeds evolved. This tropical environment had no grass, flowers, or flying insects, just towering trees creating Earth's first complex forest canopy.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-scientific-significance">Scientific significance</h2>



Before this finding, the Gilboa forest, located 25 miles (40 kilometers) away, held the "oldest forest" title. Cairo's trees are 2-3 million years older, showing that complex forest ecosystems developed much faster than scientists believed possible.



Patricia Gensel, a <a href="https://www.unc.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of North Carolina</a> paleobotanist, notes: "The size of those root systems is really changing the picture. Even 20 years ago, researchers assumed trees with such complex root systems didn't evolve so early."



The Cairo site presents three unique root systems, suggesting Devonian period forests were diverse ecosystems with different trees occupying different environmental niches, much like today's forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-modern-preservation-efforts">Modern preservation efforts</h2>



In 2022, New York State Senator Michelle Hinchey secured a $170,000 grant for the town of Cairo to construct specialized fencing around the fossil forest site. The town plans to conduct a feasibility study exploring the possibility of creating an educational center and working lab on-site.



Joe Hasenkopf, chair of the Cairo Planning Board, hopes to partner with educational institutions to create a research facility serving scientists, students, and the public.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lessons-for-today-s-climate">Lessons for today's climate</h2>



Why does a 385-million-year-old forest matter today? It shows how dramatically forests can change Earth's climate. These ancient woodlands created the atmospheric conditions supporting complex life.



Understanding how prehistoric forests transformed the planet helps us appreciate modern forests' critical role in addressing climate change. Forests remain Earth's most effective carbon capture systems.



These prehistoric trees changed Earth's atmosphere by pulling massive amounts of carbon dioxide from the air. As we face modern climate challenges, this ancient forest reminds us of trees' incredible power to transform our planet's environment.



The next time you walk through a forest, remember you're experiencing an ecosystem whose blueprint was established 385 million years ago in upstate New York. These ancient pioneers didn't just survive – they thrived and changed the world forever.



The full study was published in the journal Current Biology.



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Earth's oldest forest found in the United States

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ New York is the site of the world's oldest...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Acid rain and a crisis solved.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-don-t-we-ever-hear-about-acid-rain-anymore-the-environmental-crisis-that-was-solved">Why don't we ever hear about "acid rain" anymore? The environmental crisis that was solved</h2>



Remember the 1980s when acid rain dominated headlines? Dire warnings about rain eating buildings, killing fish, and destroying forests filled every news cycle. Then, almost like magic, acid rain vanished from public discourse. What happened? Did we actually solve one of the late 20th century's most pressing environmental challenges?



The answer might surprise you. Unlike many environmental issues that drag on indefinitely, acid rain represents one of modern history's most successful ecological recovery stories. It's a tale of science, politics, and technology working together to tackle what seemed impossible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What was acid rain?</h2>



Acid rain isn't regular rain having a bad day – it's precipitation that became significantly more acidic due to air pollution. When power plants, factories, and vehicles burn fossil fuels, they release sulfur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides (NOx) into the atmosphere.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The science behind it</h2>



Think of acid rain as nature's chemistry experiment gone wrong. These compounds react with water, oxygen, and other chemicals to form sulfuric and nitric acids. When mixed with water vapor in clouds, they create precipitation with dangerously low pH levels.



While clean rain has a pH of about 5.6, acid rain could drop as low as 4.2 to 4.4 – roughly as acidic as tomato juice or coffee. According to US Geological Survey documentation, Scottish chemist Angus Smith first coined "acid rain" in 1872, but it didn't become a household phrase until the 1960s and 1970s when Swedish scientist Svante Odén documented its devastating effects on Scandinavian lakes and European forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The crisis at its peak</h2>



During the height of public concern, environmental damage was both widespread and visible. This wasn't some abstract future threat – people could see destruction happening in real-time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Environmental devastation</h2>



The most dramatic impacts were impossible to ignore. Research documented by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation and the New York State Department of Environmental Conservation shows that in the Adirondack Mountains, more than 200 lakes became so acidic they couldn't support fish life. The Adirondack Council reports that 409 lakes once supported brook trout, but many lost their fish populations due to acid rain.



By 1976, when scientists cataloged all acidified lakes in the Adirondack Park, researchers found that half of the lakes over 2,000 feet above sea level had no fish, according to studies published in environmental journals. The acidification process worked like a slow-motion disaster. As acid rain fell into watersheds, it gradually lowered pH levels. Fish couldn't survive in acidic water, and their food sources died off too.



Trees at high elevations showed stress directly linked to acid rain. It weakened them by leaching nutrients and making them susceptible to disease. Historical records show Germany's Black Forest saw nearly half its trees damaged by the mid-1980s.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Economic impact</h2>



Acid rain wasn't just environmental – it was expensive. Acidic precipitation corroded infrastructure, buildings, and monuments. Historic stone structures deteriorated at accelerated rates. Tourism suffered as lakes became fishless and forests declined. EPA economic analyses from the period documented repair costs mounting into billions annually.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The solution: government action and technology</h2>



Transformation from crisis to success required unprecedented cooperation between governments, industries, and environmental groups.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The Clean Air Act of 1990</h2>



The turning point came with the Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990, signed by President George H.W. Bush. This represented a fundamentally new approach to environmental regulation, as documented in EPA historical records.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Cap-and-trade success</h2>



Instead of mandating specific technologies, the 1990 amendments introduced something revolutionary: a cap-and-trade system for sulfur dioxide emissions. EPA program documentation shows this market-based approach set overall limits but allowed companies to trade emission allowances.



The genius was harnessing market forces to find cost-effective pollution reduction. Companies reducing emissions cheaply could sell excess allowances to those facing higher costs. Research published in environmental economics journals and EPA progress reports shows this resulted in dramatic SO2 reduction at a fraction of projected costs.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Technology advances</h2>



Policy provided the framework, but technology made reductions possible. Studies in atmospheric science journals document the widespread adoption of flue gas desulfurization systems ("scrubbers") that removed sulfur dioxide before it reached the atmosphere. By the 2000s, new installations could remove over 95% of SO2 emissions, according to EPA technical reports.



The push coincided with cleaner energy development. Natural gas produces fewer sulfur compounds than coal. Wind and solar, emerging in the 1990s, captured growing market share, reducing reliance on high-sulfur coal.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-we-don-t-hear-about-it-today">Why we don't hear about it today</h2>



Why did acid rain disappear from headlines? Simple: the problem was largely solved.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Success doesn't make news</h2>



There's an old journalism saying: "If it bleeds, it leads." Environmental success stories don't generate urgency like crisis reporting. Media attention shifted to other challenges: climate change, plastic pollution, and biodiversity loss. There's only so much environmental anxiety the public can absorb, and newer concerns replaced acid rain.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Mission accomplished</h2>



The primary reason is beautifully simple: interventions worked. EPA monitoring data shows sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990. Academic research published in environmental science journals confirms pH levels in formerly affected areas returned closer to normal. This represents one of history's most dramatic environmental recoveries. Studies by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation show fishless lakes now support healthy populations. Forests recovered, and building damage slowed dramatically.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-is-it-really-gone">Is it really gone?</h2>



The crisis is largely resolved, but monitoring data shows the problem isn't completely eliminated – it's managed to acceptable levels. Some areas still experience occasional events during high pollution periods. International environmental research indicates that rapidly industrializing Asian countries face similar problems to what we experienced decades ago, though they're implementing successful strategies.



EPA research shows nitrogen oxide emissions proved more challenging than sulfur dioxide, coming from vehicles and mobile sources. Climate science studies suggest changing weather patterns add complexity to how acid rain forms and falls.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What this teaches us</h2>



The acid rain experience proves that seemingly intractable environmental problems can be solved with scientific understanding, political will, and technological innovation. Environmental monitoring data shows recovery speed was remarkable – within a decade, measurable improvements appeared in air quality and ecosystem health.



Success came from bipartisan support across party lines. Policy analysis studies show the market-based approach appealed to those preferring economic incentives while achieving environmental goals. This support created lasting policy surviving political changes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Conclusion</h2>



Acid rain's disappearance from public consciousness represents environmental science's greatest success stories. Through effective regulation, technological innovation, and international cooperation, we transformed an overwhelming crisis into a manageable challenge.



Today's silence isn't because we forgot – it's because we solved it. The 1990 Clean Air Act, combined with technology and energy market changes, reduced acid rain emissions over 90%, according to comprehensive EPA data analysis.



This success offers hope for current challenges. It proves complex problems can be solved when science, policy, and technology work together. As we face climate change and plastic pollution, acid rain reminds us that dramatic positive change is possible.



Next time someone asks whether environmental regulations work, remember acid rain. It's proof that sometimes, we get it right.



<hr class="wp-block-separator has-alpha-channel-opacity"/>



Sources: This article draws from EPA official documentation and progress reports, peer-reviewed research published in environmental and atmospheric science journals, historical data from the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation, New York State Department of Environmental Conservation records, US Geological Survey publications, policy analysis studies, and environmental monitoring data collected over three decades.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Frequently Asked Questions</h2>



1. Is acid rain completely gone? No, but EPA monitoring shows it's reduced to manageable levels. US sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990, making acid rain much less severe than the 1980s crisis.



2. How long did solving take? Environmental monitoring data shows significant improvements began within 5-10 years of 1990s emission controls. Full ecosystem recovery took longer – some areas need 20-30 years for complete recovery.



3. What made the solution successful? Clear scientific understanding, visible damage motivating action, bipartisan support, available technology, and innovative market-based policies like cap-and-trade.



4. Do other countries have acid rain problems? Yes, particularly rapidly industrializing Asian countries. However, international environmental research shows many implement similar successful control strategies.



5. Could acid rain return? Potentially, if regulations weaken or we return to high-sulfur coal without controls, though effects would take years to become severe according to environmental projections.



6. Can you recommend any teaching tools on the subject of "acid rain"? The United States Environmental Protection Agency produced a wonderful teacher's guide for ages 14 and under that you can find on the EPA website here: <a href="https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf</a>



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The environmental problem we actually solved

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk Acid rain and a crisis solved. Why don't we...

Fresh,Radish,Harvest,On,Soil,In,Garden.

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://youtu.be/Fi2OeEwuzRM?si=vTyd2m9FMmtyWkex
</div></figure>







Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving fall garden, and this guide lays out the best vegetables and herbs to plant now for a fruitful autumn harvest. 



Fast-growing leafy greens such as spinach, lettuce, kale, and arugula perform especially well in the waning summer heat, with harvests beginning as soon as 30 days. 



These cool-season crops relish the transition into fall, offering repeated yields with cut-and-come-again methods.



Root vegetables like radishes, carrots, and beets also excel during this period. Radishes deliver satisfaction in under a month, while carrots and beets mature in about two months. Employing succession planting ensures a continuous stream of produce deep into the cooler months. 



For a boost of fresh flavor, herbs like cilantro, basil, dill, and chervil are excellent picks. These heat-loving varieties flourish in July’s warmth and are harvest-ready in about 30 days, especially when sown continuously.



Gardeners in zones 6 through 9 can benefit from planting bush beans and snap peas, which don’t require trellising and are ideal for compact plots. 



Maturing in 50–60 days, they’re a smart choice for quick, protein-rich harvests. For those in hotter regions, heat-tolerant crops such as okra and southern peas provide reliable yields and thrive in scorching conditions.



This guide emphasizes more than crop selection—it highlights the importance of timing, soil preparation, and ongoing sowing techniques. 



With thoughtful planning and attention to regional climate needs, even late-summer gardeners can enjoy fresh salads, hearty stews, and the satisfaction of a robust, homegrown harvest well into fall.



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What to plant in your garden in mid-July

https://youtu.be/Fi2OeEwuzRM?si=vTyd2m9FMmtyWkex Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving...

Green,Ecoduct,Over,An,Empty,Highway,During,Sunset.

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://youtu.be/XYgiPzmNBTU?si=eFYY7gPHU1JznLvU
</div></figure>



A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that wildlife tunnels significantly reduce amphibian road mortality during seasonal migrations. 



Frogs and salamanders often cross roads to reach breeding ponds each spring, but many are killed by vehicles. 



Researchers from the <a href="https://www.uvm.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Vermont</a>, in collaboration with local citizens and the Vermont Agency of Natural Resources, installed two underpass tunnels in 2015. 



Over a 12-year monitoring period, they observed an 80.2% reduction in amphibian deaths, and up to 94% for non-climbing species like salamanders. 



The study used a before-after-control-impact design and documented more than 5,200 amphibians, highlighting the tunnels’ effectiveness even in nearby buffer zones.



Funded at $342,397 - far cheaper than wildlife crossings for large mammals - the project showcased the power of community-led conservation.



Local groups initiated the effort after observing mass amphibian deaths. Wildlife cameras later captured over 2,200 amphibians using a tunnel in just one spring, along with other species like raccoons and bobcats, indicating wider ecosystem benefits.



This marks the first peer-reviewed, long-term data set in the northeastern U.S. confirming amphibian-specific underpasses work. 



The study urges transportation departments to incorporate these designs into road planning and highlights how community action, thoughtful infrastructure, and persistence can make a real difference for biodiversity.



The full study was published in the <a href="https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1617138125000780" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal for Nature Conservation</a>.



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Wildlife tunnels save millions of amphibians

https://youtu.be/XYgiPzmNBTU?si=eFYY7gPHU1JznLvU A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that...

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing it with probiotics and prebiotics, aiming to create a treat that satisfies cravings while supporting gut health. 



The challenge lies in maintaining chocolate's beloved texture and flavor while adding health benefits.



<figure class="wp-block-embed aligncenter is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://youtu.be/Ug657J67iEo?si=w96YjGMsg939LD_3
</div></figure>



Probiotics - beneficial microbes that balance gut bacteria and aid digestion - are typically fragile and can be destroyed by stomach acid or processing. 



Prebiotics act as food for these microbes, helping them thrive. Together, they form "synbiotics," a powerful health combination.



Researchers Smriti Gaur and Shubhi Singh from India's Jaypee Institute of Information Technology took an innovative approach, using natural prebiotics like corn and honey instead of complex processing methods. 



They created five chocolate varieties: a control and four synbiotic versions containing different combinations of prebiotics, probiotics (Lactobacillus strains), and flavor enhancers (cinnamon or orange).



Laboratory simulations of human digestion showed the probiotics remained viable for over five hours, suggesting they could survive long enough to benefit gut health.



Taste tests were positive, with researchers particularly enjoying the orange-flavored variety, describing it as having "vibrant citrus notes" complementing the "rich cocoa" with a "luxurious" texture.



This research represents just the beginning. With further refinement of strains, textures, and flavors, chocolate could evolve beyond mere indulgence to become a functional food that nourishes while it delights.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.4c00741" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ACS Food Science &amp; Technology</a>.

Is chocolate the next nutritional powerhouse?

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

[sendtonews key="0ynNMYkMKa-2340414-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

[sendtonews key="G9bUoxcjr4-2511624-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="3upvlAaHgO-2256633-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

[sendtonews key="3upvlAaHgO-2256633-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

[sendtonews key="LvS8v8bp9z-2564889-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How does salt makes things taste better?

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Santiago, Chile in South America

[sendtonews key="JRaP49ISmm-2357509-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.



According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."



Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;



ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. 



Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

[sendtonews key="oL4FnPTGCV-2384527-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

[sendtonews key="0879czfG3k-1785905-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from NASA...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

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Earth,Like,Exoplanet,3d,Render

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

[sendtonews key="QIoVYJqRBi-2434608-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from NASA...

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Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes Earth’s interconnected systems, and how this network is affected by rising temperatures.&nbsp;



During 2020, average global temperatures matched the hottest year on record. The hurricane season was also record-breaking, with many of the storms intensifying at extraordinary speeds. Hot water in the ocean is fuel for hurricanes. The satellite data shows that it's all one interconnected system showing how Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected.



According to NASA, dust swept up from Northern Africa plays a major role in the formation of hurricanes, and is also a key source of fertilization in the Amazon rainforest. As a result of<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seagrass-wasting-disease-is-fueled-by-climate-change/"> climate</a> change, dust plumes are expected to decline, which will have an effect on vegetation far away.&nbsp;



Images from Earth-observing satellites show how the world’s plant life is affected by natural disasters, fires, and deforestation. Satellites also reveal how widespread changes in vegetation impact waterways,&nbsp; the climate, air quality. Satellites communicate by using radio waves to send signals to the antennas on the Earth. "Earth From Space" is a groundbreaking two-hour special that reveals a spectacular new space-based vision of our planet. 



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected

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