For more than a century, biologists have treated teeth as strictly oral equipment - no matter the animal. A new study of the spotted ratfish (a shark relative commonly found in Puget Sound) blows that assumption wide open.



Adult males of this shark species grow rows of hooked, barbed “teeth” on a cartilaginous forehead appendage called a tenaculum, which they flare to spar with rivals and grasp mates during underwater courtship.



“This absolutely spectacular feature flips the long-standing assumption in evolutionary biology that teeth are strictly oral structures,” said lead author Karly Cohen, a postdoctoral researcher at the <a href="https://fhl.uw.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Washington</a>.



“The tenaculum is a developmental relic, not a bizarre one-off, and the first clear example of a toothed structure outside the jaw.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-shark-s-cousin-has-tenaculum">Shark's cousin has tenaculum</h2>



<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spotted_ratfish" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Spotted ratfish</a> are chimaeras, a branch of cartilaginous fishes that split from sharks long ago. 



They’re compact - about two feet long - with a whip-like tail. In males, the unmistakable forehead “peanut” can extend into a spiny hook.



Like sharks and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ancient-rays-were-more-diverse-than-previously-thought/">rays</a>, many chondrichthyan fishes are armored in tooth-like skin structures called denticles.



Ratfish are oddballs: aside from denticles on their pelvic claspers (another mating aid), their skin is mostly bare. 



That contrast made scientists wonder what, exactly, the tenaculum spines are. Are they denticles in disguise - or true teeth transplanted to the head?



“Sharks don’t have arms, but they need to mate underwater,” Cohen said. “So a lot of them have developed grasping structures to connect themselves to a mate during reproduction.” 



Ratfish have two: the forehead tenaculum and pelvic claspers.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-competing-theories-on-tenaculum">Competing theories on tenaculum</h2>



The researchers laid out two competing hypotheses. If the tenaculum <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ghost-sharks-unraveling-the-mysteries-of-these-strange-and-elusive-sea-monsters/">spines were denticles</a>, they’d be skin-derived armor that just happens to look toothy. 



If they were genuine teeth, they would develop and regenerate using the same cellular machinery that makes jaw teeth.



To tease this apart, the team collected hundreds of ratfish in the shallows around the University of Washington's Friday Harbor Labs. 



The specimens were scanned with micro-CT, sampled tissues for gene expression, and compared the living fish to fossil relatives.



The researchers watched the tenaculum form in both sexes. 



In males, a tiny cell cluster between the eyes swelled into a white bump that anchored to jaw muscles, broke through the skin, and sprouted multiple rows of sharp elements. 



In females, the early cluster never mineralized, leaving only a developmental trace.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/09/tenaculum_ratfish_ct-scan_credit-Cohen-Nicklin_1m.jpg"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/09/tenaculum_ratfish_ct-scan_credit-Cohen-Nicklin_1s.webp" alt="CT (computed tomography) scan of the adult male Spotted Ratfish frontal clasper (Tenaculum) covered in rows of teeth (rainbow colors). Credit: Karly Cohen and Ella Nicklin" class="wp-image-1984763"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">CT (computed tomography) scan of the adult male Spotted Ratfish frontal clasper (Tenaculum) covered in rows of teeth (rainbow colors). Click image to enlarge. Credit: Karly Cohen and Ella Nicklin</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-stem-cells-prove-tooth-identity">Stem cells prove tooth identity</h2>



The clearest evidence came from histology. Each row of tenaculum spines sits atop a ribbon of tissue called the dental lamina - an epithelial <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/stem-cell-therapy-improves-brain-activity-after-stroke/">stem-cell</a> niche that seeds new teeth in a conveyor belt inside the jaws of many vertebrates.



“When we saw the dental lamina for the first time, our eyes popped,” Cohen said. “It was so exciting to see this crucial structure outside the jaw.”



Dermal denticles don’t have a dental lamina. The team also found the classic “tooth toolbox” of genes active in the tenaculum but absent in skin denticles. They spotted similar head-mounted teeth in the fossil record of related chimaeras.



“We have a combination of experimental data with paleontological evidence to show how these fishes co-opted a preexisting program for manufacturing teeth to make a new device that is essential for reproduction,” said co-author Michael Coates of the <a href="https://www.uchicago.edu/en">University of Chicago</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-flexible-teeth-for-reproduction">Flexible teeth for reproduction</h2>



An adult male ratfish can stack seven or eight rows of these forehead teeth. Unlike our rigid canines, they retract and flex - handy when you’re trying to latch onto a mate while swimming.



The tenaculum’s growth schedule follows the maturation of the pelvic claspers, not the animal’s overall length. 



This suggests that the “migrant” tooth-forming tissue is now controlled by reproductive hormonal cues and local gene networks. 



Functionally, the system behaves like mouth dentitions in sharks: a renewable lamina constantly seeds replacements.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rethinking-where-teeth-can-grow"><a></a>Rethinking where teeth can grow</h2>



Sharks are often the go-to model for tooth evolution because they churn out endless oral teeth and wear a coat of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/shark-denticles-reveal-human-impacts-over-centuries/">denticles.</a> This study widens the lens. 



The research shows that vertebrate “tooth programs” are modular and mobile. Under the right developmental signals, genuine teeth can be built well beyond the jaw margins.



Tissue samples from the tenaculum expressed the same core genetic toolkit seen across vertebrate teeth, demonstrating that these aren’t just spiky skin ornaments. "Vertebrate teeth are extremely well united by a genetic toolbox,” Cohen noted. 



“If these strange chimaeras are sticking teeth on the front of their head, it makes you think about the dynamism of tooth development more generally," said study senior author Gareth Fraser of the <a href="https://www.ufl.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Florida</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ancient-clues-from-ratfish-tenaculum">Ancient clues from ratfish tenaculum</h2>



Finding a working dental lamina outside the mouth suggests ancient flexibility in where and why teeth evolve - whether for feeding, defense, or, in this case, reproductive grip. 



The discovery also hints that evolution has repeatedly redeployed the same genetic circuitry to build similar hard parts in new places.



For paleontologists, the forehead teeth help reconcile decades-old fossils that hinted at non-oral dentitions in early jawed fishes. 



For developmental biologists, they invite a new question: What other “spiky structures” might secretly be teeth?



“Chimaeras offer a rare glimpse into the past,” Cohen said. “I think the more we look at spiky structures on vertebrates, the more teeth we are going to find outside the jaw.”



In other words, the next chapter in the story of teeth may not be written in the mouth at all, but on an unassuming little hook between a ratfish’s eyes - proof that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/discovery-evolution-not-random-can-be-predicted-pangenome-genetic-history/">evolution</a>’s dental toolkit travels farther than anyone imagined.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.2508054122" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a>.



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Common fish found to have a very uncommon row of teeth on its forehead

For more than a century, biologists have treated teeth as strictly oral equipment - no matter the animal. A new study of the spotted ratfish (a shark relative commonly found in Puget Sound) blows that assumption wide open. Adult males of this shark species grow rows of hooked, barbed “teeth” on a cartilaginous forehead appendage called a tenaculum, which they flare to spar with rivals and grasp mates during underwater courtship. “This absolutely spectacular feature flips the long-standing assumption in evolutionary biology that teeth are strictly oral...

Human evolution is not only about bones. It is about the forests, soils, and climates that supported early apes long before the first hominin walked upright. 



Though great apes diverged from other primates around 25 million years ago, our own lineage did not appear until roughly 5 million years ago. In that immense stretch of time, forests rose and fell, volcanoes erupted, and ancient <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earth-day-2025-our-power-our-planet/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">creatures</a> adapted to the world around them.



One place where this deep story unfolds is western Kenya’s Koru 16. This fossil site captures a snapshot of life during the early Miocene, around 20 million years ago. Preserved by ash from the long extinct Tinderet Volcano, Koru 16 is a rich and complex time capsule. 



New research led by Venanzio Munyaka reveals that the story of ape evolution cannot be told without understanding the ecosystems they called home. The study adds fresh insight to a region already steeped in fossil history.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ape-fossils-reveal-evolutionary-activity">Ape fossils reveal evolutionary activity</h2>



Koru 16 has drawn scientific interest for nearly a hundred years. The site’s first primate fossils were discovered in 1927, and legendary anthropologist Louis Leakey led several excavations in the decades that followed. 



While those early efforts laid important groundwork, the last decade brought new urgency and better tools for understanding its full ecological <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/apes-can-tell-when-humans-dont-know-something/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">context</a>.



Between 2013 and 2023, Munyaka and colleagues carried out a detailed investigation at two subsites. They recovered nearly 1,000 fossil leaves and a wealth of vertebrate remains. 



The bones came from 25 different species, including pythons, rodents, and three types of apes. These included Proconsul africanus, Proconsul major, and a newly identified large bodied nyanzapithecine.



These discoveries make Koru 16 the most ape rich site within the wider Tinderet group. The presence of multiple ape species in a single forested environment suggests the region played a key role in early ape evolution. But it was not just the bones that told a story.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-changing-forests-shaped-how-early-apes-lived">Changing forests shaped how early apes lived</h2>



The team used a combination of paleosol chemistry, leaf structure, and tree stump fossils to reconstruct what Koru 16 looked like millions of years ago. Their results point to a warm, wet tropical forest, interrupted frequently by natural disturbances. 



Volcanic eruptions from the Tinderet complex blanketed the land with ash. Wildfires and seasonal floods added further stress.



Yet through all this, life thrived. Soil analyses indicate the region received about 2,000 mm of rainfall per year, with temperatures likely above 25°C. These conditions are similar to modern tropical forests in Africa, though the vegetation was slightly different. Koru 16’s forest likely had more deciduous trees, with plants that dropped their leaves seasonally.



“By studying the soil, fossils, and tree stumps, we could recreate the forest's climate,” said Munyaka. The climate was not stable. Instead, it was a shifting mosaic of dense forest, open patches, and recently disturbed areas. This landscape would challenge and shape the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/what-animal-will-replace-humans-as-earths-dominant-species-this-scientist-has-an-idea/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">creatures</a> living there.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-leaves-light-and-forest-layers">Leaves, light, and forest layers</h2>



Plant fossils offered a vivid picture of this forest. From the two subsites, researchers cataloged 18 distinct leaf morphotypes. These belonged to plants that likely had short lifespans and fast growth cycles. 



Such traits suggest a forest marked by high turnover, where plants quickly colonized open areas after fires or ashfalls.



Most of the fossilized leaves came from <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earth-day-2025-innovation-takes-the-lead-in-environmental-action/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">species</a> adapted to both shaded understories and sunlit clearings. This indicates a mixed canopy, with parts of the forest densely shaded and others exposed. The forest structure would have influenced how apes moved, fed, and nested. 



Some leaves had characteristics similar to those found in modern forests in Uganda and Madagascar, places where rainfall is seasonal and disturbance is common.



The researchers also found casts of fossilized tree stumps. In one subsite, stumps stood close together, suggesting a mature, shaded forest. In the other, stumps were widely spaced, hinting at a more open, disturbed area. 



These contrasts imply that even within a small region, early Miocene forests were ecologically diverse and constantly in flux.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-apes-among-the-ash">Apes among the ash</h2>



The fauna found alongside the plants reinforce this view. Apes were not alone. The site also yielded fossils of large pythons and several rodent species. The dominance of rodents reflects a rich, layered ecosystem. 



Most importantly, the three ape species discovered show that such forests supported a range of primate forms, including some of our most ancient relatives.



“The forest was not a quiet, uniform place,” said one researcher. “It was full of challenges that spurred change.” These challenges likely encouraged the development of new behaviors. Apes may have moved more on the ground, adapted their diets to seasonal food, or evolved new social habits to cope with ecological instability.



This type of environment, warm, seasonal, and disturbed, would have offered opportunities and obstacles. Forest fragmentation and frequent change may have nudged primates toward flexibility in how they lived, moved, and survived. In that sense, the forest itself became an evolutionary partner.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ecological-roots-of-evolution">Ecological roots of evolution</h2>



Koru 16 forces a shift in how we think about ape origins. Rather than emerging in calm, unchanging rainforests, early apes lived in dynamic, fractured landscapes. 



These habitats were shaped by fire, flood, and ash. The soil, climate, and plants constantly shifted, creating a stage that demanded adaptability.



The presence of multiple ape species in this kind of forest suggests that environmental variability did not limit primate evolution. It may have energized it. The ability to navigate change, rather than thrive in stability, might have been a key evolutionary trait.



Through its ancient layers of ash and soil, Koru 16 gives us something rare. It offers a full picture of the world early apes inhabited. It tells a story not just of bones, but of climate, ecology, and survival. 



The research reminds us that the journey to becoming human began not just in upright steps but in leafy canopies, open glades, and the fertile ash beds of a forest always on the move.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1029/2025PA005152" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Paleoceanography and Paleoclimatology</a>.



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Early apes lived in a constantly changing world of fire and ash

Human evolution is not only about bones. It is about...

Dinosaurs have long captivated human imagination. From towering giants to quick-footed hunters, these creatures ruled the prehistoric world for millions of years. Each fossil discovery brings new understanding. 



A recent find has added a key piece to the tyrannosaur story. Named Khankhuuluu mongoliensis, this newly identified dinosaur sheds light on how smaller predators evolved into giants like Tyrannosaurus rex.



This breakthrough comes from a global research team led by Jared Voris and Dr. Darla Zelenitsky of the <a href="https://ucalgary.ca" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Calgary</a>. Their findings appear in the journal Nature. 



Khankhuuluu lived about 86 million years ago during a time of rapid change.



As other large <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fossilized-guts-reveal-the-eating-habits-of-sauropod-dinosaurs/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">predators</a> vanished, new ones took their places. Khankhuuluu stood at the crossroads of this transition. The species bridges the gap between earlier swift hunters and the colossal bone crushers that followed.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-khankhuuluu-came-before-t-rex">Khankhuuluu came before T. rex</h2>



Khankhuuluu means “prince of dragons” in Mongolian. The name hints at its importance. It was not yet king, but it was certainly part of a royal bloodline.



This dinosaur is now seen as the closest-known ancestor of the tyrannosaurs. Unlike its massive descendants, Khankhuuluu weighed only about 750 kilograms (1,600 pounds). That is similar to the size of a modern horse.



“This new species provides us the window into the ascent stage of tyrannosaur evolution; right when they’re transitioning from small predators to their apex <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dinosaur-fossils-reveal-cancer-clues-for-modern-medicine/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">predator</a> form,” explained Jared Voris, the study’s first author and a Ph.D. candidate at the University of Calgary.



Khankhuuluu rose to prominence after the extinction of many other large carnivores. It seized the opportunity and evolved new traits that would eventually lead to its dominance.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fast-agile-and-built-to-pursue">Fast, agile, and built to pursue</h2>



Khankhuuluu was not a brute force <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ancient-footprints-reveal-a-dinosaur-that-changed-pace-while-walking/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">predator</a>. It had a long, shallow skull that lacked the bone-crushing strength of a T. rex. Instead, it relied on its long legs for speed, and its sharp senses. Scientists describe it as a mesopredator, similar in role to a coyote. 



This means it likely preyed on small animals and used agility to avoid larger threats.



One of its most notable features was a pair of tiny horns above its eyes. These were likely used for mating displays or to intimidate other dinosaurs.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/06/dinosaur_t-rex-cousin_Khankhuuluu-mongoliensis_credit-UCalgary_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/06/dinosaur_t-rex-cousin_Khankhuuluu-mongoliensis_credit-UCalgary_1s.webp" alt="This artist's illustration shows the newly discovered dinosaur species Khankhuuluu mongoliensis, an ancestor of Tyrannosaurus Rex. Misidentified bones actually belong to a new species of tyrannosaur which rewrites the family history of the mighty T-Rex. Credit: University of Calgary" class="wp-image-1973997"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">This artist's illustration shows the newly discovered dinosaur species Khankhuuluu mongoliensis, an ancestor of Tyrannosaurus Rex. Misidentified bones actually belong to a new species of tyrannosaur which rewrites the family history of the mighty T-Rex. Click image to enlarge. Credit: University of Calgary</figcaption></figure>



Later species such as Albertosaurus and Gorgosaurus would develop larger and more ornate versions of these horns. 



In Khankhuuluu, however, the structures were still in early development. These subtle differences mark it as a transitional figure in tyrannosaur history.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-khankhuuluu-was-misidentified">Khankhuuluu was misidentified</h2>



The bones that identified Khankhuuluu were not newly dug from the ground. They were actually collected in the 1970s by paleontologist Altangerel Perle in the Bayanshiree Formation in southeastern Mongolia. 



At the time, the fossils were thought to belong to a dinosaur called Alectrosaurus that was more commonly found in nearby China. That assumption held for decades.



Then in 2023, Voris traveled to Mongolia to study the fossils in detail. While examining the material at the Institute of Paleontology, he noticed key differences. These included unique features in the skull and limbs. 



These observations confirmed that the fossils belonged to a new <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/archaeopteryx-fossil-soft-tissue-flight-evolution-proves-darwin-right/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">species</a>. What had once been misidentified was now recognized as a pivotal ancestor of the tyrannosaurs.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-tyrannosaur-that-crossed-continents">The tyrannosaur that crossed continents</h2>



Khankhuuluu's legacy is not limited to Mongolia. Its lineage spread far beyond Asia. 



“Khankhuuluu, or a closely related species, would have immigrated to North America from Asia around 85 million years ago. Our study provides solid evidence that large tyrannosaurs first evolved in North America as a result of this immigration event,” Dr. Darla Zelenitsky noted.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/06/dinosaur_t-rex-cousin_Khankhuuluu-mongoliensis_paleontologists_credit-UCalgary_1big.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/06/dinosaur_t-rex-cousin_Khankhuuluu-mongoliensis_paleontologists_credit-UCalgary_1s.webp" alt="Darla Zelenitsky, a paleontologist and associate professor in the Faculty of Science, and Jared Voris, a Ph.D. candidate, have identified a new species of dinosaur named Khankhuuluu. They, along with a team of international scientists, have published a paper in the journal, Nature, about the evolution of Tyrannosaurs. Credit: Riley Brandt/University of Calgary" class="wp-image-1974000"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Darla Zelenitsky, a paleontologist and associate professor in the Faculty of Science, and Jared Voris, a Ph.D. candidate, have identified a new species of dinosaur named Khankhuuluu. They, along with a team of international scientists, have published a paper in the journal, Nature, about the evolution of Tyrannosaurs. Click image to enlarge. Credit: Riley Brandt/University of Calgary</figcaption></figure>



This migration shaped the history of dinosaurs on both continents. Once in North America, tyrannosaurs began to grow larger and more specialized. Over time, they became the most dominant predators in their environments. 



The journey of Khankhuuluu set this in motion. It is a clear example of how species movement influences evolution.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-tyrannosaurs-split">How tyrannosaurs split</h2>



Once in North America, the tyrannosaurs evolved along two main paths. One group became massive apex predators like Tyrannosaurus rex. 



These were the bone crushers, armed with powerful jaws and deep skulls. Another group developed long snouts and stayed medium-sized. Scientists call them “Pinocchio rexes” because of their distinctive faces.



Both branches trace back to Khankhuuluu or a very similar <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dinosaur-extinction-theories-are-challenged-by-new-research/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ancestor</a>. This new discovery shows that the migration from Asia was not just a one-time event. It reveals a pattern of interaction and development that shaped dinosaur evolution.



These findings change the way scientists view the rise of tyrannosaurs. The journey was not linear. It involved branching, mixing, and adapting over millions of years.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-next-chapter-in-the-tyrannosaur-story">Next chapter in the tyrannosaur story</h2>



Though Khankhuuluu has answered many questions, it has also raised new ones. Researchers now want to explore earlier stages of tyrannosaur evolution. 



What came before the dragon prince? What traits defined the first members of this mighty family? The answers may lie buried in rocks still waiting to be exposed.



For now, Khankhuuluu stands as a symbol of change. It was not the biggest or most fearsome predator. But it played a critical role in the story of Earth's past. 



As the dragon prince, it holds the key to understanding how some of the most iconic creatures in history came to rule the land.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-025-08964-6" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature</a>.



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Meet the "prince of dragons," closest T-rex relative that started the tyrannosaur dynasty

Dinosaurs have long captivated human imagination. From towering giants to...

Two small cubs that died more than 14,000 years ago, were initially considered to be early domesticated dogs. New findings now confirm that these so-called "puppies" were actually wolf cubs. Their final nap, curled up in their den, turned them into scientific time capsules.



Their frozen remains - discovered in northern Siberia - were so well preserved that researchers could study what they ate, how they lived, and how they died.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-where-the-wolf-cubs-were-found">Where the wolf cubs were found</h2>



The cubs were found about 40 kilometers (25 miles) from the village of Tumat in Siberia. One was unearthed in 2011 and the other in 2015, at what is now known as the Syalakh site.



Both were buried deep within frozen soil layers, preserved by permafrost alongside <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/woolly-mammoth-fossil-freeze-dried-skin-active-dna-chromosomes-52000-years/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">mammoth</a> bones that showed signs of having been burned and butchered.



This unusual combination of human activity and frozen remains sparked early speculation. Some believed the cubs might have been <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/from-wolves-to-dogs-did-domestication-begin-without-human-help/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">early dogs</a>, living among humans or scavenging near human settlements. 



The fact that their fur was black - a trait once thought to be unique to domesticated dogs - added fuel to the theory.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-university-of-york-sheds-new-light">University of York sheds new light</h2>



But new research from the <a href="https://www.york.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of York</a> tells a different story. Scientists studied genetic material from the cubs’ stomachs, along with chemical signals in their bones, teeth, and tissue. 



The data pointed not to early dogs, but to wolves - wolves that had lived wild and free during the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/humans-were-likely-the-leading-cause-of-megafauna-extinctions/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Pleistocene</a>.



The cubs were about two months old and still nursing. But they were also eating solid food, including meat from a wooly rhinoceros and, in one case, a small bird called a wagtail. 



The presence of undigested rhino skin in one cub’s stomach points to how recently they had eaten, and how abruptly their lives had ended.



“It was incredible to find two sisters from this era so well preserved, but even more incredible that we can now tell so much of their story, down to the last meal that they ate,” said Anne Kathrine Runge from the University of York’s Department of Archaeology.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-sister-wolf-cubs-lost-in-a-collapse">Sister wolf cubs lost in a collapse</h2>



The cubs showed no signs of injury or attack. Researchers believe they were resting in their den, possibly after feeding, when a landslide or collapse trapped them. 



“Whilst many will be disappointed that these animals are almost certainly wolves and not early domesticated dogs, they have helped us get closer to understanding the environment at the time, how these animals lived, and how remarkably similar wolves from more than 14,000 years ago are to modern day wolves," explained Runge.



"It also means that the mystery of how dogs evolved into the domestic pet we know today deepens, as one of our clues - the black fur color - may have been a red herring given its presence in wolf cubs from a population that is not related to domestic dogs,” she added.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-life-in-a-rich-landscape">Life in a rich landscape</h2>



Inside the wolf cubs’ stomachs were fossilized remains of plants such as prairie grasses, willow twigs, and leaves from Dryas shrubs. This suggests they lived in a varied and rich ecosystem, full of edible plants and animals.



Despite their proximity to mammoth bones, there was no sign that the cubs ate mammoth meat. Instead, researchers found clear evidence of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/humans-hunted-woolly-rhinoceros-to-extinction/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">wooly rhinoceros</a> in their diet.



Although a fully grown rhino would be far too large for a cub - or even a single adult wolf - to bring down, scientists think the prey was likely a young calf taken down by the pack and shared with the cubs.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-bigger-wolves-bigger-prey">Bigger wolves, bigger prey?</h2>



The idea of wolves hunting wooly rhinos, even young ones, has raised questions. Could these ancient wolves have been larger and more powerful than today’s <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/gray-wolves-survived-the-ice-age-by-changing-their-diet/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">gray wolves</a>?



Dr. Nathan Wales, also from the University of York’s Department of Archaeology, explained further. 



“We know grey wolves have been around as a species for hundreds of thousands of years, based on skeletal remains from palaeontological sites, and researchers have done DNA testing of some of those remains to understand how the population changed over time," he shared. 



He added that the soft tissues preserved in the Tumat cubs gives another, fascinating way of investigating the wolf evolutionary line. 



“We can see that their diets were varied, consisting of both animal meat and plant life, much like that of modern wolves," he said, "and we have an insight into their breeding behaviors too. The pair were sisters and likely being reared in a den and cared for by their pack – all common characteristics of breeding and raising of offspring in wolves today."



It is common for modern wolves to have larger litters than two, and it is possible that the Tumat cubs had siblings that escaped the fate of the unfortunate sisters. Or perhaps there will be more of the litter hidden in the permafrost nearby. 



Dr. Wales also commented on the fact that wooly rhinoceros remains were found in the cubs' stomachs. 



“The hunting of an animal as large as a wooly rhinoceros, even a baby one, suggests that these wolves are perhaps bigger than the wolves we see today, but still consistent in many ways, because wolves still tend to hunt easy prey while some of the pack is engaged in cub rearing.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-dog-puzzle-remains">The dog puzzle remains</h2>



This study does more than shed light on two ancient cubs. It also leaves an open question: When and where did dogs emerge from their wolf ancestors?



So, while the Tumat "puppies" are not the key to unlocking the origin of domestic dogs, they are a vital piece of the puzzle. And somewhere, buried in the frost or hidden in ancient sediments, the first true dog still waits to be found.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/quaternary-research/article/abs/multifaceted-analysis-reveals-diet-and-kinship-of-late-pleistocene-tumat-puppies/B4DC077D8A6C18FD96F7E8E0D3428A46" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Quaternary Research</a>.



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Famous 'ice-age puppies' are not actually dogs, according to new study

Two small cubs that died more than 14,000 years ago,...

The Cambrian period, around 520 million years ago, was an age of experimentation. Life in the seas was trying out every possible body plan, searching for combinations that worked. 



One line of creatures, the euarthropods, hit on a winner: segmented bodies, paired jointed limbs, and a knack for tweaking those limbs into claws, feelers, and walking legs. That design still powers today’s insects, spiders, and crabs.



Until now, most clues to the early stages of that success came from flattened impressions squeezed by eons of mud and rock. They showed outlines but kept their secrets sealed. 



A newly described fossil larva named Youti yuanshi no bigger than a poppy seed and preserved in three dimensions, has flung those doors open.



This research was led by Dr. Martin Smith from <a href="https://www.durham.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Durham University</a>. His expertise and intuition led to this exceptional discovery, which is considerably reshaping our understanding of insect evolution.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-youti-yuanshi-and-insect-evolution">Youti yuanshi and insect evolution</h2>



The fossil in focus, Youti yuanshi, takes us on a thrilling journey back to the Cambrian period, a time when the major animal groups we know today were <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/evolution-is-both-predictable-and-random/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">first evolving</a>.



This fossil falls under the group of arthropods, which includes modern insects, spiders and crabs. 



What sets this fossil apart is its exceptional preservation of internal organs, offering a close-up view of life forms from a time unimaginable to us.



Using the cutting-edge synchrotron X-ray tomography at <a href="https://www.diamond.ac.uk/Home.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Diamond Light Source</a>, the UK's national synchrotron science facility, the research team was able to generate 3D images of this miniature marvel.



They unveiled brain regions, digestive glands, a rudimentary circulatory system and even traces of nerves supplying the larva’s simple legs and eyes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-3d-view-of-youti-yuanshi-guts">3D view of Youti yuanshi guts</h2>



This research allows us to see inside one of the earliest arthropod ancestors. It's a revelation of sort: these early arthropod-relatives had an unexpectedly advanced anatomy.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-024-07756-8/figures/1" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/08/euarthropod-larva_youti-yuanshi_fossil_guts-preserved_credit-Nature_1s.webp" alt="Anatomical overview of Youti yuanshi - organs of a Cambrian euarthropod larva. Credit: Nature" class="wp-image-1973987"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Anatomical overview of Youti yuanshi - organs of a Cambrian euarthropod larva. Click image for more details. Credit: Nature</figcaption></figure>



"When I used to daydream about the one fossil I’d most like to discover, I’d always be thinking of an arthropod larva, because developmental data are just so central to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/insect-flight-is-powered-by-an-extraordinary-structure/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">understanding their evolution</a>. But larvae are so tiny and fragile, the chances of finding one fossilized are practically zero - or so I thought!" Dr. Smith enthused.



"I already knew that this simple worm-like fossil was something special, but when I saw the amazing structures preserved under its skin, my jaw just dropped - how could these intricate features have avoided decay and still be here to see half a billion years later?”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-overview-of-insect-evolution">Overview of insect evolution</h2>



Dr. Katherine Dobson from the <a href="https://www.strath.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Strathclyde</a>, another key contributor to this study, shared her amazement at the near-perfect preservation of the ancient larva.



"It’s always interesting to see what’s inside a sample using 3D imaging, but in this incredible tiny larva, natural fossilization has achieved almost perfect preservation," she states.



This ancient larva holds the key to solving a myriad of questions on the evolution of multi-limbed creatures. 



For instance, the fossil reveals an ancestral ‘protocerebrum’ brain region that was pivotal in our journey towards complex, segment-headed creatures.



The observations from this fossil help trace the path that led modern arthropods to gain their remarkable anatomical complexity and diversity. 



Moreover, these findings fill a crucial gap in our understanding of how the arthropod body plan originated during the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/animals-exist-today-ediacaran-period-earth-weak-magnetic-field/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cambrian Explosion of life</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-does-any-of-this-matter">Why does any of this matter?</h2>



The discovery of Youti yuanshi not only sheds light on the evolution of early arthropods but also prompts broader reflections on <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/nighttime-buzz-insect-activity-increases-by-31-4-at-night/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">biodiversity</a> itself.



Understanding the anatomical features and adaptations of extinct species provides context for the diverse forms of life we observe today. 



This fossil acts as a reminder of the intricate web of evolutionary relationships that has shaped the myriad species inhabiting our planet.



As we explore these connections, we deepen our appreciation for the resilience and adaptability of life throughout the ages, underscoring the importance of preserving our current ecosystems.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-research-on-insect-evolution">Future research on insect evolution</h2>



The insights from Youti yuanshi are opening up exciting new paths for research, especially in fields like evolutionary biology, paleontology, and developmental biology.



Researchers are eager to dig deeper into Cambrian period fossils, hoping to find more specimens that shed light on the complex details of early life forms. 



Plus, the techniques used in this study, like synchrotron X-ray tomography, could be applied to other fossils, helping us discover even more about the milestones in the tree of life. 



This poppy-seed fossil proves that even the tiniest finds can overturn years of assumption. 



Future digs, armed with ever-sharper imaging tools, will no doubt uncover more diminutive ambassadors from deep time, each ready to whisper another chapter of our planet’s earliest animal saga.



The fossil is now housed at <a href="https://english.ynu.edu.cn" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Yunnan University</a> in China, its original discovery site. This eye-opening research emphasizes the crucial role of fossils in understanding our roots and the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-life-and-environment-co-evolved-over-500-million-years/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evolution of life on Earth</a>.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-024-07756-8" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature</a>.



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520-million-year-old fossil discovered with brains and guts still intact, stunning the lead scientist

The Cambrian period, around 520 million years ago, was an...

Sea anemones look like simple, radial animals. Yet their bodies hide a front-to-back plan that mirrors the layout seen in animals with heads and tails. 



A new study shows that the cells of these soft-bodied creatures read chemical hints to decide which side becomes “back” and which becomes “belly.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-link-between-sea-anemones-and-humans">Link between sea anemones and humans </h2>



Scientists at the <a href="https://www.univie.ac.at/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Vienna</a> found that sea anemones rely on a process called BMP shuttling to organize their developing bodies. 



This same biological mechanism is responsible for shaping the body axes in many familiar animals from insects to vertebrates, including humans.



The discovery pushes the origin of this cellular traffic system back more than 600 million years, suggesting it was already present in a common ancestor of nearly all modern <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/animals-share-hidden-behavior-patterns-across-continents/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">animals</a>.



This finding not only highlights the deep evolutionary connection between simple and complex organisms but also opens up new ways of thinking about how body plans are genetically encoded and inherited across generations. 



The research suggests that what we see in modern animals may be built upon a remarkably ancient and shared developmental toolkit.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-signals-that-guide-developing-cells">Signals that guide developing cells</h2>



Bone Morphogenetic Proteins (BMPs) are signals that guide developing <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-did-the-first-cells-life-form-on-earth-scientists-think-they-finally-figured-it-out/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cells</a>. A partner molecule, Chordin, can both block these signals and move them to new spots.



The moving act - shuttling - creates precise highs and lows of BMP activity. Early cells read these highs and lows like a map, turning into skin, nerve tissue, or other organs.



The researchers worked with Nematostella vectensis, a small sea anemone commonly used in laboratory studies.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-body-development-in-sea-anemones">Body development in sea anemones </h2>



To understand how Chordin functions, they first blocked its production in developing sea anemone embryos. As a result, BMP activity came to a halt, and the second body axis failed to form.



To test Chordin’s role further, the team introduced two different forms of the molecule: one that was fixed in place and could not move, and another that was free to drift through the embryo. 



Only the free-moving version was able to restore BMP signaling on the opposite side of the embryo. This result showed that Chordin does more than just block BMPs - it actively shuttles them across the developing body.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-this-matters-for-evolution">Why this matters for evolution</h2>



David Mörsdorf is the first author of the study and a postdoctoral researcher in the Department of Neurosciences and Developmental Biology at the University of Vienna.



"Not all Bilateria use Chordin-mediated BMP shuttling, for example, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/frogs-and-toads-face-new-risks-as-their-habitats-dry-up/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">frogs</a> do, but fish don't, however, shuttling seems to pop up over and over again in very distantly related animals making it a good candidate for an ancestral patterning mechanism," said Mörsdorf.



"The fact that not only bilaterians but also sea anemones use shuttling to shape their body axes, tells us that this mechanism is incredibly ancient. It opens up exciting possibilities for rethinking how body plans evolved in early animals."



Grigory Genikhovich, senior author of the study, added that experts might never be able to exclude the possibility that bilaterians and bilaterally symmetric cnidarians evolved their bilateral <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/500-million-year-old-fish-armor-may-be-the-reason-your-teeth-hurt/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">body plans</a> independently.



"However, if the last common ancestor of Cnidaria and Bilateria was a bilaterally symmetric animal, chances are that it used Chordin to shuttle BMPs to make its back-to-belly axis. Our new study showed that," said Genikhovich.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-clues-in-simpler-creatures">Future clues in simpler creatures</h2>



The work suggests that a single, ancient blueprint guided the rise of complex body shapes across many animal lineages. Future studies may search for BMP shuttling in even older or simpler groups, testing just how deep this shared strategy runs in the history of life.



Understanding BMP shuttling in sea anemones doesn’t just tell us about the past - it could also shape the future. 



Because BMP signals are important in how all kinds of animals develop their bodies, including humans, this research could help scientists better understand <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dog-nose-shapes-could-help-explain-human-birth-defects/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">birth defects</a>, tissue growth, and even how to guide stem cells into becoming the right types of tissue.



By studying these simple creatures, researchers may unlock clues about how to repair or regrow parts of the human body. And by tracing the history of how body plans evolved, scientists can more confidently predict which genes or molecules are truly essential across all animal life.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/sciadv.adu6347" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Science Advances</a>.



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Sea anemones share a biological trick with humans

Sea anemones look like simple, radial animals. Yet their bodies...

The subtropical jet stream - a fast-moving air current high above the Earth - is behind a dramatic drop in primary production in the northwestern Mediterranean.



According to a recent study, the drop in productivity is linked to a gradual northward shift in this high-altitude wind belt, which regulates weather and drives the upwelling of nutrient-rich water.



The research was conducted by experts at the <a href="https://web.ub.edu/web/ub/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Barcelona</a> and the Institute of Marine Sciences (ICM-CSIC). 



The team paired satellite data on ocean color with atmospheric observations. The analysis revealed that a subtle change in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/the-westerly-winds-are-changing-and-the-consequences-are-unknown/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">wind patterns</a> can ripple through the water column and reshape an ecosystem.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-jet-stream-on-the-move">A jet stream on the move</h2>



The surface atmospheric circulation and associated marine dynamics are the processes most affected by the northward displacement of the jet stream, noted study co-author Professor Miquel Canals. 



"Northerly winds drive the upwelling of nutrient-rich deep waters, so the alteration of their behavior has considerably weakened the intensity of this upwelling and, therefore, has reduced the supply of nutrients to the sea surface," explained Professor Canals. 



“Deep water reaching the ocean surface is essential to nourish <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/tiny-phytoplankton-that-feed-ocean-life-are-rapidly-disappearing/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">phytoplankton</a>, which is the basis of the marine food web. Consequently, the weakening of upwelling at the regional level has directly impacted marine primary production, causing a decline of up to 40% in just over two decades."



When those winds weaken, the supply of nutrients from the deep slows down - a change that hits phytoplankton hardest. The entire food web, from tiny <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/zooplankton-are-rapidly-escalating-the-threat-of-nanoplastics/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">zooplankton</a> to commercially valuable fish, feels the squeeze.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-jet-stream-changes-and-marine-life">Jet stream changes and marine life</h2>



Earlier studies hinted at falling productivity in parts of the Spanish Mediterranean. Julia Crespín, first author of the current study, noted that the previous research confirmed similar losses - but not related to the phenomenon of jet currents. She added that the broader literature is mixed. 



“Apart from that, several studies deal with the relationship between <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-accelerate-jet-stream-winds-and-airplane-turbulence/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">climate change</a> and marine primary production with contradictory results: while some point to a decrease in primary production, others indicate an increase,” said Crespin.



The new work links the dots by focusing on the jet stream’s drift - a trend also seen in other climate records.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tracking-wind-water-and-life">Tracking wind, water, and life</h2>



To tease out the link between a drifting jet stream and marine life, the researchers tracked four key variables. According to study co-author Jordi Solé, these variables included the position of the jet stream in the study area and the Ekman transport - a wind-induced movement of water mass towards the surface.



The team also tracked northerly wind stress on the sea surface, which is a determining factor for the formation of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/tropical-winds-support-the-worlds-most-productive-ocean-systems/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">upwelling</a> in the study area, and the depth-integrated chlorophyll concentration.



Chlorophyll levels in the water serve as an indicator of phytoplankton abundance, and therefore reflect marine primary production.



"With these variables, we have established relationships between changes in the atmosphere and the biological response of the surface ocean, which has helped us to better understand how the jet stream ultimately affects marine primary production," said Solé.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-cost-of-a-moving-jet-stream">The cost of a moving jet stream</h2>



Less phytoplankton means the ocean absorbs less carbon dioxide, so the atmospheric budget worsens. Fisheries may also struggle as lower rations at the base of the web work their way up the chain.



“Our study provides a new perspective by showing that, at least in the northwestern Mediterranean, the northward shift of the jet stream is weakening the mechanisms and interactions that drive upwelling, which has contributed to a significant decline in marine primary production," explained the researchers.



“We consider that the change in the wind pattern is the factor that conditions the behavior of the ecosystem, beyond dichotomies about its intensification or the effect of temperature." 



"Thus, we point to a totally new factor that focuses especially on the dynamic behavior of both the atmosphere and the ocean (and their interaction) as the key to understanding its future evolution."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-looking-beyond-the-mediterranean">Looking beyond the Mediterranean</h2>



The Mediterranean is a semi-enclosed basin with unique winds and currents, so the team cautions against a one-size-fits-all conclusion. Still, the jet stream is drifting in many regions, and similar studies may reveal comparable effects on marine life elsewhere.



The researchers emphasized that today’s tools - from satellites to high-resolution climate models - are finally catching up with the complexity of ocean-atmosphere systems.



“Never before has there been as much data as there is today, or as powerful tools to manage, analyze and interpret it as there are today." 



"In this context, it is crucial to continue research in this line of work, combining data from in situ observation, from remote sensors such as those installed on satellites, and from high-resolution climate models to better understand the physical and biological mechanisms involved, the interactions created, the interannual variability and the potential effects they generate."



The experts also noted that these interactions may not be constant year-to-year, and their global relevance is still unfolding.



“It will also be necessary to further study interannual variability and the mechanisms that explain why this connection is stronger in some years than in others, as well as to explore how such changes may affect other marine regions around the world," the researchers concluded. 



"We understand this is a line of work that promises major advances in the coming years."



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0079661125000825?via%3Dihub" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Progress In Oceanography</a>.



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How a wandering jet stream is draining marine life in the Mediterranean Sea

The subtropical jet stream - a fast-moving air current high...

A turtle’s head seems simple: a hard beak, two bright eyes, and a quilt of scales that protect the skull. Look closer and a mystery appears, because the polygons across the crown don’t line up with the neat rows along the cheeks.



A team at the <a href="https://www.unige.ch/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Geneva</a> reports that the crown and the cheeks form in totally different ways. The study combines <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/biochemistry-genetics-and-molecular-biology/dna-profiling" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">genetic profiling</a>, 3D microscopy, and computer models to show that turtles first lay down chemical cues, then let physics crease the remaining skin.



According to researchers, the split strategy provides a window into <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/world-turtle-day-2025-ancient-creatures-with-modern-challenges/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">turtle</a> ancestry and perhaps even the faces of dinosaurs.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-turtle-cheeks-follow-a-genetic-pattern">Turtle cheeks follow a genetic pattern</h2>



In most vertebrates, appendages such as feathers, hair, and ordinary body scales begin in tiny thickened patches called <a href="https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC3607644/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">placodes</a>. These patches appear when a <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-020-60853-2" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">reaction-diffusion system</a> nudges neighboring cells to switch certain genes on and off, spacing the primordia like points on graph paper.



Because each placode runs its own mini-program, the final pattern is orderly, and the resulting scales, follicles, or feathers sit in tidy ranks. That tidy plan applies to the edges of a turtle’s head, too. 



The Geneva team found clear <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sea-turtles-use-earths-magnetic-field-like-an-invisible-map/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">gene</a> activity: <a href="https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC3578394/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">β-catenin and sonic hedgehog</a> in those peripheral zones match the classic placode signature.



Once a placode finishes its job, chemistry rests, keratin hardens, and the skin in that area stops changing shape.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-turtle-crown-scales-form-by-folding">Turtle crown scales form by folding</h2>



Crocodiles break the <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/39663449/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">placode rule</a>. Their head scales arise when faster-growing surface skin buckles against slower bone, a purely mechanical fold that needs no gene switch. 



The same kind of buckling sculpts the folds of the <a href="https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.1406015111" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">mammalian brain</a>, where expanding gray matter crumples against the white-matter core.



“Patterns that rely on physics can vary from side to side in the same <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/young-sea-turtles-swim-and-choose-their-paths-instead-of-drifting/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">animal</a>,” explained Rory Cooper, a postdoctoral researcher at Geneva and lead author of the study. 



Mechanical folding follows rules of thickness, stiffness, and relative growth, so tiny shifts in any layer produce new polygons, rivulets, or wrinkles.&nbsp;That variability makes a crocodile’s faceprint unique enough for field biologists to use like a fingerprint.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-turtles-use-two-methods-for-head-scales">Turtles use two methods for head scales</h2>



Turtles, it turns out, run chemistry along the cheeks and jaws, then hand the baton to mechanics on the crown. Gene markers vanish from the top of the head just as the skull bone stiffens underneath, and the skin above starts to thicken.



“This mechanical folding explains the asymmetrical shapes of the scales on the top of the head,” said Cooper. 



Study co-author Ebrahim Jahanbakhsh noted that even the left and right sides of a single turtle rarely match, a hallmark of spontaneous folding.



Finite-element simulations that tweak skin stiffness, growth speed, and bone anchoring replay the exact ridges seen in sulcata, Greek, and marginated tortoises.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-where-scale-patterns-fail">Where scale patterns fail</h2>



Most reptiles rely on consistent scale formations for protection and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/beating-the-heat-how-sea-turtles-cope-with-warming-waters/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">species</a> identification. But when patterning becomes unpredictable, as it does on the top of a tortoise’s head, it raises questions about function versus aesthetics.



In these regions, the irregular folds likely don’t impact survival but instead represent a byproduct of how the skin and skull grow. 



These unpredictable folds might offer minor benefits like increased flexibility or abrasion resistance, but researchers say there's no evidence they serve a specialized purpose.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-comparing-species-and-scale-styles">Comparing species and scale styles</h2>



Not all tortoises use mechanical folding to the same extent. The sulcata tortoise shows deeply creased central scales, while the marginated tortoise has smoother, simpler head patterns.



These variations suggest that species-specific differences in skin stiffness, skull growth rate, or layer thickness shape the final outcome. 



This diversity means researchers can use head scale patterns not only to explore mechanics but also to better understand how evolution tweaks physical properties without rewriting genetic code.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-turtle-head-scales-linked-to-dinosaurs">Turtle head scales linked to dinosaurs</h2>



Crocodiles and turtles sit on neighboring branches of the reptile tree, with birds perched a step away. Finding the same mechanical folding in both turtles and crocodiles implies that their common ancestor, likely a <a href="https://www.nps.gov/pefo/learn/triassic-reptiles.htm" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Triassic reptile</a>, already used this trick.



“Mechanical patterning is an ancient trait that birds later lost,” noted study co-author Michel Milinkovitch. 



If so, dinosaurs may have carried random polygonal head scales that formed without placodes - a detail never preserved in fossils but now hinted at in living cousins.



That insight reshapes how paleontologists imagine soft-tissue textures on extinct archosaurs.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-broader-implications-of-the-research">Broader implications of the research</h2>



The study also feeds the growing field of <a href="https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10204470/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">biomimetics</a>. Nature often solves mechanical problems with minimal materials, and engineers copy those solutions into flexible electronics, shock-absorbing panels, and adaptive building skins.



A scale network that emerges from simple growth stresses, without a genetic template, offers a blueprint for surfaces that morph on their own when conditions change. 



Architects already explore folding façades that open like pinecones or wrinkle like leaves; turtle crowns add a new motif where randomness is a feature, not a flaw.



Regenerative-medicine researchers see a parallel in wound healing, where guiding skin to buckle or relax could help close irregular gaps. Even 3D-printing specialists may adapt the Geneva algorithms to program self-folding films for soft robots.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S2589004225009459" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">iScience</a>.



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Turtle heads reveal an ancient reptilian secret

A turtle’s head seems simple: a hard beak, two bright...

Should humans ever pull the plug on a living species? Advances in genome editing make that possibility concrete, and a recent study asks when, if ever, such power is justified.



The researchers weighed the suffering caused by pests against the intrinsic worth of <a href="https://www.worldwildlife.org/pages/what-is-biodiversity" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">biodiversity</a>, setting a high bar for intentional wipeouts. Their conclusion is that genetically erasing a species might be acceptable, but only under exceptional, tightly bounded circumstances.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-when-erasing-a-species-feels-necessary">When erasing a species feels necessary</h2>



“This question keeps conservationists up at night,” said Dr. Clare Palmer of <a href="https://www.tamu.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Texas A&amp;M University</a> after helping draft the report. She and colleagues argue that an animal’s capacity to cause widespread agony can, in rare cases, outweigh its right to persist.



Ethicists usually treat biodiversity as a moral good, yet real-world conflicts force tough trade-offs. When an insect’s life hinges on a calf’s ability to survive, abstract principles meet muddy pens and medical bills.



Most philosophies rank individual suffering above abstract species value once pain passes a certain threshold. Even ecologists concede that leaving sentient creatures to suffer avoidable harm strains any theory of non-intervention.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-three-cases-in-focus">Three cases in focus</h2>



The parasitic screwworm (<a href="https://www.aphis.usda.gov/livestock-poultry-disease/cattle/ticks/screwworm" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cochliomyia hominivorax</a>) burrows into the flesh of livestock and wildlife, killing thousands of animals every year before treatment can begin. The United States eliminated native populations in 1966 using the Sterile Insect Technique (<a href="https://www.iaea.org/topics/sterile-insect-technique" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">SIT</a>).



Mosquitoes of the species <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/neuroscience/anopheles-gambiae" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Anopheles gambiae</a> spread <a href="https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/malaria" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">malaria</a>, a disease that took an estimated 597,000 lives in 2023 alone - most of them children under five.



Those numbers eclipse fatalities from many better-publicized illnesses and keep public-health agencies searching for stronger tools.



On South Africa’s Marion Island, the humble house mouse (<a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/Taxonomy/Browser/wwwtax.cgi?mode=info&amp;id=10090" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Mus musculus</a>) has started gnawing seabird chicks alive, pushing several albatross species toward local collapse. Conventional traps fail on rugged slopes, and poison risks collateral damage to native invertebrates.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-scientists-can-erase-species">How scientists can erase species</h2>



The Sterile Insect Technique remains the standard for humane pest control. Irradiated males mate but produce no viable young, gradually crashing the target population without pesticides.



A newer option, the <a href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rspb.2019.1606" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">gene drive</a>, moves lethal or sex-skewing genes through wild populations so quickly that normal inheritance rules break down. 



Researchers working with rodents have already demonstrated systems that turn almost every embryo male, guaranteeing eventual collapse.



For mosquitoes, scientists can now couple a drive to a gene that blocks parasite replication, reducing disease transmission rather than eliminating the insect outright. Palmer’s team notes that such restraint might satisfy the same moral aims with less ecological upheaval.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-killing-pests-sometimes-gains-approval">Killing pests sometimes gains approval</h2>



“Together, we argue, these cases suggest that deliberate full extinction might occasionally be acceptable, but only extremely rarely,” the authors wrote. Where pests impose unrelenting misery on humans or endangered wildlife, even cautious ethicists lean toward eradication.&nbsp;



In farm economies, screwworm outbreaks once cost ranchers hundreds of millions of dollars each year. 



The <a href="https://www.ncba.org/news-media/news/details/43094/ncba-pushes-for-domestic-sterile-fly-facility-to-eradicate-new-world-screwworm" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">sterile-fly program</a> reduced those losses while sparing cattle surgeries and antibiotic use, making SIT a textbook case of net welfare gain.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-risks-and-safeguards">Risks and safeguards</h2>



No <a href="https://bmcmedethics.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s12910-021-00588-5" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">drive</a> can be recalled once released. If a sex-skewing construct escaped from an island to a mainland, the entire species could vanish before regulators reacted. That possibility drives calls for redundant containment layers and staged testing.



Wild genomes hold surprises such as mating behavior, migration corridors, or hidden ecological roles. 



Removing a dominant mosquito might allow a harder-to-control sibling species to fill the gap, canceling health gains while shackling communities to continuous editing cycles.



Governance frameworks must also weigh cultural values. Some communities view rats as food, while others see them as vermin. A one-size rule will not work in global treaties.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-who-should-decide-to-erase-a-species">Who should decide to erase a species?</h2>



Palmer and colleagues insist that village councils, livestock owners, conservation NGOs, and public health officials should share equal seats at the table. Only broad consent can legitimize an action that removes a lineage that is millions of years old.



The study suggests that formal benefit-harm ledgers need to be updated as new data emerge. There is also a need for sunset clauses that halt projects if early milestones falter. Robust monitoring budgets must be in place before the first transgenic egg hatches.



Funding streams pose another dilemma. Genome projects often depend on philanthropic donors from far away. Affected regions need guaranteed control over long-term stewardship, including the power to veto deployment.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-fast-pace-of-technology">The fast pace of technology </h2>



Current international regulations lag behind the pace of synthetic biology. While conventions like the <a href="https://bch.cbd.int/protocol" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cartagena Protocol</a> aim to manage genetically modified organisms, they do not directly address deliberate extinction by gene drive.



This leaves a grey area where cross-border impacts, like species drifting across national boundaries, may not fall under clear legal control. Coordinated policy development is needed to prevent gaps that bad actors or accidents could exploit.



The World Health Organization and United Nations Environment Programme have both called for more robust oversight. However, the tools available for enforcement are often limited to guidance rather than mandates, leaving implementation up to individual nations.



The researchers say it’s critical to close these gaps before large-scale extinction drives become common, especially given how rapidly the technology is evolving.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-future-of-gene-drives">The future of gene drives</h2>



<a href="https://www.genome.gov/genetics-glossary/CRISPR" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">CRISPR</a> keeps shrinking the cost and time required to build custom drives, so ethical debates must stay a step ahead of lab capacity. 



Palmer hopes that clear rules will prevent both reckless releases and sweeping bans that deny relief to suffering animals. She sees the conversation itself as a sign of progress. 



Past generations used lead arsenate or DDT with little scrutiny. Today, genetic strategies face hard questions before a single insect leaves quarantine.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.adv4045" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Science</a>.



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Extinction by design: Should we genetically erase harmful species?

Should humans ever pull the plug on a living species?...

Biodiversity is declining across Japan’s countryside, even as villages empty and young people move to the cities. Many would expect birds, insects, and native plants to return when humans leave. A new study shows that’s not happening.



The research team examined land-use change, temperature records, and nearly two decades of citizen-science observations.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-population-loss-doesn-t-equal-biodiversity-gain">Population loss doesn’t equal biodiversity gain</h2>



The researchers mapped population change across rural Japan and overlaid 1.5 million sightings of 464 animal species and 2,922 plant species collected between 2004 and 2021. 



Shrinking towns did not rebound ecologically. Instead, abandoned rice fields turned into either housing estates or weed-choked lots. Both outcomes hurt wildlife.



Study co-author Dr Peter Matanle is a senior lecturer in Japanese Ssudies at the <a href="https://www.sheffield.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Sheffield</a>.



“Japan is one of many countries whose demographic trends point to long-term population loss. We call it a 'Depopulation Vanguard Country' because it presages losses in similar neighboring countries such as South Korea and China," said Dr. Matanle.



“We find that expected biodiversity gains from fewer people may not be occurring, and that losses are continuing. This indicates possible similar effects in other world regions such as Southern Europe, with Italy as its DVC, and Eastern Europe, with Bulgaria and Latvia as its DVCs. 



Dr. Matanle noted that his team would like to study other regions in the future such as Europe and Latin America to find out if similar effects are being felt there.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-citizen-scientists-fill-the-data-gap">Citizen scientists fill the data gap</h2>



Volunteers across Japan recorded birds, butterflies, fireflies, frog spawn, and local flora. Their notebooks and apps supplied one of the richest ecological datasets on Earth. 



The study shows how community monitoring can spot silent declines that official surveys might miss.



The study suggests that modest, steady farming often supports more life than sudden abandonment. When fields are left untended, invasive weeds can outcompete native plants. Without people to manage canals and paddies, wetlands dry out and the species they harbor disappear.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-traditional-practices-support-biodiversity">Traditional practices support biodiversity </h2>



“Japan’s biodiversity has long been sustained by traditional rural livelihood practices such as wet rice agriculture, forest and soil management, and the maintenance of rural landscapes. These human activities have shaped and supported ecological richness for centuries," said Kei Uchida, an associate professor at Tokyo City University.



“Even as populations decline, human interventions continue in some areas, while others are left to ecological succession. This uneven pattern of change produces a mosaic landscape which is accelerating the degradation of rural environments and undermining the biodiversity they support."



According to Professor Uchida, the research has implications for maintaining biodiversity in other depopulating countries in East Asia, and contributes to knowledge about the outcomes of human depopulation worldwide.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-population-loss-is-a-global-issue">Population loss is a global issue</h2>



The United Nations expects 85 countries to decline in population by 2050, including much of Eastern and Southern Europe. The researchers urge governments to blend rewilding with rural job programs so that landscapes do not slide into neglect.



Shorter workweeks for farmers, subsidies for low-impact cultivation, and support for local wildlife groups are among the proposed ideas.



The lesson is clear: people leaving an area can harm nature as easily as they can help it. Careful planning is needed to tip the balance toward recovery.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-population-and-biodiversity-loss">Population and biodiversity loss</h2>



Biodiversity loss is not just a local issue - it’s a global concern that affects ecosystems, economies, and everyday life. The decline of species, whether plants, insects, or animals, disrupts food chains, weakens soil health, and reduces the resilience of natural systems. 



When biodiversity shrinks, the services ecosystems provide - like pollination, water purification, and climate regulation - begin to break down.



In Japan, the study highlights how biodiversity continues to decline even as people leave rural areas. But similar trends are being seen worldwide, in both developed and developing regions. 



Land-use change, habitat fragmentation, invasive species, pollution, and climate change all contribute to the problem. Even regions experiencing depopulation are not immune - sometimes, they’re more vulnerable if the land is mismanaged or neglected.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-new-strategies-to-protect-wildlife">New strategies to protect wildlife</h2>



This research adds to the growing body of evidence that simply removing human pressure isn’t always enough. 



Without intentional support, many landscapes fail to recover. Rewilding, conservation, and traditional ecological practices all have a role to play in reversing the loss. 



As countries face changing demographics and population loss, preserving biodiversity will require new strategies that account for both ecological and social realities.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41893-025-01578-w" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Sustainability</a>.



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Population loss in Japan's countryside linked to declining biodiversity

Biodiversity is declining across Japan’s countryside, even as villages empty...

Dogs aren’t just companions who brighten our daily routines. They may also be key players in monitoring how Valley fever moves through certain regions in the United States.



This disease, also called coccidioidomycosis, involves inhaling fungal spores found in dry soil conditions. 



<a href="http://vetmed.ucdavis.edu/faculty/jane-sykes" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Jane Sykes</a>, lead author of a recent <a href="https://www.vetmed.ucdavis.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">UC Davis</a> study, worked with her team to see how information from dog infections could apply to humans.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-understanding-valley-fever">Understanding Valley fever</h2>



When disturbed by wind, construction, or agricultural activity, the spores of <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/immunology-and-microbiology/coccidioides-immitis" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Coccidioides immitis</a> and <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/agricultural-and-biological-sciences/coccidioides-posadasii" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Coccidioides posadasii</a> can ride on dust particles and travel into the lungs.



Some pets like to dig into dirt, creating an ideal chance to breathe in fungal particles. These Valley fever spores thrive in the Western parts of the country, often in places with specific soil moisture levels.



Though many people who are exposed may not experience symptoms, those who do often report flu-like illness, including fatigue, cough, fever, chest pain, and muscle aches.



In some cases, especially in individuals with weakened immune systems, Valley fever can become severe, spreading from the lungs to other parts of the body such as the skin, bones, joints, or even the brain, where it may cause <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/harmful-microbes-persist-on-hospital-surfaces-after-disinfection/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">meningitis</a>. 



Diagnosis is typically confirmed through blood tests or imaging, and while mild cases often resolve without treatment, antifungal medications like fluconazole are prescribed for moderate to severe infections.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-unusual-canine-clues">Unusual canine clues</h2>



The researchers discovered patterns by checking large collections of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/lost-in-translation-how-we-misread-our-dogs-emotions/">dog</a> blood tests. 



They found that most positive results are linked to certain states with known contamination zones, but they also noticed smaller clusters appearing in locations not typically flagged for this infection.



“Dogs are sentinels for human infections,” said Jane Sykes. 



Her team collected blood test data in different areas to <a href="https://www.cdc.gov/valley-fever/about/index.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">identify rising trends</a> and potential health concerns for people.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-puts-dogs-at-risk">What puts dogs at risk</h2>



Some vets <a href="https://vfce.arizona.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">note</a> that certain breeds may be more prone to lung ailments, but any fungus exposure can be an issue. 



This might involve dusty backyards, fields, or construction sites, where spores in the soil can become airborne.



In regions with droughts or strong winds, soil dryness allows fungal particles to swirl into the air. Intense rainfall can also boost <a href="https://today.ucsd.edu/story/dangerous-airborne-fungus-boosted-by-california-droughts" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">fungal growth</a>, which further contributes to sporadic spikes in infection.



Researchers see these canine cases as indicators for possible spread in the broader population. Common symptoms in people include fatigue, cough, and sometimes sore joints.



Health agencies note that valley fever can become serious for those with weakened immune systems. Because dogs are tested more readily in certain regions, their results may warn us before human cases spike.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mapping-valley-fever-in-new-zones">Mapping valley fever in new zones</h2>



Scientists have spotted positive <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/uncovering-the-truth-the-reality-behind-canine-dna-testing/">canine</a> cases outside historically recognized areas. Jane Sykes explained that pockets of infection can appear in nearby states that might be overlooked.



“We should be closely watching those states because there could be under-recognition,” she said. This under-recognition means some doctors in these regions may not be aware of the disease and could miss early signs in humans.



Decades of shifting <a href="https://www.noaa.gov/education/resource-collections/climate/climate-change-impacts" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">climate patterns</a> have altered soil conditions. Over 130 places in the United States have recorded heavier bursts of rain in recent years, raising concerns about potential fungal growth when storms finally soak the land.



As new weather extremes develop, the fungus might have more opportunities to spread. Researchers keep emphasizing how environmental changes can shift the boundaries of diseases, leading to surprises in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/covid-virus-can-remain-in-sperm-months-after-infection/">infection</a> data.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-protecting-yourself-and-your-pet">Protecting yourself and your pet</h2>



Many dog owners wonder if this infection is preventable. Avoiding areas with visible dust clouds is one measure, though it can be tough when your pet loves running outdoors.



Some <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30690600/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">vets</a> provide guidance on ways to limit exposure if your area is known for this fungus. 



Though these spores are hard to avoid entirely, regular checkups and early tests may help pets and owners stay aware of new health risks.



Veterinarians who live in spots with many valley fever cases watch for respiratory problems in dogs. A sudden cough or limp can signal hidden issues, prompting tests that reveal infection.



If caught early, there are antifungal treatments that can relieve symptoms. The goal is to manage lung damage and reduce further spread.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dogs-valley-fever-and-the-future">Dogs, valley fever, and the future</h2>



Researchers who track these <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/covid-infection-equips-the-body-to-fight-off-the-flu/">infections</a> see a bigger picture beyond local hotspots. They hope more states will gather accurate data so public health teams can warn residents who may be at risk.



Better knowledge about where the spores hide allows for timely alerts. Clear communication between veterinarians and medical professionals could help limit the toll on both animals and people.



Trends linked to heavy rain, population growth, and soil changes highlight the complexity of valley fever. Officials suggest that improved teaching for doctors could keep illness from going unnoticed.



Dogs may help identify emerging dangers because their health data can fill the gaps where human data are patchy. Scientists remain hopeful that continued studies will keep the public informed about this evolving fungal risk.



The study is published in the <a href="https://academic.oup.com/jid/article/231/5/e986/8108831?login=false" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal of Infectious Diseases</a>.



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Scientists discover that dogs can alert humans to this quickly-spreading disease

Dogs aren’t just companions who brighten our daily routines. They...

Among tens of thousands of ant species, many show complex behaviors like agriculture and tool use. Longhorn crazy ants add a new twist to that story. Their brains are minuscule, but they manage coordinated, goal-oriented actions. 



A recent study shows that these ants can clear obstacles from a path before a food load even arrives. This action seems to require planning, yet it emerges without any <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/when-you-give-caffeine-to-ants-many-interesting-things-happen/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ant</a> holding a clear mental map.



Dr. Ehud Fonio, a scientist at the <a href="https://www.weizmann.ac.il/pages/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Weizmann Institute of Science</a>, is the lead author of the study.



“Here we show for the first time that workers of the longhorn crazy ant can clear obstacles from a path before they become a problem - anticipating where a large food item will need to go and preparing the way in advance," said Dr. Fonio.



"This is the first documented case of ants showing such forward-looking behavior during cooperative transport."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ants-plan-ahead-for-obstacles">Ants plan ahead for obstacles </h2>



The team made their discovery during fieldwork at the Weizmann Institute. Ants were seen removing pebbles before a food-carrying group arrived. This suggested some form of anticipation.



“When we first saw <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-many-ants-live-on-earth-at-any-point-in-time-total-number-is-astounding/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ants</a> clearing small obstacles ahead of the moving load we were in awe. It appeared as if these tiny creatures understand the difficulties that lie ahead and try to help their friends in advance,” said Dr. Ofer Feinerman, co-author of the study.



This chance observation led to a large-scale experiment involving 83 trials. The team replaced pebbles with plastic beads and placed cat food as bait. 



Ants cleared beads that blocked the path between food and nest, but only when the food was intact.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-crazy-ants-clear-the-way-for-big-food">Crazy ants clear the way for big food</h2>



The ants cleared beads mainly when a single large pellet was present. With crumbs, they rarely cleared anything. This shows context sensitivity. Bead clearing happened only when it helped the group.



Ants transported the beads short distances, around 50 millimeters. They placed them away from the nest-food corridor. This effort reduced the food transport time by up to 15 times.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/06/longhorn-crazy-ants_carrying-bead_credit-Alessandro-Crespi_1big.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/06/longhorn-crazy-ants_carrying-bead_credit-Alessandro-Crespi_1s.webp" alt="Worker of longhorn crazy ant clearing a bead. Credit: Alessandro Crespi" class="wp-image-1973861"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Worker of longhorn crazy ant clearing a bead. Click image to enlarge. Credit: Alessandro Crespi</figcaption></figure>



When large pellets were pinned down and could not be moved, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/invasive-ants-have-found-a-new-way-to-spread-across-the-globe-on-cars/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ants</a> still cleared obstacles. But they ignored beads completely when no food or only crumbs were present.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ants-respond-to-scent-not-sight">Ants respond to scent, not sight</h2>



The study’s most surprising finding was that ants began clearing without even seeing or touching the food. The trigger? Fresh pheromone markings left by recruiters.



Even without food, these chemical signals caused some ants to start clearing beads. Of 155 observed ant-bead interactions, 97.2 percent were preceded by a nearby scent mark.



Direct contact with food was not necessary. Just encountering a pheromone trail within a 20 mm radius of a bead triggered clearing. This suggests that the behavior is socially driven, not based on internal plans.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-collective-intelligence-of-ant-colonies">Collective intelligence of ant colonies</h2>



The experts discovered that crazy ants use a decentralized form of cognition. Instead of individual planning, their colony acts like a brain. 



Each ant is a unit responding to chemical cues. Together, they clear obstacles as if they understand the goal.



“Taken together, these results imply that our initial impression was wrong: in reality, individual workers don’t understand the situation at all. This intelligent behavior happens at the level of the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/paleontologists-found-the-oldest-ant-species-on-earth-113-million-years-old-with-scythe-like-jaws/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">colony</a>, not the individual," explained study co-author Dr. Danielle Mersch.



"Each ant follows simple cues - like fresh scent marks left by others - without needing to understand the bigger picture, yet together they create a smart, goal-directed outcome."



“We find this to be even more awe-inspiring than our initial guess,” said Feinerman.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-simple-rules-for-complex-behavior">Simple rules for complex behavior </h2>



Interestingly, some ants cleared multiple beads in sequence. One ant removed 64 beads. These "serial clearers" often focused on the same sector around the food, repeatedly working in the same direction.



Some switched sectors but returned to old ones. This pattern hints at possible short-term memory or chemical trail-following. Researchers suggest these ants could be following pheromone gradients repeatedly.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/06/longhorn-crazy-ants_intelligence_swarm_credit-E-Fonio_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/06/longhorn-crazy-ants_intelligence_swarm_credit-E-Fonio_1s.webp" alt="Examples of experimental set-up and close-up of collective transport of prey and of obstacle-clearing behavior. Credit: E Fonio, D Mersch, O Feinerman" class="wp-image-1973864"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Examples of experimental set-up and close-up of collective transport of prey and of obstacle-clearing behavior. Click image to enlarge. Credit: E Fonio, D Mersch, O Feinerman</figcaption></figure>



The research shows how complex behavior emerges from simple rules. It also highlights the power of external memory. Pheromone trails serve as shared information banks etched into the environment.



In this system, memory and action are collective. No single ant plans ahead. Yet their joint behavior gives the illusion of foresight. This mirrors how neurons form intelligent thought in the human brain.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-significance-of-ant-intelligence">Significance of ant intelligence </h2>



This work changes how we think about planning in nature. It shows that meaningful coordination does not require conscious intent. 



In ants, intelligent-seeming food-related outcomes arise from distributed actions and shared cues. These findings deepen our understanding of swarm behavior. 



The study also suggests new directions for robotics, where machines could collaborate without central control by using simple signals.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/behavioral-neuroscience/articles/10.3389/fnbeh.2025.1533372/full" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Frontiers in Behavioral Neuroscience</a>.



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Swarm intelligence: Ants can anticipate obstacles and plan ahead

Among tens of thousands of ant species, many show complex...

When scientists on a <a href="https://www.hi.no/en/hi/news/2021/october/after-being-trapped-in-norway-by-the-pandemic,-dr.-fridtjof-nansen-is-once-again-heading-out-into-the-world">research vessel</a> off the northwestern coast of Africa hauled in their catch, they were surprised to find an unusual eel that did not match any known species. The 2-foot (0.6 meter) curiosity had fang-like teeth and a pointed head that set it apart.



It has now been identified it as a spoon-nose eel from the genus Mystriophis, and it has been named Mystriophis caboverdensis. It remains the only documented example of its kind.



According to <a href="https://www-iuem.univ-brest.fr/paddle/project/team/da-luz-alciany" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Dr. Alciany Nascimento da Luz</a>, who was part of an international team collaborating with marine research institutes in Cabo Verde, this eel marks a special moment for local biodiversity efforts. 



The discovery also highlights how careful observation can reveal new life forms in waters that scientists survey for resource management.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cataloging-eel-species">Cataloging eel species</h2>



The expedition team aboard the research vessel called <a href="https://www.fao.org/newsroom/detail/Norway-and-FAO-launch-unique-state-of-the-art-oceanic-research-ship/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Dr. Fridtjof Nansen</a> focused on studying fishing resources and ocean life around the <a href="https://nha.org/research/nantucket-history/history-topics/cape-verde-archipelago/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cabo Verde Archipelago</a>. 



Researchers took samples at varying depths to map habitats and document marine <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/serpent-like-eel-named-after-hades-god-of-the-underworld/">diversity</a>.



Their work included cataloging eels and other underexplored species in the Eastern Central Atlantic. During these trawls, the spoon-nose eel surfaced and initially passed as an already known specimen.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-unique-features-of-new-eel-species">Unique features of new eel species</h2>



Closer analysis showed a short, blunt snout, large eyes, and a body length of about 28 inches (0.7 meters). The dorsal fin sits in a slightly advanced position compared to its closest relatives.



“It co-occurs in the tropical eastern Atlantic with two similar looking species,” wrote Dr. Nascimento da Luz. Another trait setting it apart is the arrangement of teeth, which appear fang-like near its pointed head.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-peek-into-eel-diversity">A peek into eel diversity</h2>



These tooth structures place the eel in the family <a href="https://biogeodb.stri.si.edu/sftep/en/thefishes/taxon/356" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Ophichthidae</a>, which is known for species sometimes referred to as worm or snake eels. The family has an array of body shapes, snout types, and feeding strategies.



Scientists found that differences in fin placement and specific head ratios made it clear that this fish deserved its own name. “We have no doubt as to its uniqueness,” stated Dr. Nascimento da Luz, the lead researcher on this project.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-clues-from-a-single-specimen">Clues from a single specimen</h2>



Though only one individual has been found, the data collected was surprisingly rich. 



Scientists used detailed morphometrics, measuring things like fin position, head-to-body ratio, and tooth shape, to distinguish it from known relatives.



DNA analysis added another layer of certainty. Researchers found a 3.6% genetic difference from its closest cousin, Mystriophis crosnieri, enough to classify it as a separate species.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-spoon-nose-eel-species-matter">Why spoon-nose eel species matter</h2>



Spoon-nose <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sushi-of-the-future-the-first-ever-lab-grown-eel-is-a-success/">eels</a> help researchers understand how fish evolve in deep-sea environments where visibility is low and prey is scarce. Their body shape, hunting tools, and fin placement all offer clues to how species adapt over time.



Because they tend to live in deeper waters, they are rarely seen. Each new find adds to the scientific puzzle of how life functions in low-light, high-pressure ecosystems that are still largely unexplored.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-local-impact-in-cabo-verde">Local impact in Cabo Verde </h2>



Discoveries like this bring global attention to regions like Cabo Verde, encouraging investment in local marine research and training. 



They can also strengthen partnerships between local scientists and international teams working on conservation.



Increased biodiversity awareness can lead to better protection of vulnerable ecosystems. 



As more species are found in these waters, there’s growing incentive to preserve Carbo Verde habitats before they’re impacted by overfishing or climate shifts.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-global-quest-for-new-species">Global quest for new species</h2>



Experts estimate that thousands of organisms are described every year, yet many more wait to be documented. 



This <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/eel-trade-is-pushing-another-species-to-the-brink/">eel</a> underscores how ocean surveys can uncover unexpected finds that broaden our knowledge of marine life.



Researchers named the new species after Cabo Verde to honor the location where it was discovered. Such tributes often highlight the importance of local ecosystems and their protection.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-looking-ahead">Looking ahead</h2>



The exact habits, diet, and reproduction of the new eel species remain mysteries. The single specimen was enough for analysis of morphology, DNA sequencing, and comparisons with related species.



This discovery prompts a deeper look at the region’s underwater habitats. Further expeditions may reveal whether more spoon-nose <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/electric-eels-have-a-secret-weapon-to-generate-electricity/">eels</a> inhabit neighboring waters or if this new find is actually incredibly rare.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-challenges-of-deep-sea-discovery">Challenges of deep-sea discovery</h2>



Finding new species like Mystriophis caboverdensis isn’t easy. Deep-sea trawling requires expensive equipment, <a href="https://www.hi.no/en/hi/news/2021/october/after-being-trapped-in-norway-by-the-pandemic,-dr.-fridtjof-nansen-is-once-again-heading-out-into-the-world" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">long expeditions</a>, and cooperation between countries and institutions.



Even when a sample is collected, identification can take years. Subtle features must be compared across museum records, and genetic testing depends on funding and lab availability.



The fact that Mystriophis caboverdensis remained unnoticed until now raises questions about how many other species slip through the cracks. Even with decades of ocean exploration, large parts of the sea remain poorly studied.



Scientists say continued investment in <a href="https://www.msc.org/en-au/what-we-are-doing/oceans-at-risk/marine-biodiversity" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">marine biodiversity</a> research could uncover even more undocumented species. Each new find helps paint a clearer picture of how ecosystems work and how they’re changing.



The study is published in <a href="https://mapress.com/zt/article/view/zootaxa.5632.2.4" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Zootaxa</a>.



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Scientists discover a new eel species with fang-like teeth

When scientists on a research vessel off the northwestern coast...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE
</div></figure>



On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop and sunlight barely penetrates through the polar winter. It was here, however, that an international team of scientists found <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/predatory-worms-were-terror-beasts-half-a-billion-years-ago/#google_vignette" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evidence of sea monsters</a> that would change our understanding of ocean life in the past.



This video captures the discovery of Timorebestia fossils that had been hidden for more than 500 million years in the Sirius Passet formation. The "terror beasts," as they are called, are a hidden chapter in the evolutionary history of <a href="https://www.earth.com" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Earth</a>, showing that sophisticated predator-prey interactions occurred much earlier than previously envisioned.



Dr. Jakob Vinther and his research team at the <a href="https://www.bristol.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Bristol</a>, in collaboration with researchers at the <a href="https://eng.kopri.re.kr/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Korean Polar Research Institute</a>, braved extreme weather conditions at 82.5 north latitude to locate these giant creatures. Using sophisticated electron microprobe analysis, they revealed the detailed anatomy of the animals, including their muscle and nerve tissues.



The find upsets the traditional timeline of sea predators. Although we've long appreciated that Cambrian oceans were at one time ruled by <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jWI3-UgA3_o&amp;list=PL1QLQMW9MWDwpkFOnvgAmu7wT6rZmYqdJ&amp;index=19" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">arthropods</a>, these discoveries indicate that relatives of arrow worms were first to dominate the seas. These worms were building sophisticated food webs several million years before other predator groups arose.



Each fossil is a story of ancient hunger, with fossil stomach contents revealing these meter-long beasts dined on heavily armored arthropods regularly, cementing their place as the ocean's first apex predators.



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Worms dominated seas before dinosaurs

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">New York is the site of the world's oldest forest.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-385-million-year-old-trees-discovered">385-million-year-old trees discovered</h2>



Scientists have uncovered something extraordinary just two hours north of New York City. The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/worlds-oldest-forest-discovered-close-to-new-york-city/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">world's oldest forest</a>, dating back 385 million years, offers a window into how Earth's first complex forests shaped our planet's atmosphere.



Located near <a href="https://townofcairo.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cairo, New York</a>, in Greene County, these weren't merely primitive plants struggling to survive. These were sophisticated trees with root systems remarkably similar to modern forests. This ancient woodland predates dinosaurs by 140 million years.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-cairo-forest-discovery">The Cairo forest discovery</h2>



385 million years ago, upstate New York was a tropical paradise near the equator. Thanks to continental drift, this ancient forest has traveled thousands of miles to its current location.



The fossil forest sits in an abandoned quarry, roughly half the size of a football field. This represents just a slice of what was likely a massive forest system stretching from New York into Pennsylvania.



Charles Ver Straeten, curator of sedimentary rocks at the <a href="https://www.nysm.nysed.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">New York State Museum</a>, made the discovery in 2009. While scouting the former highway department property, his trained eye spotted wandering patterns in the stone that looked like marine features.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-revolutionary-age-and-preservation">Revolutionary age and preservation</h2>



The site contains 385-million-year-old rocks with fossilized woody roots forming horizontal patterns up to 18 feet (5.5 meters) wide. As Christopher Berry, a paleobotanist at Cardiff University, explains: "You are walking through the roots of ancient trees."



This discovery pushes back advanced tree evolution by millions of years. The research, published in <a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/home" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Current Biology</a> in December 2019, fundamentally changes our understanding of when complex forests first emerged.



Researchers believe a massive flood buried the forest floor, creating perfect fossilization conditions. Over millions of years, sediment hardened into rock, preserving these root patterns like nature's time capsule.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-meet-archaeopteris-the-first-modern-tree">Meet Archaeopteris: the first modern tree</h2>



The star of this ancient forest is Archaeopteris – not to be confused with the feathered dinosaur Archaeopteryx. This tree was far older and more revolutionary.



William Stein from <a href="https://www.binghamton.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Binghamton University</a> describes the roots as "strikingly modern, essentially what you'd see outside in my yard right now." These weren't simple root systems you'd expect from ancient plants.



Some fossilized roots are six inches (15 centimeters) in diameter, forming 36-foot-wide (11-meter) patterns. These giants grew up to 65 feet (20 meters) tall with five-foot-diameter (1.5-meter) trunks.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-changing-impact">Climate-changing impact</h2>



These trees fundamentally changed Earth's environment. Kevin Boyce, a Stanford University geoscientist, explains how their deep roots triggered "weathering," chemical reactions that pulled carbon dioxide from the atmosphere.



This process dropped atmospheric CO2 levels from 10-15 times higher than today to roughly modern concentrations. These ancient trees helped create atmospheric conditions that made complex life possible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ancient-forest-ecosystem">Ancient forest ecosystem</h2>



The forest was remarkably diverse. Scientists identified Eospermatopteris, palm tree-like plants with short roots that reached 30 feet (9 meters) tall but lacked woody structure. The forest also housed cladoxylopsids and a mysterious third species still being studied.



All reproduced through spores rather than seeds – millions of years before seeds evolved. This tropical environment had no grass, flowers, or flying insects, just towering trees creating Earth's first complex forest canopy.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-scientific-significance">Scientific significance</h2>



Before this finding, the Gilboa forest, located 25 miles (40 kilometers) away, held the "oldest forest" title. Cairo's trees are 2-3 million years older, showing that complex forest ecosystems developed much faster than scientists believed possible.



Patricia Gensel, a <a href="https://www.unc.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of North Carolina</a> paleobotanist, notes: "The size of those root systems is really changing the picture. Even 20 years ago, researchers assumed trees with such complex root systems didn't evolve so early."



The Cairo site presents three unique root systems, suggesting Devonian period forests were diverse ecosystems with different trees occupying different environmental niches, much like today's forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-modern-preservation-efforts">Modern preservation efforts</h2>



In 2022, New York State Senator Michelle Hinchey secured a $170,000 grant for the town of Cairo to construct specialized fencing around the fossil forest site. The town plans to conduct a feasibility study exploring the possibility of creating an educational center and working lab on-site.



Joe Hasenkopf, chair of the Cairo Planning Board, hopes to partner with educational institutions to create a research facility serving scientists, students, and the public.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lessons-for-today-s-climate">Lessons for today's climate</h2>



Why does a 385-million-year-old forest matter today? It shows how dramatically forests can change Earth's climate. These ancient woodlands created the atmospheric conditions supporting complex life.



Understanding how prehistoric forests transformed the planet helps us appreciate modern forests' critical role in addressing climate change. Forests remain Earth's most effective carbon capture systems.



These prehistoric trees changed Earth's atmosphere by pulling massive amounts of carbon dioxide from the air. As we face modern climate challenges, this ancient forest reminds us of trees' incredible power to transform our planet's environment.



The next time you walk through a forest, remember you're experiencing an ecosystem whose blueprint was established 385 million years ago in upstate New York. These ancient pioneers didn't just survive – they thrived and changed the world forever.



The full study was published in the journal Current Biology.



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Earth's oldest forest found in the United States

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ New York is the site of the world's oldest...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Acid rain and a crisis solved.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-don-t-we-ever-hear-about-acid-rain-anymore-the-environmental-crisis-that-was-solved">Why don't we ever hear about "acid rain" anymore? The environmental crisis that was solved</h2>



Remember the 1980s when acid rain dominated headlines? Dire warnings about rain eating buildings, killing fish, and destroying forests filled every news cycle. Then, almost like magic, acid rain vanished from public discourse. What happened? Did we actually solve one of the late 20th century's most pressing environmental challenges?



The answer might surprise you. Unlike many environmental issues that drag on indefinitely, acid rain represents one of modern history's most successful ecological recovery stories. It's a tale of science, politics, and technology working together to tackle what seemed impossible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What was acid rain?</h2>



Acid rain isn't regular rain having a bad day – it's precipitation that became significantly more acidic due to air pollution. When power plants, factories, and vehicles burn fossil fuels, they release sulfur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides (NOx) into the atmosphere.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The science behind it</h2>



Think of acid rain as nature's chemistry experiment gone wrong. These compounds react with water, oxygen, and other chemicals to form sulfuric and nitric acids. When mixed with water vapor in clouds, they create precipitation with dangerously low pH levels.



While clean rain has a pH of about 5.6, acid rain could drop as low as 4.2 to 4.4 – roughly as acidic as tomato juice or coffee. According to US Geological Survey documentation, Scottish chemist Angus Smith first coined "acid rain" in 1872, but it didn't become a household phrase until the 1960s and 1970s when Swedish scientist Svante Odén documented its devastating effects on Scandinavian lakes and European forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The crisis at its peak</h2>



During the height of public concern, environmental damage was both widespread and visible. This wasn't some abstract future threat – people could see destruction happening in real-time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Environmental devastation</h2>



The most dramatic impacts were impossible to ignore. Research documented by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation and the New York State Department of Environmental Conservation shows that in the Adirondack Mountains, more than 200 lakes became so acidic they couldn't support fish life. The Adirondack Council reports that 409 lakes once supported brook trout, but many lost their fish populations due to acid rain.



By 1976, when scientists cataloged all acidified lakes in the Adirondack Park, researchers found that half of the lakes over 2,000 feet above sea level had no fish, according to studies published in environmental journals. The acidification process worked like a slow-motion disaster. As acid rain fell into watersheds, it gradually lowered pH levels. Fish couldn't survive in acidic water, and their food sources died off too.



Trees at high elevations showed stress directly linked to acid rain. It weakened them by leaching nutrients and making them susceptible to disease. Historical records show Germany's Black Forest saw nearly half its trees damaged by the mid-1980s.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Economic impact</h2>



Acid rain wasn't just environmental – it was expensive. Acidic precipitation corroded infrastructure, buildings, and monuments. Historic stone structures deteriorated at accelerated rates. Tourism suffered as lakes became fishless and forests declined. EPA economic analyses from the period documented repair costs mounting into billions annually.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The solution: government action and technology</h2>



Transformation from crisis to success required unprecedented cooperation between governments, industries, and environmental groups.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The Clean Air Act of 1990</h2>



The turning point came with the Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990, signed by President George H.W. Bush. This represented a fundamentally new approach to environmental regulation, as documented in EPA historical records.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Cap-and-trade success</h2>



Instead of mandating specific technologies, the 1990 amendments introduced something revolutionary: a cap-and-trade system for sulfur dioxide emissions. EPA program documentation shows this market-based approach set overall limits but allowed companies to trade emission allowances.



The genius was harnessing market forces to find cost-effective pollution reduction. Companies reducing emissions cheaply could sell excess allowances to those facing higher costs. Research published in environmental economics journals and EPA progress reports shows this resulted in dramatic SO2 reduction at a fraction of projected costs.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Technology advances</h2>



Policy provided the framework, but technology made reductions possible. Studies in atmospheric science journals document the widespread adoption of flue gas desulfurization systems ("scrubbers") that removed sulfur dioxide before it reached the atmosphere. By the 2000s, new installations could remove over 95% of SO2 emissions, according to EPA technical reports.



The push coincided with cleaner energy development. Natural gas produces fewer sulfur compounds than coal. Wind and solar, emerging in the 1990s, captured growing market share, reducing reliance on high-sulfur coal.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-we-don-t-hear-about-it-today">Why we don't hear about it today</h2>



Why did acid rain disappear from headlines? Simple: the problem was largely solved.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Success doesn't make news</h2>



There's an old journalism saying: "If it bleeds, it leads." Environmental success stories don't generate urgency like crisis reporting. Media attention shifted to other challenges: climate change, plastic pollution, and biodiversity loss. There's only so much environmental anxiety the public can absorb, and newer concerns replaced acid rain.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Mission accomplished</h2>



The primary reason is beautifully simple: interventions worked. EPA monitoring data shows sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990. Academic research published in environmental science journals confirms pH levels in formerly affected areas returned closer to normal. This represents one of history's most dramatic environmental recoveries. Studies by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation show fishless lakes now support healthy populations. Forests recovered, and building damage slowed dramatically.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-is-it-really-gone">Is it really gone?</h2>



The crisis is largely resolved, but monitoring data shows the problem isn't completely eliminated – it's managed to acceptable levels. Some areas still experience occasional events during high pollution periods. International environmental research indicates that rapidly industrializing Asian countries face similar problems to what we experienced decades ago, though they're implementing successful strategies.



EPA research shows nitrogen oxide emissions proved more challenging than sulfur dioxide, coming from vehicles and mobile sources. Climate science studies suggest changing weather patterns add complexity to how acid rain forms and falls.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What this teaches us</h2>



The acid rain experience proves that seemingly intractable environmental problems can be solved with scientific understanding, political will, and technological innovation. Environmental monitoring data shows recovery speed was remarkable – within a decade, measurable improvements appeared in air quality and ecosystem health.



Success came from bipartisan support across party lines. Policy analysis studies show the market-based approach appealed to those preferring economic incentives while achieving environmental goals. This support created lasting policy surviving political changes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Conclusion</h2>



Acid rain's disappearance from public consciousness represents environmental science's greatest success stories. Through effective regulation, technological innovation, and international cooperation, we transformed an overwhelming crisis into a manageable challenge.



Today's silence isn't because we forgot – it's because we solved it. The 1990 Clean Air Act, combined with technology and energy market changes, reduced acid rain emissions over 90%, according to comprehensive EPA data analysis.



This success offers hope for current challenges. It proves complex problems can be solved when science, policy, and technology work together. As we face climate change and plastic pollution, acid rain reminds us that dramatic positive change is possible.



Next time someone asks whether environmental regulations work, remember acid rain. It's proof that sometimes, we get it right.



<hr class="wp-block-separator has-alpha-channel-opacity"/>



Sources: This article draws from EPA official documentation and progress reports, peer-reviewed research published in environmental and atmospheric science journals, historical data from the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation, New York State Department of Environmental Conservation records, US Geological Survey publications, policy analysis studies, and environmental monitoring data collected over three decades.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Frequently Asked Questions</h2>



1. Is acid rain completely gone? No, but EPA monitoring shows it's reduced to manageable levels. US sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990, making acid rain much less severe than the 1980s crisis.



2. How long did solving take? Environmental monitoring data shows significant improvements began within 5-10 years of 1990s emission controls. Full ecosystem recovery took longer – some areas need 20-30 years for complete recovery.



3. What made the solution successful? Clear scientific understanding, visible damage motivating action, bipartisan support, available technology, and innovative market-based policies like cap-and-trade.



4. Do other countries have acid rain problems? Yes, particularly rapidly industrializing Asian countries. However, international environmental research shows many implement similar successful control strategies.



5. Could acid rain return? Potentially, if regulations weaken or we return to high-sulfur coal without controls, though effects would take years to become severe according to environmental projections.



6. Can you recommend any teaching tools on the subject of "acid rain"? The United States Environmental Protection Agency produced a wonderful teacher's guide for ages 14 and under that you can find on the EPA website here: <a href="https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf</a>



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The environmental problem we actually solved

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk Acid rain and a crisis solved. Why don't we...

Fresh,Radish,Harvest,On,Soil,In,Garden.

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Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving fall garden, and this guide lays out the best vegetables and herbs to plant now for a fruitful autumn harvest. 



Fast-growing leafy greens such as spinach, lettuce, kale, and arugula perform especially well in the waning summer heat, with harvests beginning as soon as 30 days. 



These cool-season crops relish the transition into fall, offering repeated yields with cut-and-come-again methods.



Root vegetables like radishes, carrots, and beets also excel during this period. Radishes deliver satisfaction in under a month, while carrots and beets mature in about two months. Employing succession planting ensures a continuous stream of produce deep into the cooler months. 



For a boost of fresh flavor, herbs like cilantro, basil, dill, and chervil are excellent picks. These heat-loving varieties flourish in July’s warmth and are harvest-ready in about 30 days, especially when sown continuously.



Gardeners in zones 6 through 9 can benefit from planting bush beans and snap peas, which don’t require trellising and are ideal for compact plots. 



Maturing in 50–60 days, they’re a smart choice for quick, protein-rich harvests. For those in hotter regions, heat-tolerant crops such as okra and southern peas provide reliable yields and thrive in scorching conditions.



This guide emphasizes more than crop selection—it highlights the importance of timing, soil preparation, and ongoing sowing techniques. 



With thoughtful planning and attention to regional climate needs, even late-summer gardeners can enjoy fresh salads, hearty stews, and the satisfaction of a robust, homegrown harvest well into fall.



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What to plant in your garden in mid-July

https://youtu.be/Fi2OeEwuzRM?si=vTyd2m9FMmtyWkex Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving...

Green,Ecoduct,Over,An,Empty,Highway,During,Sunset.

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A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that wildlife tunnels significantly reduce amphibian road mortality during seasonal migrations. 



Frogs and salamanders often cross roads to reach breeding ponds each spring, but many are killed by vehicles. 



Researchers from the <a href="https://www.uvm.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Vermont</a>, in collaboration with local citizens and the Vermont Agency of Natural Resources, installed two underpass tunnels in 2015. 



Over a 12-year monitoring period, they observed an 80.2% reduction in amphibian deaths, and up to 94% for non-climbing species like salamanders. 



The study used a before-after-control-impact design and documented more than 5,200 amphibians, highlighting the tunnels’ effectiveness even in nearby buffer zones.



Funded at $342,397 - far cheaper than wildlife crossings for large mammals - the project showcased the power of community-led conservation.



Local groups initiated the effort after observing mass amphibian deaths. Wildlife cameras later captured over 2,200 amphibians using a tunnel in just one spring, along with other species like raccoons and bobcats, indicating wider ecosystem benefits.



This marks the first peer-reviewed, long-term data set in the northeastern U.S. confirming amphibian-specific underpasses work. 



The study urges transportation departments to incorporate these designs into road planning and highlights how community action, thoughtful infrastructure, and persistence can make a real difference for biodiversity.



The full study was published in the <a href="https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1617138125000780" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal for Nature Conservation</a>.



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Wildlife tunnels save millions of amphibians

https://youtu.be/XYgiPzmNBTU?si=eFYY7gPHU1JznLvU A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that...

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing it with probiotics and prebiotics, aiming to create a treat that satisfies cravings while supporting gut health. 



The challenge lies in maintaining chocolate's beloved texture and flavor while adding health benefits.



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Probiotics - beneficial microbes that balance gut bacteria and aid digestion - are typically fragile and can be destroyed by stomach acid or processing. 



Prebiotics act as food for these microbes, helping them thrive. Together, they form "synbiotics," a powerful health combination.



Researchers Smriti Gaur and Shubhi Singh from India's Jaypee Institute of Information Technology took an innovative approach, using natural prebiotics like corn and honey instead of complex processing methods. 



They created five chocolate varieties: a control and four synbiotic versions containing different combinations of prebiotics, probiotics (Lactobacillus strains), and flavor enhancers (cinnamon or orange).



Laboratory simulations of human digestion showed the probiotics remained viable for over five hours, suggesting they could survive long enough to benefit gut health.



Taste tests were positive, with researchers particularly enjoying the orange-flavored variety, describing it as having "vibrant citrus notes" complementing the "rich cocoa" with a "luxurious" texture.



This research represents just the beginning. With further refinement of strains, textures, and flavors, chocolate could evolve beyond mere indulgence to become a functional food that nourishes while it delights.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.4c00741" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ACS Food Science &amp; Technology</a>.

Is chocolate the next nutritional powerhouse?

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

[sendtonews key="0ynNMYkMKa-2340414-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

[sendtonews key="G9bUoxcjr4-2511624-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

[sendtonews key="3upvlAaHgO-2256633-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

[sendtonews key="LvS8v8bp9z-2564889-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How does salt makes things taste better?

[sendtonews key="X0f6OHYoI4-2310561-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Santiago, Chile in South America

[sendtonews key="JRaP49ISmm-2357509-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

[sendtonews key="e4ZG0Jawp3-2374785-12187" type="single"] Astronomers at Johns Hopkins University have created...

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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.



According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."



Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;



ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. 



Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

[sendtonews key="uV9Lh2fQbV-1760058-12187" type="single"] Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

[sendtonews key="qjvhBOBnY8-2426650-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

[sendtonews key="oL4FnPTGCV-2384527-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

[sendtonews key="0879czfG3k-1785905-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from NASA...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

[sendtonews key="6HyfrAJTBI-1831843-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

Earth,Like,Exoplanet,3d,Render

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

[sendtonews key="QIoVYJqRBi-2434608-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from NASA...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="JbW4VsY53O-1632195-12187" type="single"]</div>



Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes Earth’s interconnected systems, and how this network is affected by rising temperatures.&nbsp;



During 2020, average global temperatures matched the hottest year on record. The hurricane season was also record-breaking, with many of the storms intensifying at extraordinary speeds. Hot water in the ocean is fuel for hurricanes. The satellite data shows that it's all one interconnected system showing how Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected.



According to NASA, dust swept up from Northern Africa plays a major role in the formation of hurricanes, and is also a key source of fertilization in the Amazon rainforest. As a result of<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seagrass-wasting-disease-is-fueled-by-climate-change/"> climate</a> change, dust plumes are expected to decline, which will have an effect on vegetation far away.&nbsp;



Images from Earth-observing satellites show how the world’s plant life is affected by natural disasters, fires, and deforestation. Satellites also reveal how widespread changes in vegetation impact waterways,&nbsp; the climate, air quality. Satellites communicate by using radio waves to send signals to the antennas on the Earth. "Earth From Space" is a groundbreaking two-hour special that reveals a spectacular new space-based vision of our planet. 



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected

[sendtonews key="JbW4VsY53O-1632195-12187" type="single"] Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected...

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