Imagine running a shop where you must hire both a guard and a salesperson. The guard keeps thieves away but may sometimes scare customers. The salesperson brings revenue but dislikes being interrupted. Balancing both roles can be tricky. 



Plants face a similar dilemma when they attract <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-many-ants-live-on-earth-at-any-point-in-time-total-number-is-astounding/">ants</a> for protection while also needing pollinators for reproduction.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-sweet-deals-with-ant-allies">Sweet deals with ant allies</h2>



Plants rarely survive in isolation. They form alliances with many creatures, gaining protection, pollination, and nutrients. 



One of the most fascinating examples involves extrafloral nectaries - small glands on leaves, stems, or branches of around 4,000 plant species.



These glands release sugary nectar not to attract pollinators but to lure protective ants and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/paleontologists-found-the-oldest-ant-species-on-earth-113-million-years-old-with-scythe-like-jaws/">insects</a>. In exchange for this reward, ants chase away herbivores. This partnership benefits plants, but it can complicate relationships with pollinators.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ant-guards-disrupt-pollinators">Ant guards disrupt pollinators</h2>



A new study published in the Journal of Ecology shows that ants can interfere with pollination when nectaries are located near flowers.



Bees, which need close contact with flowers, are disrupted. Their visits shorten or stop altogether when ants patrol nearby.



Yet the story shifts when extrafloral nectaries are found on leaves or stems farther away. In such cases, plants gain the protection of ants without losing pollination benefits, often achieving greater reproductive success.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-different-plant-visitors-different-risks">Different plant visitors, different risks</h2>



Not all flower visitors respond the same way. Butterflies, with their long feeding tubes, remain largely unaffected. They can sip nectar from a distance, safe from ant encounters.



Bees, however, must get close and linger, making them prime targets for interference. This contrast shows how visitor behavior shapes the outcome of plant–ant interactions.



“Bees, on the other hand, need to get very close to the flower to collect pollen and floral nectar, but ants don’t allow them to stay for long,” said Amanda Vieira da Silva, the lead author of the study.



“Not surprisingly, our analysis showed that the presence of ants is detrimental to pollination when extrafloral nectaries are close to flowers but has a positive effect on plant reproduction when they’re located farther away.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-trade-offs-shape-plant-survival">Trade-offs shape plant survival</h2>



The study examined data from 27 experiments across 25 plant <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earths-quiet-engineers-what-happens-when-common-ant-species-disappear/">species</a>. Overall, the average impact of ants on pollination was low but highly variable.



Ants consistently reduced floral visitation, especially by bees, but this did not always reduce reproductive success. In fact, plants with nectaries on vegetative tissues often benefited, producing more fruits and seeds.



Researchers suggest several reasons for the low costs. Protective benefits against herbivores may offset pollination losses. Some plants with reproductive nectaries gain more defense from florivores, balancing reduced pollinator visits.



Others reduce dependence on pollinators through self-pollination, making ant interference less harmful. Even reduced visits may not matter if short or fewer visits still transfer enough pollen.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ant-guards-change-plant-futures">Ant guards change plant futures</h2>



Ant interference may have influenced the evolution of plant traits. Species with high reliance on <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/honey-bee-invasion-a-growing-threat-to-native-pollinators/">bee pollination</a> may lose nectaries over time. 



Others may evolve seasonal separation, producing leaves with active nectaries at one time and flowers at another, preventing conflict.



“We know that in some groups of plants with extrafloral nectaries and flowers pollinated by the vibration of bees, new leaves with active extrafloral nectaries and flowers are produced in different seasons throughout the year, which would avoid conflict between the two,” said Anselmo Nogueira, co-author of the study.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-sweetness-fuels-bigger-networks">Sweetness fuels bigger networks</h2>



Additional partnerships add complexity. Nitrogen-fixing <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/some-bacteria-breathe-by-creating-electricity/">bacteria</a> in roots can boost plant productivity, supporting both pollinators and protective ants.



Resource quality also shapes interactions: plants with richer nectar attract more aggressive ants, which can either improve defense or worsen pollinator deterrence. Context, environment, and species traits all decide the balance.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-plant-protection-and-pollination-intertwined">Plant protection and pollination intertwined</h2>



Studies have typically focused on the effect of only one isolated interaction on plants. For example, they quantify how much ants favor the defense of plants against herbivores or how much <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/pollinators-face-extinction-risk-due-to-climate-change/">pollinators</a> favor plant reproduction. 



"But these interactions can occur at the same time," said Laura Carolina Leal, co-author of the paper. "So, to understand how these interactions influence plant growth and reproduction, we need to look at them in an integrated way.” 



The findings highlight how delicate balances shape ecosystems. Ants reduce visits but can still help plants thrive, depending on where nectaries sit and which visitors dominate. Long term, these dynamics may influence the evolution of floral traits and mating systems.



The study is published in the <a href="https://besjournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/1365-2745.70087" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal of Ecology</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Plants pay sugar bribes for ant bodyguards to help them survive

Imagine running a shop where you must hire both a guard and a salesperson. The guard keeps thieves away but may sometimes scare customers. The salesperson brings revenue but dislikes being interrupted. Balancing both roles can be tricky. Plants face a similar dilemma when they attract ants for protection while also needing pollinators for reproduction. Sweet deals with ant allies Plants rarely survive in isolation. They form alliances with many creatures, gaining protection, pollination, and nutrients. One of the most fascinating examples involves extrafloral nectaries - small...

Cheetahs are being bought and sold into potential extinction. Cheetah trafficking in the Horn of Africa is leading to the potential extinction of the world’s fastest land animal.

According to the <a href="https://cheetah.org/">Cheetah Conservation Fund</a>, every year around 300 cheetahs are smuggled out of Somaliland, a state independent of Somalia. Cheetahs are in high demand in countries like the United Arab Emirates and Saudi Arabia, where the animals serve as status symbols for the rich. 

The Cheetah Conservation Fund estimates that 1,000 cheetahs are currently being kept captive by private owners in Gulf Countries even though many of these regions do not allow wild animals to be bought or sold. 

There are fewer than 7,500 cheetahs left in the wild, and as demand for trafficked cubs continues, soon there could be no more cheetahs. 

“If you do the math, the math kind of shows that it’s only going to be a matter of a couple of years [before] we are not going to have any cheetahs,” Laurie Marker, the founder of CCF, told <a href="https://edition.cnn.com/2019/08/28/africa/somaliland-cheetahs-gulf-intl/index.html">CNN.</a> 

While life in captivity is dangerous enough for these animals, few live to see it. Smuggled cubs are put in small boxes and cages as they make an arduous boat trip across the Gulf of Aden. 

During the journey, many of the animals suffer broken bones, and three out of four cheetahs die before making it to their destination, according to Marker. 

Cheetah sales may be on the decline although wildlife smuggling is big business worldwide. The three top sellers for pet cheetahs are based in Saudi Arabia, according to the Cheetah Conservation Fund. 

The United Arab Emirates Ministry of Climate Change issued a statement to CNN denying that there were pet Cheetahs wandering the mansions of the country’s ultra-wealthy. 

However, according to CNN, social media is home to several posts featuring pet cheetahs. Veterinarians speaking to the news outlet reported that they’ve treated fewer pet cheetahs in recent years due to stricter policies and border controls. 

--

By <a href="mailto:kayvandette@gmail.com">Kay Vandette</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 

Image Credit: Shutterstock/Stuart G Porter

Cheetahs are being bought and sold into potential extinction

Cheetahs are being bought and sold into potential extinction. Cheetah...

South Africa is of course known for its variety of iconic animals from penguins and great white sharks to elephants and lions. The country is also <a href="https://www.awf.org/country/south-africa">ranked</a> as number six in the world’s 17 mega diverse countries.

Additionally, South Africa is home to the largest population of rhinoceros in Africa. South Africa’s animals are often targeted for poaching as well, and rhinos, elephants and other animals are valuable for their body parts sold on the international black market. This is what has long made Africa one of the frontlines of the battle for biological conservation.  

Considering the animal life in South Africa, it’s unsurprising that there is an enormous amount of plant diversity in the country as well. There are approximately 20,000 <a href="https://www.fauna-flora.org/countries/south-africa">plant species</a> found in South Africa, which is home to one of only six floral kingdoms worldwide – the Cape Floral Kingdom. 70% of the Cape Floral Kingdom’s 9,000+ plant species don’t occur outside of the local region. Unfortunately, plant life in South Africa is threatened as well.

Over the period of 300 years, 79 plants were confirmed to have gone extinct in several biodiversity hotspots in South Africa. New research shows that this represents a shockingly large percentage of plant biodiversity for South Africa. According to research published in <a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/fulltext/S0960-9822(19)30943-1?_returnURL=https%3A%2F%2Flinkinghub.elsevier.com%2Fretrieve%2Fpii%2FS0960982219309431%3Fshowall%3Dtrue">Current Biology</a>, this loss of biodiversity in South Africa represents 45.4% of all known plant extinctions from 10 of the world’s top biodiversity hotspots. 

The plant loss in South Africa goes as far back as the 1700s when the first recorded loss of a plant species occurred. The plant was a species of fountainbush (Psoralea cataracta) that lived near streams. Plant extinctions in South Africa have also occurred as recently as 2012 when a rare species of vygie went extinct due to urbanization and human development. It’s sometimes more challenging to determine the extinction of a plant species than it is with the more charismatic animals. 

As many as 431 plant species have been declared extinct, only to be later rediscovered. Plants, small, nondescript, many of which require a specialist to identify are easier to overlook than many animals. Plants can also hide out as seeds or very small immature specimens that can be missed. Some of the plants now declared extinct could potentially be rediscovered, but the plant extinction rates are still something to take very seriously, not just in South Africa but across the world as well. 

A <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/333679673_Global_dataset_shows_geography_and_life_form_predict_modern_plant_extinction_and_rediscovery">new study</a> found that since 1750, 571 plant species have gone extinct worldwide. Although some plant extinction is normal and not all of it can be attributed to humans, the number of plant extinctions rose sharply after the industrial revolution. The rate of plant extinctions now is 500 times greater than before the industrial revolution. What may be most disturbing is that there are likely even more plant extinctions than those recorded and 571 species is likely an underestimate. 

Islands are some of the most likely places to find confirmed plant extinctions. It’s easier to be sure that a plant has been wiped out from a limited area such as an island, and it’s also easier for a plant in such an area to be threatened. 

Hawaii was the one place surveyed in the study that had a higher number of plant extinctions than South Africa. <a href="https://dlnr.hawaii.gov/ecosystems/rare-plants/">Hawaii</a> is home to 1,400 vascular plant taxa, 90% of which are found only in Hawaii. More than 100 plant taxa have already gone extinct there.

Hawaii has also lost its share of animal species and more may die off in the near future. The <a href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/national/health-science/is-hawaii-the-extinction-capital-of-the-world-exhibit-a-the-alala-bird/2016/04/25/3f45c6ac-f210-11e5-89c3-a647fcce95e0_story.html">Washington Post</a> reports that of the 1,225 endangered species listed by the <a href="https://www.fws.gov/">US Fish &amp; Wildlife Service</a>, 481 of them are from Hawaii. 

The island state contains <a href="https://dlnr.hawaii.gov/ecosystems/rare-plants/">44%</a> of all endangered and threatened plant species in the US. Invasive threats like <a href="https://dlnr.hawaii.gov/hisc/info/">non-native</a> avian malaria and fire ants have devastated many native species. Unfortunately, often the loss of one species in an area can lead to the loss of more. Even extinctions that don’t lead to a cascade effect are often indicative of an underlying problem that may cause more extinctions. The high rate of plant extinctions in particular doesn’t bode well for animals. 

Plants are of course support almost all life on Earth. By synthesizing their own food from the sun and soil nutrients, plants are the basis of food webs. Plants are also vital in creating oxygen and are used for habitat by numerous species. Birds make nests in trees, caterpillars weave cocoons on particular plants, tigers stalk through grass, even humans build houses from trees or bamboo. Plants are used as tools by primates and birds. Sea grasses are both hiding spots and food sources. Cavities made into saguaro cactus turn into places to hide from the desert sun. Habitats are made cooler and wetter by the presence of plants, which sometimes even partially create the climate of a region. The importance of plants makes it unsurprising that high plant extinctions lead to high animal extinctions. 

The <a href="https://www.un.org/sustainabledevelopment/blog/2019/05/nature-decline-unprecedented-report/">United Nations reported</a> earlier this year that <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/extinction-crisis-solutions/">extinction rates</a> are at an unprecedented high. According to the UN, as many as 1 million species are threatened with extinction. The report called for ‘transformative change’ in human society from local to national and international levels to stop the disintegration of global ecosystems. The average abundance of native species in continental habitats has dropped by 20% the world over, and even the native species not threatened with extinction are less common. 

The loss of diversity driven by humans has the potential to hurt us as well. Not only wild species have gone extinct. More than 9% of mammal breeds used in agriculture had gone extinct by 2016. Combined with a loss of natural environments, this puts humanity’s food supply in a precarious position. The loss of wild plants can lead to the loss of pollinators and indeed the loss of domestic crops. If humanity is to save itself as well as the beautiful forms it shares Earth with, the time is now.         

--

By <a href="mailto:zachfitzner@yahoo.com">Zach Fitzner</a>, <a href="http://earth.com">Earth.com</a> Contributing Writer

Hawaii and South Africa lead the world in global extinctions

South Africa is of course known for its variety of...

According to a new study from the <a href="https://www.birds.cornell.edu/home/">Cornell Lab of Ornithology</a> and the <a href="https://abcbirds.org/">American Bird Conservatory</a>, bird populations in both the United States and Canada have declined 29% (about 3 billion birds) since 1970, thus signaling an ecological crisis.

"Multiple, independent lines of evidence show a massive reduction in the abundance of birds," said lead author Ken Rosenberg, a senior scientist at the Cornell Lab of Ornithology and American Bird Conservancy. "We expected to see continuing declines of threatened species. But for the first time, the results also showed pervasive losses among common birds across all habitats, including backyard birds."

Of the nearly 3 billion <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/birds-nature-calming-meditation/">birds</a> lost, 90% belong to 12 bird families, including sparrows, warblers, finches, and swallows. And since 1970, grassland birds have experienced a 53% population decline, shore birds have lost a third of their population, and the volume of spring migration dropped by 14% in the last decade alone.

Because birds are indicators of environmental health, the researchers note that natural systems across North America are being devastated by human-led activity. 

"These data are consistent with what we're seeing elsewhere with other taxa showing massive declines, including insects and amphibians," said coauthor Peter Marra, senior scientist emeritus and former head of the <a href="https://nationalzoo.si.edu/migratory-birds">Smithsonian Migratory Bird Center</a>, and current director of the <a href="https://environment.georgetown.edu/">Georgetown Environment Initiative</a>. "It's imperative to address immediate and ongoing threats, both because the domino effects can lead to the decay of ecosystems that humans depend on for our own health and livelihoods — and because people all over the world cherish birds in their own right. Can you imagine a world without birdsong?"

[caption id="attachment_1878041" align="aligncenter" width="650"]<a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/09/bird-population-declines.jpg"><img class="wp-image-1878041" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/09/bird-population-declines.jpg" alt="" width="650" height="975" /></a> Image Credit: Cornell Lab of Ornithology[/caption]

To come to these startling conclusions, experts used 143 NEXRAD weather radar stations located across North America to study migratory birds during a span of 10 years. They also used nearly 50 years’ worth of data collected through monitoring efforts on the ground to round out their study.

"Citizen-science participants contributed critical scientific data to show the international scale of losses of birds," said coauthor John Sauer of the <a href="https://www.usgs.gov/">U.S. Geological Survey</a> (USGS). "Our results also provide insights into actions we can take to reverse the declines." 

The study did not analyze the causes for such massive declines, however, it did note that the steep drop in North American birds parallels bird loss in other locations around the world, thus suggesting interacting causes that have reduced breeding and increased mortality. 

Researchers posit that the largest factor driving declines is widespread loss and degradation of habitat, mostly caused by agricultural development and urbanization, but more research is needed to track down primary causes of decline for specific species.

"The story is not over," said coauthor Michael Parr, president of American Bird Conservancy. "There are so many ways to help save birds. Some require policy decisions such as strengthening the Migratory Bird Treaty Act. We can also work to ban harmful pesticides and properly fund effective bird conservation programs. Each of us can make a difference with everyday actions that together can save the lives of millions of birds — actions like making windows safer for birds, keeping cats indoors, and protecting habitat."

While some bird species have been on the decline, other bird species have made remarkable comebacks over the past half century. Waterfowl (ducks, geese, and swans) and raptors, including the Bald Eagle, have grown in numbers since investments in conservation were made along with financial investments in wetland protection and restoration, as well as the banning of DDT.

"It's a wake-up call that we've lost more than a quarter of our birds in the U.S. and Canada," said coauthor Adam Smith from <a href="https://www.canada.ca/en/environment-climate-change.html">Environment and Climate Change Canada</a>. "But the crisis reaches far beyond our individual borders. Many of the birds that breed in Canadian backyards migrate through or spend the winter in the U.S. and places farther south — from Mexico and the Caribbean to Central and South America. What our birds need now is an historic, hemispheric effort that unites people and organizations with one common goal: bringing our birds back."

This study is published in <a href="https://science.sciencemag.org/content/early/2019/09/18/science.aaw1313">Science</a>.

--

By <a href="mailto:oliviagharvey24@gmail.com">Olivia Harvey</a>, <a href="http://earth.com">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Main Image Credit: Shutterstock/Steve Byland

Bird populations in the US and Canada have dropped by 29 percent in 50 years

According to a new study from the Cornell Lab of...

View of Beni river and rainforest of Madidi national park in the upper Amazon river basin in Bolivia, South America

Protected wilderness areas reduce the global risk of species extinction by half. In a new study led by the <a href="https://www.uq.edu.au/">University of Queensland</a>, researchers have discovered that wilderness areas cut the global risk of species extinction in half. The team pinpointed critical wilderness areas, which are largely unaffected by human activities, that must be protected in order to help preserve <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/mountains-biodiversity-hotspots/">biodiversity</a>. 

Professor James Watson is the director of the UQ Centre for Biodiversity and Conservation Science. He explained that since vital wilderness areas cannot be restored, urgent action is needed to ensure that these areas are marked for conservation in order to remain protected.

"Wilderness areas have decreased by more than three million square kilometers - half the size of Australia - since the 1990s," said Professor Watson. "Once these wilderness areas are gone, they are lost forever."

Study co-author Dr. Moreno Di Marco added that wilderness areas act as a buffer against extinction risk, and the risk of species loss was more than twice as high for biological communities found outside of wilderness areas.

"This new research has identified the importance of wilderness areas in hosting highly unique biological communities and representing the only remaining natural habitats for species that have suffered losses elsewhere," said Dr. Di Marco.

The team identified vital wilderness areas that are at risk in parts of Arnhem Land, surrounding the Madidi National Park in the Bolivian Amazon, in Southern British Columbia, and surrounding savannah areas within the Zemongo Reserve in the Central African Republic.Protected wilderness areas reduce the global risk of species extinction by half

The researchers combined new global biodiversity modeling infrastructure developed at CSIRO with the latest wilderness map developed by the University of Queensland, the University of Northern British Columbia, and the Wildlife Conservation Society. This strategy produced fine-scale estimates of the probability of species loss around the globe.

According to Professor Watson, beyond saving biodiversity, Earth's remaining intact ecosystems are critical in abating climate change, regulating essential biogeochemical and water cycles, and ensuring the retention of long-term biocultural connections of indigenous communities.

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/">Nature</a>.

--

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Image Credit: University of Queensland

Protected wilderness areas reduce the global risk of species extinction by half

Protected wilderness areas reduce the global risk of species extinction...

While thousands of years of selective breeding have greatly distanced the temperament of wolves from the canines that inhabit our homes, there are still numerous similarities between our lovable pets and their wild cousins. 

Now, a new study published in the journal <a href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/journal/rsos">Royal Society Open Science</a> shows how some <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/humans-brain-structure-dogs/">dog</a> breeds act more like wolves than others.

Researchers from the <a href="https://www.unipi.it/index.php/english">University of Pisa</a> in Italy studied three breeds to compare their behavior and how much they relied on humans – determined through increased staring at their owners and nearby humans, which is associated with high levels of trust and dependency. 

Human-directed gazing has been established as a marker of dog-human communication and is believed to derive from both domestication and breed selection.

In this study, researchers trained the dogs to find food hidden under a metal strainer. After each dog successfully found the food, they then made the task impossible by screwing the strainer to a piece of plywood. 

From the total of 56 dogs that were tested, 43 solved the initial task at least four times before they were tested at the unsolvable stage. 

“In the solvable trials, all the dogs quickly learned how to obtain the reward by manipulating the apparatus with their mouths or paws,” the researchers say. But in the impossible trial is where the differences between breeds emerged.

Czechoslovakian wolf-dogs spent significantly longer investigating the screwed-down strainer, taking more time attempting to manipulate the apparatus and spending barely longer than a second staring at their humans, appealing for help. 

On the opposite side of the spectrum, Labradors spent an average of 4.5 seconds using human-directed gazing in an attempt to get their owner to help them solve the task. German Shepherds’ behavior landed in between these two other breeds.

“This finding indicates a strong variability in the level of persistence to manipulate the apparatus in our dog groups despite their similar habits and rearing conditions, with the Czechoslovakian Wolf-dogs showing a more ‘wolf-like’ behavior, probably due to its genetic closeness to the wild ancestors,” the researchers explain.

“Our findings suggest that despite the numerous crossing with German Shepherd after the first hybrid litter, the artificial selection operated on Czechoslovakian Wolf-dogs has produced a breed more similar to ancient breeds (more genetically close to wolves due to a less-intense artificial selection) and not particularly human oriented,” the researchers concluded.

So if you succumb easily to puppy-dog eyes, it’s likely that Labradors can have quite the effect on you. But if you’re looking for a more independent breed that is less likely to give you a guilt-tripping stare down, Czechoslovakian Wolf-dogs could be the breed for you.

--

By <a href="mailto:certz@earth.com">Connor Ertz</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Image Credit: Shutterstock/Eric Krouse

Why some dogs are needy while others are more independent

While thousands of years of selective breeding have greatly distanced...

Sustainable freshwater fishkeeping: Insights from aquarist Rachel O'Leary

Sustainable freshwater fishkeeping: Insights from aquarist Rachel O'Leary. There are...

Seabirds that dive into the salty waves to grab tasty morsels of fish aren’t looking to the sea for cues but instead watch and copy other diving birds, a new study shows. 

Researchers from the <a href="https://www.exeter.ac.uk/">University of Exeter</a> filmed European shags diving off the Isles of Scilly. 

The study, published in the journal PLOS ONE, is the first of it’s kind to examine the diving behavior of large groups or “rafts” or seabirds, and the results show that the birds keep a close eye on their neighbors. 

“Our results suggest these birds aren’t just reacting to underwater cues when deciding where and when to dive,” said Dr. Julian Evans, the leader of the study. “They respond to social cues by watching their fellow birds and copying their behavior.”

After filming the birds, the researchers found that a bird was twice as likely to dive for fish once it saw another shag doing so. 

If a bird sees another dive and come up empty-handed, then diving is probably not worth it. But if a seabird dives and comes up with a bill full of fish, diving becomes a much safer bet. 

“They’re essentially using other flock members as sources of information, helping them choose the best place to find fish,” said Evans. 

It is not entirely clear why the birds choose to wait and watch, but the researchers suggest that it could save energy and reduce the number of unproductive dives. 

“Diving in the same area as another bird might also be beneficial because the prey might be disorganised, pushed into certain areas or fatigued by previous divers,” said Evans. 

Shag seabirds are listed on the UK’s <a href="https://www.bto.org/our-science/publications/psob">Birds of Conservation Concern</a> red list and habitat loss, fish stock declines, and climate change are contributing to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seabird-numbers-drop/">seabird losses.</a> 

According to the researchers, understanding why seabirds behave the way they do can help inform conservation policy and wildlife management. 

--

By<a href="mailto:kayvandette@gmail.com"> Kay Vandette</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 

Paid for by <a href="http://earth.com">Earth.com</a>

Image Credit: Shutterstock/Wolfgang Kruck

Seabirds copy their neighbors when diving for fish

Seabirds that dive into the salty waves to grab tasty...

Gene losses helped dolphins transition to life underwater. Fifty million years ago, the ancestors of modern whales, dolphins, and porpoises underwent a drastic change of scenery. Once at home on land and in the water, cetaceans decided to forgo their landlubber ways and opt for a full time underwater existence. 

Now, a team of researchers has discovered which genomic changes and adaptations helped make this transition possible. 

There is a reason that whales are a close evolutionary cousin of hippos, it's because cetaceans split off from the ancestors of modern hippopotamuses during the Early Eocene Period. 

During the switch from land to sea, 85 genes in cetaceans became inactivated or turned off. Not all these gene losses specifically aided in the transition to an aquatic habitat, but some mutations equipped the animals with new abilities like deep-sea diving and sleeping underwater. 

The researchers went hunting for gene-inactivating mutations that popped up as cetaceans started living underwater and analyzed 19,769 genes from 62 mammal species. 

One of the inactivated genes identified was involved in saliva, something no longer necessary with an aquatic diet. Two of the lost genes helped with blood clotting, which could have hindered deep dives. 

Not surprisingly, cetaceans also lost genes that were linked to lung use and allowed the lungs to collapse while diving. This helped with reducing buoyancy and adjusting the pressure changes as the animals surfaced. 

Ancient whale ancestors also adapted different sleeping patterns after losing the ability to synthesize melatonin. 

A study detailing these genomic changes, published in the journal <a href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1126/sciadv.aaw6671">Science Advances</a>, provides insight into how ancient cetaceans evolved. 

--

By<a href="mailto:kayvandette@gmail.com"> Kay Vandette</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 

Image Credit: Shutterstock/Andrea Izzotti

Gene losses helped dolphins transition to life underwater

Gene losses helped dolphins transition to life underwater. Fifty million...

Bobcats prove resilient in the face of human development. It’s easy to look at the loss of wildlife across the United States and feel despair. Grizzly bears, bison, and <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/domesticated-dogs-prosocial-wolves/">wolves</a> live on a tiny fraction of their former range with pitifully small populations. Passenger pigeons that once filled our skies as living, moving clouds of feathered beings are gone forever. 

Stretching back towards the beginning of human occupation in North America, we’ve lost the mastodon, woolly rhinoceros, and giant ground sloths. Despite their popularity from Game of Thrones, dire wolves are also extinct. 

But there is still plenty of life on Earth, and in North America in particular, to celebrate. Despite centuries as the object of violence, coyotes still live in the United States in enormous numbers. And despite being mismanaged, fought over, and used as political pawns, there are still some wolves, bison and grizzly bears. There are also smaller wild animals that quietly adapt to the changes in their environments and live near us without being given much notice. Bobcats prove resilient in the face of human development

Bobcats (Lynx rufus) have indeed shown to be resilient in the face of a rapidly changing landscape. Bobcats live in every state of the contiguous United States except Delaware, as well as southern Canada and much of Mexico. The bobcat has adapted to numerous habitats across that range from deserts to wetlands to cold northern forests. According to the <a href="https://wildcatconservation.org/wild-cats/north-america/bobcat/">International Society for Endangered Cats</a>, bobcats are the most successful of North Americas wild cats.

Humans are still one of the major threats to bobcats, as humans hunt them, destroy their habitat, and accidentally kill them with cars and rat poison. One study showed that the leading cause of death among bobcats is feline scabies, which has been linked to anticoagulant rat poisons. If a bobcat eats a poisoned rat, there’s a strong likelihood that the cat will die as well. 

Bobcat furs also lead the industry in feline skins with an average of 29,772 skins exported annually from the US between 2000 and 2006.  Because the human population is constantly on the rise, bobcats have had to contend more and more with our species. What was once wild habitat has increasingly become backyards, farmland, or golf courses. Because of these threats, conservation laws have protected bobcats throughout their range, with hunting being managed in 38 states, 7 Canadian provinces, and Mexico. The cats for their part have proven their ability to not only live but thrive near and in human dominated landscapes.           

Much of the bobcat’s success comes from the abundance of their prey base. Bobcats <a href="https://www.desertmuseum.org/kids/oz/long-fact-sheets/Bob-cat.php">mainly feed</a> on rabbits and hares, small herbivorous mammals in no shortage almost anywhere in the US. Walk around a city park, there’s probably one of those little rabbits hiding somewhere under a bush nibbling on grass. They visit our lawns and they do well in the deserts, prairies, forests and wetlands outside of city areas as well. Besides their preferred food, bobcats are also flexible, eating lizards, small rodents, birds, snakes, roadkill. Bobcats have even been known to rarely kill a deer. 

Another part of bobcat’s success is that they’re inconspicuous. Like urban coyotes, bobcats are mainly active at night, although they can adjust their schedule a bit depending on the local conditions. In <a href="http://www.urbancarnivores.com/bobcats">urban areas</a> bobcats are especially nocturnal. Bobcats also move around a lot to avoid being caught by a predator and to find their own prey. 

In Santa Monica Mountains National Recreation Area, California, a male bobcat’s home range is typically 3.2 square miles. Females move around less with a typical home range of about 1.5 square miles. Of course, the home range of bobcats vary depending on the habitat. 

Bobcats find temporary dens to rest in during the day and often move to a new den the next day, rarely staying in one spot for very long. Mother bobcats will often create several dens when they are about to have kittens. The mother then moves her kittens from one den to the next. Moving around like this, especially at night is one of the reasons bobcats are easily missed, even if they live in close proximity to humans.

Recently, a photographer published a <a href="https://www.biographic.com/posts/sto/bobcat-manor">photo essay</a> following a mother bobcat that raised her kittens beneath the porch of a house in western Texas. This is one example of a bobcat adapting to a new way of living, raising her cubs in the shade of a house during the day and hunting in the scrublands surrounding the house at dusk and dawn. 

Bobcats have been known to hunt at backyard bird feeders and eat roadkill along city streets. An <a href="https://phys.org/news/2017-05-populations-bobcats-urban-pest.html">article</a> from 2017 reported that bobcats have made homes in Manchester, New Hampshire, Waverly, Iowa and just outside of Los Angeles. One wildlife photographer <a href="http://dfwurbanwildlife.com/2018/05/09/chris-jacksons-dfw-urban-wildlife/are-there-coyotes-and-bobcats-in-your-neighborhood/">claims</a> based on his own observations that almost every neighborhood in the greater Dallas Fort Worth area is home to bobcats.

Indeed, bobcats have made a serious comeback in the United States. A 2010 <a href="https://fwspubs.org/doi/pdf/10.3996/122009-JFWM-026">study</a> estimated a US bobcat population of roughly 2.3 million to almost 3.6 million, as much as triple their population in the 1980s. Relying on data from 2016, the <a href="https://www.iucnredlist.org/species/12521/50655874">IUCN</a> says the bobcat population is stable with no major threat to their survival. A <a href="https://wildcatconservation.org/wild-cats/north-america/bobcat/">2011 survey</a> looked at bobcat populations in 48 states, 7 Canadian provinces and Mexico, finding that bobcat populations have grown everywhere except for Florida. Like coyotes, bobcats have shown themselves capable of adapting, even thriving among humans.

Despite the successful recovery of bobcats from their lowest populations, it’s still worth remembering that although the cats are cunning and adaptable, they still rely on us to allow them to live. The fur trade if not well managed can threaten bobcats, rat poisons still cause the deaths of bobcats, and other predators. For now bobcats are thriving, but that success depends on food, water, places to live either in the wild or in more urban environments. The question for the future is whether humans will be happy to see bobcats living among them or if they will be treated as a nuisance like pigeons, coyotes or prairie dogs?              

--

By <a href="mailto:zachfitzner@yahoo.com">Zach Fitzner</a>, <a href="http://earth.com">Earth.com</a> Contributing Writer

Image Credit: Shutterstock/David Hoffmann Photography

Bobcats prove resilient in the face of human development

Bobcats prove resilient in the face of human development. It’s...

For decades, scientists have debated whether nonhuman species may possess the ability to understand the mental states of others. A new study suggests that our close evolutionary relatives - great apes such as <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/chimpanzees-hunting-eating-crabs/">chimpanzees</a> and orangutans - have a theory of mind which allows them to acknowledge the beliefs, emotions, intentions, and desires of themselves and others. 

A study by Fumihiro Kano of <a href="https://www.kyoto-u.ac.jp/en/">Kyoto University</a>, in collaboration with experts at the Kumamoto Sanctuary and Primate Research Institute, the Max-Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology, and the University of St Andrews, had previously demonstrated that great apes can anticipate a human's actions. This research produced the strongest evidence to date that great apes possess a theory of mind.

"We initially created a movie based on an established psychological test - especially exciting for apes - and combined this with eye-tracking technology to record gaze patterns indicating anticipation of an agent's behavior based on an understanding of the agent's false belief," said Kano.

The experiment revealed that the apes understood when a human had a false belief about the location of an object. The apes appeared to demonstrate the ability to anticipate the individual's actions while searching for the object, which had often been translocated.

However, it was possible that the apes did not genuinely understand the person's false belief, but instead relied on specific rules about the individual's behavior. To investigate, the team applied new conditions to the experiment, in which the apes were exposed to either a "true" barrier made of an opaque material, or to a "trick" barrier that appears to be opaque from a distance but becomes transparent up close.

In a new video shown to the apes, an agent can be seen hiding behind a barrier while an object is translocated to the front of it. The barrier is identical in appearance to the ones given to the apes, which allowed the researchers to evaluate whether the two groups of apes could infer the agent's ability or inability to see through the barrier based on their own experiences.

The team observed that, with the opaque barrier, the apes anticipated that the agent would go to the location that was last seen. With the trick barrier, the apes anticipated that the agent would not go to either location because the object had been removed entirely.

According to the researchers, their findings ruled out a simple behavioral explanation because the two groups of apes anticipated the agent's behavior based on what they had encountered themselves.

"We are excited to find that great apes actually passed this difficult test," said Kano. "The results suggest that we share this ability with our evolutionary cousins. We plan to continue refining our methods to test further non-mentalistic alternatives to the theory of mind in nonhuman animals."

The study is published in the <a href="https://www.pnas.org/">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a>.

--

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Image Credit: Shutterstock/Lorna Roberts

Great apes can understand the complex mental states of others

For decades, scientists have debated whether nonhuman species may possess...

<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/t-rex-air-conditioning-system/">Tyrannosaurus rex</a> was once a formidable predator. With a mouth full of serrated teeth, a six-foot-long skull, and a bite that could shatter bone with one crunch, there’s a good reason this mighty carnivore ruled supreme during the Cretaceous period.  

The bite force of T. rex was around six tons, but how it was able to clamp down with such brute strength and not damage its flexible skull has long puzzled researchers. 

It turns out that Tyrannosaurus rex’s skull wasn’t loosely jointed, similar to modern-day birds, as was previously thought. Instead, researchers from the <a href="https://missouri.edu/">University of Missouri </a>have discovered that T. rex had a rigid skull, allowing it to tear easily through the scales, flesh, and bones of its prey.  

“Previous researchers looked at this from a bone-only perspective without taking into account all of the connections — ligaments and cartilage — that really mediate the interactions between the bones,” said Kaleb Sellers, an author of the study. 

The researchers used imaging and data on anatomy and engineering to create digital models of T. rex skulls. Some of the skulls had palates that were flexible and moved like modern-day parrots or geckos. 

Then the researchers used the models to simulate chewing and see the skulls in action. 

In order to achieve a forceful bite without cracking its own skull, the roof of the mouth would have had to be rigid with very little flexibility.  

“When you put a lot of force on things, there’s a tradeoff between movement and stability,” said Casey Holliday, a co-author of the study. “Birds and lizards have more movement but less stability. When we applied their individual movements to the T. rex skull, we saw it did not like being wiggled in ways that the lizard and bird skulls do, which suggests more stiffness.”

The study, published in the journal <a href="https://anatomypubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/ar.24219">the Anatomical Record</a>, not only helps set the record straight for T. rex but could also aid future anatomy research.  

“In humans, this can also be applied to how people’s jaws work, such as studying how the jaw joint is loaded by stresses and strains during chewing,” said Ian Cost, the lead researcher. “In animals, understanding how those movements occur and joints are loaded will, for instance, help veterinarians better understand how to treat exotic animals such as parrots, which suffer from arthritis in their faces.”

--

By <a href="mailto:kayvandette@gmail.com">Kay Vandette</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 

Image Credit: Shutterstock/Herschel Hoffmeyer

The secret to T. rex’s impressive bite was a stiff skull

Tyrannosaurus rex was once a formidable predator. With a mouth...

Researchers in Mexico have discovered that dung beetles are being poisoned by pesticides and veterinary pharmaceuticals that are passed into the manure that they feed on. The study, published by the <a href="https://www.setac.org/">Society of Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry</a>, reveals that these chemicals are disrupting the growth and development of the insects.

<a href="http://www.earth.com/news/dung-beetles-important-ecosystems/">Dung beetles</a> essentially live in manure, and can be found across a diverse range of environments from deserts to forests. The beetles provide valuable ecosystem services, such as controlling pests and redepositing nutrients into the soil, which are particularly important to agriculture. 

Remarkably, dung beetles have also been found to significantly reduce methane emissions from cow manure. Simply by digging around in the dung, the beetles make more oxygen available in the deeper manure, which moderates the creation of methane. 

Despite all of the benefits they provide, however, dung beetles have been sharply declining. They are currently one of the most threatened terrestrial animal species, and the new research suggests that the contamination of their food supply is one of the primary threats.

Study lead author Daniel González-Tokman and his team have provided "the first evidence under natural conditions that native and exotic species of dung beetles are highly sensitive to different types of livestock management." 

The researchers demonstrated that the veterinary medications and herbicides used in intensive animal feeding facilities can alter the growth and development patterns of dung beetles, which reduces their ability to function. The physiological responses to the chemicals were found to be specific to the sex and species of the beetles, and were influenced by both the type of livestock management used and the density of the cattle.

According to González-Tokman, this research can help experts "understand the underlying mechanisms of species decline in nature and enrich the strategies of livestock management with benefits for grassland ecological health."

The researchers hope that their findings will lead to the development of livestock management strategies to protect dung beetles and the health of vital ecosystems. 

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://setac.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/journal/15528618">Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry</a>.

--

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Image Credit: Shutterstock/wanida tubtawee

Contaminated manure is severely threatening the survival of dung beetles

Researchers in Mexico have discovered that dung beetles are being...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2E0mn5mTvhQ
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">'Death Star' moon Mimas conceals a 15-million-year-old ocean that scientists never expected.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hidden-waters-beneath-ancient-craters">Hidden waters beneath ancient craters</h2>



Scientists have made a startling discovery that challenges everything we thought we knew about <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/saturn-moon-mimas-has-remarkably-young-ocean/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Saturn's moon Mimas</a>. Beneath the heavily cratered surface that earned it the nickname "Death Star" lies a global ocean that formed just 5 to 15 million years ago—a remarkably young age by cosmic standards.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cassini-data-reveals-orbital-secrets">Cassini data reveals orbital secrets</h2>



The discovery, led by Dr. Valéry Lainey of the <a href="https://observatoiredeparis.psl.eu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Observatoire de Paris</a>, emerged from careful analysis of <a href="https://www.nasa.gov" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NASA</a>'s Cassini spacecraft data. By studying subtle irregularities in Mimas's orbit around Saturn, researchers detected the gravitational signature of liquid water hidden 20 to 30 kilometers beneath the moon's icy shell.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-an-unlikely-ocean-world">An unlikely ocean world</h2>



At only 400 kilometers in diameter, Mimas seemed like the least likely candidate to harbor a subsurface ocean. Unlike other ocean moons such as Europa and Enceladus, which show clear surface signs of internal activity, Mimas displays no obvious hints of the liquid water beneath its ancient, crater-scarred exterior.



"Mimas is a small moon, and its heavily cratered surface gave no hint of the hidden ocean beneath," explained Dr. Nick Cooper from <a href="https://www.qmul.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Queen Mary University of London</a>, a study co-author.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-astrobiology">Implications for astrobiology</h2>



The ocean's recent formation makes Mimas a prime target for studying how oceans develop and potentially support life. This discovery adds another member to the exclusive club of ocean worlds in our solar system, each offering unique insights into the conditions necessary for habitability.



The research, published in <a href="https://www.nature.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature</a> journal, demonstrates how advanced orbital analysis can reveal hidden features of celestial bodies, opening new possibilities for understanding ocean formation throughout the cosmos.



—–



Like what you saw and read?&nbsp;<a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a>&nbsp;for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.



—–



Check us out on&nbsp;<a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by&nbsp;<a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a>&nbsp;and&nbsp;<a href="https://www.earth.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Earth.com</a>.



—–

Scientists discover unexpected young ocean on Saturn's cratered moon Mimas

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2E0mn5mTvhQ 'Death Star' moon Mimas conceals a 15-million-year-old ocean that...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE
</div></figure>



On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop and sunlight barely penetrates through the polar winter. It was here, however, that an international team of scientists found <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/predatory-worms-were-terror-beasts-half-a-billion-years-ago/#google_vignette" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evidence of sea monsters</a> that would change our understanding of ocean life in the past.



This video captures the discovery of Timorebestia fossils that had been hidden for more than 500 million years in the Sirius Passet formation. The "terror beasts," as they are called, are a hidden chapter in the evolutionary history of <a href="https://www.earth.com" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Earth</a>, showing that sophisticated predator-prey interactions occurred much earlier than previously envisioned.



Dr. Jakob Vinther and his research team at the <a href="https://www.bristol.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Bristol</a>, in collaboration with researchers at the <a href="https://eng.kopri.re.kr/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Korean Polar Research Institute</a>, braved extreme weather conditions at 82.5 north latitude to locate these giant creatures. Using sophisticated electron microprobe analysis, they revealed the detailed anatomy of the animals, including their muscle and nerve tissues.



The find upsets the traditional timeline of sea predators. Although we've long appreciated that Cambrian oceans were at one time ruled by <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jWI3-UgA3_o&amp;list=PL1QLQMW9MWDwpkFOnvgAmu7wT6rZmYqdJ&amp;index=19" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">arthropods</a>, these discoveries indicate that relatives of arrow worms were first to dominate the seas. These worms were building sophisticated food webs several million years before other predator groups arose.



Each fossil is a story of ancient hunger, with fossil stomach contents revealing these meter-long beasts dined on heavily armored arthropods regularly, cementing their place as the ocean's first apex predators.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Worms dominated seas before dinosaurs

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">New York is the site of the world's oldest forest.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-385-million-year-old-trees-discovered">385-million-year-old trees discovered</h2>



Scientists have uncovered something extraordinary just two hours north of New York City. The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/worlds-oldest-forest-discovered-close-to-new-york-city/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">world's oldest forest</a>, dating back 385 million years, offers a window into how Earth's first complex forests shaped our planet's atmosphere.



Located near <a href="https://townofcairo.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cairo, New York</a>, in Greene County, these weren't merely primitive plants struggling to survive. These were sophisticated trees with root systems remarkably similar to modern forests. This ancient woodland predates dinosaurs by 140 million years.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-cairo-forest-discovery">The Cairo forest discovery</h2>



385 million years ago, upstate New York was a tropical paradise near the equator. Thanks to continental drift, this ancient forest has traveled thousands of miles to its current location.



The fossil forest sits in an abandoned quarry, roughly half the size of a football field. This represents just a slice of what was likely a massive forest system stretching from New York into Pennsylvania.



Charles Ver Straeten, curator of sedimentary rocks at the <a href="https://www.nysm.nysed.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">New York State Museum</a>, made the discovery in 2009. While scouting the former highway department property, his trained eye spotted wandering patterns in the stone that looked like marine features.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-revolutionary-age-and-preservation">Revolutionary age and preservation</h2>



The site contains 385-million-year-old rocks with fossilized woody roots forming horizontal patterns up to 18 feet (5.5 meters) wide. As Christopher Berry, a paleobotanist at Cardiff University, explains: "You are walking through the roots of ancient trees."



This discovery pushes back advanced tree evolution by millions of years. The research, published in <a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/home" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Current Biology</a> in December 2019, fundamentally changes our understanding of when complex forests first emerged.



Researchers believe a massive flood buried the forest floor, creating perfect fossilization conditions. Over millions of years, sediment hardened into rock, preserving these root patterns like nature's time capsule.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-meet-archaeopteris-the-first-modern-tree">Meet Archaeopteris: the first modern tree</h2>



The star of this ancient forest is Archaeopteris – not to be confused with the feathered dinosaur Archaeopteryx. This tree was far older and more revolutionary.



William Stein from <a href="https://www.binghamton.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Binghamton University</a> describes the roots as "strikingly modern, essentially what you'd see outside in my yard right now." These weren't simple root systems you'd expect from ancient plants.



Some fossilized roots are six inches (15 centimeters) in diameter, forming 36-foot-wide (11-meter) patterns. These giants grew up to 65 feet (20 meters) tall with five-foot-diameter (1.5-meter) trunks.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-changing-impact">Climate-changing impact</h2>



These trees fundamentally changed Earth's environment. Kevin Boyce, a Stanford University geoscientist, explains how their deep roots triggered "weathering," chemical reactions that pulled carbon dioxide from the atmosphere.



This process dropped atmospheric CO2 levels from 10-15 times higher than today to roughly modern concentrations. These ancient trees helped create atmospheric conditions that made complex life possible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ancient-forest-ecosystem">Ancient forest ecosystem</h2>



The forest was remarkably diverse. Scientists identified Eospermatopteris, palm tree-like plants with short roots that reached 30 feet (9 meters) tall but lacked woody structure. The forest also housed cladoxylopsids and a mysterious third species still being studied.



All reproduced through spores rather than seeds – millions of years before seeds evolved. This tropical environment had no grass, flowers, or flying insects, just towering trees creating Earth's first complex forest canopy.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-scientific-significance">Scientific significance</h2>



Before this finding, the Gilboa forest, located 25 miles (40 kilometers) away, held the "oldest forest" title. Cairo's trees are 2-3 million years older, showing that complex forest ecosystems developed much faster than scientists believed possible.



Patricia Gensel, a <a href="https://www.unc.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of North Carolina</a> paleobotanist, notes: "The size of those root systems is really changing the picture. Even 20 years ago, researchers assumed trees with such complex root systems didn't evolve so early."



The Cairo site presents three unique root systems, suggesting Devonian period forests were diverse ecosystems with different trees occupying different environmental niches, much like today's forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-modern-preservation-efforts">Modern preservation efforts</h2>



In 2022, New York State Senator Michelle Hinchey secured a $170,000 grant for the town of Cairo to construct specialized fencing around the fossil forest site. The town plans to conduct a feasibility study exploring the possibility of creating an educational center and working lab on-site.



Joe Hasenkopf, chair of the Cairo Planning Board, hopes to partner with educational institutions to create a research facility serving scientists, students, and the public.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lessons-for-today-s-climate">Lessons for today's climate</h2>



Why does a 385-million-year-old forest matter today? It shows how dramatically forests can change Earth's climate. These ancient woodlands created the atmospheric conditions supporting complex life.



Understanding how prehistoric forests transformed the planet helps us appreciate modern forests' critical role in addressing climate change. Forests remain Earth's most effective carbon capture systems.



These prehistoric trees changed Earth's atmosphere by pulling massive amounts of carbon dioxide from the air. As we face modern climate challenges, this ancient forest reminds us of trees' incredible power to transform our planet's environment.



The next time you walk through a forest, remember you're experiencing an ecosystem whose blueprint was established 385 million years ago in upstate New York. These ancient pioneers didn't just survive – they thrived and changed the world forever.



The full study was published in the journal Current Biology.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Earth's oldest forest found in the United States

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ New York is the site of the world's oldest...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Acid rain and a crisis solved.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-don-t-we-ever-hear-about-acid-rain-anymore-the-environmental-crisis-that-was-solved">Why don't we ever hear about "acid rain" anymore? The environmental crisis that was solved</h2>



Remember the 1980s when acid rain dominated headlines? Dire warnings about rain eating buildings, killing fish, and destroying forests filled every news cycle. Then, almost like magic, acid rain vanished from public discourse. What happened? Did we actually solve one of the late 20th century's most pressing environmental challenges?



The answer might surprise you. Unlike many environmental issues that drag on indefinitely, acid rain represents one of modern history's most successful ecological recovery stories. It's a tale of science, politics, and technology working together to tackle what seemed impossible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What was acid rain?</h2>



Acid rain isn't regular rain having a bad day – it's precipitation that became significantly more acidic due to air pollution. When power plants, factories, and vehicles burn fossil fuels, they release sulfur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides (NOx) into the atmosphere.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The science behind it</h2>



Think of acid rain as nature's chemistry experiment gone wrong. These compounds react with water, oxygen, and other chemicals to form sulfuric and nitric acids. When mixed with water vapor in clouds, they create precipitation with dangerously low pH levels.



While clean rain has a pH of about 5.6, acid rain could drop as low as 4.2 to 4.4 – roughly as acidic as tomato juice or coffee. According to US Geological Survey documentation, Scottish chemist Angus Smith first coined "acid rain" in 1872, but it didn't become a household phrase until the 1960s and 1970s when Swedish scientist Svante Odén documented its devastating effects on Scandinavian lakes and European forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The crisis at its peak</h2>



During the height of public concern, environmental damage was both widespread and visible. This wasn't some abstract future threat – people could see destruction happening in real-time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Environmental devastation</h2>



The most dramatic impacts were impossible to ignore. Research documented by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation and the New York State Department of Environmental Conservation shows that in the Adirondack Mountains, more than 200 lakes became so acidic they couldn't support fish life. The Adirondack Council reports that 409 lakes once supported brook trout, but many lost their fish populations due to acid rain.



By 1976, when scientists cataloged all acidified lakes in the Adirondack Park, researchers found that half of the lakes over 2,000 feet above sea level had no fish, according to studies published in environmental journals. The acidification process worked like a slow-motion disaster. As acid rain fell into watersheds, it gradually lowered pH levels. Fish couldn't survive in acidic water, and their food sources died off too.



Trees at high elevations showed stress directly linked to acid rain. It weakened them by leaching nutrients and making them susceptible to disease. Historical records show Germany's Black Forest saw nearly half its trees damaged by the mid-1980s.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Economic impact</h2>



Acid rain wasn't just environmental – it was expensive. Acidic precipitation corroded infrastructure, buildings, and monuments. Historic stone structures deteriorated at accelerated rates. Tourism suffered as lakes became fishless and forests declined. EPA economic analyses from the period documented repair costs mounting into billions annually.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The solution: government action and technology</h2>



Transformation from crisis to success required unprecedented cooperation between governments, industries, and environmental groups.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The Clean Air Act of 1990</h2>



The turning point came with the Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990, signed by President George H.W. Bush. This represented a fundamentally new approach to environmental regulation, as documented in EPA historical records.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Cap-and-trade success</h2>



Instead of mandating specific technologies, the 1990 amendments introduced something revolutionary: a cap-and-trade system for sulfur dioxide emissions. EPA program documentation shows this market-based approach set overall limits but allowed companies to trade emission allowances.



The genius was harnessing market forces to find cost-effective pollution reduction. Companies reducing emissions cheaply could sell excess allowances to those facing higher costs. Research published in environmental economics journals and EPA progress reports shows this resulted in dramatic SO2 reduction at a fraction of projected costs.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Technology advances</h2>



Policy provided the framework, but technology made reductions possible. Studies in atmospheric science journals document the widespread adoption of flue gas desulfurization systems ("scrubbers") that removed sulfur dioxide before it reached the atmosphere. By the 2000s, new installations could remove over 95% of SO2 emissions, according to EPA technical reports.



The push coincided with cleaner energy development. Natural gas produces fewer sulfur compounds than coal. Wind and solar, emerging in the 1990s, captured growing market share, reducing reliance on high-sulfur coal.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-we-don-t-hear-about-it-today">Why we don't hear about it today</h2>



Why did acid rain disappear from headlines? Simple: the problem was largely solved.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Success doesn't make news</h2>



There's an old journalism saying: "If it bleeds, it leads." Environmental success stories don't generate urgency like crisis reporting. Media attention shifted to other challenges: climate change, plastic pollution, and biodiversity loss. There's only so much environmental anxiety the public can absorb, and newer concerns replaced acid rain.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Mission accomplished</h2>



The primary reason is beautifully simple: interventions worked. EPA monitoring data shows sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990. Academic research published in environmental science journals confirms pH levels in formerly affected areas returned closer to normal. This represents one of history's most dramatic environmental recoveries. Studies by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation show fishless lakes now support healthy populations. Forests recovered, and building damage slowed dramatically.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-is-it-really-gone">Is it really gone?</h2>



The crisis is largely resolved, but monitoring data shows the problem isn't completely eliminated – it's managed to acceptable levels. Some areas still experience occasional events during high pollution periods. International environmental research indicates that rapidly industrializing Asian countries face similar problems to what we experienced decades ago, though they're implementing successful strategies.



EPA research shows nitrogen oxide emissions proved more challenging than sulfur dioxide, coming from vehicles and mobile sources. Climate science studies suggest changing weather patterns add complexity to how acid rain forms and falls.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What this teaches us</h2>



The acid rain experience proves that seemingly intractable environmental problems can be solved with scientific understanding, political will, and technological innovation. Environmental monitoring data shows recovery speed was remarkable – within a decade, measurable improvements appeared in air quality and ecosystem health.



Success came from bipartisan support across party lines. Policy analysis studies show the market-based approach appealed to those preferring economic incentives while achieving environmental goals. This support created lasting policy surviving political changes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Conclusion</h2>



Acid rain's disappearance from public consciousness represents environmental science's greatest success stories. Through effective regulation, technological innovation, and international cooperation, we transformed an overwhelming crisis into a manageable challenge.



Today's silence isn't because we forgot – it's because we solved it. The 1990 Clean Air Act, combined with technology and energy market changes, reduced acid rain emissions over 90%, according to comprehensive EPA data analysis.



This success offers hope for current challenges. It proves complex problems can be solved when science, policy, and technology work together. As we face climate change and plastic pollution, acid rain reminds us that dramatic positive change is possible.



Next time someone asks whether environmental regulations work, remember acid rain. It's proof that sometimes, we get it right.



<hr class="wp-block-separator has-alpha-channel-opacity"/>



Sources: This article draws from EPA official documentation and progress reports, peer-reviewed research published in environmental and atmospheric science journals, historical data from the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation, New York State Department of Environmental Conservation records, US Geological Survey publications, policy analysis studies, and environmental monitoring data collected over three decades.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Frequently Asked Questions</h2>



1. Is acid rain completely gone? No, but EPA monitoring shows it's reduced to manageable levels. US sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990, making acid rain much less severe than the 1980s crisis.



2. How long did solving take? Environmental monitoring data shows significant improvements began within 5-10 years of 1990s emission controls. Full ecosystem recovery took longer – some areas need 20-30 years for complete recovery.



3. What made the solution successful? Clear scientific understanding, visible damage motivating action, bipartisan support, available technology, and innovative market-based policies like cap-and-trade.



4. Do other countries have acid rain problems? Yes, particularly rapidly industrializing Asian countries. However, international environmental research shows many implement similar successful control strategies.



5. Could acid rain return? Potentially, if regulations weaken or we return to high-sulfur coal without controls, though effects would take years to become severe according to environmental projections.



6. Can you recommend any teaching tools on the subject of "acid rain"? The United States Environmental Protection Agency produced a wonderful teacher's guide for ages 14 and under that you can find on the EPA website here: <a href="https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf</a>



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

The environmental problem we actually solved

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk Acid rain and a crisis solved. Why don't we...

Fresh,Radish,Harvest,On,Soil,In,Garden.

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://youtu.be/Fi2OeEwuzRM?si=vTyd2m9FMmtyWkex
</div></figure>







Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving fall garden, and this guide lays out the best vegetables and herbs to plant now for a fruitful autumn harvest. 



Fast-growing leafy greens such as spinach, lettuce, kale, and arugula perform especially well in the waning summer heat, with harvests beginning as soon as 30 days. 



These cool-season crops relish the transition into fall, offering repeated yields with cut-and-come-again methods.



Root vegetables like radishes, carrots, and beets also excel during this period. Radishes deliver satisfaction in under a month, while carrots and beets mature in about two months. Employing succession planting ensures a continuous stream of produce deep into the cooler months. 



For a boost of fresh flavor, herbs like cilantro, basil, dill, and chervil are excellent picks. These heat-loving varieties flourish in July’s warmth and are harvest-ready in about 30 days, especially when sown continuously.



Gardeners in zones 6 through 9 can benefit from planting bush beans and snap peas, which don’t require trellising and are ideal for compact plots. 



Maturing in 50–60 days, they’re a smart choice for quick, protein-rich harvests. For those in hotter regions, heat-tolerant crops such as okra and southern peas provide reliable yields and thrive in scorching conditions.



This guide emphasizes more than crop selection—it highlights the importance of timing, soil preparation, and ongoing sowing techniques. 



With thoughtful planning and attention to regional climate needs, even late-summer gardeners can enjoy fresh salads, hearty stews, and the satisfaction of a robust, homegrown harvest well into fall.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;



-----

What to plant in your garden in mid-July

https://youtu.be/Fi2OeEwuzRM?si=vTyd2m9FMmtyWkex Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving...

Green,Ecoduct,Over,An,Empty,Highway,During,Sunset.

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://youtu.be/XYgiPzmNBTU?si=eFYY7gPHU1JznLvU
</div></figure>



A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that wildlife tunnels significantly reduce amphibian road mortality during seasonal migrations. 



Frogs and salamanders often cross roads to reach breeding ponds each spring, but many are killed by vehicles. 



Researchers from the <a href="https://www.uvm.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Vermont</a>, in collaboration with local citizens and the Vermont Agency of Natural Resources, installed two underpass tunnels in 2015. 



Over a 12-year monitoring period, they observed an 80.2% reduction in amphibian deaths, and up to 94% for non-climbing species like salamanders. 



The study used a before-after-control-impact design and documented more than 5,200 amphibians, highlighting the tunnels’ effectiveness even in nearby buffer zones.



Funded at $342,397 - far cheaper than wildlife crossings for large mammals - the project showcased the power of community-led conservation.



Local groups initiated the effort after observing mass amphibian deaths. Wildlife cameras later captured over 2,200 amphibians using a tunnel in just one spring, along with other species like raccoons and bobcats, indicating wider ecosystem benefits.



This marks the first peer-reviewed, long-term data set in the northeastern U.S. confirming amphibian-specific underpasses work. 



The study urges transportation departments to incorporate these designs into road planning and highlights how community action, thoughtful infrastructure, and persistence can make a real difference for biodiversity.



The full study was published in the <a href="https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1617138125000780" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal for Nature Conservation</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Wildlife tunnels save millions of amphibians

https://youtu.be/XYgiPzmNBTU?si=eFYY7gPHU1JznLvU A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that...

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing it with probiotics and prebiotics, aiming to create a treat that satisfies cravings while supporting gut health. 



The challenge lies in maintaining chocolate's beloved texture and flavor while adding health benefits.



<figure class="wp-block-embed aligncenter is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://youtu.be/Ug657J67iEo?si=w96YjGMsg939LD_3
</div></figure>



Probiotics - beneficial microbes that balance gut bacteria and aid digestion - are typically fragile and can be destroyed by stomach acid or processing. 



Prebiotics act as food for these microbes, helping them thrive. Together, they form "synbiotics," a powerful health combination.



Researchers Smriti Gaur and Shubhi Singh from India's Jaypee Institute of Information Technology took an innovative approach, using natural prebiotics like corn and honey instead of complex processing methods. 



They created five chocolate varieties: a control and four synbiotic versions containing different combinations of prebiotics, probiotics (Lactobacillus strains), and flavor enhancers (cinnamon or orange).



Laboratory simulations of human digestion showed the probiotics remained viable for over five hours, suggesting they could survive long enough to benefit gut health.



Taste tests were positive, with researchers particularly enjoying the orange-flavored variety, describing it as having "vibrant citrus notes" complementing the "rich cocoa" with a "luxurious" texture.



This research represents just the beginning. With further refinement of strains, textures, and flavors, chocolate could evolve beyond mere indulgence to become a functional food that nourishes while it delights.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.4c00741" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ACS Food Science &amp; Technology</a>.

Is chocolate the next nutritional powerhouse?

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="0ynNMYkMKa-2340414-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



---



By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

[sendtonews key="0ynNMYkMKa-2340414-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="G9bUoxcjr4-2511624-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

[sendtonews key="G9bUoxcjr4-2511624-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="3upvlAaHgO-2256633-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



---



By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

[sendtonews key="3upvlAaHgO-2256633-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="LvS8v8bp9z-2564889-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

[sendtonews key="LvS8v8bp9z-2564889-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="X0f6OHYoI4-2310561-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How does salt makes things taste better?

[sendtonews key="X0f6OHYoI4-2310561-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="JRaP49ISmm-2357509-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Santiago, Chile in South America

[sendtonews key="JRaP49ISmm-2357509-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="e4ZG0Jawp3-2374785-12187" type="single"]</div>



Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

[sendtonews key="e4ZG0Jawp3-2374785-12187" type="single"] Astronomers at Johns Hopkins University have created...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="uV9Lh2fQbV-1760058-12187" type="single"]</div>



Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.



According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."



Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;



ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. 



Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

[sendtonews key="uV9Lh2fQbV-1760058-12187" type="single"] Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="qjvhBOBnY8-2426650-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

[sendtonews key="qjvhBOBnY8-2426650-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="oL4FnPTGCV-2384527-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

[sendtonews key="oL4FnPTGCV-2384527-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="0879czfG3k-1785905-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

[sendtonews key="0879czfG3k-1785905-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from NASA...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="6HyfrAJTBI-1831843-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

[sendtonews key="6HyfrAJTBI-1831843-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

Earth,Like,Exoplanet,3d,Render

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="QIoVYJqRBi-2434608-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

[sendtonews key="QIoVYJqRBi-2434608-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from NASA...

News coming your way