Bees can turn awkward spaces into tidy hives. New research shows how they adapt their comb-building playbook when surfaces become irregular, using clever fixes that keep the hive functional.



The behavior resembles a distributed construction crew. It could even inspire better ways to print objects layer by layer.



A team of researchers at the <a href="https://www.colorado.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Colora</a><a href="https://www.colorado.edu/">do Boulder</a> explored how bees coordinate to build usable honeycomb on imperfect foundations. Their experiments revealed robust, rule-like strategies that emerged from many tiny actions by individual bees.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-beeswax-is-the-hive-s-concrete">Beeswax is the hive’s concrete</h2>



“Building a hive is a beautiful example of honeybees solving a problem collectively,” said Orit Peleg, an associate professor in CU Boulder’s Department of Computer Science. “Each bee has a little bit of wax, and knows where to deposit it, but we know very little about how they make these decisions.”



A colony builds on a precious budget. Bees spend warm months foraging nectar. Enzymes in saliva help convert that nectar into honey, which then dries and thickens inside cells. The economics are demanding: it takes roughly two million flower visits to make a pound of honey.



Then each worker eats about eight ounces of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/natures-sweet-remedy-honey-is-a-microbial-marvel/">honey</a> to secrete a single ounce of wax. Wax is the concrete of the hive. The more efficiently bees use it, the more room they have for food and brood.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-power-of-hexagons">The power of hexagons</h2>



Under ideal conditions, bees favor near-perfect <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bees-and-wasps-use-the-same-nest-building-tricks-despite-independent-evolution/">hexagons</a>. The geometry is famous for efficiently packing space while using minimal material.



Natural nest sites, however, rarely offer perfect planes. Hollow trees, attic voids, and box frames introduce ripples, gaps, and curves.



On rough terrain, ideal cells become costly. Irregular sizes require more wax and reduce storage and brood efficiency. The hive still has to function - so the bees adjust.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-bees-tackle-structural-challenges">Bees tackle structural challenges</h2>



The team set out to observe how those adjustments unfold. “We wanted to find the rules of decision-making in a distributed colony,” said Golnar Gharooni Fard, the study’s lead author.



They 3D-printed comb “foundations” with shallow hexagon guides in several sizes - smaller than normal, larger than normal, and near average.



These panels were placed into live hives near Boulder Creek, where forager bees mingled with returnees and the walls of hexagons began to rise.



After the bees built, the researchers scanned the new comb with X-ray microscopy to map its fine structure. The result was a catalog of on-the-fly building tactics that allowed colonies to bridge mismatches between the guided pattern and what their bodies and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/when-bees-arrive-late-flowers-may-vanish/">behaviors</a> preferred.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-bee-workarounds-keep-hives-thriving">Bee workarounds keep hives thriving</h2>



On small-cell guides, bees merged adjacent cells to recover usable volume. On larger guides, they tilted walls, layered cells, or introduced transitions to step down toward their favored size. Across patterns, the bees blended strategies. They didn’t abandon the site. They made it work.



“All those things happen in nature. If they're building honeycomb on a tree, and at some point they get to the end of the branch, the branch might not be super flat, and they need to figure that out,” said Fard.



The picture that emerges is not a top-down blueprint but a set of local rules distributed across many workers. Individuals add tiny wax deposits, sense geometry and neighbors, and adjust. The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/science-is-giving-beekeepers-a-better-way-to-fight-colony-collapse/">colony</a>, in aggregate, solves the constraint.



The study stops short of pinning down the “why” behind each tactic. Some choices may balance strength, storage, and brood needs. Others may reflect limits of body size or heat flow. 



The authors want to probe the decision logic further - how bees switch tactics, how they partition labor, and how information spreads without a foreman.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-beehive-wisdom-for-new-tech">Beehive wisdom for new tech</h2>



The implications extend beyond entomology. Honeycomb already inspires lightweight, stiff structures in aerospace and architecture. The new results add a dynamic twist: how to morph a repeating pattern across irregular boundaries without wasting material.



López Jiménez of CU Boulder’s Aerospace Engineering Sciences Department also sees lessons for additive manufacturing.



“The bees take turns, and they organize themselves, and we don't know how that happens,” he said. “Can we learn from how the bees organize labor or how they distribute themselves?”



If <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/walking-robots-can-step-right-off-the-3d-printer-powered-by-air/">3D printers</a> borrowed even a fraction of that adaptability - changing layer orientation or cell size on the fly to bridge defects - engineers could cut waste and improve reliability. The hive suggests a path: simple local rules scaled across many agents can yield resilient global structures.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-architecture-born-from-evolution">Architecture born from evolution</h2>



Bees do not wait for perfect scaffolds. They treat irregular surfaces as puzzles and solve them with a toolkit of merges, tilts, and layers.



The work demonstrates how efficient architecture can emerge from countless small acts, each guided by limited information but tuned by evolution for thrift. That is good biology - and it might also be good engineering.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosbiology/article?id=10.1371/journal.pbio.3003253" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">PLOS Biology</a>.



-----



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From hives to high-tech: How bees are transforming 3D printing

Bees can turn awkward spaces into tidy hives. New research shows how they adapt their comb-building playbook when surfaces become irregular, using clever fixes that keep the hive functional. The behavior resembles a distributed construction crew. It could even inspire better ways to print objects layer by layer. A team of researchers at the University of Colorado Boulder explored how bees coordinate to build usable honeycomb on imperfect foundations. Their experiments revealed robust, rule-like strategies that emerged from many tiny actions by individual bees. Beeswax is the...

A disturbing new study has found that populations of animals living in the world’s forests have declined by over half in the last 50 years. 

This global assessment done by the <a href="https://www.worldwildlife.org/stories/forest-wildlife-populations-decline-53-since-1970">World Wildlife Fund</a> (WWF) and the <a href="https://www.zsl.org/">Zoological Society of London</a> incorporated 455 populations of 268 species of wildlife that only live in <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/monkeys-tropical-forests-life/">forests</a>, and found that these populations have declined by 53% on average since 1970.

The animals that live in forests around the world play integral roles in the regeneration of plant life, and thus have a major impact on the ability of forests to store carbon and mitigate the effects of climate change. Animals such as birds and primates disperse seeds and eat plants, helping the forests to continue growing in a healthy manner. 

This new report describes the biggest threats to forest-dwelling wildlife as being the loss and damage to their habitat, which is mainly a result of humans clearing land for logging, agriculture, and expansion – as well as wildfires. These same animals are also at risk from disease, hunting, invasive species, and climate change. 

Scientists have found that the most significant population declines are in the tropical forests – such as the Amazon – which are already close to a “tipping point” described by scientists that could lead to these forests drying out and becoming savanna. 

The WWF is now calling for world leaders to declare a planetary emergency and produce a new global “deal for nature and people in 2020,” which would be needed to stop climate breakdown, restore nature, and fix the food system. A priority within this deal would be to protect and restore forests, which are needed by over half the world’s land-based species, and provide food, medicine, water, and livelihoods to people as well.

“Forests are complex systems that depend on the wildlife that live in them to keep them healthy and the rapid decrease in forest wildlife in recent decades is an urgent warning sign,” says global lead on forests at WWF Will Baldwin-Cantello. “Forests are home to more than half of the world's land-based animals, but they’re also our greatest natural ally in the fight against climate breakdown. We lose them at our peril. We need global leaders to declare a planetary emergency and kickstart a global program of recovery to keep our forests standing to protect our planet.”

--

By <a href="mailto:certz@earth.com">Connor Ertz</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Image Credit: Shutterstock/Gudkov Andrey

Forest animal populations have dropped by half in the last 50 years

A disturbing new study has found that populations of animals...

A world without bees would have major food shortages and possibly famine. There is much debate over whether Albert Einstein once said that if bees disappeared off the face of the Earth, humans would have only four years left to live. If all bees completely vanished, it would not cause humans to go extinct - or not right away, at least. However, it would cause extreme hardship, including major food shortages and possibly famine.

The reality is that <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/uk-bees-declining-populations/">bees</a> play a critical role in feeding the world by pollinating the crops that feed 90 percent of the global population. Bees are said to be involved in the production of one out of every three bites of food that we take. This means that the ongoing decline of bees and other pollinators poses a serious threat to the future of the world's food supply. 

Many factors are driving the decline of bees, including habitat fragmentation, neonicotinoid pesticide use, colony collapse disorder, and climate change. A world without bees would have major food shortages and possibly famine

Honeybee populations, in particular, have been dramatically reduced, dropping by 89 percent between 2007 and 2016. In the United States, 40 percent of honeybee colonies were lost last year alone. 

According to the <a href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/">BBC</a>, honey bees are responsible for $30 billion a year in crops. If we had no bees left on the Earth, we could lose all of the plants that they pollinate, followed by all of the animals that eat those plants. The repercussions would be felt all the way up the food chain. 

There are many birds and small mammals that would disappear if bees were lost. Honey, nuts, and beans would also be phased out because they rely so much on bees. The number of fruits and vegetables would be cut in half, while meat would become extremely limited as cattle depend on pollinated plants for food. 

The <a href="http://epa.gov">Environmental Protection Agency</a> has now banned the use of pesticides linked to bee deaths, and similar bans have been passed in Europe. There is also new emphasis being placed on the restoration and preservation of wild habitats where bees and other pollinators can thrive. 

--

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Paid for by <a href="http://earth.com">Earth.com</a>

Image Credit: Shutterstock/TB studio

A world without bees would have major food shortages and possibly famine

A world without bees would have major food shortages and...

A long-term study in the Seychelles has revealed that coral bleaching is permanently altering fish communities. The research produced clear evidence that <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/economic-coral-bleaching-caribbean/">coral bleaching</a> in 1998 triggered changes in biodiversity and the range of fish species that still remain in place today.

The numbers of large predator fish such as snappers and very small fish such as damselfish had been dramatically reduced. These fish were largely replaced by seaweed-loving fish like rabbitfish.

Some of the coral reefs examined in the study recovered following the bleaching event, but other reefs shifted to fields of seaweed. On the seaweed dominated reefs, the changes in fish communities were most apparent. The fish that feed on seaweed, however, became a dominant part of all the reef communities that were surveyed. 

According to the researchers, the same changes have likely occurred on damaged coral reefs around the world. 

"The new normal for coral reefs will be reef fish communities which have fewer species and are dominated by herbivores and invertebrate feeding fish," said Professor Nick Graham. "This will alter the way coral reefs function, and the fishery opportunities for coastal communities adjacent to coral reefs."

The study, which was led by <a href="https://www.lancaster.ac.uk/">Lancaster University</a>, tracked reef recovery in the Seychelles for 16 years following the 1998 event. Even though the next major coral-bleaching event was not until 2016, fish populations had still not returned to their pre-bleaching condition.

Previous studies have shown that the amount of time between bleaching periods is declining, and is now typically less than 10 years. In this study, there were 18 years between bleaching events, yet the fish communities were still unable to recover. 

"Although the 18-year period between major mass bleaching events allowed corals to recover on some reefs, we found evidence that fish populations were not able to return to their pre-bleaching levels, and they were substantially altered on the reefs that become dominated by seaweeds," said lead author Dr. James Robinson.

"The Seychelles case study suggests under current levels of ocean warming - where the average frequency of bleaching events is less than 10 years - permanent changes to reef fishes are likely on most coral reefs globally."

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/journal/13652486">Global Change Biology</a>.

--

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Paid for by <a href="http://earth.com">Earth.com</a>

Image Credit: Shutterstock/Sabangvideo

Coral bleaching is permanently altering fish communities

A long-term study in the Seychelles has revealed that coral...

The term “puppy dog eyes” isn’t just an expression, as a new study has found that dogs evolved specific muscles around their eyes that allow them to make cute and human-life facial expressions. 

It’s an evolutionary adaptation 33,000 years in the making and likely developed as a result of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/humans-dogs-bond/">domestication</a> as dogs split from their wild wolf counterparts. 

The quizzical, eyebrow-raising expressions aren’t just adorable, but also serve as a useful means of communication, triggering a nurturing response from humans. 

Researchers from the <a href="https://www.port.ac.uk/">University of Portsmouth</a> conducted the first detailed analysis of the anatomy and behavior of wolves compared to dogs. Although facial muscles between the two species were mostly similar, the researchers discovered one key difference in domestic dogs. 

A small muscle in the inner eyebrow allows dogs to raise their eyebrows, making their eyes seem larger and more appealing to humans. The movement, which the researchers dubbed the Action Unit 101, makes dogs seem more infantile. 

Wolves do not have this capability. 

“This movement makes a dogs’ eyes appear larger, giving them a childlike appearance. It could also mimic the facial movement humans make when they’re sad,” said Professor Bridget Waller, a co-researcher for the study. “Our findings show how important faces can be in capturing our attention, and how powerful facial expression can be in social interaction.”

The researchers say that the muscles evolved relatively quickly and dogs are the only example of an animal whose facial expression changed in response to domestication. 

“The findings suggest that expressive eyebrows in dogs may be a result of humans unconscious preferences that influenced selection during domestication. When dogs make the movement, it seems to elicit a strong desire in humans to look after them,” said lead researcher Dr. Juliane Kaminski. “This would give dogs, that move their eyebrows more, a selection advantage over others and reinforce the ‘puppy dog eyes’ trait for future generations.” 

Siberian huskies were the only dogs that did not have the muscle movement, which could be because huskies are a much older breed of pack dog. 

The results of the study were published in the journal Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences.

--

By <a href="mailto:kayvandette@gmail.com">Kay Vandette</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/">Earth.com </a>Staff Writer

Image Credit: Shutterstock/Bambara

Dogs evolved their ‘puppy dog eyes’ to appeal to humans

The term “puppy dog eyes” isn’t just an expression, as...

In an unprecedented study, researchers have measured the antioxidant levels in commercially available edible <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/insects-food-future/">insects</a>. The investigation revealed that crickets have 75 percent the antioxidant power of fresh orange juice, while silkworm fat has twice the antioxidant levels found in olive oil.

Compared with livestock, insects have a tiny carbon footprint, and learning about their nutritional value may encourage people to eat this sustainable alternative to meat. The key message from the researchers is that edible insects like grasshoppers and silkworms are a rich source of antioxidants.

"At least 2 billion people - a quarter of the world's population - regularly eat insects," said study lead author Professor Mauro Serafini. "The rest of us will need a bit more encouragement."

According to Professor Serafini, providing selfish and immediate incentives could help consumers to make the environmentally friendly choice. While taste and image are the most appealing aspects of food, health is also an incentive for many people to try new food products.

"Edible insects are an excellent source of protein, polyunsaturated fatty acids, minerals, vitamins and fiber. But until now, nobody had compared them with classical functional foods such as olive oil or orange juice in terms of antioxidant activity," explained Professor Serafini.

[caption id="attachment_1875173" align="aligncenter" width="650"]<a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/07/antioxidant-insects.jpg"><img class="wp-image-1875173" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/07/antioxidant-insects.jpg" alt="" width="650" height="366" /></a> Image Credit: Professor Mauro Serafini[/caption]

The researchers tested a range of edible insects and invertebrates, using various techniques to measure antioxidant activity. Inedible components, such as the wings, were removed before the insects were ground up. For each species, both the fat and anything that would dissolve in water were extracted and tested for antioxidant content and activity.

"For perspective, using the same setup we tested the antioxidant capacity of fresh orange juice and olive oil - functional foods that are known to exert antioxidant effects in humans," said Professor Serafini.

The water-soluble extracts of grasshoppers, silkworms, and crickets had the highest values of antioxidant capacity. On the other hand, giant cicada, giant water bugs, black tarantula, and black scorpions showed negligible values. 

At the same dilution of 88 percent water, grasshoppers and silkworms would have about 75 percent of the antioxidant activity of OJ. "There's a clear trend: the vegetarians have markedly higher antioxidant capacity," said Serafini. 

"Fat from giant cicadas and silkworms showed twice the antioxidant activity of olive oil, while black tarantula, palm worm and black ants are placed in the bottom of the ranking."

"A high content of antioxidant in the food matrix is a primary requisite for a first screening of antioxidant potentiality of novel foods, so these are promising results."

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/nutrition">Frontiers in Nutrition</a>.

--

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Image Credit: Shutterstock/Alan Sau

Edible insects! Grasshoppers and crickets found to be rich in antioxidants

In an unprecedented study, researchers have measured the antioxidant levels...

<a href="http://www.earth.com/news/wildfires-negatively-moth-pollination/">Forest fires</a>, wood boring beetles and woodpeckers often get a bad rap. All three are associated with destruction, either of trees and forests or wooden structures. Of course, all three are actually essential to most healthy forest ecosystems in North America. 

Healthy forests are not just areas of dense vegetation, although that is an aspect, but they are also patches of meadows, running streams and rotting logs. Many animals associated with woodlands depend on other habitats besides mature, old growth forests for their survival. This is one reason why fires are helpful for the maintenance of a more biodiverse and healthy forest ecosystem. Not only animals, but plants also sometimes require fires to successfully propagate seeds and open up areas to start growth. Other animals specifically depend on fires to complete their life cycle.

With climate change, the hotter drier weather is predicted to lead to more and more intense fires. The <a href="https://www.ucsusa.org/global-warming/science-and-impacts/impacts/infographic-wildfires-climate-change.html">Union of Concerned Scientists</a> points out that we’ve already seen an increase in the number of fires per year. Between 1980 and 1989, there were an average of 140 wildfires in the US, but that number has steadily increased to an average of 250 wildfires between 2000 and 2012. Unsurprisingly, the length of the wildfire season in the US has increased as well. In the 1970s, the average wildlife season lasted 5 months, but today the average season is more than 7 months long. This is driven by earlier snow melt, which in turn leaves forests drier for longer periods of time, leading inevitably to more fires over a longer period per year.        

Many beetles in the genus Melanophila are attracted to smoke. The beetles lay their eggs in dead and dying trees, so the smell of smoke is the smell of food for beetle grubs. Fires usually kill trees but leave large amounts of wood intact enough that there’s plenty for the beetle larvae. Interestingly, the wood boring beetles are also helped by bark boring beetles, which may damage or kill a tree, allowing entrance for the former beetle larvae. 

Beetles as a whole are one of the most diverse groups of animals, and wood boring beetles in particular are also diverse in themselves. The <a href="https://www.colorado.edu/asmagazine/2019/03/21/metallic-wood-boring-beetles-utilize-aspen-cottonwoods-and-willows">University of Colorado</a> reports that there are 93 species of metallic wood boring beetle in that state alone. Some of the wood boring beetles found in the US are native and some are non-natives, and it is <a href="http://idtools.org/id/wbb/families/Wood_Boring_Beetle_Keys/Whole_site/Html/WBBeetle_info.htm">estimated</a> that non-native wood borers cost the US $2.1 billion per year. Wood boring beetles in the US come from ten different families and live wherever there is wood to be found.       

A recent paper in <a href="https://fireecology.springeropen.com/articles/10.1186/s42408-019-0040-1">Fire Ecology</a> discusses the relationship between fires and the beetles. It’s hard to determine if both beetles benefit from fire or if bark beetles actually make way for wood boring beetles because both are often present. However, when wood boring beetles arrive, they benefit woodpeckers as a food source. It’s easy to make the connection to see how fires are important not just for clearing out areas of dense trees, but they’re also important because they leave the smoldering remains of trees behind for beetles.

After the beetles come woodpeckers. Woodpeckers in their own right are crucial to forest habitats, considered to be ecosystem engineers. It’s not in searching for beetle larvae to eat that woodpeckers engineer the ecosystem, this merely supports large populations of the birds. Woodpeckers excavate holes in wood for nesting sites to raise their young. The holes dug into tree branches are reused after the woodpeckers have left them behind. 

Nesting burrows in trees are useful for many other animals, including other birds and small mammals, but they’re in short supply. According to <a href="https://www.americanforests.org/magazine/article/woodpeckers-engineers-ecosystems/">American Forests</a>, 90% of burrows in trees are created by woodpeckers. This of course makes the inadvertent help that woodpeckers supply very important to the ecology of a forest (or in some cases a desert). 

Some forests, however, are adapted to burn more thoroughly than others, as the ecology of the long leaf pine forests in the US Southeast are different from other forests. The trees in these forests burn hotter, leaving less standing dead trees, making the beetles and the woodpeckers that eat them less important. But this is an exception to the general rule. Considering this, it’s not surprising that woodpeckers as a group usually have a close relationship to fire.

<a href="https://www.birdnote.org/show/woodpeckers-and-forest-fires">Bird Note</a> explains that some species of woodpeckers benefit especially from forest fires. Black-backed woodpeckers have plumage to match the ashy hue of burnt wood, they also have behaviors that take advantage of forest fires. Black-backed woodpeckers will form nest colonies within recently burned patches of forest, gorging on the grubs from wood boring beetles and other insects for the few years they’re plentiful before moving on. 

[caption id="attachment_1875170" align="aligncenter" width="650"]<a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/07/woodpecker.jpg"><img class="wp-image-1875170" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/07/woodpecker.jpg" alt="" width="650" height="489" /></a> Black-backed woodpecker, Image Credit: Shutterstock[/caption]

A history of forest fire suppression and thinning of forests by logging have possibly made the black-backed woodpecker’s habitat less prevalent. <a href="https://www.hcn.org/blogs/goat/black-backed-woodpeckers-and-severe-fire">High Country News</a> reported in 2013 that the situation was thought to be dire by some, with four conservation groups petitioning for the Black-backed woodpeckers to be listed as threatened on the Endangered Species List. As of now, the Black-backed woodpecker hasn’t been added to the Endangered Species List. Specific species of woodpeckers specialize in different forest fire types.

The black-backed woodpeckers favor dense snag areas of severe fires, while Lewis’s Woodpeckers prefer more open areas of severe burns. White-headed woodpeckers may use some amount of burned forest but also depend on live trees for part of their food. These woodpeckers all inhabit different niches in the northwestern forest, forests throughout the US support different species and densities of woodpeckers, with varying dependence on fire.  

With a predicted increase in the number of forest fires and the intensity of them in the western US, it’s possible that woodpeckers are the silver lining to the threat of fire. In fact, in some ways decades of fire suppression may partially be to blame for some of the situation (as well as climate change) and more fires are part of a reckoning. But either way, woodpeckers are likely to benefit. 

--

By <a href="mailto:zachfitzner@yahoo.com">Zach Fitzner</a>, <a href="http://earth.com">Earth.com</a> Contributing Writer    

Paid for by <a href="http://earth.com">Earth.com</a>             

Image Credit: Shutterstock/Christian Roberts-Olsen

An increase in forest fires means more beetles and woodpeckers

Forest fires, wood boring beetles and woodpeckers often get a...

Climate change is outpacing the ability of animals to adapt. A team of international researchers led by Viktoriia Radchuk, Alexandre Courtiol, and Stephanie Kramer-Schadt from the<a href="http://www.izw-berlin.de/welcome.html"> Leibniz Institute for Zoo and Wildlife Research (Leibniz-IZW)</a>, evaluated how effectively animals can react, and already have reacted, to their changing environments. They found that although animals do often adapt to their changing habitat, <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-californias-wildfire-seasons/">climate change</a> is currently happening at such a pace that it's difficult for the animals to keep up.

The most common reaction to climate change observed is the alteration of the timing of biological events (also called phenological traits) like hibernation, reproduction, or migration, as Radchuk and colleagues observed in birds. Changes in body size, mass, or other morphological traits are also associated with climate change, however, these traits show no systematic pattern.

For their study, published in <a href="https://www.nature.com/ncomms/">Nature Communications</a>, the researchers linked relevant information from scientific literature to changes in climate throughout the years and potential changes in both phenological and morphological traits. They then evaluated whether observed trait changes were connected to higher survival rates or an increased number of offspring. 

"Our research focused on birds because complete data on other groups were scarce," said Radchuk. "We demonstrate that in temperate regions, the rising temperatures are associated with the shift of the timing of biological events to earlier dates."

"This suggests that species could stay in their warming habitat, as long as they change fast enough to cope with climate change," said co-author Steven Beissinger, a professor at the <a href="https://www.berkeley.edu/">University of California, Berkeley</a>.

But, "This is unlikely to be the case because even populations undergoing adaptive change do so at a pace that does not guarantee their persistence,” said senior author Alexandre Courtiol (Leibniz-IZW).

"These results were obtained by comparing the observed response to climate change with the one expected if a population would be able to adjust their traits so to track the climate change perfectly,” said co-author Thomas Reed, a senior lecturer at <a href="https://www.ucc.ie/en/">University College Cork</a>.

To make matters worse, the data analyzed predominantly included common and abundant bird species, all of which are known to deal with climate change fairly well.

"Adaptive responses among rare or endangered species remain to be analysed,” said Stephanie Kramer-Schadt, Head of the Department of Ecological Dynamics, Leibniz-IZW. “We fear that the forecasts of population persistence for such species of conservation concern will be even more pessimistic.” 

The hope is that this new analysis will encourage more research on the resilience of animal populations and lead to a better predictive framework that can help future animal conservation.

--

By <a href="mailto:oliviagharvey24@gmail.com">Olivia Harvey</a>, <a href="http://earth.com">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Paid for by <a href="http://earth.com">Earth.com</a>

Image Credit: Bernard Castelein

Climate change is outpacing the ability of animals to adapt

Climate change is outpacing the ability of animals to adapt....

Extreme weather events may drive evolutionary changes in <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/solitude-and-isolation-makes-spiders-aggressive/">spiders</a>, according to a new study. 

In areas prone to tropical cyclones, hurricanes, and other extreme weather events, habitats can drastically change after a storm. Fallen trees and debris can cover the ground, forcing wildlife to adjust and adapt to new environmental pressures. 

Researchers from <a href="https://www.mcmaster.ca/">McMaster University</a> set out to investigate the impacts that extreme weather events have on colonies of Anelosimus studiosus spiders. A. studiosus spiders inhabit the Gulf and Atlantic coasts, areas that are prone to storms from May through November. 

These are also regions where the severity and frequency of storms are <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/hurricanes-stronger-climate-change/">projected to increase </a>due to climate change. 

“It is tremendously important to understand the environmental impacts of these ‘black swan’ weather events on evolution and natural selection,” said Jonathan Pruitt, the lead author of the study. “Now more than ever, we need to contend with what the ecological and evolutionary impacts of these storms will be for non-human animals.” 

For the study, the researchers first had to determine a storm’s trajectory and sample spider colonies directly in that path before and after the storm made landfall. 

240 colonies were sampled in the study and compared to control areas. 

A. studiosus spiders can be either docile or aggressive. Aggressive colonies quickly respond to prey, cannibalize eggs and male members of the colony, and fare better when resources are scarce. 

However, aggressive spiders are also more likely to fight with others in the colony when food is lacking. 

The researchers found that after a storm, aggressive spiders had a better chance of survival and adapting to new stressors. 

“Aggressiveness is passed down through generations in these colonies, from parent to daughter, and is a major factor in their survival and ability to reproduce,” said Pruitt. 

Aggressive colonies produced more eggs and had higher levels of spiderlings survive as the seasons changed to winter. This was a trend witnessed through several storms. 

The researchers published their findings in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41559-019-0951-x">Nature Ecology &amp; Evolution</a>.

--

By <a href="mailto:kayvandette@gmail.com">Kay Vandette</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 

Paid for by <a href="http://earth.com">Earth.com</a>

Image Credit: Thomas Jones

Hurricanes lead to more aggressive spiders, study shows

Extreme weather events may drive evolutionary changes in spiders, according...

As the movement towards organic products grows, more and more people are becoming aware of the ingredients in favorite household products. Yet most people likely have no clue that <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/documentary-sharks-bad-reputation/">sharks</a> may have been used to make these products. 

Shark populations have plummeted due to the insatiable demand for shark products. An estimated<a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0308597X13000055"> 100 million</a> sharks are fished every year from our oceans. 

Sharks are especially vulnerable to overexploitation due to their late maturation and low reproduction rates. The IUCN Shark Specialist Group<a href="https://www.iucn.org/content/quarter-sharks-and-rays-threatened-extinction"> found</a> that sharks, rays and chimaeras have the lowest percentage of species considered safe when compared to other animal groups. A quarter of shark and ray species are currently threatened with extinction.

While shark finning for shark fin soup appears to be the major driver of population declines, the use of sharks for household products is an often-overlooked factor.

Sharks are used for a wide range of products, from cosmetics to pet food to garden fertilizer, according<a href="https://www.sharkwater.com/help-save-sharks/warning-contains-shark/"> Shark Water</a>.

Multiple parts of the shark are utilized for household products, such as shark skin for leather and shark cartilage for dietary supplements and alternative medicine. Sharks are even exploited for an oil they produce in their liver which is used in<a href="http://www.fao.org/3/x3690e/x3690e0r.htm"> cosmetic and health products</a>. 

Sharks use the oil in their livers to control their buoyancy. Therefore, sharks that live in deeper waters often have more oil, resulting in them being disproportionately targeted by fishermen. Squalane, which is derived from shark liver oil, is used as a lubricant and moisturizer in skin care products.

Products containing shark liver oil may list the ingredient as “squalane” or “squalene” making it difficult for the consumer to know if sharks were used in the product. Squalane can also be<a href="https://www.hindawi.com/journals/ija/2018/1829160/"> made from</a> plant-based sources such as olive oil, soybean oil, rice and wheat germ.

Bloom Association, a non-profit focused on preserving the marine environment, conducted a<a href="http://www.bloomassociation.org/en/wp-content/uploads/2013/10/ENG_Squalene_4-pager.pdf"> study</a> on the market for shark liver oil and found that an estimated three million deep-sea sharks are caught each year for the oil market. Cosmetics dominate the use of shark liver oil with 90% of shark liver oil being used in the cosmetics industry.

While some fishermen may extract shark liver oil as an afterthought when hunting sharks for their fins, some conservationists<a href="http://www.bloomassociation.org/en/wp-content/uploads/2013/10/ENG_Squalene_4-pager.pdf"> warn</a> that fishermen specifically target sharks for their oil due to its high commercial value. In the process of “livering”, fishermen remove the liver from the shark and discard the carcass back into the ocean, similar to shark “finning”.

<a href="https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Merry_Camhi/publication/242542346_The_Conservation_Status_of_Pelagic_Sharks_and_Rays/links/004635346cb40ca28d000000.pdf">Multiple species</a> of sharks are traded internationally for their liver oil including species currently listed as “endangered”. 

Although many consumers are unaware of this issue, the cosmetic industry is moving away from shark liver oil and towards plant-based sources. Back in 2008, household goods giant Unilever<a href="https://oceana.org/press-center/press-releases/unilever-end-use-shark-products-cosmetics"> ended their use</a> of shark liver oil.

In medical products, shark liver oil was<a href="https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Merry_Camhi/publication/242542346_The_Conservation_Status_of_Pelagic_Sharks_and_Rays/links/004635346cb40ca28d000000.pdf"> traditionally</a> used for lubricants and vitamin A supplements in the 1930s. The market shifted away from shark liver oil when synthetic vitamin A became available.

The <a href="http://www.fao.org/">Food and Agriculture Organization</a><a href="http://www.fao.org/3/x3690e/x3690e0r.htm"> statistics</a> show that the world production of shark liver oil decreased from almost 500 tonnes in 1976 to 4 tonnes in 1997. Bloom Association estimates that 2,200 tons of shark liver oil were produced in 2012.

Although the production of shark liver oil seems to be waning, consumers should still be aware that their household products might be a little more fishy than they thought.

--

By <a href="mailto:brianna.grant134@gmail.com">Brianna Lynne</a>, <a href="http://earth.com">Earth.com</a> Contributing Writer

Image Credit: Shutterstock/Fiona Ayerst

Sharks might have been used to make your household products

As the movement towards organic products grows, more and more...

New plant probe can help track pesticides that may be harmful to bees “Bee populations are declining at an alarming rate,” is a phrase that has become such a part of our 21st century vernacular that it has taken on a meme-like status usually reserved for pop culture references. But unlike most pop culture oddities, there is a heavy truth behind these words. <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/weed-killer-declining-bee-populations/">Bee populations</a> around the world are in decline, and a continued decline has some serious implications.

One of the reasons for this population decrease may be neonicotinoid pesticides, which are currently being investigated – and in some cases are banned – for their suspected role in harming bee populations. However, a true connection between these pesticides and the decline of bee populations has yet to be established. 

In a new study published in the <a href="https://www.acs.org/content/acs/en.html">American Chemical Society</a> journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/journal/esthag">Environmental Science &amp; Technology</a>, researchers describe a novel approach to sampling neonicotinoids and other pesticides in plants – potentially explaining how bees are exposed to these chemicals.

While many studies have correlated the presence of neonicotinoid residues in plant samples with bee declines, only a few have measured total neonicotinoids in plants – mainly using time-intensive methods. In this new study, researchers developed a new type of solid-phase microextraction (SPME) probe, which is a device that can track concentration changes over time in biological systems. 

SPME probes use a coated fiber to quickly extract analytes from a sample. By developing an SPME probe that they could insert into plants through a needle, the research team could perform repeated sampling of seven neonicotinoids in plant sap.

When this sampling was done in lettuce and soybean plants, each sample process only took 20 minutes. The analytes could then be recovered from the probe and assessed, allowing researchers to quantify neonicotinoids in plants and study their movement and distribution throughout these plants over time. 

The researchers believe that this method could be used to track movement of pesticides into flowers, nectar, and pollen, allowing them to pinpoint when and where the maximum pesticide exposure occurs for bees and other pollinators.

--

By <a href="mailto:certz@earth.com">Connor Ertz</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

New plant probe can help track pesticides that may be harmful to bees

New plant probe can help track pesticides that may be...

A new study published by <a href="https://www.cell.com/">Cell Press</a> has demonstrated that images captured by tourists on safari contain valuable wildlife monitoring data. Using 25,000 photographs from 26 tour groups, the researchers analyzed the population densities of lions, leopards, cheetahs, spotted hyenas, and wild dogs in northern Botswana.

Study lead author Kasim Rafiq came up with the idea of utilizing tourist photographic data one day when his vehicle got stuck in an abandoned warthog burrow while he was following a set of leopard tracks. At the time, Rafiq was a Ph.D. candidate at Liverpool John Moores University and had been searching for months for a one-eared leopard named Pavarotti.

"Eventually I got out of the hole and spoke with the safari guides who I met on the road nearby, and who were laughing," said Rafiq. "They told me that they'd seen Pavarotti earlier that morning. At that point, I really began to appreciate the volume of information that the guides and tourists were collecting and how it was being lost."

Wildlife population monitoring in Africa is traditionally done using either camera traps, track surveys, or call-in stations. Each of these methods has its advantages and disadvantages. For example, camera traps are particularly useful for observing various species in the wild, but they are very expensive with no guaranteed lifespan. 

"For one of my other projects, I had an elephant knock down one of the camera traps, and then lion cubs ran away with the camera. When I collected it, it just had holes in it," said Rafiq.

For the current study, participating tourists were equipped with small GPS trackers that would later provide location data for their photos. The images were filtered based on the identification of an individual animal and its species. Finally, the team used computer models to calculate population densities.

[caption id="attachment_1875459" align="aligncenter" width="650"]<a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/07/two-lions.jpeg"><img class="wp-image-1875459" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/07/two-lions.jpeg" alt="" width="650" height="430" /></a> Image Credit: Megan Claase, Rafiq et al./ Current Biology, 2019[/caption]

In addition to the analysis of tourist images, camera trap, track, and call-in station surveys were also conducted so that the <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/historic-wildlife-bust-black-market/">wildlife</a> density estimates could all be compared. 

"The results suggest that for certain species and within areas with wildlife tourism, tourist-contributed data can accomplish a similar goal as traditional surveying approaches but at a much lower cost, relative to some of these other methods," said Rafiq.

The tourist-photograph survey turned out to be the only monitoring strategy which provided data on cheetahs in the study area. Furthermore, the image-based population estimates for many other top predators were largely comparable to the estimates produced by the traditional monitoring methods.

"If we could combine advances in artificial intelligence and automated image classification with a coordinated effort to collect images, perhaps by partnering with tour operators, we would have a real opportunity for continuous, rapid assessment of wildlife populations in high-value tourism areas," said Rafiq.

"There isn't one silver bullet that will be useful in every situation. Instead, as conservationists and researchers, we have a toolkit of different techniques that we can dip into depending on our project's requirements and needs."

"This study adds to the growing body of evidence that citizen science is a powerful tool for conservation. This approach provides the opportunity to not only aid the monitoring of charismatic megafauna highly valued by society, but also has the potential to shape how we can meaningfully participate in conservation efforts."

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/home">Current Biology</a>.

--

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Main Image Credit: Megan Claase, Rafiq et al./ Current Biology, 2019

Tourist photographs provide reliable and important wildlife monitoring data

A new study published by Cell Press has demonstrated that...

Two new studies have demonstrated the ability of Egyptian fruit bats and mice to sync their brain waves during social interactions. This phenomenon has been previously described in humans, who are known to synchronize neural activity during <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/awkward-conversations/">conversation</a>. 

The new studies suggest that a similar process takes place among animals, and that some aspects of their social behavior can be predicted based on neural activity.

Michael Yartsev is the senior author of the bat study and an assistant professor of Neurobiology and Engineering at the <a href="https://www.berkeley.edu/">University of California, Berkeley</a>.

"Animal models are really important for being able to study brain phenomena at levels that we can't normally access in humans," said Professor Yartsev. "Because bats are extremely social and naturally live in highly complex social environments, they are a great model for tackling important scientific questions about social behavior and the neural mechanisms underlying it."

Dr. Weizhe Hong, the senior author of the mouse study, is an assistant professor in the Department of Biological Chemistry and the Department of Neurobiology at <a href="http://www.ucla.edu/">UCLA</a>.

"If you think of the brain like a black box that receives input and gives some kind of output in response, studying social interactions is like trying to understand how the output of one box provides input to another, and how those two boxes work together and create a loop," said Dr. Hong. "Our research in mice allows us to peer inside these black boxes and get a better look at the internal machinery."

The Berkeley team monitored the bats for sessions of about 100 minutes as they engaged in a wide range of social interactions, such as grooming, mating, and fighting. Using high-speed cameras, the researchers were able to characterize specific behaviors and interactions.

The team also used wireless electrophysiology to simultaneously record the brain activity of the bats. The experts found that the brains of different bats became highly correlated, which was most pronounced in the high-frequency range of brain oscillations. By looking at the level of correlation, the researchers could even predict whether the bats would initiate social interactions.

The UCLA team used a device called a miniaturized microendoscope to monitor the brain activities of mice during social situations. The mice were also found to display brain correlations during natural interactions. 

The researchers discovered that the level of correlation between two brains could be used to predict how the mice would respond to each other's behavior as well as the dominance relationships that would develop between them.

"Natural social interactions are complex," said Wujie Zhang, first author of the bat study. "It is important to embrace this complexity in order to understand real-life social interactions at the neural level."

"We know that social interactions are altered in many mental diseases in humans, including autism spectrum disorders and schizophrenia," said Lyle Kingsbury, first author of the mouse paper. "Developing a genetically tractable model system opens up the possibility of exploring how interbrain synchrony is disrupted in people with these conditions and may provide novel information about possible interventions."

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.cell.com/">Cell</a>.

--

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Image Credit: Shutterstock/Kuttelvaserova Stuchelova

Some animals synchronize their brain activity during social interaction

Two new studies have demonstrated the ability of Egyptian fruit...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2E0mn5mTvhQ
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">'Death Star' moon Mimas conceals a 15-million-year-old ocean that scientists never expected.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hidden-waters-beneath-ancient-craters">Hidden waters beneath ancient craters</h2>



Scientists have made a startling discovery that challenges everything we thought we knew about <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/saturn-moon-mimas-has-remarkably-young-ocean/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Saturn's moon Mimas</a>. Beneath the heavily cratered surface that earned it the nickname "Death Star" lies a global ocean that formed just 5 to 15 million years ago—a remarkably young age by cosmic standards.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cassini-data-reveals-orbital-secrets">Cassini data reveals orbital secrets</h2>



The discovery, led by Dr. Valéry Lainey of the <a href="https://observatoiredeparis.psl.eu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Observatoire de Paris</a>, emerged from careful analysis of <a href="https://www.nasa.gov" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NASA</a>'s Cassini spacecraft data. By studying subtle irregularities in Mimas's orbit around Saturn, researchers detected the gravitational signature of liquid water hidden 20 to 30 kilometers beneath the moon's icy shell.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-an-unlikely-ocean-world">An unlikely ocean world</h2>



At only 400 kilometers in diameter, Mimas seemed like the least likely candidate to harbor a subsurface ocean. Unlike other ocean moons such as Europa and Enceladus, which show clear surface signs of internal activity, Mimas displays no obvious hints of the liquid water beneath its ancient, crater-scarred exterior.



"Mimas is a small moon, and its heavily cratered surface gave no hint of the hidden ocean beneath," explained Dr. Nick Cooper from <a href="https://www.qmul.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Queen Mary University of London</a>, a study co-author.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-astrobiology">Implications for astrobiology</h2>



The ocean's recent formation makes Mimas a prime target for studying how oceans develop and potentially support life. This discovery adds another member to the exclusive club of ocean worlds in our solar system, each offering unique insights into the conditions necessary for habitability.



The research, published in <a href="https://www.nature.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature</a> journal, demonstrates how advanced orbital analysis can reveal hidden features of celestial bodies, opening new possibilities for understanding ocean formation throughout the cosmos.



—–



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Scientists discover unexpected young ocean on Saturn's cratered moon Mimas

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2E0mn5mTvhQ 'Death Star' moon Mimas conceals a 15-million-year-old ocean that...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE
</div></figure>



On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop and sunlight barely penetrates through the polar winter. It was here, however, that an international team of scientists found <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/predatory-worms-were-terror-beasts-half-a-billion-years-ago/#google_vignette" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evidence of sea monsters</a> that would change our understanding of ocean life in the past.



This video captures the discovery of Timorebestia fossils that had been hidden for more than 500 million years in the Sirius Passet formation. The "terror beasts," as they are called, are a hidden chapter in the evolutionary history of <a href="https://www.earth.com" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Earth</a>, showing that sophisticated predator-prey interactions occurred much earlier than previously envisioned.



Dr. Jakob Vinther and his research team at the <a href="https://www.bristol.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Bristol</a>, in collaboration with researchers at the <a href="https://eng.kopri.re.kr/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Korean Polar Research Institute</a>, braved extreme weather conditions at 82.5 north latitude to locate these giant creatures. Using sophisticated electron microprobe analysis, they revealed the detailed anatomy of the animals, including their muscle and nerve tissues.



The find upsets the traditional timeline of sea predators. Although we've long appreciated that Cambrian oceans were at one time ruled by <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jWI3-UgA3_o&amp;list=PL1QLQMW9MWDwpkFOnvgAmu7wT6rZmYqdJ&amp;index=19" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">arthropods</a>, these discoveries indicate that relatives of arrow worms were first to dominate the seas. These worms were building sophisticated food webs several million years before other predator groups arose.



Each fossil is a story of ancient hunger, with fossil stomach contents revealing these meter-long beasts dined on heavily armored arthropods regularly, cementing their place as the ocean's first apex predators.



-----



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Worms dominated seas before dinosaurs

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">New York is the site of the world's oldest forest.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-385-million-year-old-trees-discovered">385-million-year-old trees discovered</h2>



Scientists have uncovered something extraordinary just two hours north of New York City. The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/worlds-oldest-forest-discovered-close-to-new-york-city/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">world's oldest forest</a>, dating back 385 million years, offers a window into how Earth's first complex forests shaped our planet's atmosphere.



Located near <a href="https://townofcairo.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cairo, New York</a>, in Greene County, these weren't merely primitive plants struggling to survive. These were sophisticated trees with root systems remarkably similar to modern forests. This ancient woodland predates dinosaurs by 140 million years.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-cairo-forest-discovery">The Cairo forest discovery</h2>



385 million years ago, upstate New York was a tropical paradise near the equator. Thanks to continental drift, this ancient forest has traveled thousands of miles to its current location.



The fossil forest sits in an abandoned quarry, roughly half the size of a football field. This represents just a slice of what was likely a massive forest system stretching from New York into Pennsylvania.



Charles Ver Straeten, curator of sedimentary rocks at the <a href="https://www.nysm.nysed.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">New York State Museum</a>, made the discovery in 2009. While scouting the former highway department property, his trained eye spotted wandering patterns in the stone that looked like marine features.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-revolutionary-age-and-preservation">Revolutionary age and preservation</h2>



The site contains 385-million-year-old rocks with fossilized woody roots forming horizontal patterns up to 18 feet (5.5 meters) wide. As Christopher Berry, a paleobotanist at Cardiff University, explains: "You are walking through the roots of ancient trees."



This discovery pushes back advanced tree evolution by millions of years. The research, published in <a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/home" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Current Biology</a> in December 2019, fundamentally changes our understanding of when complex forests first emerged.



Researchers believe a massive flood buried the forest floor, creating perfect fossilization conditions. Over millions of years, sediment hardened into rock, preserving these root patterns like nature's time capsule.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-meet-archaeopteris-the-first-modern-tree">Meet Archaeopteris: the first modern tree</h2>



The star of this ancient forest is Archaeopteris – not to be confused with the feathered dinosaur Archaeopteryx. This tree was far older and more revolutionary.



William Stein from <a href="https://www.binghamton.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Binghamton University</a> describes the roots as "strikingly modern, essentially what you'd see outside in my yard right now." These weren't simple root systems you'd expect from ancient plants.



Some fossilized roots are six inches (15 centimeters) in diameter, forming 36-foot-wide (11-meter) patterns. These giants grew up to 65 feet (20 meters) tall with five-foot-diameter (1.5-meter) trunks.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-changing-impact">Climate-changing impact</h2>



These trees fundamentally changed Earth's environment. Kevin Boyce, a Stanford University geoscientist, explains how their deep roots triggered "weathering," chemical reactions that pulled carbon dioxide from the atmosphere.



This process dropped atmospheric CO2 levels from 10-15 times higher than today to roughly modern concentrations. These ancient trees helped create atmospheric conditions that made complex life possible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ancient-forest-ecosystem">Ancient forest ecosystem</h2>



The forest was remarkably diverse. Scientists identified Eospermatopteris, palm tree-like plants with short roots that reached 30 feet (9 meters) tall but lacked woody structure. The forest also housed cladoxylopsids and a mysterious third species still being studied.



All reproduced through spores rather than seeds – millions of years before seeds evolved. This tropical environment had no grass, flowers, or flying insects, just towering trees creating Earth's first complex forest canopy.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-scientific-significance">Scientific significance</h2>



Before this finding, the Gilboa forest, located 25 miles (40 kilometers) away, held the "oldest forest" title. Cairo's trees are 2-3 million years older, showing that complex forest ecosystems developed much faster than scientists believed possible.



Patricia Gensel, a <a href="https://www.unc.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of North Carolina</a> paleobotanist, notes: "The size of those root systems is really changing the picture. Even 20 years ago, researchers assumed trees with such complex root systems didn't evolve so early."



The Cairo site presents three unique root systems, suggesting Devonian period forests were diverse ecosystems with different trees occupying different environmental niches, much like today's forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-modern-preservation-efforts">Modern preservation efforts</h2>



In 2022, New York State Senator Michelle Hinchey secured a $170,000 grant for the town of Cairo to construct specialized fencing around the fossil forest site. The town plans to conduct a feasibility study exploring the possibility of creating an educational center and working lab on-site.



Joe Hasenkopf, chair of the Cairo Planning Board, hopes to partner with educational institutions to create a research facility serving scientists, students, and the public.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lessons-for-today-s-climate">Lessons for today's climate</h2>



Why does a 385-million-year-old forest matter today? It shows how dramatically forests can change Earth's climate. These ancient woodlands created the atmospheric conditions supporting complex life.



Understanding how prehistoric forests transformed the planet helps us appreciate modern forests' critical role in addressing climate change. Forests remain Earth's most effective carbon capture systems.



These prehistoric trees changed Earth's atmosphere by pulling massive amounts of carbon dioxide from the air. As we face modern climate challenges, this ancient forest reminds us of trees' incredible power to transform our planet's environment.



The next time you walk through a forest, remember you're experiencing an ecosystem whose blueprint was established 385 million years ago in upstate New York. These ancient pioneers didn't just survive – they thrived and changed the world forever.



The full study was published in the journal Current Biology.



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Earth's oldest forest found in the United States

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ New York is the site of the world's oldest...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Acid rain and a crisis solved.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-don-t-we-ever-hear-about-acid-rain-anymore-the-environmental-crisis-that-was-solved">Why don't we ever hear about "acid rain" anymore? The environmental crisis that was solved</h2>



Remember the 1980s when acid rain dominated headlines? Dire warnings about rain eating buildings, killing fish, and destroying forests filled every news cycle. Then, almost like magic, acid rain vanished from public discourse. What happened? Did we actually solve one of the late 20th century's most pressing environmental challenges?



The answer might surprise you. Unlike many environmental issues that drag on indefinitely, acid rain represents one of modern history's most successful ecological recovery stories. It's a tale of science, politics, and technology working together to tackle what seemed impossible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What was acid rain?</h2>



Acid rain isn't regular rain having a bad day – it's precipitation that became significantly more acidic due to air pollution. When power plants, factories, and vehicles burn fossil fuels, they release sulfur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides (NOx) into the atmosphere.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The science behind it</h2>



Think of acid rain as nature's chemistry experiment gone wrong. These compounds react with water, oxygen, and other chemicals to form sulfuric and nitric acids. When mixed with water vapor in clouds, they create precipitation with dangerously low pH levels.



While clean rain has a pH of about 5.6, acid rain could drop as low as 4.2 to 4.4 – roughly as acidic as tomato juice or coffee. According to US Geological Survey documentation, Scottish chemist Angus Smith first coined "acid rain" in 1872, but it didn't become a household phrase until the 1960s and 1970s when Swedish scientist Svante Odén documented its devastating effects on Scandinavian lakes and European forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The crisis at its peak</h2>



During the height of public concern, environmental damage was both widespread and visible. This wasn't some abstract future threat – people could see destruction happening in real-time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Environmental devastation</h2>



The most dramatic impacts were impossible to ignore. Research documented by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation and the New York State Department of Environmental Conservation shows that in the Adirondack Mountains, more than 200 lakes became so acidic they couldn't support fish life. The Adirondack Council reports that 409 lakes once supported brook trout, but many lost their fish populations due to acid rain.



By 1976, when scientists cataloged all acidified lakes in the Adirondack Park, researchers found that half of the lakes over 2,000 feet above sea level had no fish, according to studies published in environmental journals. The acidification process worked like a slow-motion disaster. As acid rain fell into watersheds, it gradually lowered pH levels. Fish couldn't survive in acidic water, and their food sources died off too.



Trees at high elevations showed stress directly linked to acid rain. It weakened them by leaching nutrients and making them susceptible to disease. Historical records show Germany's Black Forest saw nearly half its trees damaged by the mid-1980s.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Economic impact</h2>



Acid rain wasn't just environmental – it was expensive. Acidic precipitation corroded infrastructure, buildings, and monuments. Historic stone structures deteriorated at accelerated rates. Tourism suffered as lakes became fishless and forests declined. EPA economic analyses from the period documented repair costs mounting into billions annually.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The solution: government action and technology</h2>



Transformation from crisis to success required unprecedented cooperation between governments, industries, and environmental groups.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The Clean Air Act of 1990</h2>



The turning point came with the Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990, signed by President George H.W. Bush. This represented a fundamentally new approach to environmental regulation, as documented in EPA historical records.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Cap-and-trade success</h2>



Instead of mandating specific technologies, the 1990 amendments introduced something revolutionary: a cap-and-trade system for sulfur dioxide emissions. EPA program documentation shows this market-based approach set overall limits but allowed companies to trade emission allowances.



The genius was harnessing market forces to find cost-effective pollution reduction. Companies reducing emissions cheaply could sell excess allowances to those facing higher costs. Research published in environmental economics journals and EPA progress reports shows this resulted in dramatic SO2 reduction at a fraction of projected costs.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Technology advances</h2>



Policy provided the framework, but technology made reductions possible. Studies in atmospheric science journals document the widespread adoption of flue gas desulfurization systems ("scrubbers") that removed sulfur dioxide before it reached the atmosphere. By the 2000s, new installations could remove over 95% of SO2 emissions, according to EPA technical reports.



The push coincided with cleaner energy development. Natural gas produces fewer sulfur compounds than coal. Wind and solar, emerging in the 1990s, captured growing market share, reducing reliance on high-sulfur coal.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-we-don-t-hear-about-it-today">Why we don't hear about it today</h2>



Why did acid rain disappear from headlines? Simple: the problem was largely solved.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Success doesn't make news</h2>



There's an old journalism saying: "If it bleeds, it leads." Environmental success stories don't generate urgency like crisis reporting. Media attention shifted to other challenges: climate change, plastic pollution, and biodiversity loss. There's only so much environmental anxiety the public can absorb, and newer concerns replaced acid rain.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Mission accomplished</h2>



The primary reason is beautifully simple: interventions worked. EPA monitoring data shows sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990. Academic research published in environmental science journals confirms pH levels in formerly affected areas returned closer to normal. This represents one of history's most dramatic environmental recoveries. Studies by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation show fishless lakes now support healthy populations. Forests recovered, and building damage slowed dramatically.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-is-it-really-gone">Is it really gone?</h2>



The crisis is largely resolved, but monitoring data shows the problem isn't completely eliminated – it's managed to acceptable levels. Some areas still experience occasional events during high pollution periods. International environmental research indicates that rapidly industrializing Asian countries face similar problems to what we experienced decades ago, though they're implementing successful strategies.



EPA research shows nitrogen oxide emissions proved more challenging than sulfur dioxide, coming from vehicles and mobile sources. Climate science studies suggest changing weather patterns add complexity to how acid rain forms and falls.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What this teaches us</h2>



The acid rain experience proves that seemingly intractable environmental problems can be solved with scientific understanding, political will, and technological innovation. Environmental monitoring data shows recovery speed was remarkable – within a decade, measurable improvements appeared in air quality and ecosystem health.



Success came from bipartisan support across party lines. Policy analysis studies show the market-based approach appealed to those preferring economic incentives while achieving environmental goals. This support created lasting policy surviving political changes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Conclusion</h2>



Acid rain's disappearance from public consciousness represents environmental science's greatest success stories. Through effective regulation, technological innovation, and international cooperation, we transformed an overwhelming crisis into a manageable challenge.



Today's silence isn't because we forgot – it's because we solved it. The 1990 Clean Air Act, combined with technology and energy market changes, reduced acid rain emissions over 90%, according to comprehensive EPA data analysis.



This success offers hope for current challenges. It proves complex problems can be solved when science, policy, and technology work together. As we face climate change and plastic pollution, acid rain reminds us that dramatic positive change is possible.



Next time someone asks whether environmental regulations work, remember acid rain. It's proof that sometimes, we get it right.



<hr class="wp-block-separator has-alpha-channel-opacity"/>



Sources: This article draws from EPA official documentation and progress reports, peer-reviewed research published in environmental and atmospheric science journals, historical data from the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation, New York State Department of Environmental Conservation records, US Geological Survey publications, policy analysis studies, and environmental monitoring data collected over three decades.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Frequently Asked Questions</h2>



1. Is acid rain completely gone? No, but EPA monitoring shows it's reduced to manageable levels. US sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990, making acid rain much less severe than the 1980s crisis.



2. How long did solving take? Environmental monitoring data shows significant improvements began within 5-10 years of 1990s emission controls. Full ecosystem recovery took longer – some areas need 20-30 years for complete recovery.



3. What made the solution successful? Clear scientific understanding, visible damage motivating action, bipartisan support, available technology, and innovative market-based policies like cap-and-trade.



4. Do other countries have acid rain problems? Yes, particularly rapidly industrializing Asian countries. However, international environmental research shows many implement similar successful control strategies.



5. Could acid rain return? Potentially, if regulations weaken or we return to high-sulfur coal without controls, though effects would take years to become severe according to environmental projections.



6. Can you recommend any teaching tools on the subject of "acid rain"? The United States Environmental Protection Agency produced a wonderful teacher's guide for ages 14 and under that you can find on the EPA website here: <a href="https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf</a>



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The environmental problem we actually solved

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk Acid rain and a crisis solved. Why don't we...

Fresh,Radish,Harvest,On,Soil,In,Garden.

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Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving fall garden, and this guide lays out the best vegetables and herbs to plant now for a fruitful autumn harvest. 



Fast-growing leafy greens such as spinach, lettuce, kale, and arugula perform especially well in the waning summer heat, with harvests beginning as soon as 30 days. 



These cool-season crops relish the transition into fall, offering repeated yields with cut-and-come-again methods.



Root vegetables like radishes, carrots, and beets also excel during this period. Radishes deliver satisfaction in under a month, while carrots and beets mature in about two months. Employing succession planting ensures a continuous stream of produce deep into the cooler months. 



For a boost of fresh flavor, herbs like cilantro, basil, dill, and chervil are excellent picks. These heat-loving varieties flourish in July’s warmth and are harvest-ready in about 30 days, especially when sown continuously.



Gardeners in zones 6 through 9 can benefit from planting bush beans and snap peas, which don’t require trellising and are ideal for compact plots. 



Maturing in 50–60 days, they’re a smart choice for quick, protein-rich harvests. For those in hotter regions, heat-tolerant crops such as okra and southern peas provide reliable yields and thrive in scorching conditions.



This guide emphasizes more than crop selection—it highlights the importance of timing, soil preparation, and ongoing sowing techniques. 



With thoughtful planning and attention to regional climate needs, even late-summer gardeners can enjoy fresh salads, hearty stews, and the satisfaction of a robust, homegrown harvest well into fall.



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What to plant in your garden in mid-July

https://youtu.be/Fi2OeEwuzRM?si=vTyd2m9FMmtyWkex Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving...

Green,Ecoduct,Over,An,Empty,Highway,During,Sunset.

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A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that wildlife tunnels significantly reduce amphibian road mortality during seasonal migrations. 



Frogs and salamanders often cross roads to reach breeding ponds each spring, but many are killed by vehicles. 



Researchers from the <a href="https://www.uvm.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Vermont</a>, in collaboration with local citizens and the Vermont Agency of Natural Resources, installed two underpass tunnels in 2015. 



Over a 12-year monitoring period, they observed an 80.2% reduction in amphibian deaths, and up to 94% for non-climbing species like salamanders. 



The study used a before-after-control-impact design and documented more than 5,200 amphibians, highlighting the tunnels’ effectiveness even in nearby buffer zones.



Funded at $342,397 - far cheaper than wildlife crossings for large mammals - the project showcased the power of community-led conservation.



Local groups initiated the effort after observing mass amphibian deaths. Wildlife cameras later captured over 2,200 amphibians using a tunnel in just one spring, along with other species like raccoons and bobcats, indicating wider ecosystem benefits.



This marks the first peer-reviewed, long-term data set in the northeastern U.S. confirming amphibian-specific underpasses work. 



The study urges transportation departments to incorporate these designs into road planning and highlights how community action, thoughtful infrastructure, and persistence can make a real difference for biodiversity.



The full study was published in the <a href="https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1617138125000780" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal for Nature Conservation</a>.



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Wildlife tunnels save millions of amphibians

https://youtu.be/XYgiPzmNBTU?si=eFYY7gPHU1JznLvU A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that...

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing it with probiotics and prebiotics, aiming to create a treat that satisfies cravings while supporting gut health. 



The challenge lies in maintaining chocolate's beloved texture and flavor while adding health benefits.



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https://youtu.be/Ug657J67iEo?si=w96YjGMsg939LD_3
</div></figure>



Probiotics - beneficial microbes that balance gut bacteria and aid digestion - are typically fragile and can be destroyed by stomach acid or processing. 



Prebiotics act as food for these microbes, helping them thrive. Together, they form "synbiotics," a powerful health combination.



Researchers Smriti Gaur and Shubhi Singh from India's Jaypee Institute of Information Technology took an innovative approach, using natural prebiotics like corn and honey instead of complex processing methods. 



They created five chocolate varieties: a control and four synbiotic versions containing different combinations of prebiotics, probiotics (Lactobacillus strains), and flavor enhancers (cinnamon or orange).



Laboratory simulations of human digestion showed the probiotics remained viable for over five hours, suggesting they could survive long enough to benefit gut health.



Taste tests were positive, with researchers particularly enjoying the orange-flavored variety, describing it as having "vibrant citrus notes" complementing the "rich cocoa" with a "luxurious" texture.



This research represents just the beginning. With further refinement of strains, textures, and flavors, chocolate could evolve beyond mere indulgence to become a functional food that nourishes while it delights.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.4c00741" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ACS Food Science &amp; Technology</a>.

Is chocolate the next nutritional powerhouse?

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

[sendtonews key="0ynNMYkMKa-2340414-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

[sendtonews key="G9bUoxcjr4-2511624-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

[sendtonews key="3upvlAaHgO-2256633-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

[sendtonews key="LvS8v8bp9z-2564889-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How does salt makes things taste better?

[sendtonews key="X0f6OHYoI4-2310561-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Santiago, Chile in South America

[sendtonews key="JRaP49ISmm-2357509-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

[sendtonews key="e4ZG0Jawp3-2374785-12187" type="single"] Astronomers at Johns Hopkins University have created...

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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.



According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."



Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;



ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. 



Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

[sendtonews key="uV9Lh2fQbV-1760058-12187" type="single"] Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

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Earth,Like,Exoplanet,3d,Render

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

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