Humans have long wondered why we seek each other’s company. From laughter in groups to quiet conversations, social behavior defines much of our daily lives. It turns out, this drive to connect may not be uniquely human at all. 



Honey <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/hidden-eye-sensors-help-bees-find-their-way-home/">bees</a>, buzzing inside their hives, show genetic patterns that echo our own. A new study suggests that some of the molecular roots of sociability stretch back hundreds of millions of years.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-social-differences-in-species">Social differences in species</h2>



Not every individual interacts the same way. In any society, whether <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/native-bee-species-face-extinction-due-to-honey-bee-competition/">insect</a> or human, some thrive on connection while others keep to themselves. These differences can arise from mood, past experiences, or status. Genetics also play a role, but the exact mechanisms remain poorly understood.



Researchers at the <a href="https://illinois.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign</a> sought to explore this mystery in honey bees, combining cutting-edge molecular techniques with detailed behavioral tracking. 



The study adds clarity to how social behaviors can emerge from shared evolutionary blueprints.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-social-lives-of-bees">Social lives of bees</h2>



The team studied western honey bees, attaching tiny barcodes to 357 individuals. Automated systems recorded their movements and behaviors inside observation hives. The scientists focused on a key social act called trophallaxis, where bees share nutritious liquid with nestmates. 



This act of food-sharing reflects social connectedness in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-create-pollen-replacing-food-for-honey-bees-bringing-survival-hope/">colonies</a>. Sequencing revealed 18 genetic variants tied to this behavior, several within two genes, neuroligin-2 and nmdar2. These genes resemble human ones linked to autism spectrum conditions, highlighting intriguing parallels between species. 



The discovery strengthens the view that certain behaviors may be deeply embedded in biology across evolutionary lines.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-genes-and-brain-activity">Genes and brain activity</h2>



The researchers also examined brain activity. Bees that engaged more with nestmates showed higher expression of more than 900 genes. 



This connection between behavior and brain biology highlights the depth of social <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/engineered-bee-diets-can-help-protect-global-food-security/">influences</a> at the molecular level. Additional analyses revealed that many of these genes were tied to neural signaling and synaptic function. 



In other words, the wiring of the brain directly supports how social tendencies emerge. This demonstrates how behavioral complexity is not only observed at the surface level but is tightly bound to internal molecular processes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-shared-social-origins-in-bees">Shared social origins in bees</h2>



The study shows that humans and bees diverged over 600 million years ago, yet still retain similarities in genes related to sociability. The researchers suggest that these conserved features act as molecular anchors, shaping social life across distant species.



The experts argue that the repeated use of the same molecular pathways across evolution suggests an ancient toolkit for sociality that species can adapt in unique ways.



“It is a central feature of all societies that group members often engage with one another, but vary in their tendency to do so," noted the researchers.



"Combining automated monitoring of social interactions, DNA sequencing, and brain transcriptomics in honey bee colonies, we identified evolutionarily conserved molecular roots of sociability shared across phylogenetically distinct species, including humans."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-behavior-of-social-insects">Behavior of social insects</h2>



“Social insects are ideal for whole-colony behavioral tracking, and the technology is such that we can monitor what each bee is doing throughout the majority of her life,“ explained study lead author Ian Traniello.



“In this study, we sought to push things a step forward, thinking, ‘We can follow all of these animals, we know who they're socially engaging via food-sharing interactions, we know how they move and where they spend their time.'"



According to Traniello, honey bees offer a powerful model because their molecular toolkit continues to expand, enabling researchers to study behavior alongside genomic and neural patterns.



“The honey bee molecular toolkit is vast and growing, and we can also explore the structure of the genome or gene expression patterns within the brain as they relate to variation in social interactivity," said Tranielo.



"We asked: ‘How can we bring these technologies together, to ask general questions about the molecular underpinnings of social organization and test the hypothesis that some of these features might be conserved across species?’ And that's exactly what we did."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-bees-lasting-social-legacy">Bees’ lasting social legacy</h2>



This research highlights more than just bee behavior. It suggests that sociability, whether in a bustling hive or a human community, may be rooted in ancient genetic frameworks. 



Theories proposed in the study emphasize that evolution often reuses molecular strategies to solve similar challenges across life forms. In this case, it has shaped how groups organize, interact, and depend on one another. 



Such findings invite broader questions about how deeply genetics shape our social tendencies, and whether these ancient molecular roots still guide how humans build networks, friendships, and societies. 



By studying tiny pollinators, scientists are uncovering links that show how evolution has preserved the tools for social life across species separated by vast spans of time.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosbiology/article?id=10.1371/journal.pbio.3003367" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">PLOS Biology</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Social lives of humans and bees linked by ancient genes

Humans have long wondered why we seek each other’s company. From laughter in groups to quiet conversations, social behavior defines much of our daily lives. It turns out, this drive to connect may not be uniquely human at all. Honey bees, buzzing inside their hives, show genetic patterns that echo our own. A new study suggests that some of the molecular roots of sociability stretch back hundreds of millions of years. Social differences in species Not every individual interacts the same way. In any society, whether insect...

Mountain gorillas are friendly to their neighbors as long as they don't push their luck, according to a study from the <a href="https://www.exeter.ac.uk/">University of Exeter</a>. The researchers found that gorillas are not willing to tolerate trespassers in their "core" territory, regardless of how familiar the individuals are. 

Gorillas live in close-knit groups that hunt, relax, and <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/sleep-and-physical-activity-can-optimize-bone-health-in-children/">sleep</a> together across a "core home range" and a wider "peripheral" range. The groups occasionally split up, which separates close relatives and group members permanently.

The new study, which was a collaboration with the Dian Fossey Gorilla Fund, reveals that groups which were previously united are more than four times as likely to be friendly upon encountering each other, even if they had split more than ten years earlier.

Regardless of their level of familiarity, however, mountain gorillas react aggressively when another group strays into their core territory. On the other hand, when it comes to their broader peripheral range, the gorillas only become aggressive with unfamiliar groups.

"Meetings of groups are fairly rare, and at first both groups are usually cautious," said Dr. Robin Morrison. "They often beat their chests and show off their strength, but the interaction can then either become aggressive - with fighting and screaming - or 'affiliative.'

"In affiliative interactions, the initial tension passes and the groups intermingle. They may rest together, and younger gorillas will often play with youngsters from the other group."

Humans cooperate well beyond our immediate group, and the evolutionary benefit of these wider friendships could be that they allow shared access to space and resources with a reduced risk of aggression. The current study is the first to test this theory in nonhuman animals. The findings suggest that mountain gorillas may, in fact, benefit in the same way by maintaining friendships between groups.

"The pattern we found mirrors what we see in humans," said Dr. Morrison."We also have concepts of public spaces outside our 'range' where we tolerate anyone, spaces like our homes where we tolerate certain individuals, and private spaces within those homes reserved for close family or just ourselves."

According to the researchers, it is also important to understand these behavioral patterns for conservation.

"Mountain gorillas have less than 800 km2 of habitat remaining," said study co-author Jean Paul Hirwa. "As a result of extreme conservation efforts, the population has been growing over the last 30 years while their habitat has not."

"Understanding how groups interact and share their limited space is important for estimating future population dynamics and trends in this endangered species."

The study is published in the <a href="https://besjournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/journal/13652656">Journal of Animal Ecology</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Mountain gorillas are friendly to their neighbors, but this has its limits

Mountain gorillas are friendly to their neighbors as long as...

A study led by the <a href="https://www.uni-konstanz.de/en/">University of Konstanz</a> has confirmed that <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/shellfish-are-vanishing-from-the-gulf-of-maine/">fish</a> save energy by swimming in schools. The researchers used robots to provide the first conclusive evidence that schools of fish benefit from the energy produced by neighboring fish.

The team conducted experiments with biomimetic fish-like robots and found that schooling fish take advantage of swirling water generated in front of them using a simple strategy. They adjust their tail beat patterns to match the rhythms of their leaders, which is known as vortex phase matching. 

When the researchers applied this strategy to the robots, they discovered that the robots benefitted from the force of the churning water kicked up by a neighbor no matter where they were positioned around the fish. 

"Fish schools are highly dynamic, social systems," said study senior author Iain Couzin. "Our results provide an explanation for how fish can profit from the vortices generated by near neighbors without having to keep fixed distances from each other."

It has been a challenge for scientists to determine whether schooling fish save energy because it is difficult to measure the energy expenditure of free swimming fish. The new study has overcome this challenge by using robots. The researchers could directly compare the power consumption of the robots when they were swimming alone or in a group.

"We developed a biomimetic robot to solve the fundamental problem of finding out how much energy is used in swimming," said study first author Liang Li. "If we then have multiple robots interacting, we gain an efficient way to ask how different strategies of swimming together impact the costs of locomotion."

In more than 10,000 trials, the team tested follower fish in every possible position relative to leaders, and then compared this amount of energy consumption with solo swimming. The study clearly showed that the fish in front influence the hydrodynamics of fish behind, saving them energy. 

The energy consumed by a follower fish was found to be influenced by two main factors: the distance between the follower and the leader and the relative timing of the tail beats of the follower with respect to that of the leader.

According to the researchers, the secret to saving energy is in synchronization, or how well the follower fish matches their tail beat pattern to that of the leader.

"It's not just about saving energy. By changing the way they synchronize, followers can also use the vortices shed by other fish to generate thrust and help them accelerate," said study co-author Mate Nagy.

To confirm that fish use the strategy of vortex phase matching to save energy in nature, the experts used an AI-assisted analysis of the body posture of goldfish as they swam together. The model predicted what real fish would do if they were vortex phase matching.

"We discovered a simple rule for synchronizing with neighbors that allows followers to continuously exploit socially-generated vortices," said Couzin. "But before our robotic experiments, we simply didn't know what to look for, and so this rule has been hidden in plain sight."

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/ncomms">Nature Communications</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Fish swim in schools to save energy

A study led by the University of Konstanz has confirmed...

Vampire bats socially distance themselves when they are sick, according to a study published by <a href="https://global.oup.com/">Oxford University Press</a>. The researchers found that vampire bats spend less time near others if they do not feel well, which slows <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/how-the-gut-microbiome-protects-us-from-disease/">disease</a> transmission. 

While the research team had previously observed this behavior in the lab, a field experiment has now confirmed that sick vampire bats self-isolate in the wild.

Social behavior can control how a virus spreads throughout a population, and parasites can increase their own spread by manipulating the behavior of their host. When animals are sick, they may isolate themselves voluntarily or be isolated by others. Infected animals may also simply reflect illness in their behavior by sleeping more and socializing less, which is a common form of social distancing that does not require cooperation.

The researchers designed an experiment to investigate how sickness affects relationships among vampire bats over time. Using high-resolution data, the team analyzed the behavior of 31 female vampire bats from a roost inside a hollow tree in Lamanai, Belize.

Half of the bats were infected with an immune-challenging substance, and the other half received saline injections. Over the next three days, the bats were released back into their hollow tree wearing proximity sensors.

The experts tracked changes in the associations among 16 "sick" bats and 15 control bats in their natural environment.

The bats that felt ill were found to associate with fewer individuals, spend less time with others, and were less socially connected to healthy bats.

During a period of six hours, the sick bats engaged with an average of four fewer members of the community compared to bats in the control group. The bats that felt under the weather also spent less time engaging with each individual by about 25 minutes.

Overall, the researchers discovered that the social networks among vampire bats are surprisingly dynamic. 

"The sensors gave us an amazing new window into how the social behavior of these bats changed from hour to hour and even minute to minute during the course of the day and night, even while they are hidden in the darkness of a hollow tree," said study lead author Simon Ripperger. "We've gone from collecting data every day to every few seconds."

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://academic.oup.com/beheco">Behavioral Ecology</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Vampire bats practice social distancing when they feel sick

Vampire bats socially distance themselves when they are sick, according...

Birds vanishing in the Amazon represent a global shift in biodiversity. Birds that forage near the floor of the Amazon rainforest are vanishing, and these losses may have gone unnoticed without a long-term study by scientists at <a href="https://www.lsu.edu/">Louisiana State University</a> (LSU). The team had been conducting field studies in the Amazon for years when they noticed that certain <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/giant-animals-vanished-from-madagascar-after-humans-arrived/">animals</a> were becoming difficult to find.  

The Amazon is the world's largest rainforest and contains an incredible amount of biodiversity. The region is also home to some of the only ecosystems on the planet that are largely protected from the pressures of human activities. However, the current research suggests that even the most pristine places are no longer protected from the impacts of climate change. 

Study lead author Professor Philip Stouffer began conducting research deep in the Amazon rainforest - north of Manaus, Brazil - when he was a postdoctoral researcher with the Smithsonian in 1991.

With funding from the National Science Foundation, Professor Stouffer monitored birds as part of the Biological Dynamics of Forest Fragments Project until 2016. Around 2008, Stouffer and his graduate students noticed they were having trouble finding some of the bird species they had monitored over the years.

"What we think is happening is an erosion of biodiversity, a loss of some of the richness in a place where we would hope biodiversity can be maintained," said Professor Stouffer.

The researchers set out to investigate by collecting new data that could be compared to samples from the early 1980s. Using computer modeling, the team analyzed more than 35 years of data that included 55 sites.

"It's a very robust dataset from a variety of places collected over many years. It's not just some fluke. It looks like there's a real pattern and it looks like it could be linked to things we know are happening with global climate change that are affecting even this pristine place," said Professor Stephen Midway.

"Our nostalgia was correct - certain birds are much less common than they used to be," said Professor Stouffer. "If animal patterns are changing in the absence of landscape change, it signals a sobering warning that simply preserving forests will not maintain rainforest biodiversity."

Overall, the birds that have declined the most are species that live on or near the forest floor where they feed on insects. However, there is some variation in which of these birds have survived and which have begun to vanish. 

For example, the Wing-banded Antbird is one of the species that has become rare in recent decades. By contrast, the White-plumed Antbird has not declined and remains common. While both of these species hunt for insects on the forest floor, the White-plumed Antbird has a specific feeding strategy that seems to work to its advantage. These clever birds wait for swarms of marauding ants to stir up insects that are normally hidden on the forest floor and prey on them. 

The study also revealed that birds which also eat fruit are increasing in abundance. This suggests that omnivorous birds with more flexible diets can adjust to changing environmental conditions.

The experts say that further research is needed to better understand the hidden losses that are taking place in the Amazon rainforest, as well as in other regions. 

"The idea that things are changing, even in the most pristine parts of our planet yet we don't even know it, illustrates the need for us to pay more attention," said Professor Stouffer.

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/journal/14610248">Ecology Letters</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Birds vanishing in the Amazon represent a global shift in biodiversity

Birds vanishing in the Amazon represent a global shift in...

Scientists at the <a href="https://stri.si.edu/">Smithsonian Tropical Research Institute</a> (STRI) are exposing secrets about the late-night foraging habits of fringe-lipped bats based on the DNA contents of their poop. The researchers also discovered that fringe-lipped bats can locate a frog or lizard to feed on even when it is completely motionless and silent. 

The DNA stored in bat guano provides clues about how bats feed in the wild. By identifying their prey, experts can also investigate how bats change their behavior depending on their eating habits.

"Because bats forage at night, and in the dense forest, you can't observe what they are eating the way you can with a diurnal bird or mammal," said study lead author Professor Patricia Jones. "It feels so momentous, therefore, to have a glimpse into the diet of this species that we thought we knew so much about, to discover they are eating prey we had no idea were part of their diet."

The fringe-lipped bat is well-suited for hunting frogs, with salivary glands that neutralize the toxins of poisonous prey and hearing that is adapted to the low-frequency mating calls. The bats are also known to feed on insects, small reptiles, and other bats.

The analysis of DNA collected from bat poop samples showed that it mostly belonged to frogs and lizards. Some of the DNA was traced to other bats, and even to one hummingbird. 

In a separate experiment, the scientists exposed wild-caught fringe-lipped bats to recordings of prey sounds and stationary prey models. The bats were able to detect silent, motionless prey, as well as prey that made noise. The findings suggest that the fringe-lipped bat has more advanced echolocation skills than what was previously thought.

"This is interesting because we didn't know that these bats were able to detect silent, still prey," said study co-author May Dixon. "Detecting silent, still prey in the cluttered jungle is thought to be a really hard task for echolocation. This is because when the bats echolocate in the jungle, the echoes of all the leaves and branches bounce back along with the echoes of their prey, and they 'mask' the prey."

The findings suggest that bats in the tropics are nocturnal predators of birds and other sleeping animals. Among the common prey of the fringe-lipped bat, or Trachops cirrhosus, were also some unexpected frog species.

"We found T. cirrhosus were often eating frogs in the genus Pristimantis," said Professor Jones. "I think this will open new avenues of research with T. cirrhosus, because Pristimantis call from the canopy and their calls are hard to localize, so if T. cirrhosus are consuming them it means that they are foraging differently than we understood before."

The combination of dietary DNA analysis and behavioral experiment used for the study may be applied to understand the foraging behaviors of a wide range of animal species.

"It's really exciting to see the doors that open when animal behavior is combined with metabarcoding," said STRI staff scientist Rachel Page. "Even though we have studied Trachops intensely for decades, we actually know very little about its behavior in the wild. It was completely surprising to see prey items show up in the diet that we never anticipated, such as frog species whose mating calls seemed to lack acoustic parameters helpful for localization and, more surprising, prey that it seems the bats must have detected by echolocation alone, like hummingbirds." 

"This work makes us rethink the sensory mechanisms underlying this bat's foraging behavior, and it opens all kinds of new doors for future questions."

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://academic.oup.com/beheco">Behavioral Ecology</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Hunting habits of fringe-lipped bats revealed in their poop

Scientists at the Smithsonian Tropical Research Institute (STRI) are exposing...

The Caribbean coral Acropora palmata will not vanish without a fight. Researchers at the <a href="https://www.rsmas.miami.edu/">University of Miami (UM) Rosenstiel School</a> of Marine and Atmospheric Science have analyzed the <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/scientists-uncover-a-very-efficient-immune-defense-mechanism/">immune</a> system capabilities of elkhorn coral, or Acropora palmata, which has become increasingly rare in the Caribbean. The study revealed that these branching corals are actively defending themselves against conditions such as white band disease and rapid tissue loss.

Acropora palmata is considered to be one of the most important reef-building corals in the Caribbean. Over the last few decades, these corals have been vanishing from the region at an alarming rate, and disease is the main culprit. 

"The primary cause of this decline is disease, and this is particularly worrying for these species as climate change and anthropogenic stressors are now being implicated in increasing disease prevalence, frequency, and severity," wrote the researchers.

"Coral disease outbreaks are expected to increase in prevalence, frequency and severity due to climate change and other anthropogenic stressors."

"This is especially worrying for the Caribbean branching coral Acropora palmata which has already seen an 80% decrease in cover primarily due to disease. Despite the importance of this keystone species, there has yet to be a characterization of its transcriptomic response to disease exposure."

For the investigation, healthy corals were grafted to corals infected with disease. After a week, the researchers examined several aspects of the modified corals, including their overall genetic and immune response to disease. The team also analyzed whether there were different signatures of gene expression for corals that did not show signs of disease. 

The experts found that A. palmata has a core immune response to disease regardless of the specific type of infection. The findings suggest that this particular coral species launches an immune response to pathogenic exposure regardless of the disease type or virulence.

"Our results show that elkhorn coral is not immunocompromised but instead is actually actively trying to fight off disease," said study senior author Professor Nikki Traylor-Knowles. "This gives me hope that the corals are fighting back with their immune system."

Based upon the results, the researchers speculate that the corals which did not get infected may have tougher epithelia, a protective layer of cells covering external surfaces of their body. In addition, they believe that the symbiotic organisms that live inside corals did not initially have differences in gene expression in response to disease, but developed these differences over the course of the two-year study.

The branching coral Acropora palmata has  been classified as threatened under the U.S. Endangered Species Act. "These corals are keystone species for Florida reefs, so understanding that their immune systems are active is an important component that can be useful for protecting reefs," said Professor Traylor-Knowles.

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosone/">PLOS ONE</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

The Caribbean coral Acropora palmata will not vanish without a fight

The Caribbean coral Acropora palmata will not vanish without a...

Earlier this year, Dr. Michael Pittman of the <a href="https://www.hku.hk/">University of Hong Kong</a> reported that powered flight evolved at least three separate times: twice in feathered dinosaurs and once in early birds. The research also revealed that many ancestors of birds came close to having the wing loading and specific lift thresholds that are indicative of the potential for powered flight.

In collaboration with Dr. Thomas Dececchi, Dr. Pittman has expanded his flight origins investigation to include Scansoriopterygids, an unusual group of theropods that used bat-like wings for gliding.

The rare dinosaurs lived around 160 million years ago in what is now northern China. It is believed that Scansoriopterygids weighed about one kilogram and ate insects, seeds, and other plants. 

Testing the theory of gliding ability among Scansoriopterygids is important for understanding how flight evolved among theropod dinosaurs. If confirmed, this bat-winged lifestyle would have been unique to Scansoriopterygids, and would also make them the most distantly related dinosaurs to birds that glide. 

The team used mathematical models to predict how Scansoriopterygids may have flown, while accounting for many different variables such as weight, wingspan, and muscle placement. The experts found that Scansoriopterygids did not have powered flight potential but were capable of clumsy gliding. 

"They could glide, but they weren't very good at it. If I were them I would have been particularly worried about predators!" said Dr. Pittman. Their poor gliding abilities may have contributed to the brief existence of Scansoriopterygids.

"The two Scansoriopterygid species we studied were so poorly capable of being in the air that they just got squeezed out," said Dr. Thomas Dececchi. "Maybe you can survive a few million years underperforming, but with birds, pterosaurs, gliding mammals all around, Scansoriopterygids were simply squeezed out until they disappeared."

Since gliding is only a strategy that can be used from certain heights, it is not an efficient form of flight. However, it did help to keep Scansoriopterygids out of danger. 

"If an animal needs to travel long distances, gliding costs a bit more energy at the start, but it's faster. It can also be used as an escape hatch. It's not a great thing to do, but sometimes it's a choice between losing a bit of energy and being eaten," said Dr. Dececchi. 

"Once Scansoriopterygids were put under pressure, they just lost their space. They couldn't win on the ground. They couldn't win in the air. They were done." 

The findings provide new evidence to support the idea that dinosaurs evolved flight in several different ways before modern birds emerged. 

"Our team continues to uncover a greater sense of the breadth of experimentation involved in getting dinosaurs into the air," said Dr. Pittman. "We plan to reveal even more details moving forward, particularly the different routes taken by dinosaurs to occupy the skies."

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.cell.com/iscience/home">iScience</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Rare dinosaurs used bat-like wings for gliding

Earlier this year, Dr. Michael Pittman of the University of...

<a href="https://www.harvard.edu/">Harvard</a> researchers have found that, like humans, chimpanzees become very selective about who they socialize with later in life. As people get older, they begin to favor smaller social circles, focusing on friendships that are already established rather than seeking out new ones. Chimpanzees are surprisingly similar, and gravitate toward more meaningful relationships in their older age, according to the study.

When it comes to people, adults tend to steer clear of drama and conflict and lean toward positive relationships - a preference known as a positivity bias. Prior to this study, however, there was no evidence to suggest that nonhuman animals actively select who they socialize with during aging.

A team of psychologists and primatologists analyzed the social interactions of 21 male chimpanzees between the ages of 15 and 58 years old in the Kibale National Park in Uganda. The study was based on 78,000 hours of observations from more than two decades. 

The researchers focused on male chimpanzees because they exhibit stronger social bonds and have more frequent social interactions compared to female chimps.

The team recognized much of the same behavior in aging chimpanzees that is seen in aging humans. For example, the older chimpanzees preferred grooming and spending time with chimps they had developed mutual bonds with over the years. Meanwhile, the younger chimps engaged in many one-sided relationships where grooming was not always returned. 

The males spent more time alone when they were older, but also made time for their important social partners, such as aging mutual friends. Just like older humans who seek out peace and quiet, there was a noticeable shift among chimpanzees from negative interactions to more positive ones as they got older.

"The really cool thing is that we found that chimpanzees are showing these patterns that mirror those of humans," said Professor Alexandra Rosati. She said that future research may help to determine if these behaviors constitute the normal or successful course that aging should take. "There's really a pressing need to understand the biology of aging. More humans are living longer than in the past, which can change the dynamics of aging."

When friendships were categorized as mutual, chimps preferred sitting close to those who preferred sitting close to them, as was most often observed among the older individuals. In the one-sided friendships, one chimp preferred to sit close to a chimp that did not share that preference.

The study revealed that 15-year-old chimps had an average of 2 one-sided friendships and just one mutual friend. On the other hand, 40-year-old chimps hardly even bothered with one-side relationships and had an average of 3 mutual friendships.

"We see individuals having these more lopsided friendships and then as they age they start really spending time with individuals that reciprocate," said Professor Machanda. "When you have this kind of mutual friendship, you actually groom that individual more, so these older chimps have these mutual friendships and they're actually grooming those individuals quite a bit. They're really invested in these relationships."

A prevailing theory as to why people prioritize close, positive relationships during aging is known as socioemotional selectivity. This theory proposes that the central process driving social selection during aging results from people becoming aware that their time is running out and wanting to make the best of that time. The findings from the Harvard study, however, suggest there is more to understand.

"Even though chimps are very smart, they do not understand they're going to die," said Professor Zarin Machanda. "Much more likely something else is going on in chimps to explain why their relationships become more positive as they get older, and then the question is what applies to chimps the same as what applies to humans."

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.sciencemag.org/">Science</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Chimpanzees are picky about friendships when they get older

Harvard researchers have found that, like humans, chimpanzees become very...

In early 2020, south Florida experienced its coldest <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/scientists-report-an-unprecedented-rise-in-ocean-temperatures/">temperature</a> in 10 years at just under 40 degrees Fahrenheit. Scientists at <a href="https://wustl.edu/">Washington University in St. Louis </a> seized the opportunity to investigate how tropical lizards are affected by extreme climates. 

When temperatures exceed a certain threshold, sleeping lizards can actually lose their grip and fall out of trees. The experts previously established that various types of lizards in Miami can tolerate low temperatures ranging from about 46 to 52 degrees Fahrenheit before they are shocked by cold.

The researchers examined lizards that had survived the record cold night in Miami, and were surprised to find that all of the species could tolerate cold temperatures down to about 42 degrees - regardless of their previous threshold.

"Prior to this, and for a different study, we had measured the lowest temperatures that six lizard species in south Florida could tolerate," said study co-author James Stroud. "We realized after the 2020 cold event that these data were now extremely valuable - we had the opportunity to re-measure the same lizard populations to observe if their physiological limits had changed; in other words, could these species now tolerate lower temperatures?"

To investigate further, the team collected as many different types of lizards as possible in the local region, including lizards that are nocturnal. Next, the experts set out to analyze how various specimens responded to cold.

"A major unexpected result of this study was that all species converged on the same new, lower level of thermal tolerance," said Stroud. "While there was great variation in temperature tolerance before the cold event - some, like the large-bodied brown basilisk, were very intolerant of low temperatures, while others like the Puerto Rican crested anole were more robust - we observed that all species could now tolerate, on average, the same lowest temperature."

Stroud said that given the differences in the body size, ecology, and physiology of the lizards, the results were unexpected. The researchers noted that only one of the species examined for the study was native to the area, while the rest have been introduced to Florida over the past century.

"The shifts to tolerate significantly lower temperatures that we observed were so large that we found it unclear whether natural selection was responsible," said Stroud. "And so in our paper we discuss other alternative processes which may also have led to this pattern."

The findings provide brand new evidence that tropical, cold-blooded creatures, which are typically not thought to be able to adapt to rapidly changing climates, can sometimes endure conditions that exceed their established limits. 

"The results of this study are surprising and unexpected. Who would have thought that tropical lizards from places like Puerto Rico and Central America could withstand temperatures near freezing?" said study co-author Professor Jonathan Losos.

"What we now need to find out is how this was accomplished. Is this evidence of natural selection, with those lizards that just happened to have a lower cold tolerance surviving and others freezing to death, or was it an example of physiological adjustment - termed 'acclimation'- in which exposure to lower temperatures changes a lizard's physiology so that it is capable of withstanding lower temperatures?"

Regardless, the study provides critically important insight for understanding the impacts of climate change.

"It is widely thought that tropical and subtropical species are going to be especially vulnerable to changes in temperature -- particularly extreme spikes of heat or cold -- as tropical areas do not typically have strong seasons," said Stroud. "Unlike temperate species, which are adapted to summer highs and winter lows, tropical species have typically evolved in very thermally stable environments.

"While there is no doubt that climate change represents a major threat to species and ecosystems around the world, and deserves as much research attention as possible, this study provides fascinating insight and a glimpse of hope. Perhaps tropical and subtropical species can withstand more extreme climatic conditions."

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/journal/rsbl">Biology Letters</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Tropical lizards are surprisingly adaptable to climate extremes

In early 2020, south Florida experienced its coldest temperature in...

Ironclad beetles can survive getting run over by a car, and engineers at <a href="https://www.purdue.edu/">Purdue University</a> have solved the mystery of how this is even possible. The study may ultimately inspire the development of materials with unprecedented <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/rituals-can-strengthen-commitment-among-couples-who-are-dating/">strength</a>. 

According to the researchers, the new materials would be stiff but ductile like a paper clip, which would improve the safety and durability of aircraft gas turbines and other machinery.

The experts found that the secret of the diabolical ironclad beetle's strength is in its two hardened sheaths, or elytra, that meet at a line that runs along the length of the abdomen called a suture. 

The elytra serve as hard cases that protect the wings of flying beetles. In the diabolical ironclad beetle, which does not have wings, the elytra and connective suture help to distribute an applied force more evenly throughout its body.

"The suture kind of acts like a jigsaw puzzle. It connects various exoskeletal blades - puzzle pieces - in the abdomen under the elytra," explained Professor Pablo Zavattieri. He said the jigsaw puzzle comes to the rescue in several different ways depending on the amount of force applied.

To investigate, the researchers used CT scans to characterize the various structural components and analyze the limits of the beetle's exoskeleton. Experiments with compressive steel plates revealed that the diabolical ironclad beetle can endure an applied force that is at least 39,000 times its body weight before the exoskeleton begins to fracture.

This amount of force is equal to about 150 newtons, which is remarkable considering that a car would apply an estimated force of 100 newtons if its tire ran over a diabolical ironclad beetle on a dirt surface.

The experts determined that the beetle has two lines of defense to protect it from an enormous compressive load. The interconnecting blades lock in place so that they are not pulled out of the suture. Then,  the suture and blades divide, or delaminate, to avoid catastrophic failure of the exoskeleton. But steps help to dissolve energy that would otherwise cause a fatal impact at the beetle's neck. 

When the maximum force was applied to the beetle's exoskeleton, the researchers found that delamination allows the interconnecting blades to pull out from the suture more gently so that energy is dissipated and not released.

The team has not yet determined whether the diabolical ironclad beetle has a way to heal itself after surviving the compression load of a car, but the new findings are already enough to improve various kinds of machinery.

"This work shows that we may be able to shift from using strong, brittle materials to ones that can be both strong and tough by dissipating energy as they break. That's what nature has enabled the diabolical ironclad beetle to do," said Professor Zavattieri.

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/">Nature</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

The diabolical ironclad beetle can survive being run over by a car

Ironclad beetles can survive getting run over by a car,...

Scientists have discovered a bioluminescent gene that may give sea pickles, or pyrosomes, the ability to emit blue-green light. This is possibly the first time that a bioluminescent gene has ever been found in a member of the chordate group, which is predominantly made up of true <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/humans-could-wipe-out-billions-of-years-of-evolution-among-vertebrates/">vertebrates</a>, such as fish, amphibians, reptiles, birds, and mammals.

Study co-author Professor Michael Tessler conducted the research while he was a postdoctoral researcher at the <a href="https://www.amnh.org/">American Museum of Natural History</a>.

 "We know that throughout the tree of life, there are many hundreds of organisms that can produce light and that they do it for a variety of reasons," said Professor Tessler. "Our work suggests that there is a common gene shared among at least some animals that, with a few small changes, could be responsible for this bioluminescence. A baseline gene like this could help explain how many of these very different organisms, like a brittle star and the sea pickle, ended up with the same ability to glow."

In 2017, study co-author David Gruber was off the coast of Brazil testing a new tool for safely capturing delicate marine animals. During this expedition, the team collected sausage-sized pyrosomes.

A pyrosome is a free-floating colony made up of hundreds of tiny zooids that work together to move, eat, and breathe. Unlike many other bioluminescent animals, the displays of pyrosomes can be triggered by light. 

Even though these gelatinous colonies have been described for centuries, there is much about their bioluminescence that remains a mystery.

"Understanding the biochemical pathway for pyrosome bioluminescence is of particular interest because as a chordate, these animals are much more closely related to vertebrates--and to us as humans--than many of the more traditional bioluminescent creatures that might come to mind, things like jellyfish or fireflies," said Gruber.

Bioluminescent light is triggered by a chemical reaction between the substrate luciferin and the gene luciferase. 

The researchers found that mixing a common type of luciferin with pyrosomes resulted in bioluminescence. To investigate further, the team sequenced the RNA of pyrosomes collected in Brazil and near Vancouver Island in Canada.

The analysis revealed the existence of a gene that matches a luciferase that is found in relatives of jellyfish, anemones, and corals known as sea pansies. The researchers confirmed that the gene produces light in pyrosomes.

"Being a part of this study felt like being a part of a century-old mystery novel as to how the pyrosome glows in the dark," said study co-author Professor Jean Gaffney. "I have never worked with a species that was seemingly so alien, but as a chordate is strikingly similar to us."

"This study advances the debate about pyrosome bioluminescence," said Professor Tessler. "We provide justification for the idea that this animal produces its own light and it might be able to do so because of a pattern of evolution that is repeated throughout the animal tree of life."

The research is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/srep">Scientific Reports</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Bioluminescent gene identified that makes sea pickles glow

Scientists have discovered a bioluminescent gene that may give sea...

Losing the ability to fly made ants much stronger, according to a new study from <a href="https://www.oist.jp/">Okinawa Institute of Science and Technology Graduate University</a> (OIST). When the researchers created 3D models to analyze the muscles and internal skeletons of ants, they confirmed the theory that the loss of <a href="http://www.earth.com/video/exploring-the-incredible-flight-control-techniques-of-fruit-flies/">flight</a> in worker ants is directly linked to the evolution of greater strength.

"Worker ants evolved from flying insects," said Professor Evan Economo. "We've always assumed that losing flight helped to optimize their bodies for working on the ground, but we have much to learn about how this is achieved."

Among flying insects, the wing muscles often occupy more than half of the thorax, which places major constraints on the muscles used to support the rest of the body. The experts speculated that once the constraints of flight were removed in worker ants, the remaining muscles in the thorax were free to expand and reorganize.

While previous studies on flight loss focused on the external structure of worker ants, the OIST researchers constructed a detailed picture of the inside of the thorax.

The researchers conducted a detailed analysis of two distantly related ant species, including both the wingless workers and the flying queens. They also confirmed the findings based on a broader sample of species.

Using advanced X-ray technology to scan the internal and external anatomy of the ants, the team confirmed that the loss of flight had allowed for the reorganization of the thorax.

"Within the worker ant's thorax, everything is integrated beautifully in a tiny space," said study lead author Dr. Christian Peeters. "The three muscle groups have all expanded in volume, giving the worker ants more strength and power. There has also been a change in the geometry of the neck muscles, which support and move the head. And the internal attachment of muscles has been modified."

When the researchers studied the loss of flight among wasps, they found that the bees had responded in a completely different way. Wingless wasps are solitary and consume food on their own, while ants work in teams as part of a colony. The teams scavenge for food and carry it back to the nest for the queen and younger ants working within the nest.

Going forward, the scientists plan to develop more detailed biomechanical models of how different muscle groups function, conduct similar research on the mandible and legs, and compare the diversity among different ant species.

"We're interested in what makes an ant an ant and understanding the key innovations behind their success," explained Professor Economo. "We know that one factor is the social structure, but this individual strength is another essential factor."

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://frontiersinzoology.biomedcentral.com/">Frontiers in Zoology</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Worker ants had a lot to gain by losing the ability to fly

Losing the ability to fly made ants much stronger, according...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2E0mn5mTvhQ
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">'Death Star' moon Mimas conceals a 15-million-year-old ocean that scientists never expected.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hidden-waters-beneath-ancient-craters">Hidden waters beneath ancient craters</h2>



Scientists have made a startling discovery that challenges everything we thought we knew about <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/saturn-moon-mimas-has-remarkably-young-ocean/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Saturn's moon Mimas</a>. Beneath the heavily cratered surface that earned it the nickname "Death Star" lies a global ocean that formed just 5 to 15 million years ago—a remarkably young age by cosmic standards.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cassini-data-reveals-orbital-secrets">Cassini data reveals orbital secrets</h2>



The discovery, led by Dr. Valéry Lainey of the <a href="https://observatoiredeparis.psl.eu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Observatoire de Paris</a>, emerged from careful analysis of <a href="https://www.nasa.gov" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NASA</a>'s Cassini spacecraft data. By studying subtle irregularities in Mimas's orbit around Saturn, researchers detected the gravitational signature of liquid water hidden 20 to 30 kilometers beneath the moon's icy shell.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-an-unlikely-ocean-world">An unlikely ocean world</h2>



At only 400 kilometers in diameter, Mimas seemed like the least likely candidate to harbor a subsurface ocean. Unlike other ocean moons such as Europa and Enceladus, which show clear surface signs of internal activity, Mimas displays no obvious hints of the liquid water beneath its ancient, crater-scarred exterior.



"Mimas is a small moon, and its heavily cratered surface gave no hint of the hidden ocean beneath," explained Dr. Nick Cooper from <a href="https://www.qmul.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Queen Mary University of London</a>, a study co-author.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-astrobiology">Implications for astrobiology</h2>



The ocean's recent formation makes Mimas a prime target for studying how oceans develop and potentially support life. This discovery adds another member to the exclusive club of ocean worlds in our solar system, each offering unique insights into the conditions necessary for habitability.



The research, published in <a href="https://www.nature.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature</a> journal, demonstrates how advanced orbital analysis can reveal hidden features of celestial bodies, opening new possibilities for understanding ocean formation throughout the cosmos.



—–



Like what you saw and read?&nbsp;<a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a>&nbsp;for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.



—–



Check us out on&nbsp;<a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by&nbsp;<a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a>&nbsp;and&nbsp;<a href="https://www.earth.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Earth.com</a>.



—–

Scientists discover unexpected young ocean on Saturn's cratered moon Mimas

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2E0mn5mTvhQ 'Death Star' moon Mimas conceals a 15-million-year-old ocean that...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE
</div></figure>



On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop and sunlight barely penetrates through the polar winter. It was here, however, that an international team of scientists found <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/predatory-worms-were-terror-beasts-half-a-billion-years-ago/#google_vignette" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evidence of sea monsters</a> that would change our understanding of ocean life in the past.



This video captures the discovery of Timorebestia fossils that had been hidden for more than 500 million years in the Sirius Passet formation. The "terror beasts," as they are called, are a hidden chapter in the evolutionary history of <a href="https://www.earth.com" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Earth</a>, showing that sophisticated predator-prey interactions occurred much earlier than previously envisioned.



Dr. Jakob Vinther and his research team at the <a href="https://www.bristol.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Bristol</a>, in collaboration with researchers at the <a href="https://eng.kopri.re.kr/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Korean Polar Research Institute</a>, braved extreme weather conditions at 82.5 north latitude to locate these giant creatures. Using sophisticated electron microprobe analysis, they revealed the detailed anatomy of the animals, including their muscle and nerve tissues.



The find upsets the traditional timeline of sea predators. Although we've long appreciated that Cambrian oceans were at one time ruled by <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jWI3-UgA3_o&amp;list=PL1QLQMW9MWDwpkFOnvgAmu7wT6rZmYqdJ&amp;index=19" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">arthropods</a>, these discoveries indicate that relatives of arrow worms were first to dominate the seas. These worms were building sophisticated food webs several million years before other predator groups arose.



Each fossil is a story of ancient hunger, with fossil stomach contents revealing these meter-long beasts dined on heavily armored arthropods regularly, cementing their place as the ocean's first apex predators.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Worms dominated seas before dinosaurs

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">New York is the site of the world's oldest forest.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-385-million-year-old-trees-discovered">385-million-year-old trees discovered</h2>



Scientists have uncovered something extraordinary just two hours north of New York City. The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/worlds-oldest-forest-discovered-close-to-new-york-city/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">world's oldest forest</a>, dating back 385 million years, offers a window into how Earth's first complex forests shaped our planet's atmosphere.



Located near <a href="https://townofcairo.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cairo, New York</a>, in Greene County, these weren't merely primitive plants struggling to survive. These were sophisticated trees with root systems remarkably similar to modern forests. This ancient woodland predates dinosaurs by 140 million years.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-cairo-forest-discovery">The Cairo forest discovery</h2>



385 million years ago, upstate New York was a tropical paradise near the equator. Thanks to continental drift, this ancient forest has traveled thousands of miles to its current location.



The fossil forest sits in an abandoned quarry, roughly half the size of a football field. This represents just a slice of what was likely a massive forest system stretching from New York into Pennsylvania.



Charles Ver Straeten, curator of sedimentary rocks at the <a href="https://www.nysm.nysed.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">New York State Museum</a>, made the discovery in 2009. While scouting the former highway department property, his trained eye spotted wandering patterns in the stone that looked like marine features.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-revolutionary-age-and-preservation">Revolutionary age and preservation</h2>



The site contains 385-million-year-old rocks with fossilized woody roots forming horizontal patterns up to 18 feet (5.5 meters) wide. As Christopher Berry, a paleobotanist at Cardiff University, explains: "You are walking through the roots of ancient trees."



This discovery pushes back advanced tree evolution by millions of years. The research, published in <a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/home" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Current Biology</a> in December 2019, fundamentally changes our understanding of when complex forests first emerged.



Researchers believe a massive flood buried the forest floor, creating perfect fossilization conditions. Over millions of years, sediment hardened into rock, preserving these root patterns like nature's time capsule.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-meet-archaeopteris-the-first-modern-tree">Meet Archaeopteris: the first modern tree</h2>



The star of this ancient forest is Archaeopteris – not to be confused with the feathered dinosaur Archaeopteryx. This tree was far older and more revolutionary.



William Stein from <a href="https://www.binghamton.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Binghamton University</a> describes the roots as "strikingly modern, essentially what you'd see outside in my yard right now." These weren't simple root systems you'd expect from ancient plants.



Some fossilized roots are six inches (15 centimeters) in diameter, forming 36-foot-wide (11-meter) patterns. These giants grew up to 65 feet (20 meters) tall with five-foot-diameter (1.5-meter) trunks.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-changing-impact">Climate-changing impact</h2>



These trees fundamentally changed Earth's environment. Kevin Boyce, a Stanford University geoscientist, explains how their deep roots triggered "weathering," chemical reactions that pulled carbon dioxide from the atmosphere.



This process dropped atmospheric CO2 levels from 10-15 times higher than today to roughly modern concentrations. These ancient trees helped create atmospheric conditions that made complex life possible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ancient-forest-ecosystem">Ancient forest ecosystem</h2>



The forest was remarkably diverse. Scientists identified Eospermatopteris, palm tree-like plants with short roots that reached 30 feet (9 meters) tall but lacked woody structure. The forest also housed cladoxylopsids and a mysterious third species still being studied.



All reproduced through spores rather than seeds – millions of years before seeds evolved. This tropical environment had no grass, flowers, or flying insects, just towering trees creating Earth's first complex forest canopy.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-scientific-significance">Scientific significance</h2>



Before this finding, the Gilboa forest, located 25 miles (40 kilometers) away, held the "oldest forest" title. Cairo's trees are 2-3 million years older, showing that complex forest ecosystems developed much faster than scientists believed possible.



Patricia Gensel, a <a href="https://www.unc.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of North Carolina</a> paleobotanist, notes: "The size of those root systems is really changing the picture. Even 20 years ago, researchers assumed trees with such complex root systems didn't evolve so early."



The Cairo site presents three unique root systems, suggesting Devonian period forests were diverse ecosystems with different trees occupying different environmental niches, much like today's forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-modern-preservation-efforts">Modern preservation efforts</h2>



In 2022, New York State Senator Michelle Hinchey secured a $170,000 grant for the town of Cairo to construct specialized fencing around the fossil forest site. The town plans to conduct a feasibility study exploring the possibility of creating an educational center and working lab on-site.



Joe Hasenkopf, chair of the Cairo Planning Board, hopes to partner with educational institutions to create a research facility serving scientists, students, and the public.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lessons-for-today-s-climate">Lessons for today's climate</h2>



Why does a 385-million-year-old forest matter today? It shows how dramatically forests can change Earth's climate. These ancient woodlands created the atmospheric conditions supporting complex life.



Understanding how prehistoric forests transformed the planet helps us appreciate modern forests' critical role in addressing climate change. Forests remain Earth's most effective carbon capture systems.



These prehistoric trees changed Earth's atmosphere by pulling massive amounts of carbon dioxide from the air. As we face modern climate challenges, this ancient forest reminds us of trees' incredible power to transform our planet's environment.



The next time you walk through a forest, remember you're experiencing an ecosystem whose blueprint was established 385 million years ago in upstate New York. These ancient pioneers didn't just survive – they thrived and changed the world forever.



The full study was published in the journal Current Biology.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Earth's oldest forest found in the United States

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ New York is the site of the world's oldest...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Acid rain and a crisis solved.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-don-t-we-ever-hear-about-acid-rain-anymore-the-environmental-crisis-that-was-solved">Why don't we ever hear about "acid rain" anymore? The environmental crisis that was solved</h2>



Remember the 1980s when acid rain dominated headlines? Dire warnings about rain eating buildings, killing fish, and destroying forests filled every news cycle. Then, almost like magic, acid rain vanished from public discourse. What happened? Did we actually solve one of the late 20th century's most pressing environmental challenges?



The answer might surprise you. Unlike many environmental issues that drag on indefinitely, acid rain represents one of modern history's most successful ecological recovery stories. It's a tale of science, politics, and technology working together to tackle what seemed impossible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What was acid rain?</h2>



Acid rain isn't regular rain having a bad day – it's precipitation that became significantly more acidic due to air pollution. When power plants, factories, and vehicles burn fossil fuels, they release sulfur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides (NOx) into the atmosphere.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The science behind it</h2>



Think of acid rain as nature's chemistry experiment gone wrong. These compounds react with water, oxygen, and other chemicals to form sulfuric and nitric acids. When mixed with water vapor in clouds, they create precipitation with dangerously low pH levels.



While clean rain has a pH of about 5.6, acid rain could drop as low as 4.2 to 4.4 – roughly as acidic as tomato juice or coffee. According to US Geological Survey documentation, Scottish chemist Angus Smith first coined "acid rain" in 1872, but it didn't become a household phrase until the 1960s and 1970s when Swedish scientist Svante Odén documented its devastating effects on Scandinavian lakes and European forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The crisis at its peak</h2>



During the height of public concern, environmental damage was both widespread and visible. This wasn't some abstract future threat – people could see destruction happening in real-time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Environmental devastation</h2>



The most dramatic impacts were impossible to ignore. Research documented by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation and the New York State Department of Environmental Conservation shows that in the Adirondack Mountains, more than 200 lakes became so acidic they couldn't support fish life. The Adirondack Council reports that 409 lakes once supported brook trout, but many lost their fish populations due to acid rain.



By 1976, when scientists cataloged all acidified lakes in the Adirondack Park, researchers found that half of the lakes over 2,000 feet above sea level had no fish, according to studies published in environmental journals. The acidification process worked like a slow-motion disaster. As acid rain fell into watersheds, it gradually lowered pH levels. Fish couldn't survive in acidic water, and their food sources died off too.



Trees at high elevations showed stress directly linked to acid rain. It weakened them by leaching nutrients and making them susceptible to disease. Historical records show Germany's Black Forest saw nearly half its trees damaged by the mid-1980s.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Economic impact</h2>



Acid rain wasn't just environmental – it was expensive. Acidic precipitation corroded infrastructure, buildings, and monuments. Historic stone structures deteriorated at accelerated rates. Tourism suffered as lakes became fishless and forests declined. EPA economic analyses from the period documented repair costs mounting into billions annually.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The solution: government action and technology</h2>



Transformation from crisis to success required unprecedented cooperation between governments, industries, and environmental groups.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The Clean Air Act of 1990</h2>



The turning point came with the Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990, signed by President George H.W. Bush. This represented a fundamentally new approach to environmental regulation, as documented in EPA historical records.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Cap-and-trade success</h2>



Instead of mandating specific technologies, the 1990 amendments introduced something revolutionary: a cap-and-trade system for sulfur dioxide emissions. EPA program documentation shows this market-based approach set overall limits but allowed companies to trade emission allowances.



The genius was harnessing market forces to find cost-effective pollution reduction. Companies reducing emissions cheaply could sell excess allowances to those facing higher costs. Research published in environmental economics journals and EPA progress reports shows this resulted in dramatic SO2 reduction at a fraction of projected costs.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Technology advances</h2>



Policy provided the framework, but technology made reductions possible. Studies in atmospheric science journals document the widespread adoption of flue gas desulfurization systems ("scrubbers") that removed sulfur dioxide before it reached the atmosphere. By the 2000s, new installations could remove over 95% of SO2 emissions, according to EPA technical reports.



The push coincided with cleaner energy development. Natural gas produces fewer sulfur compounds than coal. Wind and solar, emerging in the 1990s, captured growing market share, reducing reliance on high-sulfur coal.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-we-don-t-hear-about-it-today">Why we don't hear about it today</h2>



Why did acid rain disappear from headlines? Simple: the problem was largely solved.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Success doesn't make news</h2>



There's an old journalism saying: "If it bleeds, it leads." Environmental success stories don't generate urgency like crisis reporting. Media attention shifted to other challenges: climate change, plastic pollution, and biodiversity loss. There's only so much environmental anxiety the public can absorb, and newer concerns replaced acid rain.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Mission accomplished</h2>



The primary reason is beautifully simple: interventions worked. EPA monitoring data shows sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990. Academic research published in environmental science journals confirms pH levels in formerly affected areas returned closer to normal. This represents one of history's most dramatic environmental recoveries. Studies by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation show fishless lakes now support healthy populations. Forests recovered, and building damage slowed dramatically.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-is-it-really-gone">Is it really gone?</h2>



The crisis is largely resolved, but monitoring data shows the problem isn't completely eliminated – it's managed to acceptable levels. Some areas still experience occasional events during high pollution periods. International environmental research indicates that rapidly industrializing Asian countries face similar problems to what we experienced decades ago, though they're implementing successful strategies.



EPA research shows nitrogen oxide emissions proved more challenging than sulfur dioxide, coming from vehicles and mobile sources. Climate science studies suggest changing weather patterns add complexity to how acid rain forms and falls.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What this teaches us</h2>



The acid rain experience proves that seemingly intractable environmental problems can be solved with scientific understanding, political will, and technological innovation. Environmental monitoring data shows recovery speed was remarkable – within a decade, measurable improvements appeared in air quality and ecosystem health.



Success came from bipartisan support across party lines. Policy analysis studies show the market-based approach appealed to those preferring economic incentives while achieving environmental goals. This support created lasting policy surviving political changes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Conclusion</h2>



Acid rain's disappearance from public consciousness represents environmental science's greatest success stories. Through effective regulation, technological innovation, and international cooperation, we transformed an overwhelming crisis into a manageable challenge.



Today's silence isn't because we forgot – it's because we solved it. The 1990 Clean Air Act, combined with technology and energy market changes, reduced acid rain emissions over 90%, according to comprehensive EPA data analysis.



This success offers hope for current challenges. It proves complex problems can be solved when science, policy, and technology work together. As we face climate change and plastic pollution, acid rain reminds us that dramatic positive change is possible.



Next time someone asks whether environmental regulations work, remember acid rain. It's proof that sometimes, we get it right.



<hr class="wp-block-separator has-alpha-channel-opacity"/>



Sources: This article draws from EPA official documentation and progress reports, peer-reviewed research published in environmental and atmospheric science journals, historical data from the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation, New York State Department of Environmental Conservation records, US Geological Survey publications, policy analysis studies, and environmental monitoring data collected over three decades.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Frequently Asked Questions</h2>



1. Is acid rain completely gone? No, but EPA monitoring shows it's reduced to manageable levels. US sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990, making acid rain much less severe than the 1980s crisis.



2. How long did solving take? Environmental monitoring data shows significant improvements began within 5-10 years of 1990s emission controls. Full ecosystem recovery took longer – some areas need 20-30 years for complete recovery.



3. What made the solution successful? Clear scientific understanding, visible damage motivating action, bipartisan support, available technology, and innovative market-based policies like cap-and-trade.



4. Do other countries have acid rain problems? Yes, particularly rapidly industrializing Asian countries. However, international environmental research shows many implement similar successful control strategies.



5. Could acid rain return? Potentially, if regulations weaken or we return to high-sulfur coal without controls, though effects would take years to become severe according to environmental projections.



6. Can you recommend any teaching tools on the subject of "acid rain"? The United States Environmental Protection Agency produced a wonderful teacher's guide for ages 14 and under that you can find on the EPA website here: <a href="https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf</a>



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

The environmental problem we actually solved

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk Acid rain and a crisis solved. Why don't we...

Fresh,Radish,Harvest,On,Soil,In,Garden.

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://youtu.be/Fi2OeEwuzRM?si=vTyd2m9FMmtyWkex
</div></figure>







Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving fall garden, and this guide lays out the best vegetables and herbs to plant now for a fruitful autumn harvest. 



Fast-growing leafy greens such as spinach, lettuce, kale, and arugula perform especially well in the waning summer heat, with harvests beginning as soon as 30 days. 



These cool-season crops relish the transition into fall, offering repeated yields with cut-and-come-again methods.



Root vegetables like radishes, carrots, and beets also excel during this period. Radishes deliver satisfaction in under a month, while carrots and beets mature in about two months. Employing succession planting ensures a continuous stream of produce deep into the cooler months. 



For a boost of fresh flavor, herbs like cilantro, basil, dill, and chervil are excellent picks. These heat-loving varieties flourish in July’s warmth and are harvest-ready in about 30 days, especially when sown continuously.



Gardeners in zones 6 through 9 can benefit from planting bush beans and snap peas, which don’t require trellising and are ideal for compact plots. 



Maturing in 50–60 days, they’re a smart choice for quick, protein-rich harvests. For those in hotter regions, heat-tolerant crops such as okra and southern peas provide reliable yields and thrive in scorching conditions.



This guide emphasizes more than crop selection—it highlights the importance of timing, soil preparation, and ongoing sowing techniques. 



With thoughtful planning and attention to regional climate needs, even late-summer gardeners can enjoy fresh salads, hearty stews, and the satisfaction of a robust, homegrown harvest well into fall.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;



-----

What to plant in your garden in mid-July

https://youtu.be/Fi2OeEwuzRM?si=vTyd2m9FMmtyWkex Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving...

Green,Ecoduct,Over,An,Empty,Highway,During,Sunset.

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://youtu.be/XYgiPzmNBTU?si=eFYY7gPHU1JznLvU
</div></figure>



A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that wildlife tunnels significantly reduce amphibian road mortality during seasonal migrations. 



Frogs and salamanders often cross roads to reach breeding ponds each spring, but many are killed by vehicles. 



Researchers from the <a href="https://www.uvm.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Vermont</a>, in collaboration with local citizens and the Vermont Agency of Natural Resources, installed two underpass tunnels in 2015. 



Over a 12-year monitoring period, they observed an 80.2% reduction in amphibian deaths, and up to 94% for non-climbing species like salamanders. 



The study used a before-after-control-impact design and documented more than 5,200 amphibians, highlighting the tunnels’ effectiveness even in nearby buffer zones.



Funded at $342,397 - far cheaper than wildlife crossings for large mammals - the project showcased the power of community-led conservation.



Local groups initiated the effort after observing mass amphibian deaths. Wildlife cameras later captured over 2,200 amphibians using a tunnel in just one spring, along with other species like raccoons and bobcats, indicating wider ecosystem benefits.



This marks the first peer-reviewed, long-term data set in the northeastern U.S. confirming amphibian-specific underpasses work. 



The study urges transportation departments to incorporate these designs into road planning and highlights how community action, thoughtful infrastructure, and persistence can make a real difference for biodiversity.



The full study was published in the <a href="https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1617138125000780" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal for Nature Conservation</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Wildlife tunnels save millions of amphibians

https://youtu.be/XYgiPzmNBTU?si=eFYY7gPHU1JznLvU A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that...

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing it with probiotics and prebiotics, aiming to create a treat that satisfies cravings while supporting gut health. 



The challenge lies in maintaining chocolate's beloved texture and flavor while adding health benefits.



<figure class="wp-block-embed aligncenter is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://youtu.be/Ug657J67iEo?si=w96YjGMsg939LD_3
</div></figure>



Probiotics - beneficial microbes that balance gut bacteria and aid digestion - are typically fragile and can be destroyed by stomach acid or processing. 



Prebiotics act as food for these microbes, helping them thrive. Together, they form "synbiotics," a powerful health combination.



Researchers Smriti Gaur and Shubhi Singh from India's Jaypee Institute of Information Technology took an innovative approach, using natural prebiotics like corn and honey instead of complex processing methods. 



They created five chocolate varieties: a control and four synbiotic versions containing different combinations of prebiotics, probiotics (Lactobacillus strains), and flavor enhancers (cinnamon or orange).



Laboratory simulations of human digestion showed the probiotics remained viable for over five hours, suggesting they could survive long enough to benefit gut health.



Taste tests were positive, with researchers particularly enjoying the orange-flavored variety, describing it as having "vibrant citrus notes" complementing the "rich cocoa" with a "luxurious" texture.



This research represents just the beginning. With further refinement of strains, textures, and flavors, chocolate could evolve beyond mere indulgence to become a functional food that nourishes while it delights.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.4c00741" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ACS Food Science &amp; Technology</a>.

Is chocolate the next nutritional powerhouse?

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="0ynNMYkMKa-2340414-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



---



By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

[sendtonews key="0ynNMYkMKa-2340414-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="G9bUoxcjr4-2511624-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

[sendtonews key="G9bUoxcjr4-2511624-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="3upvlAaHgO-2256633-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



---



By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

[sendtonews key="3upvlAaHgO-2256633-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="LvS8v8bp9z-2564889-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

[sendtonews key="LvS8v8bp9z-2564889-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="X0f6OHYoI4-2310561-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How does salt makes things taste better?

[sendtonews key="X0f6OHYoI4-2310561-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="JRaP49ISmm-2357509-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Santiago, Chile in South America

[sendtonews key="JRaP49ISmm-2357509-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="e4ZG0Jawp3-2374785-12187" type="single"]</div>



Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

[sendtonews key="e4ZG0Jawp3-2374785-12187" type="single"] Astronomers at Johns Hopkins University have created...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="uV9Lh2fQbV-1760058-12187" type="single"]</div>



Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.



According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."



Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;



ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. 



Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

[sendtonews key="uV9Lh2fQbV-1760058-12187" type="single"] Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="qjvhBOBnY8-2426650-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

[sendtonews key="qjvhBOBnY8-2426650-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="oL4FnPTGCV-2384527-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

[sendtonews key="oL4FnPTGCV-2384527-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="0879czfG3k-1785905-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

[sendtonews key="0879czfG3k-1785905-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from NASA...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="6HyfrAJTBI-1831843-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

[sendtonews key="6HyfrAJTBI-1831843-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

Earth,Like,Exoplanet,3d,Render

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="QIoVYJqRBi-2434608-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

[sendtonews key="QIoVYJqRBi-2434608-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from NASA...

News coming your way