Imagine running a shop where you must hire both a guard and a salesperson. The guard keeps thieves away but may sometimes scare customers. The salesperson brings revenue but dislikes being interrupted. Balancing both roles can be tricky. 



Plants face a similar dilemma when they attract <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-many-ants-live-on-earth-at-any-point-in-time-total-number-is-astounding/">ants</a> for protection while also needing pollinators for reproduction.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-sweet-deals-with-ant-allies">Sweet deals with ant allies</h2>



Plants rarely survive in isolation. They form alliances with many creatures, gaining protection, pollination, and nutrients. 



One of the most fascinating examples involves extrafloral nectaries - small glands on leaves, stems, or branches of around 4,000 plant species.



These glands release sugary nectar not to attract pollinators but to lure protective ants and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/paleontologists-found-the-oldest-ant-species-on-earth-113-million-years-old-with-scythe-like-jaws/">insects</a>. In exchange for this reward, ants chase away herbivores. This partnership benefits plants, but it can complicate relationships with pollinators.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ant-guards-disrupt-pollinators">Ant guards disrupt pollinators</h2>



A new study published in the Journal of Ecology shows that ants can interfere with pollination when nectaries are located near flowers.



Bees, which need close contact with flowers, are disrupted. Their visits shorten or stop altogether when ants patrol nearby.



Yet the story shifts when extrafloral nectaries are found on leaves or stems farther away. In such cases, plants gain the protection of ants without losing pollination benefits, often achieving greater reproductive success.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-different-plant-visitors-different-risks">Different plant visitors, different risks</h2>



Not all flower visitors respond the same way. Butterflies, with their long feeding tubes, remain largely unaffected. They can sip nectar from a distance, safe from ant encounters.



Bees, however, must get close and linger, making them prime targets for interference. This contrast shows how visitor behavior shapes the outcome of plant–ant interactions.



“Bees, on the other hand, need to get very close to the flower to collect pollen and floral nectar, but ants don’t allow them to stay for long,” said Amanda Vieira da Silva, the lead author of the study.



“Not surprisingly, our analysis showed that the presence of ants is detrimental to pollination when extrafloral nectaries are close to flowers but has a positive effect on plant reproduction when they’re located farther away.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-trade-offs-shape-plant-survival">Trade-offs shape plant survival</h2>



The study examined data from 27 experiments across 25 plant <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earths-quiet-engineers-what-happens-when-common-ant-species-disappear/">species</a>. Overall, the average impact of ants on pollination was low but highly variable.



Ants consistently reduced floral visitation, especially by bees, but this did not always reduce reproductive success. In fact, plants with nectaries on vegetative tissues often benefited, producing more fruits and seeds.



Researchers suggest several reasons for the low costs. Protective benefits against herbivores may offset pollination losses. Some plants with reproductive nectaries gain more defense from florivores, balancing reduced pollinator visits.



Others reduce dependence on pollinators through self-pollination, making ant interference less harmful. Even reduced visits may not matter if short or fewer visits still transfer enough pollen.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ant-guards-change-plant-futures">Ant guards change plant futures</h2>



Ant interference may have influenced the evolution of plant traits. Species with high reliance on <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/honey-bee-invasion-a-growing-threat-to-native-pollinators/">bee pollination</a> may lose nectaries over time. 



Others may evolve seasonal separation, producing leaves with active nectaries at one time and flowers at another, preventing conflict.



“We know that in some groups of plants with extrafloral nectaries and flowers pollinated by the vibration of bees, new leaves with active extrafloral nectaries and flowers are produced in different seasons throughout the year, which would avoid conflict between the two,” said Anselmo Nogueira, co-author of the study.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-sweetness-fuels-bigger-networks">Sweetness fuels bigger networks</h2>



Additional partnerships add complexity. Nitrogen-fixing <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/some-bacteria-breathe-by-creating-electricity/">bacteria</a> in roots can boost plant productivity, supporting both pollinators and protective ants.



Resource quality also shapes interactions: plants with richer nectar attract more aggressive ants, which can either improve defense or worsen pollinator deterrence. Context, environment, and species traits all decide the balance.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-plant-protection-and-pollination-intertwined">Plant protection and pollination intertwined</h2>



Studies have typically focused on the effect of only one isolated interaction on plants. For example, they quantify how much ants favor the defense of plants against herbivores or how much <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/pollinators-face-extinction-risk-due-to-climate-change/">pollinators</a> favor plant reproduction. 



"But these interactions can occur at the same time," said Laura Carolina Leal, co-author of the paper. "So, to understand how these interactions influence plant growth and reproduction, we need to look at them in an integrated way.” 



The findings highlight how delicate balances shape ecosystems. Ants reduce visits but can still help plants thrive, depending on where nectaries sit and which visitors dominate. Long term, these dynamics may influence the evolution of floral traits and mating systems.



The study is published in the <a href="https://besjournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/1365-2745.70087" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal of Ecology</a>.



-----



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Plants pay ants "sugar bribes" to act as their bodyguards to help them survive

Imagine running a shop where you must hire both a guard and a salesperson. The guard keeps thieves away but may sometimes scare customers. The salesperson brings revenue but dislikes being interrupted. Balancing both roles can be tricky. Plants face a similar dilemma when they attract ants for protection while also needing pollinators for reproduction. Sweet deals with ant allies Plants rarely survive in isolation. They form alliances with many creatures, gaining protection, pollination, and nutrients. One of the most fascinating examples involves extrafloral nectaries - small...

P1050208

For a while there, it looked like time was running out for the American crocodile (Crocodylus acutus) population in the United States. The hands of the extinction clock for the species were, of course, accelerated by human carelessness—a bitter inversion of the visceral ticking that marked the hours until Captain Hook’s ingestion in Peter Pan.

Only discovered at the relatively late date of 1807, and not found in the United States until 1869, habitat destruction and overhunting had ravaged the already-rare reptiles by the 1970s. The historically estimated population of perhaps 2,000 individuals in southwest Florida had fallen to under 400. 

Surveys during that period found a mere 20 nests, restricted to Florida Bay and Key Largo. Beginning in 1975, when the species was federally listed as endangered, an aggressive rehabilitation plan was enacted, creating protections and new habitat for this somewhat particular animal. By 2007, the prehistoric creatures were downlisted to threatened. The population has now rebounded to levels roughly equivalent to its former abundance. 

Encounters with the species have been increasing in Florida. A crocodile was <a href="https://www.news-press.com/story/news/local/2019/03/12/rare-american-crocodile-makes-itself-known-on-florida-golf-course/3129476002/">recently spotted</a> sunning itself alongside its cousin, the American alligator (Alligator mississipiensis), at a Sanibel Island golf club. And another was <a href="https://www.orlandoweekly.com/Blogs/archives/2019/02/04/a-manatee-and-a-crocodile-recently-became-best-friends-in-florida">seen cavorting</a> with a manatee in Key Largo. Though the Florida Fish and Wildlife Conservation Commission had previously stated that crocodiles moving into human settlements would be left to their own devices, increasing concerns about human conflict and the disappearance of pets have led them to reverse course. 

[caption id="attachment_1875862" align="aligncenter" width="650"]<a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/07/american-crocodile.jpg"><img class="wp-image-1875862" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/07/american-crocodile.jpg" alt="" width="650" height="336" /></a> Image Credit: Chad Sparkes[/caption]

<a href="http://www.earth.com/news/habitat-destruction-crocodiles-indonesia/">Crocodiles</a> in inconvenient residential locations are now harassed with lights and noise to discourage their presence. Though there is only one recorded attack in the United States, in 2014 when a couple were both bitten while swimming in a canal, the species has eaten humans elsewhere in its range. The species is native to 18 countries ranging from the U.S. (where Florida is its only redoubt) down through Central America and the Caribbean into northern South America. Our species’ ecological piracy has more than evened the score for the Captain Hooks of the world, but at up to 20 feet these crocs are a force to be reckoned with.

Attacks occurred in Mexico in 1992 and 1996, though one was attributed to a captive crocodile that had recently been released and was thus dangerously accustomed to humans. And a number of fatalities have occurred in Costa Rica, where the famous “crocodile bridge” spanning the Tarcoles River is a major tourist attraction. Generally, though, the species is quite shy and its insubstantial American population has kept the possibility of run ins to a minimum in the States. Alligators, also in the family Crocodilydae, are in fact quite a bit more aggressive—and more abundant. Following restoration efforts, some 5 million now inhabit the American South. Southern Florida is the only place where the range of the two species overlaps. 

The two crocodilians are easily distinguishable by their differing colors. The alligator is a much darker greenish black, while the crocodile is lighter and grayish green. The crocodile also has a much narrower snout and two of its teeth are visible when its mouth is closed. Little is known about the interactions between these related animals, though at least per anecdotal observations, they appear to coexist peaceably when they encounter each other. Their overlap is rather narrow in any case. Alligators prefer freshwater habitats, whereas American crocodiles are largely coastal and prefer the interface between saline and fresh water. They are particularly at home in mangrove swamps and estuaries. 

Both probably eat the young of the other species when they find them. The crocodilians are generalist predators and, especially in adulthood, will eat anything that they can fit down their gullets or gnaw into pieces. The American crocodile appears to subsist largely on fish and crustaceans such as crabs, but will also take insects, birds, other reptiles such as lizards, turtles, and snakes, and even mammals. Largely nocturnal hunters, they will often be found sunning themselves during the day in order to raise their body temperatures, which helps them to digest their food more quickly. 

While finding food is no issue for these undiscriminating eaters, locating suitable nesting habitat in Florida has been a hurdle to their recovery. Once found as far north as Tampa Bay on the west coast and Lake Worth on the east coast and as far south as Key West, the species is now restricted to the southern tip of the state.

[caption id="attachment_1875863" align="aligncenter" width="650"]<a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/07/crocodile.jpg"><img class="wp-image-1875863" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/07/crocodile.jpg" alt="" width="650" height="488" /></a> Image Credit: Ken Mayer[/caption]

Development of areas in which they had previously occurred in relatively high numbers reduced available egg-laying sites, which must be in well-drained soil above the tideline. Though some nest on the actual coast, many seem to prefer more inland areas, where they find sandy or peaty creek banks. Submersion of eggs for more than a day will kill the eggs; conversely, desiccation due to lack of moisture is also a risk. Coastal sites are risky because the young must travel inland to find suitable areas in which to forage. 

Though human encroachment has eliminated many of the natural areas that met these needs, it has also inadvertently created alternates through dredging of canals. This process creates banks similar to the ones preferred by the crocs of yore. In fact, one of the prime nurseries for the species now occurs at the Turkey Point Nuclear Generating Station, a facility just north of Key Largo. The nearly 170 miles of canals used to channel the plant’s cooling water provide prime habitat for rearing and hatching. 

The canals have been managed by the Florida Power and Light Company, owner of the plant, since 1978, when the first nests were discovered. The berms along the canals are cleared of vegetation, creating more space for the reptiles to dig nests, which can be up to 5 feet deep, to house their 30 to 60 eggs. A bumper crop of hatchlings emerged in July 2019 after their 2.5 month incubation—<a href="https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/americas/crocodile-nuclear-power-plant-florida-born-climate-change-a9015911.html">more than 70</a> were counted and more are expected. Turkey Point hosts some 25% of Florida’s crocodile population. 

Also important is the Crocodile Lake National Wildlife Refuge in Key Largo, which was set aside by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service in 1980. Florida and Biscayne Bays as well as the Everglades also host significant populations. Distribution is thinner on the western tip, with crocs sporadically popping up as far north as Cape Coral. Populations are somewhat more robust in Central and South America, though the snaggle-toothed critters face risks there as well.

Though their numbers do appear to have stabilized, American crocodiles still face the risk of ending up as roadkill and may succumb to occasional cold snaps. Survival rates of young are low—predators are fond of the eggs, which are delicacies to everything from raccoons to fire ants. Plenty of hatchlings succumb to predation as well—one was even found in the claws of a particularly bold crab. 

A <a href="https://www.herpconbio.org/Volume_11/Issue_1/Rochford_etal_2016.pdf">2016 study</a> found a new threat: introduced Nile crocodiles (Crocodylus niloticus) from Africa, a new addition to the hundreds of invasive species already established in the Sunshine State. Though only a handful of specimens have been identified, if they begin breeding, they could become competitors and have the potential to hybridize with their American counterparts. They are in more imminent peril, however, due to rising sea levels. Since they are largely coastal, their newly found sanctuaries in human-created environments such as Turkey Point stand to be inundated.

Ironically, American crocodiles pose a threat to another species, the Cuban crocodile (Crocodylus rhombifer). And it’s not the kind of conflict you might expect. Rather, the American species loves the Cuban one a little too much. <a href="https://repository.si.edu/bitstream/handle/10088/18652/stri_471_ftp.pdf">Introgression of American genes</a> threatens the purity of the bloodlines of its rarer cousin, only 3,000 of which are thought to remain in a small area of the island nation. The Cuban species stands to lose its distinct identity through the persist amorous overtures of these ugly Americans, which also hybridize with Morelet’s crocodiles (C. moreletii) in Central America.

While this situation must be monitored, the recovery of C. acutus in Florida is worthy of celebration. It appears that this ancient predator, with careful management, will be rocking around the clock for centuries to come.

--

By <a href="mailto:rtpallardy@gmail.com">Richard Pallardy</a>, <a href="http://earth.com">Earth.com</a> Contributing Writer

Main Image Credit: Bernard Dupont/Flickr

Turning back time: The recovery of the American crocodile

For a while there, it looked like time was running...

Symbiotic relationships take many forms that can serve the whole ecosystem. Life on Earth is made up of a complex network of relationships between different species. These relationships come in many forms, from predators hunting prey to plants providing habitat. The most deeply intertwined of these relationships are referred to as symbiosis. 

Symbiosis is a long-term, close relationship between two or more species. These relationships can <a href="https://projects.ncsu.edu/cals/course/ent525/close/goodbuddies.html">take many forms</a>. Though many classic examples benefit all species involved, this is not a requirement. Some forms of symbiosis are “unequal.” Parasitic relationships that threaten the wellbeing of the host can even be considered symbiotic.

Symbiotic relationships create many complex ecological interactions. These relationships hint at the ways in which the members of ecosystems can <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s13752-014-0194-7">interact like the organs of an organism</a>. These relationships are essential to many biological processes in humans and our world. 

You encounter symbiosis more often in your day to day life than you might imagine. One well-known example is your <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthpedia-articles/what-is-microbiomics/">microbiome</a>. These organisms live in your gut and many other parts of your body. They provide essential services like digesting complex sugars, protecting against infections, and training your immune system. These creatures are your own symbionts.
<h2>Mutualism</h2>
Mutualism is the friendliest of these symbiotic relationships. In mutualistic symbiosis, both (or all) species involved benefit from the relationship. These relationships allow species to show off their skills. Organisms that are very skilled at one task will provide this service to another species in exchange for something they need.
<h3>Examples</h3>
There are many examples of mutualism in the natural world. One of the most commonly used examples is how plants collect nitrogen. All living things need nitrogen to build <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthpedia-articles/what-is-proteomics/">protein</a>. Though diatomic nitrogen gas is abundant in the atmosphere, plants cannot use this form. Instead, they rely on bacteria and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fungi-everywhere/">fungi</a> to “fix” nitrogen. Legumes (which include most beans) owe their high protein content to these relationships. Other <a href="https://www.caseyhofford.com/2018/10/16/fungi-are-friends-not-foes/">plants actually interact with fungi to indirectly “eat” bugs</a> to gain their protein.
<h2>Commensalism</h2>
Commensalism is a form of symbiosis that only benefits one of the partners. In commensalism, the host is not harmed by the relationship but does not benefit either. The commensal organism may get protection, transportation, shelter or even the scraps of the host's last meal. The term comes from the Latin “Commensalis,” meaning “sharing a table.”
<h3>Examples</h3>
Hermit crabs are a great example of this behavior. In this relationship, the crabs use the discarded shells of snails as their homes. The hermit crab gains protection from what is essentially a waste product of another species. 

Cattle egrets are another great example of commensalism. These bug-eating birds hang out around cattle, waiting to feast on the bugs that are inevitably stirred up. 
<h2>Parasitism</h2>
Parasitism is possibly the most common form of symbiosis. In parasitism, one species benefits at the expense of another species. The parasite benefits by stealing food, energy or other resources. Unlike predation, parasitism is long-term and ongoing. Many organisms have parasitic stages in their lives.
<h3>Examples</h3>
The number of parasitic relationships in the natural world is huge. Parasitic relationships can be seen in every ecosystem and taxon. Here are a few well known and interesting examples.

<a href="https://necsi.edu/parasitic-relationships">Aphids are plant parasites</a> that use the plant as a long-term source of food. They continually parasitize the plant, decreasing its growth and reproductive success.

<a href="https://extension.umd.edu/hgic/topics/parasitoid-wasps-hymenoptera">Parasitic wasps</a> are a large group of obligate parasites (they can only survive by eating eggs.) These species sound horrifying but are actually quite helpful. These wasps primarily eat the eggs of garden pests. This makes them a great biological control measure.

[caption id="attachment_1875807" align="aligncenter" width="650"]<a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/07/parasitic-wasp.jpg"><img class="wp-image-1875807" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/07/parasitic-wasp.jpg" alt="" width="650" height="334" /></a> Parasitic wasp, Image Credit: Suede Chen/Shutterstock[/caption]
<h2>Amensalism</h2>
A far more uncommon form of symbiosis is called amensalism. In this relationship, one species <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/earth-and-planetary-sciences/amensalism">harms the other, without receiving a direct benefit</a>. Some organisms will actually secrete toxins to harm or kill their neighbors. This differs from predation or parasitism because the attacker is not feeding on its victim. It also differs from competition, which occurs in all ecosystems. Instead, amensalism reduces competition to gain an indirect benefit.
<h3>Examples</h3>
Though amensalism is less common than other forms of symbiosis, it has some amazing results. The first antibiotic, penicillin, was derived from the penicillium fungus. The mold produced<a href="https://study.com/academy/lesson/amensalism-examples-definition-quiz.html"> penicillin in order to kill bacteria</a> growing nearby. The discovery of this relationship led to one of the biggest leaps in modern medicine. Due to overuse, <a href="http://v">antibiotics are becoming less effective</a>. This poses a huge threat to humanity. 

Symbiotic relationships exist throughout the natural world. Now that you know the core categories of symbiotic relationships, you will likely notice these throughout the natural world. Comment with some examples of symbiosis that you’ve seen or heard of.

--

By: <a href="mailto:writing@caseyhofford.com">Casey Hofford</a>, <a href="http://earth.com">Earth.com</a> Contributing Writer

Image Credit: Colin Trainor/Wikimedia Commons

Symbiotic relationships take many forms that can serve the whole ecosystem

Symbiotic relationships take many forms that can serve the whole...

Microneedling may be the newest craze in beauty and skincare, but the technique is also being explored for use as potential delivery systems for medications, contraceptives, and <a href="https://www.nih.gov/news-events/news-releases/researchers-develop-microneedle-patch-flu-vaccination">flu vaccines</a>. 

As an alternative to the syringe, a painless microneedle patch that delivers the same results is highly preferable. Hypodermic needles increase the risk of infection. 

There have been many <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/28552053">studies focused on using microneedle patches</a> as a drug delivery system, but current systems require extra preparation and are not able to work with certain liquid drugs. 

Now, researchers from several academic institutions in South Korea and the <a href="https://uconn.edu/">University of Connecticut</a> have developed a microneedle patch that can <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/anti-vaccine-movement-health-threat/">deliver a vaccine</a> or liquid drug to rodents in under 15 seconds. 

The patch is based on the fangs of a snake and eliminates pumping systems and the extra steps required with other microneedle patches. 

For the study, the researchers modeled their patch after rear-fanged venomous snakes.

[caption id="attachment_1875911" align="aligncenter" width="650"]<a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/07/fang.jpg"><img class="wp-image-1875911" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/07/fang.jpg" alt="" width="650" height="481" /></a> Image Credit: W.-G. Bae et al., Science Translational Medicine (2019)[/caption]

Contrary to popular belief, very few venomous snakes have hollow, needle-like fangs that they use to inject venom into their prey. Rather, many snakes are equipped with <a href="https://journals.aps.org/prl/abstract/10.1103/PhysRevLett.106.198103">grooved teeth </a>that allow for the easy flow of venom from fang into the skin. 

The researchers used this groove as inspiration and developed a patch with microneedles that had up to six grooves. 

Once the patch is placed on the skin, gentle pressure allows for the delivery of different liquid drugs into the body. 

The patch takes advantage of capillary action, the movement of water molecules through narrow spaces, to get the liquid drug to flow through the skin of mice and guinea pigs without a pumping system. 

The patch successfully delivered doses of lidocaine and inactivated influenza virus. If future studies and tests prove successful in larger animals and even humans, the snake fang microneedle patch could offer an easy-to-use and versatile drug delivery system. 

The researchers discussed the new microneedle patch in a study published in the journal Science Translational Medicine. 

--

By <a href="mailto:kayvandette@gmail.com">Kay Vandette</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 

Image Credit: Shutterstock/reptiles4al

Patch modeled after a snake’s fang could deliver drugs and vaccines

Microneedling may be the newest craze in beauty and skincare,...

A new study has revealed that crows have control over the onset and release of their vocalizations.

Researchers from the <a href="https://uni-tuebingen.de/en/university/">University of Tübingen</a> in Germany conducted the study and found that trained carrion crows may have cognitive control over when they call and what they choose to respond to. 

Songbird vocalizations are incredibly elaborate and can serve as a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/songbirds-visualize-predators/">warning to other birds nearby </a>or help attract mates. Whether these calls are controlled or an automatic knee-jerk response has not been well understood. 

For this study, published in the journal <a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosbiology/article?id=10.1371/journal.pbio.3000375">PLOS Biology</a>, the researchers tested the theory that songbirds can control their calls. 

Crows are known for their distinct and extremely loud and hoarse cawing vocalizations. You can find American crows all over the US and Canada. Carrion crows, on the other hand, are found throughout Europe and Asia. 

The researchers trained carrion crows to call on cue in different detection trials. For one task, three male crows learned to call in response to a visual cue but didn’t make any vocalizations when presented with a different cue. 

The crows were rewarded for calling on cue but were also able to withhold a call, showing that the crows weren’t just anticipating a reward. 

“Our study shows that crows can be taught to control their vocalizations, just like primates can, and that their vocalizations are not just a reflexive response, the researchers said. “This finding not only demonstrates once again the cognitive sophistication of the birds of the crow family. It also advances our understanding of the evolution of vocal control.”

More research is needed to understand how songbirds cognitively control their calls and what neurobiological mechanisms make this control possible. 

--

By <a href="mailto:kayvandette@gmail.com">Kay Vandette</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 

Image Credit: Tobias Machts

Crows can voluntarily control when they call and what they respond to

A new study has revealed that crows have control over...

While <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/flood-events-climate-change/">climate change</a> threatens the global food supply of the future, many experts are reporting on the potential for insects to be eaten as a renewable and eco-friendly protein source. New research from the <a href="https://www.bva.co.uk/">British Veterinary Association</a> (BVA) suggests that pets could also be fed insects as an alternative to meat-based foods.

According to the researchers, many pet owners will be opposed to the idea at first, but the study findings suggest that insect protein may offer better health benefits for animals compared to traditional pet food that is made from beef or chicken.

"There’s a really exciting future for the use of insect protein for companion animals," BVA President Simon Doherty told <a href="https://www.bbc.com/news">BBC News</a>. "It’s a fantastic opportunity - looking at insects to provide alternative sources of some of the nutrient ingredients we use in pet food diets."

Doherty emphasized that it is essential to find food sources that will not put any further strain on Earth's limited resources, including soil and water. In addition, he added that it is better for meat to be fed to people than to pets.

Insect-based pet food is currently more expensive than the budget meal options by as much as four times. The researchers hope that the environmental benefits will help make unconventional pet foods more appealing.

Doherty pointed out that insect protein may be especially attractive to vegetarian cat owners due to the fact that cats need an essential amino acid called taurine that is found in fish, meat, and insects.

"You’d still be killing insects but some vegetarians might find that more palatable than killing cows or chickens,” Doherty told the BBC.

Protix is a Dutch manufacturer and supplier of insect ingredients for animal feed and human consumption. The 0rganization, which has one of the world’s biggest insect farms, estimates that insect-based foods use only two percent of the land and four percent of the water that is used in the production of meat-based products. 

According to BBC News, Protix reported that one ton of insects can be grown on 20 square miles of land in just two weeks. The insects do not require fertilizers or pesticides and generate a very small carbon footprint.

"Round the world we are heating up the atmosphere and using up the land," Protix founder Kees Aarts told the BBC. "But we also have to feed a growing population in need of protein. We have to do something differently - and insects are part of the solution."

--

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Image Credit: Shutterstock/Monkey Business Images

Insect-based pet foods have many health and environmental benefits

While climate change threatens the global food supply of the...

In a new study, researchers have found that two adult <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/indonesias-orangutans-decline/">orangutans</a> were able to play a kazoo within just minutes of being introduced to the instrument. The study demonstrated that orangutans can control their voice in a way that is very similar to humans, and this finding may ultimately improve our understanding of how human speech evolved.

Scientists at the <a href="https://www.st-andrews.ac.uk/">University of St. Andrews</a> collaborated on the project with a team of experts at the Indianapolis Zoo, which has one of the largest populations of orangutans in the country. The study was focused on an 11-year-old named Rocky and a 36-year-old named Knobi.

The orangutans were given a basic instrument known as a membranophone, which produces music when vocalizations vibrate a stretched membrane. The animals used their kazoos with voluntarily control over their vocal production.

"Language defines human communication, but its evolution defies scientific explanation," said study lead author Dr. Adriano Lameira. "Great apes, our closest relatives, may hold the key to how language evolved in our lineage."

"Our results provide the first positive diagnostic test of vocal production learning in great apes, namely active voicing, during novel voiced vocal production in orangutans."

The team observed as Rocky and Knobi learned to play their instruments, on some level, within a few minutes. The researchers found that the voice control used by apes varies from that of humans in its magnitude, but is otherwise very similar.

"This important study redefines our understanding of how spoken language may have evolved," said Dr. Rob Shumaker, who is the president of the Indianapolis Zoo. "It also demonstrates that the abilities of orangutans, and likely all great apes, have been greatly underestimated."

"This new knowledge compels us to have a stronger conservation ethic at a time when all wild great ape populations face serious threats to their survival."

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/srep/">Scientific Reports</a>.

--

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Image Credit: Shutterstock/JFS07

Vocal abilities of orangutans may help unravel the mysteries of human speech

In a new study, researchers have found that two adult...

From 2000 to 2018, an estimated 2,359 <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/tigers-captive-us-nature/">tigers</a> were killed and illegally trafficked worldwide, according to a <a href="https://www.traffic.org/publications/reports/skin-and-bones-unresolved/">new analysis</a>. 

The report is the fourth in a series that was conducted by the conservation group <a href="https://www.traffic.org/">TRAFFIC</a>, which focuses on sustainable management of wildlife trade. 

Of the more than 2,300 tigers that were trafficked since the start of the millenium, there were 1,142 seizure incidents, a rate of more than two per week. 

95 percent of the seizures happened in countries where the tigers’ native habitats are located. Tigers are caught, put into captivity, or killed, and tiger skins are the single most popular tiger part seized. 

According to the report, each year around 58 whole tiger skins are seized and there has been an increase in seizures for both live and dead animals. 

“Seizures of tigers from captive facilities continue and serve as a stark reminder that such facilities seriously undermine conservation efforts to safeguard this species and provide opportunities for laundering and other illegal activities,” said Ramacandra Wong, a senior TRAFFIC crime analyst.

There has been little reprieve for the tigers and each new report shows an alarming trend in the trafficking of the species. 

Although global tiger populations are somewhat creeping upward after hitting a record low of 3,200 in 2010, there are still fewer than 4,000 tigers in the wild. 

Every tiger counts when it comes to recovery, but the demand for tiger parts and live tigers could jeopardize the species’ growth. In 1900, there were more than 100,000 tigers in the wild. 

“This pernicious trafficking, evidenced by the continuously high number of whole skins, whole animals - both dead and alive - and bones is a testament to the ongoing demand for tiger parts,” said Kanitha Krishnasamy, an author of the report. “The time for talking is over: words must be turned into action to prevent further tiger loss.”

The report was released on Tuesday coinciding with the <a href="https://www.cites.org/">Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species</a> currently underway in Geneva. 

--

By <a href="mailto:kayvandette@gmail.com">Kay Vandette</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 

Image Credit: Shutterstock/effective stock photos

Thousands of tigers have been trafficked since 2000, report shows

From 2000 to 2018, an estimated 2,359 tigers were killed...

Honey bees can remember both good and bad experiences and store them in different areas of the brain, similar to the way humans and other vertebrates do. 

Over 600 million years ago vertebrates and invertebrates diverged from each other, splitting off to form unique, ever-evolving, family trees in the animal kingdom. 

Humans and other vertebrates store positive and negative memories in distinct regions of the brain, and researchers from the <a href="https://illinois.edu/">University of Urbana-Champaign</a> wanted to see how <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/diseased-honeybees-wild-bumblebees/">honey bees </a>process similar memories. 

The researchers exposed honey bees to a positive or negative experience to investigate whether the experiences were stored separately in the brain or if the bees used the same neural circuitry for both. 

“We wanted to know whether bees, with a tiny brain, devote different parts of it to processing social information that is either negative or positive,” Gene Robinson, an author of the study, told <a href="https://www.newsweek.com/honey-bees-happy-sad-scientists-1458562">Newsweek</a>.

Robinsons along with a team of colleagues exposed honey bees to a positive experience, nursing a queen bee larva, or a negative experience, dealing with an intruder bee. 

Next, the researchers studied the most active regions of the bee’s brain after the experience, identifying patterns of gene expression. 

“We used genes that respond very quickly to new stimuli as markers to see which parts of the brain are activated for each type of stimulus,” said Robinson. 

The memories were stored in different sections of the brain called “mushroom bodies,” areas in invertebrate brains associated with learning and sensory information. 

“We found that bees do devote different parts of their brain to processing social information that is either negative or positive,” Robinson told Newsweek. “This discovery is striking given how small their brains are; we did not expect such spatial segregation in the processing of social information of different valence.”

Valence refers to how good or bad a certain emotion is, and it’s a term used in psychology. 

Besides showing that bee brains are capable of a lot more than one might realize, the study also helps provide a link between vertebrates and invertebrates. 

The researchers published their findings in the journal<a href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rspb.2019.0901"> Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences. </a>

--

By <a href="mailto:kayvandette@gmail.com">Kay Vandette</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 

Image Credit: Shutterstock/Maciej Olszewski

Honey bees can store both good and bad memories

Honey bees can remember both good and bad experiences and...

A new study has revealed how a neonicotinoid pesticide may pose a risk to wild songbird populations.

Neonicotinoids are <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/pesticide-exposure-impairs-flight-bees/">harmful to bees</a> and can disrupt how bees fly, collect pollen, and behave in the hive. 

Researchers from the <a href="https://www.usask.ca/">University of Saskatchewan</a> and <a href="https://www.yorku.ca/">York Universit</a>y linked a neonicotinoid pesticide called imidacloprid to songbird population declines in North America. 

Neonicotinoids are widely used to protect crops worldwide. While there has been a recent push to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/european-union-ban-pesticides/">ban neonicotinoid pesticides</a> because of the harmful impact the pesticides have on bee populations, birds may also be at risk.

“Our study shows that this is bigger than the bees--birds can also be harmed by modern neonicotinoid pesticides which should worry us all,” said Bridget Stutchbury, a member of the research team. 

Since 1966, three-quarters of bird species that depend on agricultural habitats have declined, and the researchers found that even minimal exposure to a pesticide can hinder reproduction and delay migrations. 

The study, published in the journal Science, is the first of its kind to examine how imidacloprid impacts wild songbirds. 

“We saw these effects using doses well within the range of what a bird could realistically consume in the wild--equivalent to eating just a few treated seeds,” said Margaret Eng, the lead author of the study.

The researchers attached lightweight radio transmitters to wild white-crowned sparrows in southern Ontario and tracked the birds’ movements. 

Individual sparrows were exposed to small doses of imidacloprid, and the researchers measured each bird’s weight and mass before and after being exposed to the pesticide. 

Within six hours, sparrows that received a higher dose of the pesticide lost six percent of their body mass. The same birds also stayed longer at the stopover site before continuing on with their annual migration. 

Delaying migration poses a risk to reproductive success for the sparrows, and the birds that were not exposed resumed their migration earlier. 

“Migration is a critical period for birds and timing matters,” said Christy Morrissey, a senior author of the study. “Any delays can seriously hinder their success in finding mates and nesting, so this may help explain, in part, why migrant and farmland bird species are declining so dramatically worldwide.” 

--

By <a href="mailto:kayvandette@gmail.com">Kay Vandette</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 

Image Credit: Shutterstock/Tim Zurowski

Songbird population declines may be linked to a widely used pesticide

A new study has revealed how a neonicotinoid pesticide may...

Cats develop attachments to humans just like babies and dogs. A new study from <a href="https://oregonstate.edu/">Oregon State University</a> has produced the first empirical evidence that <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/cats-eat-grass/">cats</a> form attachments with their caretakers that are similar to the bonds formed by children and dogs. According to the researchers, the findings suggest that this bonding ability across species must be explained by traits that are not specific to canines.

Study lead author Kristyn Vitale is a researcher in the Human-Animal Interaction Lab in OSU's College of Agricultural Sciences.

"In both dogs and cats, attachment to humans may represent an adaptation of the offspring-caretaker bond," said Vitale. "Attachment is a biologically relevant behavior. Our study indicates that when cats live in a state of dependency with a human, that attachment behavior is flexible and the majority of cats use humans as a source of comfort."

The researchers presented the cats with a "secure base test," which is similar to a test that has been used to study the attachment behaviors of infants and dogs. The cats spent two minutes in an unfamiliar room with their caregivers, followed by two minutes alone, and then a two-minute reunion phase.

During the reunion, cats with secure attachment to their humans were less stressed. These cats were found to balance their attention between their caregivers and their surroundings as they continued to explore the room. 

On the other hand, cats with an insecure attachment showed signs of stress during the reunion phase through behaviors such as twitching their tails and licking their lips. These cats either displayed an avoidant attachment by staying away from their caretakers entirely, or displayed an ambivalent attachment by clinging to their caregivers.

Behavioral experts watched recordings of the tests, which were conducted on both kittens and adult cats, to categorize the animal's actions based on the same criteria that have been used to describe attachment patterns in infants and dogs.

Among the 70 kittens that were classifiable, 64.3 percent were classified as securely attached, while 35.7 percent were found to be insecurely attached. Furthermore, the attachment styles of the kittens remained unchanged after six weeks of socialization training.

"Once an attachment style has been established between the cat and its caregiver, it appears to remain relatively stable over time, even after a training and socialization intervention," said Vitale.

Like most domesticated animals, cats retain several juvenile traits into maturity and remain dependent on humans for care, explained Vitale. Among 38 cats that were at least one year old, the team found that 65.8 percent were secure and 34.2 percent were insecure - nearly the same ratio that was observed among the kittens. 

Vitale said it was surprising to find how closely the proportion of secure and insecure attachments in the kitten and adult cat populations matched the human infant population. It has been previously established that 65 percent of human babies are securely attached to their caregiver.

"Cats that are insecure can be likely to run and hide or seem to act aloof," said Vitale. "There's long been a biased way of thinking that all cats behave this way. But the majority of cats use their owner as a source of security. Your cat is depending on you to feel secure when they are stressed out."

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/home">Current Biology</a>.

--

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Image Credit: Shutterstock/Veera

Cats develop attachments to humans just like babies and dogs

Cats develop attachments to humans just like babies and dogs....

This month, wildlife officials in Oregon reported that they had euthanized a young bear who had become habituated to humans. The bear became a local staple as people visited it for <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/dying-selfie-animal-attacks/">selfies</a> and to provide it with junk food. But as often seen in human-wildlife interactions, the animal’s popularity with humans ultimately became its undoing.

The bear was commonly spotted near a popular boat ramp prompting multiple calls to the local police. Police had also become aware of the situation when they found selfies online of people posing next to the bear. 

Officials were called to the scene and found the bear eating piles of trail mix, sunflower seeds and cracked corn, believed to have been left behind by people encouraging the bear to come to the area. The wildlife officials first tried to coax the bear back into the woods, according to a <a href="https://twitter.com/WCSOOregon/status/1139001542076321793/photo/1?ref_src=twsrc%5Etfw%7Ctwcamp%5Etweetembed%7Ctwterm%5E1139001542076321793&amp;ref_url=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.statesmanjournal.com%2Fstory%2Fnews%2F2019%2F06%2F14%2Fblack-bear-killed-oregon-fish-and-wildlife-washington-county-sheriff-office%2F1456831001%2F">tweet</a> from the Washington County’s Sheriff's Office. But the bear had returned to the area the <a href="https://www.oregonlive.com/news/2019/06/oregon-officials-killed-a-black-bear-near-hagg-lake-because-too-many-people-fed-it.html">next day</a>.

Officials then made the decision to euthanize the bear. The Oregon Department of Fish and Wildlife <a href="https://www.dfw.state.or.us/news/2019/06_Jun/061319.asp">states</a> that they do not translocate bears that have been habituated to humans as “these animals are much more likely to have dangerous interactions with humans in the future.”

This tragic case is just one example of the dangers of direct human-wildlife interactions. While the bear behaved in a friendly manner towards selfie takers, the wild animal could have instinctually attacked at any time.

[caption id="attachment_1874332" align="aligncenter" width="494"]<a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/06/Young-black-bear-WCSO-Oregon.png"><img class="size-full wp-image-1874332" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/06/Young-black-bear-WCSO-Oregon.png" alt="" width="494" height="563" /></a> The young black bear who was euthanized, Image Credit: WCSO Oregon[/caption]

The habituation of wildlife to humans also threatens the survival of the animals. Wild animals’ natural fear of humans acts as a defense mechanism by deterring them away from hunters and populated areas where they could be hit by cars. 

This is why wild animals who were raised in captivity often face little chance of survival if they are released back into the wild. In the case of the young black bear, the bear was being fed junk food and might not have developed the proper hunting skills needed to survive on its own.

Despite the risks to both humans and animals, wildlife selfies have exploded in popularity. Human-wildlife interactions have existed for centuries but social media now rewards these interactions with positive affirmations from peoples’ peers.

A <a href="https://d31j74p4lpxrfp.cloudfront.net/sites/default/files/ca_-_en_files/amazon_selfies_report_-_canada.pdf">report</a> by the non-profit group World Animal Protection found a 292% increase in the number of wildlife selfies posted on Instagram between 2014 and 2017. Over 40% of these selfies depicted humans and wild animals directly interacting. 

Human-wildlife interactions do not solely occur in nature. In many countries in the world, especially in the Latin America region, tourists can take photos with wild animals kept by vendors offering just a few dollars for a selfie. These wild animals are often smuggled from the wild and forced into captivity. 

Lion petting facilities have proliferated in South Africa to provide tourists with selfie opportunities as well as sell lions to trophy hunting facilities and into the lion bone trade. At these facilities, lions are intensively bred and young cubs are taken from their mothers mere <a href="https://kevinrichardsonfoundation.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/11/Adopted-Report-of-the-PCEA-on-Captive-Breeding-of-Lions-for-Hunting-9-Nov-2018.pdf">hours after being born</a> to act as tourist props.

As long as wildlife selfies continue to remain popular, there will be demand for direct interactions with wild animals. A quick photo might seem innocent enough, but for the animals involved it could be a death sentence.

--

By <a href="mailto:brianna.grant134@gmail.com">Brianna Lynne</a>, <a href="http://earth.com">Earth.com</a> Contributing Writer

Main Image Credit: Shutterstock/critterbiz

Taking selfies can put animals in danger by making them too comfortable

This month, wildlife officials in Oregon reported that they had...

Why sharks are so important to global ecosystems. Sharks were among the first animals on our planet to have a spine. They evolved in a world of the sea, at a time when life on land was barely underway. Fossilized shark scales over 420 million years old have been found, nearly 200 million years older than the oldest dinosaurs. 

The <a href="https://www.floridamuseum.ufl.edu/discover-fish/sharks/fossil/basics/">Florida Museum</a> compares the 400 million year history of sharks to the 2 million years of human history, calling the later ‘insignificant’ by comparison. Since their early beginnings, sharks have proven to be incredibly resilient, surviving mass extinctions, spreading over the globe and becoming an integral part of marine ecosystems. Why sharks are so important to global ecosystems 

Some sharks can an indicator of reef health. Reefs need sharks to be healthy and sharks prefer healthy reefs for habitat. Sharks are important for a much broader spectrum of the oceans than just reefs, though. There are an estimated 350 species of sharks worldwide. Sharks range from the largest shark – the enormous whale shark, a strange example of a 40 foot long fish evolving to live like a whale, as a filter feeder. The other extreme is the tiny dwarf lantern shark, measuring only about six inches long at adulthood. <a href="https://www.si.edu/">Smithsonian Institute</a> reports that the dwarf lantern shark, true to its name, has a belly that glows in the dark 950 feet deep waters off the coast of Columbia where it lives.  

Of course, sharks have been demonized, feared and actually devastated by human activities, such as fishing. Because of the perceived danger that sharks pose to humans, protections for them are less popular than for many other iconic animals. Because of this, I asked Stefanie Brendl, founder and president of the non-profit <a href="https://www.sharkallies.com">Shark Allies</a>, some questions about sharks. Stefanie explained the importance of sharks to humans. Also Why sharks are so important to global ecosystems.

“Sharks play a critical role in the health of the ocean, they have a deep cultural significance to many coastal and island cultures around the world,” Brendl said. “In short, if you like your planet and would like to continue getting food from the ocean, then sharks are important to you. We don’t get the luxury to focus on single causes in isolation based on what we care about the most. The plight of sharks is actually considered one of the most pressing issues we face, with regards to ocean health, and we can’t afford to ignore this. The damage done from plastic pollution, deforestation, runoff and climate change will be exponentially more damaging if fish populations and coral reefs are decimated, which are both outcomes we will suffer if we do not take care of shark populations.”

Stefanie’s explanation makes perfect sense if you consider the long history of <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/sharks-threatened-fishing-boats/">sharks</a>. How could they not have evolved as an integral part of a massive and complex global ecology? Ocean ecology is in fact what humans exploit for food as well as what we depend on for clean air and water. Despite the crucial role oceans play in our lives, even far inland, humans have a poor track record of according them respect and protections. Sharks are no different, as Brendl explained to me.

“Sharks are severely threatened, but their plight receives the least amount of attention and funding. They are the underdog of ocean conservation and animal advocacy…There is a drastic decline in shark populations that is caused by industrial overfishing, the high demand for shark products, and the poorly controlled trade of the products. Scientists estimate that more than 100 million sharks are killed every year.” 

[caption id="attachment_1875776" align="aligncenter" width="650"]<a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/07/Stef-Oceanic-Whitetip.jpg"><img class="wp-image-1875776" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/07/Stef-Oceanic-Whitetip.jpg" alt="" width="650" height="400" /></a> Image Credit: Shark Allies[/caption]

One of the most notorious causes of shark declines is sadly a complete luxury. Shark fin soup is a dish reserved as a symbol of wealth and power for many. Sharks often have a fin cut off cruelty only to be tossed back into the ocean for a slow, agonizing but inevitable death. For this reason, Shark Allies was involved in the ban of shark fins in Hawaii in 2010 and is continuing the work by pushing for a similar ban in Florida, the current center of the US shark fin industry. 

One of the ways individuals can help sharks, besides supporting conservation organizations and legislation is being careful to avoid shark products, such as shark meat. As with any wild animal, one of the keys to fighting for it is understanding it. 

Stefanie Brendl told me there’s more information than an individual can absorb on sharks out there – in books, on the internet, in documentary films. All of these sources of information can prepare a person for the most important part of studying sharks – seeing a live shark in the wild. Stefanie Brendl was inspired by her hands on work as a diver and working on documentary films around sharks. 

“When you have the opportunity to visit a location with reputable shark diving operators, take the plunge,” Brendl told me. “It will change your life! Meeting a shark in person is impossible to describe. It changes your DNA and you will never feel the same.”

She’s right. I remember seeing sharks, just small ones on my first SCUBA diving trips in Mexico. Nurse sharks like some I saw are shy and yet there’s something fierce and ancient in the reflection of their eyes. Even shark teeth alone can change your perspective. Ancient teeth sprinkled in dry places show the dynamic nature of Earth’s history and the important role sharks have played, it’s written even in desert rocks. Sharks have always been a part of the human world and often an important part of who we are. Shark Allies points out the often central role sharks have played in the human consciousness,

“Sharks are part of every indigenous culture that lives near the sea. Humans have felt the power and presence of sharks since they have first laid eyes on the ocean” the organization writes. “They have revered them as deities, gods, manifestations of ancestors and guardians for as long as cultures have existed. We have all come from the ocean and sharks have been part of our world for as long as we have been human.”

Consider that the next time you think of sharks.        

--

By <a href="mailto:zachfitzner@yahoo.com">Zach Fitzner</a>, <a href="http://earth.com">Earth.com</a> Contributing Writer

Paid for by <a href="http://earth.com">Earth.com</a>

Main Image Credit: Shark Allies

Why sharks are so important to global ecosystems

Why sharks are so important to global ecosystems. Sharks were...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2E0mn5mTvhQ
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">'Death Star' moon Mimas conceals a 15-million-year-old ocean that scientists never expected.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hidden-waters-beneath-ancient-craters">Hidden waters beneath ancient craters</h2>



Scientists have made a startling discovery that challenges everything we thought we knew about <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/saturn-moon-mimas-has-remarkably-young-ocean/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Saturn's moon Mimas</a>. Beneath the heavily cratered surface that earned it the nickname "Death Star" lies a global ocean that formed just 5 to 15 million years ago—a remarkably young age by cosmic standards.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cassini-data-reveals-orbital-secrets">Cassini data reveals orbital secrets</h2>



The discovery, led by Dr. Valéry Lainey of the <a href="https://observatoiredeparis.psl.eu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Observatoire de Paris</a>, emerged from careful analysis of <a href="https://www.nasa.gov" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NASA</a>'s Cassini spacecraft data. By studying subtle irregularities in Mimas's orbit around Saturn, researchers detected the gravitational signature of liquid water hidden 20 to 30 kilometers beneath the moon's icy shell.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-an-unlikely-ocean-world">An unlikely ocean world</h2>



At only 400 kilometers in diameter, Mimas seemed like the least likely candidate to harbor a subsurface ocean. Unlike other ocean moons such as Europa and Enceladus, which show clear surface signs of internal activity, Mimas displays no obvious hints of the liquid water beneath its ancient, crater-scarred exterior.



"Mimas is a small moon, and its heavily cratered surface gave no hint of the hidden ocean beneath," explained Dr. Nick Cooper from <a href="https://www.qmul.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Queen Mary University of London</a>, a study co-author.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-astrobiology">Implications for astrobiology</h2>



The ocean's recent formation makes Mimas a prime target for studying how oceans develop and potentially support life. This discovery adds another member to the exclusive club of ocean worlds in our solar system, each offering unique insights into the conditions necessary for habitability.



The research, published in <a href="https://www.nature.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature</a> journal, demonstrates how advanced orbital analysis can reveal hidden features of celestial bodies, opening new possibilities for understanding ocean formation throughout the cosmos.



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Scientists discover unexpected young ocean on Saturn's cratered moon Mimas

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2E0mn5mTvhQ 'Death Star' moon Mimas conceals a 15-million-year-old ocean that...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE
</div></figure>



On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop and sunlight barely penetrates through the polar winter. It was here, however, that an international team of scientists found <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/predatory-worms-were-terror-beasts-half-a-billion-years-ago/#google_vignette" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evidence of sea monsters</a> that would change our understanding of ocean life in the past.



This video captures the discovery of Timorebestia fossils that had been hidden for more than 500 million years in the Sirius Passet formation. The "terror beasts," as they are called, are a hidden chapter in the evolutionary history of <a href="https://www.earth.com" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Earth</a>, showing that sophisticated predator-prey interactions occurred much earlier than previously envisioned.



Dr. Jakob Vinther and his research team at the <a href="https://www.bristol.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Bristol</a>, in collaboration with researchers at the <a href="https://eng.kopri.re.kr/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Korean Polar Research Institute</a>, braved extreme weather conditions at 82.5 north latitude to locate these giant creatures. Using sophisticated electron microprobe analysis, they revealed the detailed anatomy of the animals, including their muscle and nerve tissues.



The find upsets the traditional timeline of sea predators. Although we've long appreciated that Cambrian oceans were at one time ruled by <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jWI3-UgA3_o&amp;list=PL1QLQMW9MWDwpkFOnvgAmu7wT6rZmYqdJ&amp;index=19" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">arthropods</a>, these discoveries indicate that relatives of arrow worms were first to dominate the seas. These worms were building sophisticated food webs several million years before other predator groups arose.



Each fossil is a story of ancient hunger, with fossil stomach contents revealing these meter-long beasts dined on heavily armored arthropods regularly, cementing their place as the ocean's first apex predators.



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Worms dominated seas before dinosaurs

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">New York is the site of the world's oldest forest.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-385-million-year-old-trees-discovered">385-million-year-old trees discovered</h2>



Scientists have uncovered something extraordinary just two hours north of New York City. The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/worlds-oldest-forest-discovered-close-to-new-york-city/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">world's oldest forest</a>, dating back 385 million years, offers a window into how Earth's first complex forests shaped our planet's atmosphere.



Located near <a href="https://townofcairo.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cairo, New York</a>, in Greene County, these weren't merely primitive plants struggling to survive. These were sophisticated trees with root systems remarkably similar to modern forests. This ancient woodland predates dinosaurs by 140 million years.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-cairo-forest-discovery">The Cairo forest discovery</h2>



385 million years ago, upstate New York was a tropical paradise near the equator. Thanks to continental drift, this ancient forest has traveled thousands of miles to its current location.



The fossil forest sits in an abandoned quarry, roughly half the size of a football field. This represents just a slice of what was likely a massive forest system stretching from New York into Pennsylvania.



Charles Ver Straeten, curator of sedimentary rocks at the <a href="https://www.nysm.nysed.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">New York State Museum</a>, made the discovery in 2009. While scouting the former highway department property, his trained eye spotted wandering patterns in the stone that looked like marine features.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-revolutionary-age-and-preservation">Revolutionary age and preservation</h2>



The site contains 385-million-year-old rocks with fossilized woody roots forming horizontal patterns up to 18 feet (5.5 meters) wide. As Christopher Berry, a paleobotanist at Cardiff University, explains: "You are walking through the roots of ancient trees."



This discovery pushes back advanced tree evolution by millions of years. The research, published in <a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/home" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Current Biology</a> in December 2019, fundamentally changes our understanding of when complex forests first emerged.



Researchers believe a massive flood buried the forest floor, creating perfect fossilization conditions. Over millions of years, sediment hardened into rock, preserving these root patterns like nature's time capsule.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-meet-archaeopteris-the-first-modern-tree">Meet Archaeopteris: the first modern tree</h2>



The star of this ancient forest is Archaeopteris – not to be confused with the feathered dinosaur Archaeopteryx. This tree was far older and more revolutionary.



William Stein from <a href="https://www.binghamton.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Binghamton University</a> describes the roots as "strikingly modern, essentially what you'd see outside in my yard right now." These weren't simple root systems you'd expect from ancient plants.



Some fossilized roots are six inches (15 centimeters) in diameter, forming 36-foot-wide (11-meter) patterns. These giants grew up to 65 feet (20 meters) tall with five-foot-diameter (1.5-meter) trunks.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-changing-impact">Climate-changing impact</h2>



These trees fundamentally changed Earth's environment. Kevin Boyce, a Stanford University geoscientist, explains how their deep roots triggered "weathering," chemical reactions that pulled carbon dioxide from the atmosphere.



This process dropped atmospheric CO2 levels from 10-15 times higher than today to roughly modern concentrations. These ancient trees helped create atmospheric conditions that made complex life possible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ancient-forest-ecosystem">Ancient forest ecosystem</h2>



The forest was remarkably diverse. Scientists identified Eospermatopteris, palm tree-like plants with short roots that reached 30 feet (9 meters) tall but lacked woody structure. The forest also housed cladoxylopsids and a mysterious third species still being studied.



All reproduced through spores rather than seeds – millions of years before seeds evolved. This tropical environment had no grass, flowers, or flying insects, just towering trees creating Earth's first complex forest canopy.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-scientific-significance">Scientific significance</h2>



Before this finding, the Gilboa forest, located 25 miles (40 kilometers) away, held the "oldest forest" title. Cairo's trees are 2-3 million years older, showing that complex forest ecosystems developed much faster than scientists believed possible.



Patricia Gensel, a <a href="https://www.unc.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of North Carolina</a> paleobotanist, notes: "The size of those root systems is really changing the picture. Even 20 years ago, researchers assumed trees with such complex root systems didn't evolve so early."



The Cairo site presents three unique root systems, suggesting Devonian period forests were diverse ecosystems with different trees occupying different environmental niches, much like today's forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-modern-preservation-efforts">Modern preservation efforts</h2>



In 2022, New York State Senator Michelle Hinchey secured a $170,000 grant for the town of Cairo to construct specialized fencing around the fossil forest site. The town plans to conduct a feasibility study exploring the possibility of creating an educational center and working lab on-site.



Joe Hasenkopf, chair of the Cairo Planning Board, hopes to partner with educational institutions to create a research facility serving scientists, students, and the public.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lessons-for-today-s-climate">Lessons for today's climate</h2>



Why does a 385-million-year-old forest matter today? It shows how dramatically forests can change Earth's climate. These ancient woodlands created the atmospheric conditions supporting complex life.



Understanding how prehistoric forests transformed the planet helps us appreciate modern forests' critical role in addressing climate change. Forests remain Earth's most effective carbon capture systems.



These prehistoric trees changed Earth's atmosphere by pulling massive amounts of carbon dioxide from the air. As we face modern climate challenges, this ancient forest reminds us of trees' incredible power to transform our planet's environment.



The next time you walk through a forest, remember you're experiencing an ecosystem whose blueprint was established 385 million years ago in upstate New York. These ancient pioneers didn't just survive – they thrived and changed the world forever.



The full study was published in the journal Current Biology.



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Earth's oldest forest found in the United States

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ New York is the site of the world's oldest...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Acid rain and a crisis solved.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-don-t-we-ever-hear-about-acid-rain-anymore-the-environmental-crisis-that-was-solved">Why don't we ever hear about "acid rain" anymore? The environmental crisis that was solved</h2>



Remember the 1980s when acid rain dominated headlines? Dire warnings about rain eating buildings, killing fish, and destroying forests filled every news cycle. Then, almost like magic, acid rain vanished from public discourse. What happened? Did we actually solve one of the late 20th century's most pressing environmental challenges?



The answer might surprise you. Unlike many environmental issues that drag on indefinitely, acid rain represents one of modern history's most successful ecological recovery stories. It's a tale of science, politics, and technology working together to tackle what seemed impossible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What was acid rain?</h2>



Acid rain isn't regular rain having a bad day – it's precipitation that became significantly more acidic due to air pollution. When power plants, factories, and vehicles burn fossil fuels, they release sulfur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides (NOx) into the atmosphere.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The science behind it</h2>



Think of acid rain as nature's chemistry experiment gone wrong. These compounds react with water, oxygen, and other chemicals to form sulfuric and nitric acids. When mixed with water vapor in clouds, they create precipitation with dangerously low pH levels.



While clean rain has a pH of about 5.6, acid rain could drop as low as 4.2 to 4.4 – roughly as acidic as tomato juice or coffee. According to US Geological Survey documentation, Scottish chemist Angus Smith first coined "acid rain" in 1872, but it didn't become a household phrase until the 1960s and 1970s when Swedish scientist Svante Odén documented its devastating effects on Scandinavian lakes and European forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The crisis at its peak</h2>



During the height of public concern, environmental damage was both widespread and visible. This wasn't some abstract future threat – people could see destruction happening in real-time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Environmental devastation</h2>



The most dramatic impacts were impossible to ignore. Research documented by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation and the New York State Department of Environmental Conservation shows that in the Adirondack Mountains, more than 200 lakes became so acidic they couldn't support fish life. The Adirondack Council reports that 409 lakes once supported brook trout, but many lost their fish populations due to acid rain.



By 1976, when scientists cataloged all acidified lakes in the Adirondack Park, researchers found that half of the lakes over 2,000 feet above sea level had no fish, according to studies published in environmental journals. The acidification process worked like a slow-motion disaster. As acid rain fell into watersheds, it gradually lowered pH levels. Fish couldn't survive in acidic water, and their food sources died off too.



Trees at high elevations showed stress directly linked to acid rain. It weakened them by leaching nutrients and making them susceptible to disease. Historical records show Germany's Black Forest saw nearly half its trees damaged by the mid-1980s.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Economic impact</h2>



Acid rain wasn't just environmental – it was expensive. Acidic precipitation corroded infrastructure, buildings, and monuments. Historic stone structures deteriorated at accelerated rates. Tourism suffered as lakes became fishless and forests declined. EPA economic analyses from the period documented repair costs mounting into billions annually.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The solution: government action and technology</h2>



Transformation from crisis to success required unprecedented cooperation between governments, industries, and environmental groups.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The Clean Air Act of 1990</h2>



The turning point came with the Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990, signed by President George H.W. Bush. This represented a fundamentally new approach to environmental regulation, as documented in EPA historical records.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Cap-and-trade success</h2>



Instead of mandating specific technologies, the 1990 amendments introduced something revolutionary: a cap-and-trade system for sulfur dioxide emissions. EPA program documentation shows this market-based approach set overall limits but allowed companies to trade emission allowances.



The genius was harnessing market forces to find cost-effective pollution reduction. Companies reducing emissions cheaply could sell excess allowances to those facing higher costs. Research published in environmental economics journals and EPA progress reports shows this resulted in dramatic SO2 reduction at a fraction of projected costs.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Technology advances</h2>



Policy provided the framework, but technology made reductions possible. Studies in atmospheric science journals document the widespread adoption of flue gas desulfurization systems ("scrubbers") that removed sulfur dioxide before it reached the atmosphere. By the 2000s, new installations could remove over 95% of SO2 emissions, according to EPA technical reports.



The push coincided with cleaner energy development. Natural gas produces fewer sulfur compounds than coal. Wind and solar, emerging in the 1990s, captured growing market share, reducing reliance on high-sulfur coal.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-we-don-t-hear-about-it-today">Why we don't hear about it today</h2>



Why did acid rain disappear from headlines? Simple: the problem was largely solved.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Success doesn't make news</h2>



There's an old journalism saying: "If it bleeds, it leads." Environmental success stories don't generate urgency like crisis reporting. Media attention shifted to other challenges: climate change, plastic pollution, and biodiversity loss. There's only so much environmental anxiety the public can absorb, and newer concerns replaced acid rain.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Mission accomplished</h2>



The primary reason is beautifully simple: interventions worked. EPA monitoring data shows sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990. Academic research published in environmental science journals confirms pH levels in formerly affected areas returned closer to normal. This represents one of history's most dramatic environmental recoveries. Studies by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation show fishless lakes now support healthy populations. Forests recovered, and building damage slowed dramatically.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-is-it-really-gone">Is it really gone?</h2>



The crisis is largely resolved, but monitoring data shows the problem isn't completely eliminated – it's managed to acceptable levels. Some areas still experience occasional events during high pollution periods. International environmental research indicates that rapidly industrializing Asian countries face similar problems to what we experienced decades ago, though they're implementing successful strategies.



EPA research shows nitrogen oxide emissions proved more challenging than sulfur dioxide, coming from vehicles and mobile sources. Climate science studies suggest changing weather patterns add complexity to how acid rain forms and falls.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What this teaches us</h2>



The acid rain experience proves that seemingly intractable environmental problems can be solved with scientific understanding, political will, and technological innovation. Environmental monitoring data shows recovery speed was remarkable – within a decade, measurable improvements appeared in air quality and ecosystem health.



Success came from bipartisan support across party lines. Policy analysis studies show the market-based approach appealed to those preferring economic incentives while achieving environmental goals. This support created lasting policy surviving political changes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Conclusion</h2>



Acid rain's disappearance from public consciousness represents environmental science's greatest success stories. Through effective regulation, technological innovation, and international cooperation, we transformed an overwhelming crisis into a manageable challenge.



Today's silence isn't because we forgot – it's because we solved it. The 1990 Clean Air Act, combined with technology and energy market changes, reduced acid rain emissions over 90%, according to comprehensive EPA data analysis.



This success offers hope for current challenges. It proves complex problems can be solved when science, policy, and technology work together. As we face climate change and plastic pollution, acid rain reminds us that dramatic positive change is possible.



Next time someone asks whether environmental regulations work, remember acid rain. It's proof that sometimes, we get it right.



<hr class="wp-block-separator has-alpha-channel-opacity"/>



Sources: This article draws from EPA official documentation and progress reports, peer-reviewed research published in environmental and atmospheric science journals, historical data from the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation, New York State Department of Environmental Conservation records, US Geological Survey publications, policy analysis studies, and environmental monitoring data collected over three decades.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Frequently Asked Questions</h2>



1. Is acid rain completely gone? No, but EPA monitoring shows it's reduced to manageable levels. US sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990, making acid rain much less severe than the 1980s crisis.



2. How long did solving take? Environmental monitoring data shows significant improvements began within 5-10 years of 1990s emission controls. Full ecosystem recovery took longer – some areas need 20-30 years for complete recovery.



3. What made the solution successful? Clear scientific understanding, visible damage motivating action, bipartisan support, available technology, and innovative market-based policies like cap-and-trade.



4. Do other countries have acid rain problems? Yes, particularly rapidly industrializing Asian countries. However, international environmental research shows many implement similar successful control strategies.



5. Could acid rain return? Potentially, if regulations weaken or we return to high-sulfur coal without controls, though effects would take years to become severe according to environmental projections.



6. Can you recommend any teaching tools on the subject of "acid rain"? The United States Environmental Protection Agency produced a wonderful teacher's guide for ages 14 and under that you can find on the EPA website here: <a href="https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf</a>



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The environmental problem we actually solved

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk Acid rain and a crisis solved. Why don't we...

Fresh,Radish,Harvest,On,Soil,In,Garden.

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
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</div></figure>







Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving fall garden, and this guide lays out the best vegetables and herbs to plant now for a fruitful autumn harvest. 



Fast-growing leafy greens such as spinach, lettuce, kale, and arugula perform especially well in the waning summer heat, with harvests beginning as soon as 30 days. 



These cool-season crops relish the transition into fall, offering repeated yields with cut-and-come-again methods.



Root vegetables like radishes, carrots, and beets also excel during this period. Radishes deliver satisfaction in under a month, while carrots and beets mature in about two months. Employing succession planting ensures a continuous stream of produce deep into the cooler months. 



For a boost of fresh flavor, herbs like cilantro, basil, dill, and chervil are excellent picks. These heat-loving varieties flourish in July’s warmth and are harvest-ready in about 30 days, especially when sown continuously.



Gardeners in zones 6 through 9 can benefit from planting bush beans and snap peas, which don’t require trellising and are ideal for compact plots. 



Maturing in 50–60 days, they’re a smart choice for quick, protein-rich harvests. For those in hotter regions, heat-tolerant crops such as okra and southern peas provide reliable yields and thrive in scorching conditions.



This guide emphasizes more than crop selection—it highlights the importance of timing, soil preparation, and ongoing sowing techniques. 



With thoughtful planning and attention to regional climate needs, even late-summer gardeners can enjoy fresh salads, hearty stews, and the satisfaction of a robust, homegrown harvest well into fall.



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What to plant in your garden in mid-July

https://youtu.be/Fi2OeEwuzRM?si=vTyd2m9FMmtyWkex Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving...

Green,Ecoduct,Over,An,Empty,Highway,During,Sunset.

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https://youtu.be/XYgiPzmNBTU?si=eFYY7gPHU1JznLvU
</div></figure>



A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that wildlife tunnels significantly reduce amphibian road mortality during seasonal migrations. 



Frogs and salamanders often cross roads to reach breeding ponds each spring, but many are killed by vehicles. 



Researchers from the <a href="https://www.uvm.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Vermont</a>, in collaboration with local citizens and the Vermont Agency of Natural Resources, installed two underpass tunnels in 2015. 



Over a 12-year monitoring period, they observed an 80.2% reduction in amphibian deaths, and up to 94% for non-climbing species like salamanders. 



The study used a before-after-control-impact design and documented more than 5,200 amphibians, highlighting the tunnels’ effectiveness even in nearby buffer zones.



Funded at $342,397 - far cheaper than wildlife crossings for large mammals - the project showcased the power of community-led conservation.



Local groups initiated the effort after observing mass amphibian deaths. Wildlife cameras later captured over 2,200 amphibians using a tunnel in just one spring, along with other species like raccoons and bobcats, indicating wider ecosystem benefits.



This marks the first peer-reviewed, long-term data set in the northeastern U.S. confirming amphibian-specific underpasses work. 



The study urges transportation departments to incorporate these designs into road planning and highlights how community action, thoughtful infrastructure, and persistence can make a real difference for biodiversity.



The full study was published in the <a href="https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1617138125000780" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal for Nature Conservation</a>.



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Wildlife tunnels save millions of amphibians

https://youtu.be/XYgiPzmNBTU?si=eFYY7gPHU1JznLvU A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that...

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing it with probiotics and prebiotics, aiming to create a treat that satisfies cravings while supporting gut health. 



The challenge lies in maintaining chocolate's beloved texture and flavor while adding health benefits.



<figure class="wp-block-embed aligncenter is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://youtu.be/Ug657J67iEo?si=w96YjGMsg939LD_3
</div></figure>



Probiotics - beneficial microbes that balance gut bacteria and aid digestion - are typically fragile and can be destroyed by stomach acid or processing. 



Prebiotics act as food for these microbes, helping them thrive. Together, they form "synbiotics," a powerful health combination.



Researchers Smriti Gaur and Shubhi Singh from India's Jaypee Institute of Information Technology took an innovative approach, using natural prebiotics like corn and honey instead of complex processing methods. 



They created five chocolate varieties: a control and four synbiotic versions containing different combinations of prebiotics, probiotics (Lactobacillus strains), and flavor enhancers (cinnamon or orange).



Laboratory simulations of human digestion showed the probiotics remained viable for over five hours, suggesting they could survive long enough to benefit gut health.



Taste tests were positive, with researchers particularly enjoying the orange-flavored variety, describing it as having "vibrant citrus notes" complementing the "rich cocoa" with a "luxurious" texture.



This research represents just the beginning. With further refinement of strains, textures, and flavors, chocolate could evolve beyond mere indulgence to become a functional food that nourishes while it delights.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.4c00741" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ACS Food Science &amp; Technology</a>.

Is chocolate the next nutritional powerhouse?

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

[sendtonews key="0ynNMYkMKa-2340414-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

[sendtonews key="G9bUoxcjr4-2511624-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="3upvlAaHgO-2256633-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

[sendtonews key="3upvlAaHgO-2256633-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

[sendtonews key="LvS8v8bp9z-2564889-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How does salt makes things taste better?

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Santiago, Chile in South America

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Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.



According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."



Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;



ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. 



Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

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Earth,Like,Exoplanet,3d,Render

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

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