Bees can turn awkward spaces into tidy hives. New research shows how they adapt their comb-building playbook when surfaces become irregular, using clever fixes that keep the hive functional.



The behavior resembles a distributed construction crew. It could even inspire better ways to print objects layer by layer.



A team of researchers at the <a href="https://www.colorado.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Colora</a><a href="https://www.colorado.edu/">do Boulder</a> explored how bees coordinate to build usable honeycomb on imperfect foundations. Their experiments revealed robust, rule-like strategies that emerged from many tiny actions by individual bees.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-beeswax-is-the-hive-s-concrete">Beeswax is the hive’s concrete</h2>



“Building a hive is a beautiful example of honeybees solving a problem collectively,” said Orit Peleg, an associate professor in CU Boulder’s Department of Computer Science. “Each bee has a little bit of wax, and knows where to deposit it, but we know very little about how they make these decisions.”



A colony builds on a precious budget. Bees spend warm months foraging nectar. Enzymes in saliva help convert that nectar into honey, which then dries and thickens inside cells. The economics are demanding: it takes roughly two million flower visits to make a pound of honey.



Then each worker eats about eight ounces of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/natures-sweet-remedy-honey-is-a-microbial-marvel/">honey</a> to secrete a single ounce of wax. Wax is the concrete of the hive. The more efficiently bees use it, the more room they have for food and brood.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-power-of-hexagons">The power of hexagons</h2>



Under ideal conditions, bees favor near-perfect <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bees-and-wasps-use-the-same-nest-building-tricks-despite-independent-evolution/">hexagons</a>. The geometry is famous for efficiently packing space while using minimal material.



Natural nest sites, however, rarely offer perfect planes. Hollow trees, attic voids, and box frames introduce ripples, gaps, and curves.



On rough terrain, ideal cells become costly. Irregular sizes require more wax and reduce storage and brood efficiency. The hive still has to function - so the bees adjust.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-bees-tackle-structural-challenges">Bees tackle structural challenges</h2>



The team set out to observe how those adjustments unfold. “We wanted to find the rules of decision-making in a distributed colony,” said Golnar Gharooni Fard, the study’s lead author.



They 3D-printed comb “foundations” with shallow hexagon guides in several sizes - smaller than normal, larger than normal, and near average.



These panels were placed into live hives near Boulder Creek, where forager bees mingled with returnees and the walls of hexagons began to rise.



After the bees built, the researchers scanned the new comb with X-ray microscopy to map its fine structure. The result was a catalog of on-the-fly building tactics that allowed colonies to bridge mismatches between the guided pattern and what their bodies and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/when-bees-arrive-late-flowers-may-vanish/">behaviors</a> preferred.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-bee-workarounds-keep-hives-thriving">Bee workarounds keep hives thriving</h2>



On small-cell guides, bees merged adjacent cells to recover usable volume. On larger guides, they tilted walls, layered cells, or introduced transitions to step down toward their favored size. Across patterns, the bees blended strategies. They didn’t abandon the site. They made it work.



“All those things happen in nature. If they're building honeycomb on a tree, and at some point they get to the end of the branch, the branch might not be super flat, and they need to figure that out,” said Fard.



The picture that emerges is not a top-down blueprint but a set of local rules distributed across many workers. Individuals add tiny wax deposits, sense geometry and neighbors, and adjust. The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/science-is-giving-beekeepers-a-better-way-to-fight-colony-collapse/">colony</a>, in aggregate, solves the constraint.



The study stops short of pinning down the “why” behind each tactic. Some choices may balance strength, storage, and brood needs. Others may reflect limits of body size or heat flow. 



The authors want to probe the decision logic further - how bees switch tactics, how they partition labor, and how information spreads without a foreman.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-beehive-wisdom-for-new-tech">Beehive wisdom for new tech</h2>



The implications extend beyond entomology. Honeycomb already inspires lightweight, stiff structures in aerospace and architecture. The new results add a dynamic twist: how to morph a repeating pattern across irregular boundaries without wasting material.



López Jiménez of CU Boulder’s Aerospace Engineering Sciences Department also sees lessons for additive manufacturing.



“The bees take turns, and they organize themselves, and we don't know how that happens,” he said. “Can we learn from how the bees organize labor or how they distribute themselves?”



If <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/walking-robots-can-step-right-off-the-3d-printer-powered-by-air/">3D printers</a> borrowed even a fraction of that adaptability - changing layer orientation or cell size on the fly to bridge defects - engineers could cut waste and improve reliability. The hive suggests a path: simple local rules scaled across many agents can yield resilient global structures.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-architecture-born-from-evolution">Architecture born from evolution</h2>



Bees do not wait for perfect scaffolds. They treat irregular surfaces as puzzles and solve them with a toolkit of merges, tilts, and layers.



The work demonstrates how efficient architecture can emerge from countless small acts, each guided by limited information but tuned by evolution for thrift. That is good biology - and it might also be good engineering.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosbiology/article?id=10.1371/journal.pbio.3003253" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">PLOS Biology</a>.



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From hives to high-tech: How bees are transforming 3D printing

Bees can turn awkward spaces into tidy hives. New research shows how they adapt their comb-building playbook when surfaces become irregular, using clever fixes that keep the hive functional. The behavior resembles a distributed construction crew. It could even inspire better ways to print objects layer by layer. A team of researchers at the University of Colorado Boulder explored how bees coordinate to build usable honeycomb on imperfect foundations. Their experiments revealed robust, rule-like strategies that emerged from many tiny actions by individual bees. Beeswax is the...

While the plastic pollution crisis clearly must be addressed, plans to remove plastics from the ocean may cause more environmental destruction.

Do efforts to clean the ocean of plastic pollution also threaten species?. The islands of plastic floating in our oceans are an environmental nightmare. These floating rafts of trash strangle sea life and contribute to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/microplastic-pollution-remote-glaciers/">pervasive microplastic pollution</a>. The largest of these islands is located off the coast of California and has a cumulative area that is <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/world-swimming-waste-plastic/">twice the size of Texas</a>! As our <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/recycling-system-major-changes/">recycling system falters</a> and our use of plastic continues to grow, it is obvious we need a solution. 

Unfortunately, the technology we have may cause more harm than good by disturbing a delicate ecosystem called the neuston. A <a href="https://www.theatlantic.com/science/archive/2019/01/ocean-cleanup-project-could-destroy-neuston/580693/">recent article in the Atlantic</a> brought to light these concerns. These are organisms that live near the surface of the ocean. This ecosystem is poorly studied and the effects of cleanup efforts are difficult to estimate. Reckless activity could cause extinctions of species not yet known to science. It is essential that we research and protect these unique communities.
<h2>What is the Neuston?</h2>
Neuston describes the communities of organisms that spend parts of their life near the water’s surface. This includes species directly on the surface (epineuston) as well as those just below the surface (hyponeuston.)Do efforts to clean the ocean of plastic pollution also threaten species? 

The neuston is a poorly understood ecosystem. They are floating islands of life. They exist independently from any land or anchor. Instead they form their own floating raft made up of strange species. These include snails, jellyfish and polyps. 

Neuston exist in the most remote reaches of our planet. They form islands of life that provide essential resources to marine animals and this community acts like a floating coral reef. It provides protection, feeding grounds and nurseries for various species. 

This raft appears similar to plastic. It is translucent, flexible and floats. Its similarity to plastic means nets and similar techniques will not be able to distinguish neuston from plastic.
<h2>Neuston supports many unique species</h2>
The number of species that inhabit the neuston is not known, but they are certainly dense with life. Many of these creatures have a striking and unusual appearance. Some are bright blues or pinks, others glow with bioluminescence. 

Here are some of the most interesting species present in the neuston.
<ul>
 	<li style="font-weight: 400;">Blue Buttons (Porpita)</li>
 	<li style="font-weight: 400;">By-The-Wind Sailors (Velella)</li>
 	<li style="font-weight: 400;">Blue Sea Dragons (nudibranchs)</li>
 	<li style="font-weight: 400;">Portuguese man-o’-wars (Physalia physalis)</li>
</ul>
&nbsp;
<h2>The effects of The Ocean Cleanup on neuston is unclear</h2>
<a href="https://www.theoceancleanup.com">The Ocean Cleanup</a> is an organization that aims to minimize the effects of plastic pollution in the ocean. They have created a huge machine that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/pac-man-system-plastic-pollution/">autonomously cleans plastic out of the ocean</a>. This is done using a 600 meter long net that drags 3 meters deep. This system is being deployed in the areas with the greatest density of trash, such as the Great Pacific Garbage Patch.

The concerns surrounding this effort come from the similarities between the neuston ecosystem and plastic trash. Both float free on the surface of the ocean, moved by the same currents and waves. This raises concerns that cleaning up substantial amounts of the plastic in our oceans would also kill most of the neuston. This would be a tragic loss of an ecosystem that we have not yet learned much about. 

Because so little is known about neuston, it is difficult to say what the effects will be. The Ocean Cleanup did an environmental impact assessment that acknowledged the presence of many neuston species. The independent marine biologists who wrote the study did not conclude that this activity would pose a major risk to these species.

Other scientists are less sure that The Ocean Project can achieve its goals. <a href="https://earther.gizmodo.com/a-kickstarter-idea-to-clean-the-great-pacific-garbage-p-1832459898">Concerns about the effectiveness and safety of this project</a> have been raised many times.
<h2>Are the risks worth it?</h2>
Cleaning plastics from the ocean is a noble goal. The floating islands of trash are huge environmental threats. They can kill marine species that try to feed on plastics, or simply swim too close. They also put toxic chemicals into the food chain, eventually reaching humans. As the amount of waste we produce continues to explode, it is essential that we start combating this problem soon. 

With this in mind, The Ocean Cleanup’s project should not be written off. In <a href="https://www.theoceancleanup.com/updates/the-ocean-cleanup-and-the-neuston">their response to the Atlantic article</a>, they addressed many of the concerns in the Atlantic article. They are confident that this effort will improve these ecosystems and protect the ocean. 

The Ocean Cleanup is only working in the parts of the ocean with the most trash. This is a fraction of the potential neustom habitat. Whether neustom accumulates in similar ways to plastic trash is not known. However, some species have been found <a href="http://www.deepseanews.com/2019/02/the-ocean-cleanup-struggles-to-prove-it-will-not-harm-sea-life/">only in the areas of trash accumulation</a>.

Neuston is known to experience high mortality naturally. Neuston can only survive in relatively still areas of the ocean. When they float outside these safety zones, they quickly die. Many neuston species ride waves onto beaches. They reproduce quickly and aggressively to combat this. This may mean that the efforts of The Ocean Cleanup will not significantly harm neuston. However, the many different species in these ecosystems are sure to respond differently. Some less robust species may not survive. The continuous nature of The Ocean Cleanup is also different from natural disturbances.

The lack of research into these ecosystems makes it impossible to predict the real world effects. The Ocean Cleanup is, however, providing new knowledge into this topic. They are monitoring the progress of the ocean cleanup and its effects. By providing a study site and access to this location, a better understanding of neuston may be possible.

Neuston is an intriguing and unique ecosystem. The species living in it are extremely important. It is essential that research into the conservation of these species continues. The effects of The Ocean Cleanup are yet to be seen, but need to be watched. Protecting these species cannot be ignored in order to remedy our past mistakes.

--

By <a href="mailto:casey.hofford@gmail.com">Casey Hofford</a>, <a href="http://earth.com">Earth.com</a> Contributing Writer

Do efforts to clean the ocean of plastic pollution also threaten species?

While the plastic pollution crisis clearly must be addressed, plans...

An international team of researchers led by <a href="https://www.charite.de/">Charité - Universitätsmedizin Berlin</a> has discovered that the alpine marmot has the least genetic diversity of any known animal to date. A genome study revealed that the species lost its genetic diversity during extreme climate events and has never been able to recover.

The alpine marmot is a large rodent from the squirrel family that lives in the high-altitude Alpine meadow. By sequencing the marmot's genome, the researchers found that all of the individual animals were genetically very similar. 

"We were very surprised by this finding. Low genetic diversity is primarily found among highly endangered species such as, for instance, the mountain gorilla," said study lead author Dr. Markus Ralser. "Population numbers for the alpine marmot, however, are in the hundreds of thousands, which is why the species is not considered to be at risk."

To investigate what may have driven these animals to such a fragile state, the researchers reconstructed the marmot's genetic past using a computer-based analysis. 

The study revealed that the alpine marmot lost its genetic diversity as a result of climate-related adaptations during the last ice age. The animals first adapted when they colonized the Pleistocene steppe at the beginning of the last ice age, and adapted again when the Pleistocene steppe disappeared toward the end of the ice age.

The team found evidence to suggest that the marmot's adaptation to the colder temperatures resulted in longer generation time and a drop in the rate of genetic mutations. As a result, the animals were unable to regenerate their <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/african-lions-genetic-diversity-resilience/">genetic diversity</a>.

"Our study shows that climate change can have extremely long-term effects on the genetic diversity of a species. This had not previously been shown in such clear detail," explained Dr. Ralser. "When a species displays very little genetic diversity, this can be due to climate events which occurred many thousands of years ago. It is remarkable that the alpine marmot managed to survive for thousands of years despite its low genetic diversity."

"After all, a lack of genetic variation can mean a reduced ability to adapt to change, rendering the affected species more susceptible to both diseases and altered environmental conditions - including changes in the local climate."

"We should take the results of the study seriously, as we can see similar warnings from the past. In the 19th century, the passenger pigeon was one of the most abundant species of land birds in the Northern Hemisphere, yet, it was completely wiped out within just a few years. It is possible that low genetic diversity played a role in this." 

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/home">Current Biology</a>.

--

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Paid for by <a href="http://earth.com">Earth.com</a>

Image Credit: Carole and Denis Favre-Bonvin

Climate change can drive animals into vulnerable state of low genetic diversity

An international team of researchers led by Charité - Universitätsmedizin...

Researchers from the <a href="https://www.uni-wuerzburg.de/en/university/">University of Würzburg</a>, the <a href="https://www.ice.mpg.de/ext/index.php?id=home0">Max Planck Institute for Chemical Ecology</a>, and the <a href="https://www.nationalpark-bayerischer-wald.bayern.de/english/">Bavarian Forest National Park</a>, have taken note of a population boom of bark beetles that, in 2018, caused the destruction of about 40 million cubic meters of wood in Central Europe. 

Although it’s been observed that mass outbreaks of <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/bark-beetle-epidemic-pushing-elk/">bark beetles</a> are followed by sudden declines in populations, little is known about why this pattern takes place. Therefore, the researchers behind this recent study, published in <a href="https://www.cell.com/trends/ecology-evolution/home">Trends in Ecology and Evolution</a>, demand more research into the bark beetle’s life cycle in order to protect timberlands from utter destruction.

"We have taken a number of elaborate measures to protect our forests against bark beetles. But we still know very little about what triggers the variations in bark beetle populations," says lead author Peter Biedermann, a researcher at the Department of Animal Ecology and Tropical Biology of the University of Würzburg. "It is an urgency to create the scientific foundation now to enable forestry officials and politicians to respond more efficiently to bark beetle outbreaks in the future." 

The results from these studies could potentially help scientists rebuke other harmful pests — that is, if anything should be done about harmful pests at all. Biedermann wonders if the best thing to do is just let the outbreaks run their course without intervention.

Even so, the scientists note that learning about the bark beetles’ life cycle, and its reaction to climate change, is pertinent. 

"The expected increases in the frequency and intensity of extreme weather events will additionally weaken German timberlands. Therefore, we will have to be prepared to tackle growing problems with the spruce bark beetle," said Jörg Müller, a professor at the Department of Animal Ecology and Tropical Biology at the University of Würzburg and Deputy Manager of the Bavarian Forest National Park.

[caption id="attachment_1874721" align="aligncenter" width="650"]<a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/07/bark-beetles.jpg"><img class="wp-image-1874721" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/07/bark-beetles.jpg" alt="" width="650" height="435" /></a> Image Credit: Rainer Simonis, Nationalpark Bayerischer Wald[/caption]

Because spruces are not really resistant to heat and drought, long-term water shortage weakens the tree’s defenses against the bark beetle — those being chemical substances and increased resin release. 

To learn more about which factors influence the bark beetle population boom, the research team suggest collecting worldwide data to identify knowledge gaps on the population dynamic of the bark beetles and other forest insects. They can then use this data to answer questions about how the beetles interact with different factors and move on to experimental field studies.

--

By <a href="mailto:oliviagharvey24@gmail.com">Olivia Harvey</a>, <a href="http://earth.com">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Image Credit: Rainer Simonis / Nationalpark Bayerischer Wald

A boom in bark beetles has left timberlands devastated

Researchers from the University of Würzburg, the Max Planck Institute...

Cockroaches have a reputation of being one of the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/cockroaches-survive-anything/">hardiest pests on Earth</a>, and you’ve probably heard that the insects could survive a nuclear war. 

What or will not kill a cockroach has become the source of many old wives tales and studies have even shown that a roach can survive for weeks in a sealed environment <a href="https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/fact-or-fiction-cockroach-can-live-without-head/">without its head</a>. 

Cockroaches are carriers of disease and can contaminate homes and food with dangerous bacteria like E. Coli. This makes the cockroach more than a nuisance and a threat to human health. 

New research has now found that some types of cockroaches are developing a resistance to insecticides making them even more difficult to kill.

Researchers from <a href="https://www.purdue.edu/">Purdue University </a>examined German cockroaches (Blattella germanica L.), which are one of the most common cockroaches found worldwide. Of all the roach species, Blattella germanica L. can lay more eggs in its lifetime with a female producing 30 to 50 eggs at a time. 

Found lingering near kitchen plumbing and behind drawers, the German cockroach is a household menace, and it’s getting more and more resilient against pest control methods. 

“This is a previously unrealized challenge in cockroaches,” said Michael Scharf, the leader of the study. “Cockroaches developing resistance to multiple classes of insecticides at once will make controlling these pests almost impossible with chemicals alone.”

Insecticides are categorized by class, and exterminators will use mixtures of classes to ensure that an infestation is wholly eradicated. 

For the study, the researchers tested out combinations of treatments to control German cockroach infestations in Indiana and Illinois. 

One treatment involved three different classes of insecticides used in rotation every month for three months. While this treatment was effective at keeping populations from increasing, it didn’t eradicate or decrease populations. 

The second treatment involved a mixture of two insecticides from different classes and were for six months straight, which had no effect and infestations thrived. 

The third treatment used an insecticide that the cockroaches had a low-level resistance to. 

“If you have the ability to test the roaches first and pick an insecticide that has low resistance, that ups the odds,” Scharf said. “But even then, we had trouble controlling populations.”

When they used the single insecticides, the researchers had better luck and controlling populations and were able to nearly eliminate one population. 

What the researchers were up against was cross-resistance. As one population exhibited low-level resistance to one class, their offspring were even more resistant until a generation of immune cockroaches was born. 

“We would see resistance increase four- or six-fold in just one generation,” said Scharf. “We didn’t have a clue that something like that could happen this fast.”

Even if exterminators see populations declining with one class, a case of eggs may be waiting to hatch that could be resistant to that insecticide and whatever mixture is tried next. 

Integrated pest management is critical, the researchers say, but the study shows that cockroaches are quick to adapt and evolve to survive no matter what. 

The study findings were published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-019-44296-y?_ga=2.158881594.1431671864.1562090922-2100280315.1562090922">Scientific Reports</a>. 

--

By <a href="mailto:kayvandette@gmail.com">Kay Vandette</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 

Image Credit: Shutterstock/luis2499

Cockroaches inherit pesticide resistance making them even harder to kill

Cockroaches have a reputation of being one of the hardiest...

The coats, colors, feathers, and stripes we see in the animal kingdom often evolved to play a specific role such as providing <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/snowshoe-hares-camouflage-winter-coats/">convenient camouflage</a> to hide from predators or prey or attracting mates. 

When it comes to the bright orange and black stripes of a tiger, researchers have long wondered why tigers have such seemingly obvious coat colors. In the jungle forests, an orange tiger is easy to spot, at least to human eyes. 

In a new study, researchers from the <a href="http://www.bristol.ac.uk/">University of Bristol </a>found that to colorblind prey, a tiger’s stripes help it blend into the green background. 

The research was published in the Journal of the Royal Society Interface. 

The researchers used computer simulations and image processing techniques to see how detectable a species is in its natural environment to other native animals in the same habitat. 

Using computer image processing allowed the researchers to see which colors are best suited for camouflage and which ones stand out. This approach was applied to two environments, a temperate forest, and a semi-arid desert. 

Simulating an environment through the eyes of an animal can help researchers better understand why certain coat colors evolved the way they did and which colors are optimal for camouflage.

To the trichromat eye, vision that can process red, blue and green colors, tigers appear orange. Deer, on the other hand, are only able to process blue and green and therefore are colorblind. 

This means that to a deer, a tiger blends into the background seamlessly, the researchers’ imaging processing showed. 

“Consider the coat of a tiger (Felis tigris); it has fur that appears orange to a trichromat observer rather than some shade of green, though the latter should be more appropriate camouflage for an ambush hunter in forests,” Dr. John Fennel, the lead author of the study wrote. “However, as illustrated, when viewed as a dichromat, the tiger’s colour is very effective.” 

Next, the researchers asked participants to spot a red object in an image made to simulate three-color vision and two-color vision. 

Participants had a much easier time spotting the red object in the three-color image. 

The research provides a plausible answer to why tigers evolved to have such conspicuous coloring, to their colorblind prey it’s the perfect disguise.

--

By <a href="mailto:kayvandette@gmail.com">Kay Vandette</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 

Image Credit: Shutterstock/Ondrej Prosicky

Why tigers have stripes

The coats, colors, feathers, and stripes we see in the...

Climate change is creating more challenges for migratory birds. Climate change is already shrinking habitats, warming ocean waters, and forcing many species to adapt inhospitable and unsuitable conditions.

Birds that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/birds-challenges-gulf-mexico/">migrate every year</a> are finding themselves in a similar conundrum. But instead of being forced out of their habitats, their usual resting grounds along their migration routes are no longer viable areas for either rest or food. 

Writing for the <a href="https://blog.nature.org/science/2019/05/08/can-migrating-birds-adapt-to-climate-change/?src=e.cgs.eg.x.loc_b&amp;lu=7672728&amp;autologin=true&amp;ds=y&amp;sus=y&amp;md=n">Cool Green Science Blog</a>, <a href="https://www.nature.org/en-us/">Nature Conservancy</a> science communications director Mathew Miller discusses how climate change is making migrations difficult and even life-threatening for birds. 

As migratory birds make their way to their breeding habitats, the usual rest stops they take along the way may no longer provide abundant sources of insect larvae that have fueled birds for generations before. 

Imagine driving your car, and you see the fuel is low. You know that there’s a gas station along the way, but when you stop to fill up, you see that the station is out of gas and you might have to drive another 20 or so miles to fuel up. If your car is running on empty, another 20 miles could be an impossible feat. 

This is becoming an increasingly common problem for migrating birds, and it all has to do with how climate change impacts seasonal cycles. 

Spring is <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earlier-springtime-hinders-plant-growth/">occurring earlier</a>, and winters are shorter in many places worldwide. Summers are getting hotter, and all these contributing factors are causing drastic changes in plant and animal cycles. 

Phenology is the study of animal cycles in relation to the seasons and climate, and climate and conservation research must include phenology to mitigate biodiversity declines.   

An early spring can be devastating for a migrating bird.

“As they cross states and continents, their stops to rest may no longer match up to hatching insects, blooming flowers and fruiting trees,” Miller wrote. 

Even in a small geographical area, topographical changes can influence seasonal changes. For example, while flowers may be blooming in one area, higher elevations may have slower seasonal progressions. 

The Nature Conservancy is currently involved in a project called <a href="https://blog.nature.org/science/2015/06/16/conserving-natures-stage-geodiversity-biodiversity-climate/">Conserving Nature’s Stage</a>, and it’s a program aimed at including in topography and other geographical factors into conservation efforts. 

Topographically diverse areas represent a key opportunity for bird conservation as well. 

If migrating birds find food scarce in one area, conservation could ensure that food sources are abundant nearby by ensuring that important sites are connected by land cover and easily accessible by birds. 

“Basically, conservation planning has to help hedge bets for birds,” Kim Hall, climate change scientist for the Nature Conservancy, told Miller. “They may not find insect larvae in one site, but in a lower elevation area, or on the cooler side of a hill, or near a cold groundwater-fed wetland, the larvae may still be abundant and available.”

--

By <a href="mailto:kayvandette@gmail.com">Kay Vandette</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 

Paid for by <a href="http://earth.com">Earth.com</a>

Image Credit: Shutterstock/GauSax

Climate change is creating more challenges for migratory birds

Climate change is creating more challenges for migratory birds. Climate...

Scientists at the <a href="https://www.exeter.ac.uk/">University of Exeter</a> have determined that hundreds of sharks and rays have been tangled in plastic marine waste. The team reviewed published studies and social media posts and found <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/ocean-plastic-pollution-bacteria/">plastic</a> entanglement reports involving more than a thousand individuals.

While this may pose a "far lesser threat" to sharks and rays than commercial fishing, the suffering involved is still a major concern.

"One example in the study is a shortfin mako shark with fishing rope wrapped tightly around it," said study co-author Kristian Parton. "The shark had clearly continued growing after becoming entangled, so the rope - which was covered in barnacles - had dug into its skin and damaged its spine."

"Although we don't think entanglement is a major threat to the future of sharks and rays, it's important to understand the range of threats facing these species, which are among the most threatened in the oceans.

"Additionally, there's a real animal welfare issue because entanglements can cause pain, suffering and even death."

The review of published studies found reports of 557 sharks and rays entangled in plastic, including 34 species in the Atlantic, Pacific, and Indian Oceans. 

"Due to the threats of direct overfishing  of sharks and rays, and 'bycatch' (accidental catching while fishing for other species), the issue of entanglement has perhaps gone a little under the radar," said study co-author Professor Brendan Godley.

"We set out to remedy this. Our study was the first to use Twitter to gather such data, and our results from the social media site revealed entanglements of species - and in places - not recorded in the academic papers."

Twitter contained 74 entanglement reports involving 559 individual sharks and rays of 26 different species, such as whale sharks, great whites, tiger sharks, and basking sharks. 

Overall, the most common entanglement objects were "ghost" fishing gear, including nets, lines, and other equipment that has been discarded or lost in the ocean.

According to the experts, their estimate does not even represent the true number of incidents given the fact that few plastic entanglement studies have been focused on sharks and rays.

 The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.int-res.com/journals/esr/esr-home/">Endangered Species Research</a>.

-

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Image Credit: Daniel Cartamil

Hundreds of sharks and rays have gotten tangled in ocean plastic

Scientists at the University of Exeter have determined that hundreds...

A new study has revealed that it’s not just city skyscrapers and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/wind-turbines-hurt-robins/">wind turbines</a> that pose a threat to birds.

Traffic noise and other city sounds have been found to be harmful to robins as they can hinder the bird’s hearing.

Researchers from <a href="https://www.queensu.ca/">Queen’s University </a>in Northern Ireland discovered that human background noise disrupts how robins hear aggressive warning calls, which could lead to population declines in urban areas. 

Robins are territorial. If they hear a nearby robin encroaching near their nest, evidenced by a loud and aggressive chirping, the robin will respond in kind with a quick and complicated succession of chirps that warns the other bird to stay away.

This exchange of warning birdsongs is important for assessing threats in areas where food is scarce. A robin uses its best judgment to decide if it’s worth it to fight or look for food elsewhere. 

To see how city noises impact these exchanges, the researchers played warning calls to 15 robins with no noise in the background. 

The robins that heard the recordings responded with loud and complex warning calls of their own, quickly firing back at the more aggressive recordings.

Next, the researchers played the recordings with background traffic noise. The robins were not able to tell the difference between an aggressive territorial call and a regular birdsong. 

“We found that bird song structure can communicate aggressive intent, enabling birds to assess their opponent,” said Dr. Gareth Arnott, the senior author of the study. “But human-made noise can disrupt this crucial information passed between them by masking the complexity of their songs used for acquiring resources, such as territory and space for nesting.” 

The researchers knew that the white noise impacted bird hearing because the robins did not respond with their usual loud and quick warning calls when they heard the recordings with traffic noises. 

“The study is evidence that human-made noise pollution impacts animal habitats and directly influences their ability to communicate properly, which may have implications for survival and population numbers for birds,” said Arnott. “This must be further investigated in order to protect our valued biodiversity.” 

The researchers published their findings in a study in the journal Biology Letters.

--

By <a href="mailto:kayvandette@gmail.com">Kay Vandette</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/">Earth.com </a>Staff Writer 

Image Credit: Nicky Rhodes

Traffic noises prevent robins from accurately assessing threats

A new study has revealed that it’s not just city...

Gorillas have a far more complex social structure than previously realized, and a new study has discovered many parallels between human societies and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/african-mountain-gorillas-friendships/">gorilla families</a>.

Years worth of careful monitoring of gorillas in the Republic of Congo provided researchers from the <a href="https://www.cam.ac.uk/">University of Cambridge </a>with a better understanding of the complicated social systems of gorillas. 

The researchers published their findings in the journal Proceedings of the Royal Society B. 

The results of the study indicate that social systems in humans didn’t evolve separately but that the roots of these systems can be traced much further back along our family tree to the common ancestor of humans and gorillas. 

For over six years, the researchers monitored western lowland gorillas in two sites in the Republic of Congo. 

“Studying the social lives of gorillas can be tricky,” said Dr. Robin Morrison, the lead author of the study. “Gorillas spend most of their time in dense forest, and it can take years for them to habituate to humans. Where forests open up into swampy clearings, gorillas gather to feed on the aquatic vegetation. Research teams set up monitoring platforms by these clearings and record the lives of gorillas from dawn to dusk over many years.”

A gorilla band is typically comprised of a dominant male with several females and their offspring. Some bachelor gorillas travel together in groups. 

Morrison identified previous social layers among gorilla units that had never before been recorded. 

[caption id="attachment_1874958" align="aligncenter" width="650"]<a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/07/gorilla-groups.jpeg"><img class="wp-image-1874958" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/07/gorilla-groups.jpeg" alt="" width="650" height="359" /></a> Three western gorilla groups mingle peacefully, Image Credit: Wildlife Conservation Society[/caption]

Statistical algorithms were used to help find patterns in the interactions between the gorillas and the researchers recorded the length and frequency of “associations” or interactions. 

The researchers discovered a second circle of extended family, a tier of about 13 gorillas beyond the immediate family, and an even larger third circle of 39 gorillas similar to a group of friends or co-workers that spent time together without being related. 

“Females spend time in multiple groups throughout their lives, making it possible for males not closely related to grow up in the same natal group, similar to step-brothers,” said Morrison. “The bonds that form may lead to these associations we see as adults. If we think of these associations in a human-centric way, the time spent in each other’s company might be analogous to an old friendship.” 

Gorillas may even congregate together during special events like when their favorite fruits are in season, which could be similar to the festivals that humans gather for.

Very few species of mammals have similar social structures to humans, and food is an important driving factor in these social systems. 

“Western gorillas often move many kilometres a day to feed from a diverse range of plants that rarely and unpredictably produce fruit,” said Morrison. “This food is easier to find if they collaborate when foraging.”

The study could help pinpoint the origins of human social behavior and shows that our social systems evolved much earlier than previously realized. 

“While primate societies vary a lot between species, we can now see an underlying structure in gorillas that was likely present before our species diverged, one that fits surprisingly well as a model for human social evolution,” said Morrison. “Our findings provide yet more evidence that these endangered animals are deeply intelligent and sophisticated, and that we humans are perhaps not quite as special as we might like to think.”

--

By <a href="mailto:kayvandette@gmail.com">Kay Vandette</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 

Image Credit: Wildlife Conservation Society

Complex gorilla societies shed light on early roots of human social evolution

Gorillas have a far more complex social structure than previously...

Black vultures in Kentucky are moving north due to climate change and killing more cattle every year due to their newly expanded range. 

Vultures are known for eating carrion (dead carcasses), and because they are such effective scavenging birds of prey, they are one of nature’s key garbage disposals. 

Black vultures can make quick work of road kill, but they are also formidable hunters and are significantly contributing to livestock declines. 

The <a href="https://www.app.com/story/news/nation/2019/06/26/black-turkey-vultures-eating-cows-into-kentucky-farmers-profits/1579224001/?utm_source=fark&amp;utm_medium=website&amp;utm_content=link&amp;ICID=ref_fark">Louisville Courier-Journal</a> recently reported that increased black vulture populations cause farmers to lose $300,000 to $500,00 in animals every year. 

The vultures descend on livestock, pecking out the eyes and leaving just the skeleton and hide behind. It’s a gruesome sight, and it’s causing major problems for farmers. 

Climate change is increasing temperatures, and the vultures are spreading further north in search of more favorable habitats.

It’s a pattern being witnessed in many regions with entire ecosystems shifting due to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ecosystems-moving-north/">temperature increases</a>. But for those who are unable to migrate to more temperate regions, climate change is driving population declines and increasing the risk of extinction. 

The black vulture has been seen wintering as far as Massachusetts. 

As part of the US Migratory Birds Act, vultures are protected, which means that there are severe restrictions for farmers wishing to protect their livestock and livelihoods. 

It is possible to get a permit to kill vultures, but these cost $100 and limit the number of birds a farmer can kill. 

--

By <a href="mailto:kayvandette@gmail.com">Kay Vandette</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 

Paid for by <a href="http://earth.com">Earth.com</a>

Image Credit: Pascal De Munck/Shutterstock

Scavenging birds of prey are on the rise due to climate change

Black vultures in Kentucky are moving north due to climate...

Researchers at the <a href="https://le.ac.uk/">University of Leicester</a> have discovered that <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/pterodactyls-didnt-fly-bats/">pterodactyls</a> were able to fly from the time they were born. This remarkable finding is significant in that no other vertebrate in history has had this ability at birth. 

Until now, it was believed that pterodactyls could not take flight until they were almost fully grown, like bats and birds. Evidence for this theory was provided by fossilized embryos of pterodactyls found in China with poorly developed wings.

Dr. David Unwin, a paleobiologist who specializes in the study of pterodactyls, teamed up with zoologist Dr. Charles Deeming of the University of Lincoln to investigate. The experts compared the pterodactyl embryos with data on prenatal growth in birds and crocodiles. They determined that these particular specimens were still at an early stage of development.

Based on more advanced embryos from China and Argentina that died just before they hatched, the researchers were able to conclude that pterodactyls had the ability to fly from birth. "Theoretically what pterosaurs did, growing and flying, is impossible, but they didn't know this, so they did it anyway," said Dr. Unwin.

Unlike baby birds or bats, pterodactyls had no parental care and had to look after themselves from birth. The ability to fly gave them a strong defense against carnivorous dinosaurs. However, many pterodactyls died at a very young age as a result of the dangers associated with flying. 

The fact that pterodactyls could fly throughout their entire lives provides a possible explanation for how they were able to reach enormous wingspans that ranged from about 10 to 30 feet. Further research is needed to fully understand how the extinct reptiles managed to fly and grow at the same time. 

The study is published in the <a href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/journal/rspb">Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences</a>.

--

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Image Credit: Shutterstock/Dariush M

Pterodactyls were the only vertebrates who could fly from birth

Researchers at the University of Leicester have discovered that pterodactyls...

Scientists have witnessed, for the first time, the adoption of an injured juvenile by Barbary macaques. The group of wild monkeys was observed in the Middle Atlas Mountains of Morocco consoling a distressed young monkey from a neighboring group before nursing it back to health. 

A nearly three-year-old juvenile named "Pipo" was seriously injured in a traffic accident and became separated from his family. Two days later, a group of <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/female-japanese-macaques-red/">macaques</a> found Pipo and took care of him for four months. The young monkey ultimately made a full recovery and was able to return home. 

The affectionate exchange was observed in Ifrane National Park, which is one of the Barbary macaque's last remaining areas of residence. The observation provides valuable information to researchers and local communities who are trying to protect the endangered species, which is threatened by habitat loss and poaching.

[caption id="attachment_1875114" align="aligncenter" width="630"]<a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/07/monkey.jpg"><img class="size-full wp-image-1875114" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/07/monkey.jpg" alt="" width="630" height="456" /></a> Image Credit: IFAW[/caption]

Study co-author Liz Campbell is an expert in the Wildlife Conservation Research Unit (WildCRU) in the Department of Zoology at <a href="http://www.ox.ac.uk/">Oxford University</a>.

"We thought fostering may only be an option for very young monkeys, but Pipo's case shows even older juveniles can be accepted by wild foster groups," said Campbell. "This observation provides valuable information for rehabilitation and release strategies, which will help improve welfare of rescued macaques, strengthen wild populations, and free space in sanctuaries to allow continued confiscations to fight illegal trade."

The development of wild foster groups could be a promising strategy for supporting Barbary macaques. Pipo's experience offers hope that even older confiscated juveniles could be candidates for fostering.

"Barbary macaques are very social, so to return them to the wild they must be with a group, not as lone individuals," said Campbell. "The conventional method for returning primates to the wild is rehabilitation and release of groups formed in captivity, but because of the attention and care that Barbary macaques, especially males, give to young, there is the possibility not only to release rehabilitated groups but also to release individual young into foster groups in the wild."

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://link.springer.com/journal/10329">Primates</a>.

--

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Main Image Credit: IFAW

Wild monkeys care for an adopted injured juvenile through his recovery

Scientists have witnessed, for the first time, the adoption of...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2E0mn5mTvhQ
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">'Death Star' moon Mimas conceals a 15-million-year-old ocean that scientists never expected.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hidden-waters-beneath-ancient-craters">Hidden waters beneath ancient craters</h2>



Scientists have made a startling discovery that challenges everything we thought we knew about <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/saturn-moon-mimas-has-remarkably-young-ocean/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Saturn's moon Mimas</a>. Beneath the heavily cratered surface that earned it the nickname "Death Star" lies a global ocean that formed just 5 to 15 million years ago—a remarkably young age by cosmic standards.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cassini-data-reveals-orbital-secrets">Cassini data reveals orbital secrets</h2>



The discovery, led by Dr. Valéry Lainey of the <a href="https://observatoiredeparis.psl.eu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Observatoire de Paris</a>, emerged from careful analysis of <a href="https://www.nasa.gov" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NASA</a>'s Cassini spacecraft data. By studying subtle irregularities in Mimas's orbit around Saturn, researchers detected the gravitational signature of liquid water hidden 20 to 30 kilometers beneath the moon's icy shell.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-an-unlikely-ocean-world">An unlikely ocean world</h2>



At only 400 kilometers in diameter, Mimas seemed like the least likely candidate to harbor a subsurface ocean. Unlike other ocean moons such as Europa and Enceladus, which show clear surface signs of internal activity, Mimas displays no obvious hints of the liquid water beneath its ancient, crater-scarred exterior.



"Mimas is a small moon, and its heavily cratered surface gave no hint of the hidden ocean beneath," explained Dr. Nick Cooper from <a href="https://www.qmul.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Queen Mary University of London</a>, a study co-author.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-astrobiology">Implications for astrobiology</h2>



The ocean's recent formation makes Mimas a prime target for studying how oceans develop and potentially support life. This discovery adds another member to the exclusive club of ocean worlds in our solar system, each offering unique insights into the conditions necessary for habitability.



The research, published in <a href="https://www.nature.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature</a> journal, demonstrates how advanced orbital analysis can reveal hidden features of celestial bodies, opening new possibilities for understanding ocean formation throughout the cosmos.



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Scientists discover unexpected young ocean on Saturn's cratered moon Mimas

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2E0mn5mTvhQ 'Death Star' moon Mimas conceals a 15-million-year-old ocean that...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE
</div></figure>



On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop and sunlight barely penetrates through the polar winter. It was here, however, that an international team of scientists found <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/predatory-worms-were-terror-beasts-half-a-billion-years-ago/#google_vignette" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evidence of sea monsters</a> that would change our understanding of ocean life in the past.



This video captures the discovery of Timorebestia fossils that had been hidden for more than 500 million years in the Sirius Passet formation. The "terror beasts," as they are called, are a hidden chapter in the evolutionary history of <a href="https://www.earth.com" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Earth</a>, showing that sophisticated predator-prey interactions occurred much earlier than previously envisioned.



Dr. Jakob Vinther and his research team at the <a href="https://www.bristol.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Bristol</a>, in collaboration with researchers at the <a href="https://eng.kopri.re.kr/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Korean Polar Research Institute</a>, braved extreme weather conditions at 82.5 north latitude to locate these giant creatures. Using sophisticated electron microprobe analysis, they revealed the detailed anatomy of the animals, including their muscle and nerve tissues.



The find upsets the traditional timeline of sea predators. Although we've long appreciated that Cambrian oceans were at one time ruled by <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jWI3-UgA3_o&amp;list=PL1QLQMW9MWDwpkFOnvgAmu7wT6rZmYqdJ&amp;index=19" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">arthropods</a>, these discoveries indicate that relatives of arrow worms were first to dominate the seas. These worms were building sophisticated food webs several million years before other predator groups arose.



Each fossil is a story of ancient hunger, with fossil stomach contents revealing these meter-long beasts dined on heavily armored arthropods regularly, cementing their place as the ocean's first apex predators.



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Worms dominated seas before dinosaurs

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">New York is the site of the world's oldest forest.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-385-million-year-old-trees-discovered">385-million-year-old trees discovered</h2>



Scientists have uncovered something extraordinary just two hours north of New York City. The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/worlds-oldest-forest-discovered-close-to-new-york-city/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">world's oldest forest</a>, dating back 385 million years, offers a window into how Earth's first complex forests shaped our planet's atmosphere.



Located near <a href="https://townofcairo.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cairo, New York</a>, in Greene County, these weren't merely primitive plants struggling to survive. These were sophisticated trees with root systems remarkably similar to modern forests. This ancient woodland predates dinosaurs by 140 million years.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-cairo-forest-discovery">The Cairo forest discovery</h2>



385 million years ago, upstate New York was a tropical paradise near the equator. Thanks to continental drift, this ancient forest has traveled thousands of miles to its current location.



The fossil forest sits in an abandoned quarry, roughly half the size of a football field. This represents just a slice of what was likely a massive forest system stretching from New York into Pennsylvania.



Charles Ver Straeten, curator of sedimentary rocks at the <a href="https://www.nysm.nysed.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">New York State Museum</a>, made the discovery in 2009. While scouting the former highway department property, his trained eye spotted wandering patterns in the stone that looked like marine features.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-revolutionary-age-and-preservation">Revolutionary age and preservation</h2>



The site contains 385-million-year-old rocks with fossilized woody roots forming horizontal patterns up to 18 feet (5.5 meters) wide. As Christopher Berry, a paleobotanist at Cardiff University, explains: "You are walking through the roots of ancient trees."



This discovery pushes back advanced tree evolution by millions of years. The research, published in <a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/home" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Current Biology</a> in December 2019, fundamentally changes our understanding of when complex forests first emerged.



Researchers believe a massive flood buried the forest floor, creating perfect fossilization conditions. Over millions of years, sediment hardened into rock, preserving these root patterns like nature's time capsule.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-meet-archaeopteris-the-first-modern-tree">Meet Archaeopteris: the first modern tree</h2>



The star of this ancient forest is Archaeopteris – not to be confused with the feathered dinosaur Archaeopteryx. This tree was far older and more revolutionary.



William Stein from <a href="https://www.binghamton.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Binghamton University</a> describes the roots as "strikingly modern, essentially what you'd see outside in my yard right now." These weren't simple root systems you'd expect from ancient plants.



Some fossilized roots are six inches (15 centimeters) in diameter, forming 36-foot-wide (11-meter) patterns. These giants grew up to 65 feet (20 meters) tall with five-foot-diameter (1.5-meter) trunks.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-changing-impact">Climate-changing impact</h2>



These trees fundamentally changed Earth's environment. Kevin Boyce, a Stanford University geoscientist, explains how their deep roots triggered "weathering," chemical reactions that pulled carbon dioxide from the atmosphere.



This process dropped atmospheric CO2 levels from 10-15 times higher than today to roughly modern concentrations. These ancient trees helped create atmospheric conditions that made complex life possible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ancient-forest-ecosystem">Ancient forest ecosystem</h2>



The forest was remarkably diverse. Scientists identified Eospermatopteris, palm tree-like plants with short roots that reached 30 feet (9 meters) tall but lacked woody structure. The forest also housed cladoxylopsids and a mysterious third species still being studied.



All reproduced through spores rather than seeds – millions of years before seeds evolved. This tropical environment had no grass, flowers, or flying insects, just towering trees creating Earth's first complex forest canopy.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-scientific-significance">Scientific significance</h2>



Before this finding, the Gilboa forest, located 25 miles (40 kilometers) away, held the "oldest forest" title. Cairo's trees are 2-3 million years older, showing that complex forest ecosystems developed much faster than scientists believed possible.



Patricia Gensel, a <a href="https://www.unc.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of North Carolina</a> paleobotanist, notes: "The size of those root systems is really changing the picture. Even 20 years ago, researchers assumed trees with such complex root systems didn't evolve so early."



The Cairo site presents three unique root systems, suggesting Devonian period forests were diverse ecosystems with different trees occupying different environmental niches, much like today's forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-modern-preservation-efforts">Modern preservation efforts</h2>



In 2022, New York State Senator Michelle Hinchey secured a $170,000 grant for the town of Cairo to construct specialized fencing around the fossil forest site. The town plans to conduct a feasibility study exploring the possibility of creating an educational center and working lab on-site.



Joe Hasenkopf, chair of the Cairo Planning Board, hopes to partner with educational institutions to create a research facility serving scientists, students, and the public.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lessons-for-today-s-climate">Lessons for today's climate</h2>



Why does a 385-million-year-old forest matter today? It shows how dramatically forests can change Earth's climate. These ancient woodlands created the atmospheric conditions supporting complex life.



Understanding how prehistoric forests transformed the planet helps us appreciate modern forests' critical role in addressing climate change. Forests remain Earth's most effective carbon capture systems.



These prehistoric trees changed Earth's atmosphere by pulling massive amounts of carbon dioxide from the air. As we face modern climate challenges, this ancient forest reminds us of trees' incredible power to transform our planet's environment.



The next time you walk through a forest, remember you're experiencing an ecosystem whose blueprint was established 385 million years ago in upstate New York. These ancient pioneers didn't just survive – they thrived and changed the world forever.



The full study was published in the journal Current Biology.



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Earth's oldest forest found in the United States

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ New York is the site of the world's oldest...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Acid rain and a crisis solved.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-don-t-we-ever-hear-about-acid-rain-anymore-the-environmental-crisis-that-was-solved">Why don't we ever hear about "acid rain" anymore? The environmental crisis that was solved</h2>



Remember the 1980s when acid rain dominated headlines? Dire warnings about rain eating buildings, killing fish, and destroying forests filled every news cycle. Then, almost like magic, acid rain vanished from public discourse. What happened? Did we actually solve one of the late 20th century's most pressing environmental challenges?



The answer might surprise you. Unlike many environmental issues that drag on indefinitely, acid rain represents one of modern history's most successful ecological recovery stories. It's a tale of science, politics, and technology working together to tackle what seemed impossible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What was acid rain?</h2>



Acid rain isn't regular rain having a bad day – it's precipitation that became significantly more acidic due to air pollution. When power plants, factories, and vehicles burn fossil fuels, they release sulfur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides (NOx) into the atmosphere.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The science behind it</h2>



Think of acid rain as nature's chemistry experiment gone wrong. These compounds react with water, oxygen, and other chemicals to form sulfuric and nitric acids. When mixed with water vapor in clouds, they create precipitation with dangerously low pH levels.



While clean rain has a pH of about 5.6, acid rain could drop as low as 4.2 to 4.4 – roughly as acidic as tomato juice or coffee. According to US Geological Survey documentation, Scottish chemist Angus Smith first coined "acid rain" in 1872, but it didn't become a household phrase until the 1960s and 1970s when Swedish scientist Svante Odén documented its devastating effects on Scandinavian lakes and European forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The crisis at its peak</h2>



During the height of public concern, environmental damage was both widespread and visible. This wasn't some abstract future threat – people could see destruction happening in real-time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Environmental devastation</h2>



The most dramatic impacts were impossible to ignore. Research documented by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation and the New York State Department of Environmental Conservation shows that in the Adirondack Mountains, more than 200 lakes became so acidic they couldn't support fish life. The Adirondack Council reports that 409 lakes once supported brook trout, but many lost their fish populations due to acid rain.



By 1976, when scientists cataloged all acidified lakes in the Adirondack Park, researchers found that half of the lakes over 2,000 feet above sea level had no fish, according to studies published in environmental journals. The acidification process worked like a slow-motion disaster. As acid rain fell into watersheds, it gradually lowered pH levels. Fish couldn't survive in acidic water, and their food sources died off too.



Trees at high elevations showed stress directly linked to acid rain. It weakened them by leaching nutrients and making them susceptible to disease. Historical records show Germany's Black Forest saw nearly half its trees damaged by the mid-1980s.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Economic impact</h2>



Acid rain wasn't just environmental – it was expensive. Acidic precipitation corroded infrastructure, buildings, and monuments. Historic stone structures deteriorated at accelerated rates. Tourism suffered as lakes became fishless and forests declined. EPA economic analyses from the period documented repair costs mounting into billions annually.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The solution: government action and technology</h2>



Transformation from crisis to success required unprecedented cooperation between governments, industries, and environmental groups.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The Clean Air Act of 1990</h2>



The turning point came with the Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990, signed by President George H.W. Bush. This represented a fundamentally new approach to environmental regulation, as documented in EPA historical records.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Cap-and-trade success</h2>



Instead of mandating specific technologies, the 1990 amendments introduced something revolutionary: a cap-and-trade system for sulfur dioxide emissions. EPA program documentation shows this market-based approach set overall limits but allowed companies to trade emission allowances.



The genius was harnessing market forces to find cost-effective pollution reduction. Companies reducing emissions cheaply could sell excess allowances to those facing higher costs. Research published in environmental economics journals and EPA progress reports shows this resulted in dramatic SO2 reduction at a fraction of projected costs.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Technology advances</h2>



Policy provided the framework, but technology made reductions possible. Studies in atmospheric science journals document the widespread adoption of flue gas desulfurization systems ("scrubbers") that removed sulfur dioxide before it reached the atmosphere. By the 2000s, new installations could remove over 95% of SO2 emissions, according to EPA technical reports.



The push coincided with cleaner energy development. Natural gas produces fewer sulfur compounds than coal. Wind and solar, emerging in the 1990s, captured growing market share, reducing reliance on high-sulfur coal.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-we-don-t-hear-about-it-today">Why we don't hear about it today</h2>



Why did acid rain disappear from headlines? Simple: the problem was largely solved.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Success doesn't make news</h2>



There's an old journalism saying: "If it bleeds, it leads." Environmental success stories don't generate urgency like crisis reporting. Media attention shifted to other challenges: climate change, plastic pollution, and biodiversity loss. There's only so much environmental anxiety the public can absorb, and newer concerns replaced acid rain.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Mission accomplished</h2>



The primary reason is beautifully simple: interventions worked. EPA monitoring data shows sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990. Academic research published in environmental science journals confirms pH levels in formerly affected areas returned closer to normal. This represents one of history's most dramatic environmental recoveries. Studies by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation show fishless lakes now support healthy populations. Forests recovered, and building damage slowed dramatically.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-is-it-really-gone">Is it really gone?</h2>



The crisis is largely resolved, but monitoring data shows the problem isn't completely eliminated – it's managed to acceptable levels. Some areas still experience occasional events during high pollution periods. International environmental research indicates that rapidly industrializing Asian countries face similar problems to what we experienced decades ago, though they're implementing successful strategies.



EPA research shows nitrogen oxide emissions proved more challenging than sulfur dioxide, coming from vehicles and mobile sources. Climate science studies suggest changing weather patterns add complexity to how acid rain forms and falls.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What this teaches us</h2>



The acid rain experience proves that seemingly intractable environmental problems can be solved with scientific understanding, political will, and technological innovation. Environmental monitoring data shows recovery speed was remarkable – within a decade, measurable improvements appeared in air quality and ecosystem health.



Success came from bipartisan support across party lines. Policy analysis studies show the market-based approach appealed to those preferring economic incentives while achieving environmental goals. This support created lasting policy surviving political changes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Conclusion</h2>



Acid rain's disappearance from public consciousness represents environmental science's greatest success stories. Through effective regulation, technological innovation, and international cooperation, we transformed an overwhelming crisis into a manageable challenge.



Today's silence isn't because we forgot – it's because we solved it. The 1990 Clean Air Act, combined with technology and energy market changes, reduced acid rain emissions over 90%, according to comprehensive EPA data analysis.



This success offers hope for current challenges. It proves complex problems can be solved when science, policy, and technology work together. As we face climate change and plastic pollution, acid rain reminds us that dramatic positive change is possible.



Next time someone asks whether environmental regulations work, remember acid rain. It's proof that sometimes, we get it right.



<hr class="wp-block-separator has-alpha-channel-opacity"/>



Sources: This article draws from EPA official documentation and progress reports, peer-reviewed research published in environmental and atmospheric science journals, historical data from the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation, New York State Department of Environmental Conservation records, US Geological Survey publications, policy analysis studies, and environmental monitoring data collected over three decades.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Frequently Asked Questions</h2>



1. Is acid rain completely gone? No, but EPA monitoring shows it's reduced to manageable levels. US sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990, making acid rain much less severe than the 1980s crisis.



2. How long did solving take? Environmental monitoring data shows significant improvements began within 5-10 years of 1990s emission controls. Full ecosystem recovery took longer – some areas need 20-30 years for complete recovery.



3. What made the solution successful? Clear scientific understanding, visible damage motivating action, bipartisan support, available technology, and innovative market-based policies like cap-and-trade.



4. Do other countries have acid rain problems? Yes, particularly rapidly industrializing Asian countries. However, international environmental research shows many implement similar successful control strategies.



5. Could acid rain return? Potentially, if regulations weaken or we return to high-sulfur coal without controls, though effects would take years to become severe according to environmental projections.



6. Can you recommend any teaching tools on the subject of "acid rain"? The United States Environmental Protection Agency produced a wonderful teacher's guide for ages 14 and under that you can find on the EPA website here: <a href="https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf</a>



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The environmental problem we actually solved

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk Acid rain and a crisis solved. Why don't we...

Fresh,Radish,Harvest,On,Soil,In,Garden.

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Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving fall garden, and this guide lays out the best vegetables and herbs to plant now for a fruitful autumn harvest. 



Fast-growing leafy greens such as spinach, lettuce, kale, and arugula perform especially well in the waning summer heat, with harvests beginning as soon as 30 days. 



These cool-season crops relish the transition into fall, offering repeated yields with cut-and-come-again methods.



Root vegetables like radishes, carrots, and beets also excel during this period. Radishes deliver satisfaction in under a month, while carrots and beets mature in about two months. Employing succession planting ensures a continuous stream of produce deep into the cooler months. 



For a boost of fresh flavor, herbs like cilantro, basil, dill, and chervil are excellent picks. These heat-loving varieties flourish in July’s warmth and are harvest-ready in about 30 days, especially when sown continuously.



Gardeners in zones 6 through 9 can benefit from planting bush beans and snap peas, which don’t require trellising and are ideal for compact plots. 



Maturing in 50–60 days, they’re a smart choice for quick, protein-rich harvests. For those in hotter regions, heat-tolerant crops such as okra and southern peas provide reliable yields and thrive in scorching conditions.



This guide emphasizes more than crop selection—it highlights the importance of timing, soil preparation, and ongoing sowing techniques. 



With thoughtful planning and attention to regional climate needs, even late-summer gardeners can enjoy fresh salads, hearty stews, and the satisfaction of a robust, homegrown harvest well into fall.



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What to plant in your garden in mid-July

https://youtu.be/Fi2OeEwuzRM?si=vTyd2m9FMmtyWkex Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving...

Green,Ecoduct,Over,An,Empty,Highway,During,Sunset.

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A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that wildlife tunnels significantly reduce amphibian road mortality during seasonal migrations. 



Frogs and salamanders often cross roads to reach breeding ponds each spring, but many are killed by vehicles. 



Researchers from the <a href="https://www.uvm.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Vermont</a>, in collaboration with local citizens and the Vermont Agency of Natural Resources, installed two underpass tunnels in 2015. 



Over a 12-year monitoring period, they observed an 80.2% reduction in amphibian deaths, and up to 94% for non-climbing species like salamanders. 



The study used a before-after-control-impact design and documented more than 5,200 amphibians, highlighting the tunnels’ effectiveness even in nearby buffer zones.



Funded at $342,397 - far cheaper than wildlife crossings for large mammals - the project showcased the power of community-led conservation.



Local groups initiated the effort after observing mass amphibian deaths. Wildlife cameras later captured over 2,200 amphibians using a tunnel in just one spring, along with other species like raccoons and bobcats, indicating wider ecosystem benefits.



This marks the first peer-reviewed, long-term data set in the northeastern U.S. confirming amphibian-specific underpasses work. 



The study urges transportation departments to incorporate these designs into road planning and highlights how community action, thoughtful infrastructure, and persistence can make a real difference for biodiversity.



The full study was published in the <a href="https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1617138125000780" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal for Nature Conservation</a>.



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-----

Wildlife tunnels save millions of amphibians

https://youtu.be/XYgiPzmNBTU?si=eFYY7gPHU1JznLvU A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that...

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing it with probiotics and prebiotics, aiming to create a treat that satisfies cravings while supporting gut health. 



The challenge lies in maintaining chocolate's beloved texture and flavor while adding health benefits.



<figure class="wp-block-embed aligncenter is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://youtu.be/Ug657J67iEo?si=w96YjGMsg939LD_3
</div></figure>



Probiotics - beneficial microbes that balance gut bacteria and aid digestion - are typically fragile and can be destroyed by stomach acid or processing. 



Prebiotics act as food for these microbes, helping them thrive. Together, they form "synbiotics," a powerful health combination.



Researchers Smriti Gaur and Shubhi Singh from India's Jaypee Institute of Information Technology took an innovative approach, using natural prebiotics like corn and honey instead of complex processing methods. 



They created five chocolate varieties: a control and four synbiotic versions containing different combinations of prebiotics, probiotics (Lactobacillus strains), and flavor enhancers (cinnamon or orange).



Laboratory simulations of human digestion showed the probiotics remained viable for over five hours, suggesting they could survive long enough to benefit gut health.



Taste tests were positive, with researchers particularly enjoying the orange-flavored variety, describing it as having "vibrant citrus notes" complementing the "rich cocoa" with a "luxurious" texture.



This research represents just the beginning. With further refinement of strains, textures, and flavors, chocolate could evolve beyond mere indulgence to become a functional food that nourishes while it delights.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.4c00741" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ACS Food Science &amp; Technology</a>.

Is chocolate the next nutritional powerhouse?

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

[sendtonews key="0ynNMYkMKa-2340414-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

[sendtonews key="G9bUoxcjr4-2511624-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

[sendtonews key="3upvlAaHgO-2256633-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

[sendtonews key="LvS8v8bp9z-2564889-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How does salt makes things taste better?

[sendtonews key="X0f6OHYoI4-2310561-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Santiago, Chile in South America

[sendtonews key="JRaP49ISmm-2357509-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

[sendtonews key="e4ZG0Jawp3-2374785-12187" type="single"] Astronomers at Johns Hopkins University have created...

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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.



According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."



Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;



ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. 



Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

[sendtonews key="uV9Lh2fQbV-1760058-12187" type="single"] Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

[sendtonews key="qjvhBOBnY8-2426650-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

[sendtonews key="oL4FnPTGCV-2384527-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

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Earth,Like,Exoplanet,3d,Render

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

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