Portrait,Of,A,Wild,Octopus,Under,Water.

The octopus is a creature that continues to surprise scientists and inspire engineers. With eight arms that move in ways no human limb can, it demonstrates flexibility and control that seem almost otherworldly. 



Each arm bends, twists, elongates, and shortens with unmatched precision, enabling these animals to hunt, hide, and explore with ease. 



Researchers hope that unlocking the secrets of these movements may guide the design of flexible robotic arms capable of lifesaving missions.



Imagine a robotic arm slipping through rubble after a building collapse, delivering food or medicine to someone trapped below. 



This vision has motivated scientists to study octopus arms in detail - both in the laboratory and in their natural <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-dumbo-octopus-species-carnarvon-flapjack-discovered-in-very-deep-ocean-waters/">environment</a>.



Until recently, most studies were limited to tanks, where behaviors may not reflect the complexity of life in the wild. That gap is now being addressed.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-understanding-octopus-intelligence">Understanding octopus intelligence</h2>



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/octopuses-could-dominate-earth-if-humans-vanish/">Octopuses</a> are some of the most intelligent invertebrates on Earth. Unlike most animals without backbones, they can solve puzzles, open jars, and even escape from aquariums by remembering routes back to the ocean. 



Their brains are incredibly complex, with about 500 million neurons - similar to a dog. What makes them even more fascinating is that two-thirds of those neurons are in their arms. 



This means each arm can sense, move, and even make decisions on its own while still communicating with the central brain. It’s like having eight mini-brains working together with <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/octopuses-are-tricked-by-the-rubber-hand-illusion-like-humans-suggesting-self-awareness/">one big brain</a>.



Their intelligence also shows up in how they hunt and survive. Octopuses use tools, like carrying coconut shells to hide inside when threatened, and they can change color and texture in an instant to camouflage perfectly against rocks or coral. 



They’ve been observed watching other animals and learning from them, which is rare in the animal kingdom.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-flexible-octopus-arms-inspire-robotics">Flexible octopus arms inspire robotics</h2>



A new study from the <a href="https://www.mbl.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Marine Biological Laboratory</a> in Woods Hole and Florida Atlantic University has provided the most comprehensive analysis of octopus arm movements in natural habitats. 



Researchers recorded 25 wild octopuses in six locations, ranging from the Caribbean to Spain. The footage captured thousands of arm movements across a variety of behaviors, including foraging, locomotion, and even defense.



“I’ve been trying for a long time to work out the natural behavior of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/deep-sea-octopus-footage-could-revolutionize-flexible-robot-design-eyeris/">cephalopods</a> in their natural habitat,” said MBL Senior Scientist Roger Hanlon, who led the project. 



“Studying and recording octopus behavior from wild octopuses in the field gave us the opportunity to analyze a larger behavioral repertoire and further understand how they use their arms to achieve such complex behaviors,” added Chelsea Bennice, research fellow at <a href="https://www.fau.eu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">FAU</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-guided-by-touch-not-sight">Guided by touch, not sight</h2>



Octopuses rely heavily on touch, guided by sensory organs in their arm suckers. “The octopus is a very tactile animal - it’s more tactile than visual,” said Hanlon. 



Each of their nearly 100 suckers per arm contains chemosensory-tactile receptors, combining functions similar to the human nose, lips, and tongue.



Finding octopuses to observe was not simple. Their <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-squid-power-their-amazing-camouflage-abilities/">camouflage</a> skills make them almost invisible in coral reefs or sandy seabeds. Divers often relied on clues like discarded shells and food debris near their dens.



Once located, octopuses emerged briefly from hiding, offering precious opportunities to record their natural actions.



These moments revealed unique hunting strategies, arm movements, and subtle interactions with their environment otherwise impossible to witness.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-complex-arm-mechanics-of-octopuses">Complex arm mechanics of octopuses</h2>



The researchers identified 12 distinct arm actions across 15 behaviors, built from four fundamental deformations: shortening, elongating, bending, and torsion. They discovered a pattern of specialization within each arm. 



For instance, elongation and shortening were most common near the base, while bending occurred more at the tips. 



This functional partitioning allows octopuses to combine motions across arms for tasks like crawling, probing reef crevices, or launching sudden prey attacks.



“These are the actions that make up the whole complex of octopus <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/octopuses-and-squids-defy-the-slow-pace-of-evolution/">behaviors</a>,” said study co-author Kendra Buresch. 



In the wild, researchers observed octopuses using different combinations of arm actions - sometimes relying on a single arm for tasks like grabbing food, and other times coordinating multiple arms for behaviors such as crawling or launching a parachute attack.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-behavior-that-guides-technology">Behavior that guides technology</h2>



The findings go beyond understanding animal behavior. With nearly 7,000 observed arm deformations, the study highlights an extraordinary degree of control and flexibility. 



This knowledge may inform robotics research, where engineers seek to design soft, adaptable arms capable of both precise and exploratory tasks.



“Understanding these natural behaviors not only deepens our knowledge of octopus biology but also opens exciting new avenues in fields like neuroscience, animal behavior, and even soft robotics inspired by these remarkable creatures,” Bennice said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lessons-in-flexibility-and-change">Lessons in flexibility and change</h2>



From the ocean floor to robotics labs, octopuses continue to inspire, offering lessons in both biology and technology. 



Their flexible arms not only influence the design of machines that could navigate disaster zones or <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-deep-sea-crustacean-species-discovered-in-the-bahamas/">deep-sea environments</a>, but also remind us how problem-solving in nature often leads to solutions with real-world applications.



Beyond robotics, their adaptability symbolizes the broader principle that survival depends on innovation and change, a message equally relevant to ecosystems, human health, and future technologies.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-025-10674-y" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Scientific Reports</a>.



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Octopus arms are probably the most complex and flexible structures in nature

The octopus is a creature that continues to surprise scientists and inspire engineers. With eight arms that move in ways no human limb can, it demonstrates flexibility and control that seem almost otherworldly. Each arm bends, twists, elongates, and shortens with unmatched precision, enabling these animals to hunt, hide, and explore with ease. Researchers hope that unlocking the secrets of these movements may guide the design of flexible robotic arms capable of lifesaving missions. Imagine a robotic arm slipping through rubble after a building collapse, delivering food...

Gall midge insects have interesting relationships with the plants on which they lay their eggs. Newly hatched gall midge larvae burrow down into the plant stems of goldenrods and can stimulate <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/love-vines-wasps-mummies/">the production of galls</a>. 

Galls are abnormals growths that can occur on the leaves, roots, stems or flowers of a plant and for the gall midge maggot, these galls provide shelter, food, and a place to lay eggs. 

Mike Wise, a researcher at <a href="https://www.roanoke.edu/">Roanoke College</a>, has been studying goldenrod galls and the maggots that emerge from them throughout his career. 

It was through dissecting thousands of galls that Wise discovered something extraordinary about the way newly hatched larvae flee to safety if their gall is compromised. 

“If their galls are damaged in nature, they need to scoot to have a chance at survival,” said Wise. 

The larva leaps into the air, circling in loops as it falls back down to the ground. Wise along with an expert on locomotion, Sheila Patek, investigated this surprising response. 

“I knew Sheila was an expert in cool mechanisms of locomotion, so I wanted her opinion,” said Wise. 

It took three years to film the Asphondylia maggots as they leaped into the air. The larvae are only three millimeters long, and what’s more, they only jump for a short time each year. 

Collecting enough larvae and perfecting a technique to film the leap in its entirety took a lot of time and patience. 

“We had to zoom in with the camera lens to see the animal clearly and then we had to operate within a small field of view on our computer screen,” said Grace Farley, a member of the research team. “We really had to work as a team and communicate’.

After filming enough maggots, the researchers discovered that the larva curls its body into a loop as it prepares to jump. Once both ends of the maggot’s body meet, the animal continues to compress its lower half until a kink starts to form which serves as a makeshift leg. 

This leg pushes off the ground and catapults the maggot into the air. This move may seem dangerous and costly energy-wise, but Gregg Sutton from the <a href="https://www.lincoln.ac.uk/home/">University of Lincoln</a> in the UK calculated that crawling was 28.75 times more costly than jumping. 

The researchers found the maggot can lock into a looped position thanks to microscopic hairs at both ends of its body. 

The study, published in the <a href="https://jeb.biologists.org/content/222/15/jeb201129">Journal of Experimental Biology</a>, helps shed light on this gravity-defying defense mechanism that maggots can use if their galls are damaged. 

--

By <a href="mailto:kayvandette@gmail.com">Kay Vandette</a>,<a href="https://www.earth.com/"> Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 

Image Credit: Journal of Experimental Biology, Farley, G. M., Wise, M. J., Harrison, J. S., Sutton, G. P., Kuo, C. and Patek, S. N., 2019

Maggots make gravity-defying loopy leaps to escape to safety

Gall midge insects have interesting relationships with the plants on...

In the depths of the ocean, some shark species are known to use fluorescence to produce beautiful patterns of green light that only other sharks can see. For the first time, researchers have identified a previously unknown group of small-molecule metabolites which activates biofluorescence among <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/sharks-smaller-human-populations/">sharks</a>. 

"Studying biofluorescence in the ocean is like a constantly evolving mystery novel, with new clues being provided as we move the research forward," said study co-author Professor David Gruber, a marine biologist at <a href="https://www2.cuny.edu/">The City University of New York</a>.

"After we first reported that swell sharks were biofluorescent, my collaborators and I decided to dive deeper into this topic. We wanted to learn more about what their biofluorescence might mean to them."

[caption id="attachment_1876276" align="aligncenter" width="650"]<a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/08/glowing-swell-shark.png"><img class="wp-image-1876276" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/08/glowing-swell-shark.png" alt="" width="650" height="183" /></a> Glowing swell shark. Image Credit: David Gruber, iScience[/caption]

The study was focused on two species of sharks: the swell shark and the chain catshark. The experts discovered that the skin of these sharks contains both light tones and dark tones. The analysis of chemicals from the skin revealed a type of fluorescent molecule that is only present in the lighter skin.

"The exciting part of this study is the description of an entirely new form of marine biofluorescence from sharks - one that is based on brominated tryptophan-kynurenine small-molecule metabolites," said Professor Gruber.

This mechanism is different from animals in the upper ocean like jellyfish and corals which commonly use green fluorescent proteins as mechanisms to transform blue light into other colors, explained Professor Gruber.

"It's a completely different system for them to see each other that other animals cannot necessarily tap into," added study co-author Professor Jason Crawford. "They have a completely different view of the world that they're in because of these biofluorescent properties that their skin exhibits and that their eyes can detect. Imagine if I were bright green, but only you could see me as being bright green, but others could not."

[caption id="attachment_1876278" align="aligncenter" width="650"]<a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/08/glowing-chain-shark.png"><img class="wp-image-1876278" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/08/glowing-chain-shark.png" alt="" width="650" height="321" /></a> Glowing chain catshark. Image Credit: David Gruber, iScience[/caption]

The molecules serve other purposes as well, such as enabling the sharks to identify each other in the ocean, and may help to protect them against microbial infections.

"It is also interesting that these biofluorescent molecules display antimicrobial properties," said Professor Gruber. "These catsharks live on the ocean bottom, yet we don't see any biofouling or growth, so this could help explain yet another amazing feature of shark skin."

"This study opens new questions related to potential function of biofluorescence in central nervous system signaling, resilience to microbial infections, and photoprotection."

The research is published in the journal <a href="https://www.cell.com/iscience/home">iScience</a>.

--

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Image Credit: David Gruber / iScience

How some sharks emit a green glowing light

In the depths of the ocean, some shark species are...

According to new research from the <a href="https://www.seas.harvard.edu/">Harvard John A. Paulson School of Engineering and Applied Sciences (SEAS)</a> and the <a href="https://www.hsph.harvard.edu/">Harvard T. H. Chan School of Public Health (HSPH)</a>, climate change is contributing to an increase of the neurotoxin methylmercury, an organic form of mercury, most commonly found in cod, Atlantic bluefin tuna and swordfish. These findings are published in <a href="https://www.nature.com/">Nature</a>.

Using a comprehensive model that simulates how environmental factors, like <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/sea-bird-die-offs-ocean-temperatures/">warming ocean temperatures</a> and overfishing, impact levels of methylmercury in fish, researchers found that rising temperatures are causing methylmercury levels to rise despite government regulations of mercury emissions that are already in place.

"This research is a major advance in understanding how and why ocean predators, such as tuna and swordfish, are accumulating mercury," said senior author Elsie Sunderland, the Gordon McKay Professor of Environmental Chemistry at SEAS and HSPH. 

"Being able to predict the future of mercury levels in fish is the holy grail of mercury research," added first author Amina Schartup, former research associate at SEAS and HSPH. "That question has been so difficult to answer because, until now, we didn't have a good understanding of why methylmercury levels were so high in big fish."

It is understood that organisms at the top of the food chain contain higher levels of methylmercury than those at the bottom. However, how this happens is a less understood process.

To solve this mystery, the research team first analyzed 30-years-worth of ecosystem data (1970s to 2000s) from the Gulf of Maine, which included analysis of the stomach contents of the Atlantic cod and the spiny dogfish.

They found that methylmercury levels in cod were 6-20% lower in 1970 than they were in 2000. Spiny dogfish, on the other hand, had levels 33-61% higher in 1970 compared to 2000 despite living in the same ecosystem and existing in a similar spot in the food web as cod. 

The team realized that during the 1970s, the Gulf of Maine experienced a dramatic drop in herring population caused by overfishing. Because both cod and spiny dogfish eat herring, the two species were forced to find substitutes — cod began eating shads and sardines, which are low in methylmercury, and spiny dogfish, ate squid and other cephalopods, which are higher in methylmercury. So, when the herring population rejuvenated in 2000, cod went back to a diet higher in methylmercury, whereas spiny dogfish did the opposite.

Furthermore, the size of a fish’s mouth also contributes to their methylmercury consumption. Some fish can only consume prey that fits in their mouth, whereas others have different tactics to take down their food source.

[caption id="attachment_1876210" align="aligncenter" width="650"]<a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/08/mercury.png"><img class="wp-image-1876210" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/08/mercury.png" alt="" width="650" height="366" /></a> Image Credit: Harvard SEAS[/caption]

"There's always been a problem modeling methylmercury levels in organisms like cephalopods and swordfish because they don't follow typical bioaccumulation patterns based on their size," said Sunderland. "Their unique feeding patterns means they can eat bigger prey, which means they're eating things that have bioaccumulated more methylmercury. We were able to represent that in our model."

However, figuring out the high methylmercury levels in tuna was a larger challenge. It’s at the top of the food chain, but this isn’t an accurate reason for why its levels are so high. Schartup realized that because tuna swim so fast and migrate, they need to consume more to keep up their energy.

"These Michael Phelps-style fish eat a lot more for their size but, because they swim so much, they don't have compensatory growth that dilutes their body burden. So, you can model that as a function," Schartup said.

And as the water warms, fish of all shapes and sizes require more energy to swim, which therefore requires them to consume more calories. In fact, using their model, the researchers predict that an increase of 1 degree Celsius relative to the year 2000 will lead to a 32% increase in methylmercury in cod and a 70% increase of methylmercury in spiny dogfish.

"This model allows us to look at all these different parameters at the same time, just as it happens in the real world," said Schartup.

"We have shown that the benefits of reducing mercury emissions holds, irrespective of what else is happening in the ecosystem. But if we want to continue the trend of reducing methylmercury exposure in the future, we need a two-pronged approach," said Sunderland. "Climate change is going to exacerbate human exposure to methylmercury through seafood, so to protect ecosystems and human health, we need to regulate both mercury emissions and greenhouse gases."

--

By <a href="mailto:oliviagharvey24@gmail.com">Olivia Harvey</a>, <a href="http://earth.com">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Paid for by <a href="http://earth.com">Earth.com</a>

Image Credit: Shutterstock/Lorna Roberts

Warming temperatures are causing an increase in toxic methylmercury

According to new research from the Harvard John A. Paulson...

Dunes sagebrush lizard

The dunes sagebrush lizard is at about three inches long, a rather small, nondescript lizard of golden color and stripes along the body. The lizard is only found in particular semi-stable dune habitats in New Mexico and adjoining Texas. 

According to the <a href="https://www.fws.gov/southwest/es/newmexico/documents/dunes_sagebrush_lizards_handout.pdf">US Fish &amp; Wildlife Service</a>, the dunes sagebrush lizard occupies only 655 square miles of New Mexico in Mescalero Sands, a desolate place of dunes managed by the Bureau of Land Management <a href="https://www.blm.gov/visit/mescalero-sands-north-dune-ohv-area">(BLM)</a> as an off highway vehicle area. But the dunes sagebrush lizard habitat in <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/duck-billed-dinosaur-texas/">Texas</a> is even more threatened by human activity than that in New Mexico.       

A 2018 <a href="https://www.biologicaldiversity.org/news/press_releases/2018/dunes-sagebrush-lizard-12-20-2018.php">report</a> from the <a href="https://www.biologicaldiversity.org/">Center for Biological Diversity</a> outlines how the state of Texas at the time ‘kills conservation plan’ for the imperiled lizard. The Texas Comptroller, the state office with authority over conservation in Texas, withdrew all protections from the dunes sagebrush lizard. The lizard now depends on federal law for any protection it might receive. 

In 2018, the Center for Biological Diversity also filed a petition for the lizard to be protected under the Endangered Species Act. In Texas, the dunes sagebrush lizard lives in the Permian Basin, a place I worked in oil exploration in another life. The landscape is a rough one of scrubby plants that tear at clothes, unrelenting heat, and rough geography. 

As the name suggests, the Permian Basin is also home to ancient geological formations and with them, plenty of fossil fuels. In fact, the Dunes Sagebrush Lizard is threatened by fracking as well as traditional oil development in the area along with other fragmentation of the lizard’s habitat. West Texas also offers the development of resources for fracking itself.

During hydraulic fracturing, or ‘fracking’, high pressure fluids are used to break open geological formations, allowing the extraction of oil or other fossil fuels. When the cracks are created allowing access to the fossil fuel deposits, the cracks will close if they’re not ‘propped open’. A special type of sand is used to hold these cracks open, a spherical sand found in only a few locations in the US. <a href="https://earthworks.org/issues/frac_sand_mining/">Earthworks</a> reports that as much as 10,000 tons of fracking sand can be used at a single oil well. 

The mining of this sand is also incredibly disruptive to the environment. The whole top surface of earth or ‘overburden’ must be scraped away by heavy machinery to reach the frac sand below. Berms are created with the overburden, plants are usually killed, the land is forever altered by the mining. Sometimes removing the sand requires blasting. This along with the direct extraction of fossil fuels, requiring large amounts of disruption and development, threaten the dunes sagebrush lizard, a problem that has not adequately been addressed by the state of Texas’ conservation plan.       

Susan Combs, who pushed for the withdrawal of federal protections of the dunes sagebrush lizard as Texas Comptroller, is widely known as being critical of the Endangered Species Act and seeing environmental protections as simply an obstacle to business. The power of the comptroller over endangered species management is unique to Texas, the only state where wildlife officials don’t oversee this task. 

The withdrawal of potential federal protections of the lizard in 2012 was moreover based on a flawed conservation plan in Texas created by Combs in 2010. Combs is now the Trump administration’s acting Assistant Secretary for Fish, Wildlife, and Parks in the <a href="https://www.doi.gov/">U.S. Department of the Interior</a>. 

The initial conservation plan created by Combs was formally rescinded by the current Texas comptroller Glen Hegar in December 2018 due to its ineffectiveness. Among other problems with the plan, it failed to address the growing threat of frac sand mining to the lizard. A new conservation plan is under development, but the <a href="https://www.fws.gov/southwest/es/newmexico/documents/dunes_sagebrush_lizards_handout.pdf">US Fish &amp; Wildlife Service</a> has yet to approve the plan, and it is unclear if the new plan is adequate in its approach.   

So far, the Trump administration has seemed unwilling to afford the dunes sagebrush lizard the possibility of any federal protections which has pushed environmentalists to file a lawsuit against the administration over its failure to act.

<a href="https://defenders.org/">Defenders of Wildlife</a> and the <a href="https://www.biologicaldiversity.org/">Center for Biological Diversity</a> have joined together to file the lawsuit against the federal government. Initially, the two groups again petitioned the <a href="https://www.fws.gov/">US Fish &amp; Wildlife Service</a> to protect the lizard under the Endangered Species Act as well as designate critical habitat for the dunes sagebrush lizard in May 2018. The petition noted that the existing lizard habitat was threatened by fossil fuel extraction and sand mining. The law requires that the service evaluate the petition in 90 days and give a finding whether listing may be warranted. 

If this initial finding is positive, the law allows twelve months for the service to determine whether to list the species or not. The US Fish &amp; Wildlife Service missed both deadlines, initiating the impetus for a lawsuit. This is part of a long ongoing battle for the protection of the lizard. 

The dunes sagebrush lizard has been a candidate for protection since 1982 but inaction on the part of the federal government and interference by the Texas government has continuous forestalled protection for the lizard. As I noted earlier, the lizard was first afforded some federal protection in 2010 but that protection was removed in 2012 due to the ineffective Texas conservation plan. 

The lawsuit filed by Defenders of Wildlife and the Center for Biological Diversity gives the US Fish &amp; Wildlife Service 90 days to respond to the intent to sue notice given on July 19, 2019. Time is of the essence as Defenders of Wildlife studies found that over the last 18 months, 1,600 acres of lizard habitat have been destroyed. 

As of now, there are no legal protections for the lizard. The current administration seems actually opposed to giving any protection to the dunes sagebrush lizard but it’s also inexcusable that the government under many administrations has failed to protect the lizard since 1982. Small animals like the dunes sagebrush lizard, living in habitat seldom considered by most, are easy to ignore for profit.

--

By <a href="mailto:zachfitzner@yahoo.com">Zach Fitzner</a>, <a href="http://earth.com">Earth.com</a> Contributing Writer           

Paid for by <a href="http://earth.com">Earth.com</a> 

Image Credit: Center for Biological Diversity

Federal government sued over failure to protect dunes sagebrush lizard

The dunes sagebrush lizard is at about three inches long,...

Extremely rare butterflies spotted in UK for the first time in a decade. Butterfly migrations occur around the world – involving swarms of these often-colorful pollinators as they move across great distances. These migrations can be a big draw to any enthusiast along the migration path, as the sheer number of butterflies all in one place can truly be a sight to behold.

In the United Kingdom, millions of painted lady butterflies have been sighted in what is believed to be a phenomenon that only occurs about once per decade. These brilliant butterflies usually live in North Africa and the Mediterranean, but by traveling up to 100 miles per day – and at shockingly quick speeds of up to 30 mph – painted lady butterflies have been spotted throughout the UK.

The last time this species migrated through the UK back in 2009, it was noted that about 11 million butterflies may have been seen. This event is a welcome relief to the <a href="https://butterfly-conservation.org/">Butterfly Conservation Society</a>, who have reported a “long-term and ongoing decline of UK butterflies.” Since 1976, about 70% of this species have disappeared, making these new sightings especially noteworthy. Extremely rare butterflies spotted in UK for the first time in a decade

This year’s sightings are being tracked by the Big Butterfly Count, an initiative that invites butterfly enthusiasts from across the UK to report their sightings of these insects. Experts are currently estimating that – given the thousands of sightings that have already occurred – this year’s numbers may even be higher than those in 2009.

Chris Packham, a celebrity naturalist, told the <a href="https://www.independent.co.uk/us">Independent</a> that he believes this butterfly migration to be “one of the wonders of the natural world.” He also noted that “signs across Europe are looking very promising, meaning that 2019 could be a very good year for the painted lady with high numbers already being recorded across parts of the UK.”

--

By <a href="mailto:certz@earth.com">Connor Ertz</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Extremely rare butterflies spotted in UK for the first time in a decade

Extremely rare butterflies spotted in UK for the first time...

A fossil specimen that was sitting in storage for the past 30 years was recently discovered as belonging to a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-small-dinosaur-species-australia/">new species of dinosaur</a>. 

Kimberley Chapelle, a Ph.D. student at the <a href="https://www.wits.ac.za/">University of the Witwatersrand</a>, along with a team of researchers, recognized something unusual about a dinosaur fossil collection in Johannesburg, namely that one specimen didn’t belong there. 

The researchers realized that the dinosaur belonged to an entirely new species of sauropodomorph and was part of a new genus as well. 

It was a remarkable find that was hiding in plain sight, according to the researchers. 

The specimen was called Ngwevu intloko which translates to “grey skull” in the Xhosa language. 

Xhosa is one of the official languages of South Africa.

[caption id="attachment_1876185" align="aligncenter" width="650"]<a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/08/dinosaur.jpg"><img class="wp-image-1876185" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/08/dinosaur.jpg" alt="" width="650" height="377" /></a> Micro-CT scan of Ngwevu intloko skull, Image Credit: Kimberley Chapelle/Wits University[/caption]

“The specimen has been in the collections in Johannesburg for about 30 years, and lots of other scientists have already looked at it,” said Professor Paul Barrett, an author of the study. “But they all thought that it was simply an odd example of Massospondylus.” 

Massospondylus specimens have been found all over Southern Africa. 

In this study, the researchers were lucky in that they were able to work with a nearly complete specimen. The skull of the dinosaur, in particular, was incredibly well-preserved. 

“In order to be certain that a fossil belongs to a new species, it is crucial to rule out the possibility that it is a younger or older version of an already existing species,” said Chapelle. “Luckily, the most common South African dinosaur Massospondylus has specimens ranging from embryo to adult. Based on this, we were able to rule out age as a possible explanation for the differences we observed in the specimen now named Ngwevu intloko.”

Ngwevu intloko would have measured nearly ten feet long from tail to snout and had a long neck typical of sauropodomorphs.

“This new species is interesting, because we thought previously that there was really only one type of sauropodomorph living in South Africa at this time,” said Professor Barrett. “We now know there were actually six or seven of these dinosaurs in this area, as well as variety of other dinosaurs from less common groups. It means that their ecology was much more complex than we used to think.” 

The study was published in the journal <a href="https://peerj.com/articles/7240/">PeerJ. </a>

--

By <a href="mailto:kayvandette@gmail.com">Kay Vandette,</a> <a href="https://www.earth.com/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 

Main Image Credit: Kimberley Chapelle/Wits University

New species of dinosaur was ‘hiding in plain sight’ in South Africa

A fossil specimen that was sitting in storage for the...

How to save your food from seagulls. If you’ve been unlucky enough to have a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/wing-technique-gulls-drones/">seagull</a> snatch your snack from right in front of you while enjoying a day at the beach, you know that trying to eat when there are gulls around is no picnic. 

Researchers from the <a href="https://www.exeter.ac.uk/">University of Exeter</a> may have found a solution to keep your snacks safe from any thieving seagull. 

The trick is to just keep your eyes on the bird that’s after your chips, according to a new study published in the journal Biology Letters.

The researchers set a bag of chips on the ground and measured how long before 19 herring gulls approached the bag both while being watched and when a human was turned away. 

Gulls were more cautious when a human was staring at them. The researchers found that the herring gulls took around 21 seconds longer to grab the chips compared to when someone was looking away. 

Only 19 out of 74 gulls completed a “looking at” and “looking away” test without flying away first. 

“Gulls are often seen as aggressive and willing to take food from humans, so it was interesting to find that most wouldn’t even come near during our tests,” said Madeleine Goumas, the lead author of the study. “Of those that did approach, most took longer when they were being watched. Some wouldn’t even touch the food at all, although others didn’t seem to notice that a human was staring at them.” 

The study only involved 19 gulls, and not all gulls had the same response to staring. 

“We didn’t examine why individual gulls were so different - it might be because of differences in “personality” and some might have had positive experiences of being fed by humans in the past - but it seems that a couple of very bold gulls might ruin the reputation of the rest,” said Goumas. 

What the study does provide is a potential tool that annoyed tourists and beachgoers might use to dissuade gulls from approaching. 

Herring gulls in the UK and gulls in other coastal towns are considered a nuisance. One New Jersey beach town has gone so far as to hire birds of prey to scare away the gulls, according to the <a href="https://nypost.com/2019/08/06/beach-town-pays-65000-for-hawks-owls-to-scare-seagulls-away/">New York Post</a>. 

“We therefore advise people to look around themselves and watch out for gulls approaching, as they often appear to take food from behind, catching people by surprise,” said Dr. Neeltje Boogert, a senior author of the study.

Chips and picnic food are not part of a gull’s natural diet, and the researchers plan to study how human food impacts gulls and their chicks. 

--

By <a href="mailto:kayvandette@gmail.com">Kay Vandette</a>,<a href="https://www.earth.com/"> Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 

Image Credit: Shutterstock/Photography by Adri

How to save your food from seagulls

How to save your food from seagulls. If you’ve been...

Paleontologists discover world’s largest extinct giant parrot in New Zealand. The first-ever giant parrot fossil has been located near St. Bathans in Central Otago, <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/birds-extinction-new-zealand/">New Zealand</a>. Dubbed Heracles, the bird stood about a meter (3.3 feet) tall, weighed about 7 kg (15.4 pounds), and had a huge beak large enough to crack pretty much anything.

"Heracles, as the largest parrot ever, no doubt with a massive parrot beak that could crack wide open anything it fancied, may well have dined on more than conventional parrot foods, perhaps even other parrots," said Professor Mike Archer, from the UNSW Sydney <a href="http://www.pangea.unsw.edu.au/">Palaeontology, Geobiology and Earth Archives (PANGEA) Research Centre</a>.

According to a team made up of experts from <a href="https://www.flinders.edu.au/">Flinders University</a>, <a href="https://www.unsw.edu.au/">UNSW Sydney</a>, and <a href="https://www.canterburymuseum.com/">Canterbury Museum</a>, the Heracles fossil is about the same size of the giant 'dodo' pigeon of the Mascarenes and is twice as big as the critically endangered flightless New Zealand kakapo, which has been previously identified as the largest known parrot on Earth. 

In fact, both Heracles and the kakapo belong to a lineage of ancient parrots that were much more primitive than the parrots found on New Zealand today.

"New Zealand is well known for its giant birds," said Flinders University Associate Professor Trevor Worthy. "Not only moa dominated avifaunas, but giant geese and adzebills shared the forest floor, while a giant eagle ruled the skies. But until now, no-one has ever found an extinct giant parrot — anywhere."

Per the study, published in <a href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/journal/rsbl">Biology Letters</a>, Heracles was located in a grouping of fossils dated to about 19 million years ago.

"We have been excavating these fossil deposits for 20 years, and each year reveals new birds and other animals," said Worthy, who works at the Flinders University Palaeontology Lab. "While Heracles is one of the most spectacular birds we have found, no doubt there are many more unexpected species yet to be discovered in this most interesting deposit."

[caption id="attachment_1876165" align="aligncenter" width="595"]<a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/08/heracles.jpg"><img class="size-full wp-image-1876165" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/08/heracles.jpg" alt="" width="595" height="632" /></a> Heracles inexpectatus silhouette next to an average height person and common magpie. Image Credit: Professor Paul Scofield, Canterbury Museum[/caption]

Islands are often home to giant bird species, such as the dodo, the giant megapode and a giant pigeon species on the island of Fiji, a giant stork species on Flores, Hawaii’s giant ducks, and giant owls and raptors in the Caribbean.

Because Heracles lived in a diverse subtropical forest, in which many species of laurels and palms grew with podocarp trees, the experts believe Heracles had no problem finding fresh fruit to eat.

"But on the forest floor Heracles competed with adzebills and the forerunners of moa," said Professor Suzanne Hand, from UNSW Sydney.Paleontologists discover world’s largest extinct giant parrot in New Zealand

"The St. Bathans fauna provides the only insight into the terrestrial birds and other animals that lived in New Zealand since dinosaurs roamed the land more than 66 million years ago," added Paul Scofield, Senior Curator at Canterbury Museum, Christchurch.

Canterbury Museum research curator Vanesa De Pietri said the St. Bathans fossil deposit also reveals a diverse fauna typical of subtropical climates with crocodilians, turtles, bats, and other mammals, as well as more than 40 bird species.

"This was a very different place with a fauna very unlike that which survived into recent times," De Pietri concluded.

--

By <a href="mailto:oliviagharvey24@gmail.com">Olivia Harvey</a>, <a href="http://earth.com">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Image Credit: Dr Brian Choo, Flinders University

Paleontologists discover world’s largest extinct giant parrot in New Zealand

Paleontologists discover world’s largest extinct giant parrot in New Zealand....

A new study from <a href="https://www.columbia.edu/">Columbia University</a> has demonstrated that <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/female-japanese-macaques-red/">macaques</a> can use logical reasoning to execute tasks. The investigation was focused on the ability of the animals to use transitive inference (TI), which is a form of deductive reasoning that was long believed to be unique to humans. 

To demonstrate an understanding of TI, subjects are often given lists of adjacent pairs, such as AB and CD, and then tested for their ability to recognize non-adjacent pairs that are implied, such as AC and BD. 

Over the last few decades, research has suggested that some nonhuman animals are also able to use this logical learning process. However, these studies primarily depended on reward associations, which makes it difficult to determine whether the test subjects were learning through logical inference or if they were simply making associations to maximize a reward. 

"It is widely accepted that animals also learn from experience, but most studies of nonhuman animals assume that their choices depend chiefly on the expected reward value associated with choices," wrote the study authors.

"We conjecture that the full scope of published TI results can only be explained if nonhuman animals perform inferences by manipulating an abstract representation of list order."

Led by Greg Jensen, the research team set out to manipulate an experiment so that the problems could not be solved by reward associations alone. In other words, the reward values were not always higher when the macaques produced the correct answers. 

The macaques learned a sequence of images, and were rewarded with water for selecting and touching one of two adjacent images that came earlier in the sequence. The monkeys had been on a water-restricted diet, and received no water for an incorrect answer. 

In the next phase of the trial, the researchers began showing the monkeys pairs of images that were not adjacent in the sequence. The monkeys continued to get a water reward for selecting the image that came earlier in the sequence. 

Finally, the researchers switched up the reward value of the correct answers, where the earliest image in the sequence that may have once corresponded with six drops of water now only corresponded with one. 

According to the experts, if the monkeys had no logical basis for their decision-making and were only driven by rewards, their performance would have suffered under this reverse condition. Instead, the monkeys continued to accurately identify the earliest images in the sequence across hundreds of trials, indicating that the monkeys were driven by logical reasoning and not just by rewards.

"This is the first study to test reward-based explanations of TI performance in a paradigm in which subjects have to ignore the experienced magnitude of reward to choose the correct response," wrote the researchers. 

"Subjects’ success in learning under the reverse reward gradient adds to a growing body of demonstrations that nonhuman animals can solve inference-based problems by a more cognitive means than favoring whichever alternative has the highest experienced value."

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://advances.sciencemag.org/">Science Advances</a>.

--

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Image Credit: Shutterstock/Sergey Uryadnikov

Logical thinking drives the problem solving skills of macaques

A new study from Columbia University has demonstrated that macaques...

Non-carnivores pose a surprising threat to livestock. Most research examining conflict between humans and wildlife has focused on how large predators like <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/absence-wolves-eastern-coyotes-adapted/">wolves</a> and tigers may threaten livestock.

But Dr. Shari Rodriguez and Dr. Christie Sampson of <a href="http://www.clemson.edu/">Clemson University</a> examined the less-studied relationships between livestock and predatorial non-carnivores like feral pigs and elephants. 

Although livestock predators such as tigers and wolves have been studied as the human-wildlife conflict continues to heighten as human populations expand, the lesser known predators have been excluded, despite having an impact on livestock. Non-carnivores pose a surprising threat to livestock

"Our study highlights the importance of including species not traditionally considered in the livestock protection conversation, and finding similarities in how the effects of non-Carnivora species can be addressed through the same methodologies as species such as wolves, tigers, or lions," said Dr. Rodriguez.

The study, published in <a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosbiology/article?id=10.1371/journal.pbio.3000386">PLOS Biology</a>, shows that non-Carnivora species oftentimes kill young and small livestock, therefore damaging the entire farm infrastructure. Non-carnivores pose a surprising threat to livestock

Because of the harm they can do to local livestock, community perception of the species has altered and some may not be willing to support conservation efforts, especially in the case of elephants.

"Sharing experiences across taxa and adopting methodology found to be successful for other [predatory] species may help us to improve the tools we use to promote co-existence and conservation efforts for elephants," said Dr. Sampson.

--

By <a href="mailto:oliviagharvey24@gmail.com">Olivia Harvey</a>, <a href="http://earth.com">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Image Credit: Shutterstock/Bildagentur Zoonar GmbH

Non-carnivores pose a surprising threat to livestock

Non-carnivores pose a surprising threat to livestock. Most research examining...

The wildlife charity <a href="https://butterfly-conservation.org/">Butterfly Conservation</a> is reporting that a striking blue butterfly may have its "best summer ever" after dwindling over the last four decades. The Common Blue started showing signs of recovery last year when extreme summer heat boosted the UK population by 104 percent. 

This summer, a July <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/europe-early-summer-heatwave/">heatwave</a> combined with above-average temperatures in August are expected to further support the comeback of the Common Blue. 

In collaboration with the Campaign for National Parks, the Butterfly Conservation  is asking the public to record sightings of the Common Blue as part of the UK's annual Big Butterfly Count.

"People should be able to spot these butterflies in National Parks areas as their caterpillars mainly feed on the wildflower, Common Bird’s-foot-trefoil," explained Dr. Zoe Randle. "In England last year, the butterfly’s numbers were up 110% from 2017 and in Wales their numbers were up 94% for the same period."

“However, numbers of the first brood which emerged in June were slightly down on last year, so it will be interesting to see how the second brood emerging in August will respond to the heatwave."

“It would really help us if people could get outside and look for this butterfly, so we can see if its fortunes really have turned around or if the Common Blue still needs our help."

“We’re also keen for people to keep recording any Painted Lady sightings, as this could be a record year for them - in just two days last week, people across the UK counted more than 30,000 Painted Lady butterflies and thousands more have been seen since then, so keep counting and we’ll reveal the total number after Sunday 11 August!”

The Common Blue males have bright blue upper wings that are unmarked, while the females are marked with orange crescents and dark spots that vary from bluish-purple to brown. The underwings of both males and females contain black spots with white halos and orange marks around the edges.

As the Campaign for National Parks celebrates its 70th anniversary this year, people across the UK can join the celebration by looking out for the Common Blue at their favorite parks.

"This is a great opportunity to help chart the progress of this beautiful blue butterfly and we’d love to know where our top Common Blue colonies are," said Campaign for National Parks CEO Corinne Pluchino. "We’d also like to have a better idea of the other butterfly species our sites are supporting, so please let us know what you find by taking part in the Big Butterfly Count."

The Big Butterfly Count is now underway and will continue through Sunday August 11. Participants are encouraged to find a sunny place and spend about 15 minutes counting every butterfly seen. The sightings can be submitted online <a href="http://www.bigbutterflycount.org">here</a>.

--

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Image Credit: Butterfly Conservation/PA

Common blue butterfly populations are making a big comeback across the UK

The wildlife charity Butterfly Conservation is reporting that a striking...

Forest fires are becoming too intense for birds that normally depend on them. Fires are a necessary part of the forest ecosystem that help clean up the landscape and increase the level of nutrients and organic matter in the soil. For some species of animals, such as the Black-backed Woodpecker, <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/forest-fires-beetles-woodpeckers/">forest fires</a> also create ideal habitats. 

But now, a new study has found that mega-fires across the western United States may be threatening these fire-loving woodpeckers. The researchers found that as the fires become bigger and more intense, the birds are struggling to find the edges of burned patches where they prefer to settle.

Collaborating with experts from <a href="https://www.birdpop.org/">The Institute for Bird Populations</a> and the <a href="https://www.fs.fed.us/">U.S. Forest Service</a>, PhD candidate 

Andrew Stillman investigated the nest site selection and nesting success of Black-backed Woodpeckers in burned forests of northern California. For eight years, the researchers monitored more than 100 nests while measuring nest site characteristics. Forest fires are becoming too intense for birds that normally depend on them

The birds were found to strongly prefer nesting in severely burned stands that had lots of dead trees. The birds placed their nests near the edges of these burned patches, typically within 500 meters of a patch with live trees.

"We didn't expect to find these woodpeckers nesting so close to edges," said Stillman. This is because previous research has shown that woodpecker nests closer to living forest patches are at a much higher risk of being raided by squirrels and other predators. 

A separate study found that the baby birds quickly move to living patches with good cover after leaving the nest, suggesting that the adults are providing their offspring with easy access to the live forest. 

Stillman explained that "pyrodiversity," which is the diversity found in the age, size, and severity of burned patches, appears to be important for the woodpecker because it provides more edges between different burn severities. As a result of climate change, however, fires are growing larger with reduced pyrodiversity.

"The thing about pyrodiversity is that we expect it to decrease," said study co-author Dr. Morgan Tingley. "Every year we see more 'mega-fires,' and these fires are quite homogenous in their structure, leading to low pyrodiversity. So even though the future is expected to hold more fire in western forests, the outlook may not even be good for fire-loving species."

"We hope that these results provide some of the missing information necessary to balance post-fire logging activities with the habitat needs of woodpeckers," said Stillman.

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.americanornithology.org/content/condor-ornithological-applications">The Condor: Ornithological Applications</a>.

--

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Image Credit: Jean Hall

Forest fires are becoming too intense for birds

Forest fires are becoming too intense for birds that normally...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2E0mn5mTvhQ
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">'Death Star' moon Mimas conceals a 15-million-year-old ocean that scientists never expected.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hidden-waters-beneath-ancient-craters">Hidden waters beneath ancient craters</h2>



Scientists have made a startling discovery that challenges everything we thought we knew about <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/saturn-moon-mimas-has-remarkably-young-ocean/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Saturn's moon Mimas</a>. Beneath the heavily cratered surface that earned it the nickname "Death Star" lies a global ocean that formed just 5 to 15 million years ago—a remarkably young age by cosmic standards.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cassini-data-reveals-orbital-secrets">Cassini data reveals orbital secrets</h2>



The discovery, led by Dr. Valéry Lainey of the <a href="https://observatoiredeparis.psl.eu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Observatoire de Paris</a>, emerged from careful analysis of <a href="https://www.nasa.gov" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NASA</a>'s Cassini spacecraft data. By studying subtle irregularities in Mimas's orbit around Saturn, researchers detected the gravitational signature of liquid water hidden 20 to 30 kilometers beneath the moon's icy shell.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-an-unlikely-ocean-world">An unlikely ocean world</h2>



At only 400 kilometers in diameter, Mimas seemed like the least likely candidate to harbor a subsurface ocean. Unlike other ocean moons such as Europa and Enceladus, which show clear surface signs of internal activity, Mimas displays no obvious hints of the liquid water beneath its ancient, crater-scarred exterior.



"Mimas is a small moon, and its heavily cratered surface gave no hint of the hidden ocean beneath," explained Dr. Nick Cooper from <a href="https://www.qmul.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Queen Mary University of London</a>, a study co-author.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-astrobiology">Implications for astrobiology</h2>



The ocean's recent formation makes Mimas a prime target for studying how oceans develop and potentially support life. This discovery adds another member to the exclusive club of ocean worlds in our solar system, each offering unique insights into the conditions necessary for habitability.



The research, published in <a href="https://www.nature.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature</a> journal, demonstrates how advanced orbital analysis can reveal hidden features of celestial bodies, opening new possibilities for understanding ocean formation throughout the cosmos.



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Scientists discover unexpected young ocean on Saturn's cratered moon Mimas

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2E0mn5mTvhQ 'Death Star' moon Mimas conceals a 15-million-year-old ocean that...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE
</div></figure>



On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop and sunlight barely penetrates through the polar winter. It was here, however, that an international team of scientists found <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/predatory-worms-were-terror-beasts-half-a-billion-years-ago/#google_vignette" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evidence of sea monsters</a> that would change our understanding of ocean life in the past.



This video captures the discovery of Timorebestia fossils that had been hidden for more than 500 million years in the Sirius Passet formation. The "terror beasts," as they are called, are a hidden chapter in the evolutionary history of <a href="https://www.earth.com" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Earth</a>, showing that sophisticated predator-prey interactions occurred much earlier than previously envisioned.



Dr. Jakob Vinther and his research team at the <a href="https://www.bristol.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Bristol</a>, in collaboration with researchers at the <a href="https://eng.kopri.re.kr/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Korean Polar Research Institute</a>, braved extreme weather conditions at 82.5 north latitude to locate these giant creatures. Using sophisticated electron microprobe analysis, they revealed the detailed anatomy of the animals, including their muscle and nerve tissues.



The find upsets the traditional timeline of sea predators. Although we've long appreciated that Cambrian oceans were at one time ruled by <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jWI3-UgA3_o&amp;list=PL1QLQMW9MWDwpkFOnvgAmu7wT6rZmYqdJ&amp;index=19" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">arthropods</a>, these discoveries indicate that relatives of arrow worms were first to dominate the seas. These worms were building sophisticated food webs several million years before other predator groups arose.



Each fossil is a story of ancient hunger, with fossil stomach contents revealing these meter-long beasts dined on heavily armored arthropods regularly, cementing their place as the ocean's first apex predators.



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Worms dominated seas before dinosaurs

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">New York is the site of the world's oldest forest.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-385-million-year-old-trees-discovered">385-million-year-old trees discovered</h2>



Scientists have uncovered something extraordinary just two hours north of New York City. The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/worlds-oldest-forest-discovered-close-to-new-york-city/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">world's oldest forest</a>, dating back 385 million years, offers a window into how Earth's first complex forests shaped our planet's atmosphere.



Located near <a href="https://townofcairo.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cairo, New York</a>, in Greene County, these weren't merely primitive plants struggling to survive. These were sophisticated trees with root systems remarkably similar to modern forests. This ancient woodland predates dinosaurs by 140 million years.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-cairo-forest-discovery">The Cairo forest discovery</h2>



385 million years ago, upstate New York was a tropical paradise near the equator. Thanks to continental drift, this ancient forest has traveled thousands of miles to its current location.



The fossil forest sits in an abandoned quarry, roughly half the size of a football field. This represents just a slice of what was likely a massive forest system stretching from New York into Pennsylvania.



Charles Ver Straeten, curator of sedimentary rocks at the <a href="https://www.nysm.nysed.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">New York State Museum</a>, made the discovery in 2009. While scouting the former highway department property, his trained eye spotted wandering patterns in the stone that looked like marine features.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-revolutionary-age-and-preservation">Revolutionary age and preservation</h2>



The site contains 385-million-year-old rocks with fossilized woody roots forming horizontal patterns up to 18 feet (5.5 meters) wide. As Christopher Berry, a paleobotanist at Cardiff University, explains: "You are walking through the roots of ancient trees."



This discovery pushes back advanced tree evolution by millions of years. The research, published in <a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/home" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Current Biology</a> in December 2019, fundamentally changes our understanding of when complex forests first emerged.



Researchers believe a massive flood buried the forest floor, creating perfect fossilization conditions. Over millions of years, sediment hardened into rock, preserving these root patterns like nature's time capsule.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-meet-archaeopteris-the-first-modern-tree">Meet Archaeopteris: the first modern tree</h2>



The star of this ancient forest is Archaeopteris – not to be confused with the feathered dinosaur Archaeopteryx. This tree was far older and more revolutionary.



William Stein from <a href="https://www.binghamton.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Binghamton University</a> describes the roots as "strikingly modern, essentially what you'd see outside in my yard right now." These weren't simple root systems you'd expect from ancient plants.



Some fossilized roots are six inches (15 centimeters) in diameter, forming 36-foot-wide (11-meter) patterns. These giants grew up to 65 feet (20 meters) tall with five-foot-diameter (1.5-meter) trunks.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-changing-impact">Climate-changing impact</h2>



These trees fundamentally changed Earth's environment. Kevin Boyce, a Stanford University geoscientist, explains how their deep roots triggered "weathering," chemical reactions that pulled carbon dioxide from the atmosphere.



This process dropped atmospheric CO2 levels from 10-15 times higher than today to roughly modern concentrations. These ancient trees helped create atmospheric conditions that made complex life possible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ancient-forest-ecosystem">Ancient forest ecosystem</h2>



The forest was remarkably diverse. Scientists identified Eospermatopteris, palm tree-like plants with short roots that reached 30 feet (9 meters) tall but lacked woody structure. The forest also housed cladoxylopsids and a mysterious third species still being studied.



All reproduced through spores rather than seeds – millions of years before seeds evolved. This tropical environment had no grass, flowers, or flying insects, just towering trees creating Earth's first complex forest canopy.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-scientific-significance">Scientific significance</h2>



Before this finding, the Gilboa forest, located 25 miles (40 kilometers) away, held the "oldest forest" title. Cairo's trees are 2-3 million years older, showing that complex forest ecosystems developed much faster than scientists believed possible.



Patricia Gensel, a <a href="https://www.unc.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of North Carolina</a> paleobotanist, notes: "The size of those root systems is really changing the picture. Even 20 years ago, researchers assumed trees with such complex root systems didn't evolve so early."



The Cairo site presents three unique root systems, suggesting Devonian period forests were diverse ecosystems with different trees occupying different environmental niches, much like today's forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-modern-preservation-efforts">Modern preservation efforts</h2>



In 2022, New York State Senator Michelle Hinchey secured a $170,000 grant for the town of Cairo to construct specialized fencing around the fossil forest site. The town plans to conduct a feasibility study exploring the possibility of creating an educational center and working lab on-site.



Joe Hasenkopf, chair of the Cairo Planning Board, hopes to partner with educational institutions to create a research facility serving scientists, students, and the public.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lessons-for-today-s-climate">Lessons for today's climate</h2>



Why does a 385-million-year-old forest matter today? It shows how dramatically forests can change Earth's climate. These ancient woodlands created the atmospheric conditions supporting complex life.



Understanding how prehistoric forests transformed the planet helps us appreciate modern forests' critical role in addressing climate change. Forests remain Earth's most effective carbon capture systems.



These prehistoric trees changed Earth's atmosphere by pulling massive amounts of carbon dioxide from the air. As we face modern climate challenges, this ancient forest reminds us of trees' incredible power to transform our planet's environment.



The next time you walk through a forest, remember you're experiencing an ecosystem whose blueprint was established 385 million years ago in upstate New York. These ancient pioneers didn't just survive – they thrived and changed the world forever.



The full study was published in the journal Current Biology.



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Earth's oldest forest found in the United States

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ New York is the site of the world's oldest...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Acid rain and a crisis solved.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-don-t-we-ever-hear-about-acid-rain-anymore-the-environmental-crisis-that-was-solved">Why don't we ever hear about "acid rain" anymore? The environmental crisis that was solved</h2>



Remember the 1980s when acid rain dominated headlines? Dire warnings about rain eating buildings, killing fish, and destroying forests filled every news cycle. Then, almost like magic, acid rain vanished from public discourse. What happened? Did we actually solve one of the late 20th century's most pressing environmental challenges?



The answer might surprise you. Unlike many environmental issues that drag on indefinitely, acid rain represents one of modern history's most successful ecological recovery stories. It's a tale of science, politics, and technology working together to tackle what seemed impossible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What was acid rain?</h2>



Acid rain isn't regular rain having a bad day – it's precipitation that became significantly more acidic due to air pollution. When power plants, factories, and vehicles burn fossil fuels, they release sulfur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides (NOx) into the atmosphere.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The science behind it</h2>



Think of acid rain as nature's chemistry experiment gone wrong. These compounds react with water, oxygen, and other chemicals to form sulfuric and nitric acids. When mixed with water vapor in clouds, they create precipitation with dangerously low pH levels.



While clean rain has a pH of about 5.6, acid rain could drop as low as 4.2 to 4.4 – roughly as acidic as tomato juice or coffee. According to US Geological Survey documentation, Scottish chemist Angus Smith first coined "acid rain" in 1872, but it didn't become a household phrase until the 1960s and 1970s when Swedish scientist Svante Odén documented its devastating effects on Scandinavian lakes and European forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The crisis at its peak</h2>



During the height of public concern, environmental damage was both widespread and visible. This wasn't some abstract future threat – people could see destruction happening in real-time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Environmental devastation</h2>



The most dramatic impacts were impossible to ignore. Research documented by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation and the New York State Department of Environmental Conservation shows that in the Adirondack Mountains, more than 200 lakes became so acidic they couldn't support fish life. The Adirondack Council reports that 409 lakes once supported brook trout, but many lost their fish populations due to acid rain.



By 1976, when scientists cataloged all acidified lakes in the Adirondack Park, researchers found that half of the lakes over 2,000 feet above sea level had no fish, according to studies published in environmental journals. The acidification process worked like a slow-motion disaster. As acid rain fell into watersheds, it gradually lowered pH levels. Fish couldn't survive in acidic water, and their food sources died off too.



Trees at high elevations showed stress directly linked to acid rain. It weakened them by leaching nutrients and making them susceptible to disease. Historical records show Germany's Black Forest saw nearly half its trees damaged by the mid-1980s.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Economic impact</h2>



Acid rain wasn't just environmental – it was expensive. Acidic precipitation corroded infrastructure, buildings, and monuments. Historic stone structures deteriorated at accelerated rates. Tourism suffered as lakes became fishless and forests declined. EPA economic analyses from the period documented repair costs mounting into billions annually.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The solution: government action and technology</h2>



Transformation from crisis to success required unprecedented cooperation between governments, industries, and environmental groups.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The Clean Air Act of 1990</h2>



The turning point came with the Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990, signed by President George H.W. Bush. This represented a fundamentally new approach to environmental regulation, as documented in EPA historical records.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Cap-and-trade success</h2>



Instead of mandating specific technologies, the 1990 amendments introduced something revolutionary: a cap-and-trade system for sulfur dioxide emissions. EPA program documentation shows this market-based approach set overall limits but allowed companies to trade emission allowances.



The genius was harnessing market forces to find cost-effective pollution reduction. Companies reducing emissions cheaply could sell excess allowances to those facing higher costs. Research published in environmental economics journals and EPA progress reports shows this resulted in dramatic SO2 reduction at a fraction of projected costs.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Technology advances</h2>



Policy provided the framework, but technology made reductions possible. Studies in atmospheric science journals document the widespread adoption of flue gas desulfurization systems ("scrubbers") that removed sulfur dioxide before it reached the atmosphere. By the 2000s, new installations could remove over 95% of SO2 emissions, according to EPA technical reports.



The push coincided with cleaner energy development. Natural gas produces fewer sulfur compounds than coal. Wind and solar, emerging in the 1990s, captured growing market share, reducing reliance on high-sulfur coal.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-we-don-t-hear-about-it-today">Why we don't hear about it today</h2>



Why did acid rain disappear from headlines? Simple: the problem was largely solved.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Success doesn't make news</h2>



There's an old journalism saying: "If it bleeds, it leads." Environmental success stories don't generate urgency like crisis reporting. Media attention shifted to other challenges: climate change, plastic pollution, and biodiversity loss. There's only so much environmental anxiety the public can absorb, and newer concerns replaced acid rain.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Mission accomplished</h2>



The primary reason is beautifully simple: interventions worked. EPA monitoring data shows sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990. Academic research published in environmental science journals confirms pH levels in formerly affected areas returned closer to normal. This represents one of history's most dramatic environmental recoveries. Studies by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation show fishless lakes now support healthy populations. Forests recovered, and building damage slowed dramatically.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-is-it-really-gone">Is it really gone?</h2>



The crisis is largely resolved, but monitoring data shows the problem isn't completely eliminated – it's managed to acceptable levels. Some areas still experience occasional events during high pollution periods. International environmental research indicates that rapidly industrializing Asian countries face similar problems to what we experienced decades ago, though they're implementing successful strategies.



EPA research shows nitrogen oxide emissions proved more challenging than sulfur dioxide, coming from vehicles and mobile sources. Climate science studies suggest changing weather patterns add complexity to how acid rain forms and falls.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What this teaches us</h2>



The acid rain experience proves that seemingly intractable environmental problems can be solved with scientific understanding, political will, and technological innovation. Environmental monitoring data shows recovery speed was remarkable – within a decade, measurable improvements appeared in air quality and ecosystem health.



Success came from bipartisan support across party lines. Policy analysis studies show the market-based approach appealed to those preferring economic incentives while achieving environmental goals. This support created lasting policy surviving political changes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Conclusion</h2>



Acid rain's disappearance from public consciousness represents environmental science's greatest success stories. Through effective regulation, technological innovation, and international cooperation, we transformed an overwhelming crisis into a manageable challenge.



Today's silence isn't because we forgot – it's because we solved it. The 1990 Clean Air Act, combined with technology and energy market changes, reduced acid rain emissions over 90%, according to comprehensive EPA data analysis.



This success offers hope for current challenges. It proves complex problems can be solved when science, policy, and technology work together. As we face climate change and plastic pollution, acid rain reminds us that dramatic positive change is possible.



Next time someone asks whether environmental regulations work, remember acid rain. It's proof that sometimes, we get it right.



<hr class="wp-block-separator has-alpha-channel-opacity"/>



Sources: This article draws from EPA official documentation and progress reports, peer-reviewed research published in environmental and atmospheric science journals, historical data from the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation, New York State Department of Environmental Conservation records, US Geological Survey publications, policy analysis studies, and environmental monitoring data collected over three decades.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Frequently Asked Questions</h2>



1. Is acid rain completely gone? No, but EPA monitoring shows it's reduced to manageable levels. US sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990, making acid rain much less severe than the 1980s crisis.



2. How long did solving take? Environmental monitoring data shows significant improvements began within 5-10 years of 1990s emission controls. Full ecosystem recovery took longer – some areas need 20-30 years for complete recovery.



3. What made the solution successful? Clear scientific understanding, visible damage motivating action, bipartisan support, available technology, and innovative market-based policies like cap-and-trade.



4. Do other countries have acid rain problems? Yes, particularly rapidly industrializing Asian countries. However, international environmental research shows many implement similar successful control strategies.



5. Could acid rain return? Potentially, if regulations weaken or we return to high-sulfur coal without controls, though effects would take years to become severe according to environmental projections.



6. Can you recommend any teaching tools on the subject of "acid rain"? The United States Environmental Protection Agency produced a wonderful teacher's guide for ages 14 and under that you can find on the EPA website here: <a href="https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf</a>



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The environmental problem we actually solved

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk Acid rain and a crisis solved. Why don't we...

Fresh,Radish,Harvest,On,Soil,In,Garden.

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</div></figure>







Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving fall garden, and this guide lays out the best vegetables and herbs to plant now for a fruitful autumn harvest. 



Fast-growing leafy greens such as spinach, lettuce, kale, and arugula perform especially well in the waning summer heat, with harvests beginning as soon as 30 days. 



These cool-season crops relish the transition into fall, offering repeated yields with cut-and-come-again methods.



Root vegetables like radishes, carrots, and beets also excel during this period. Radishes deliver satisfaction in under a month, while carrots and beets mature in about two months. Employing succession planting ensures a continuous stream of produce deep into the cooler months. 



For a boost of fresh flavor, herbs like cilantro, basil, dill, and chervil are excellent picks. These heat-loving varieties flourish in July’s warmth and are harvest-ready in about 30 days, especially when sown continuously.



Gardeners in zones 6 through 9 can benefit from planting bush beans and snap peas, which don’t require trellising and are ideal for compact plots. 



Maturing in 50–60 days, they’re a smart choice for quick, protein-rich harvests. For those in hotter regions, heat-tolerant crops such as okra and southern peas provide reliable yields and thrive in scorching conditions.



This guide emphasizes more than crop selection—it highlights the importance of timing, soil preparation, and ongoing sowing techniques. 



With thoughtful planning and attention to regional climate needs, even late-summer gardeners can enjoy fresh salads, hearty stews, and the satisfaction of a robust, homegrown harvest well into fall.



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What to plant in your garden in mid-July

https://youtu.be/Fi2OeEwuzRM?si=vTyd2m9FMmtyWkex Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving...

Green,Ecoduct,Over,An,Empty,Highway,During,Sunset.

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https://youtu.be/XYgiPzmNBTU?si=eFYY7gPHU1JznLvU
</div></figure>



A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that wildlife tunnels significantly reduce amphibian road mortality during seasonal migrations. 



Frogs and salamanders often cross roads to reach breeding ponds each spring, but many are killed by vehicles. 



Researchers from the <a href="https://www.uvm.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Vermont</a>, in collaboration with local citizens and the Vermont Agency of Natural Resources, installed two underpass tunnels in 2015. 



Over a 12-year monitoring period, they observed an 80.2% reduction in amphibian deaths, and up to 94% for non-climbing species like salamanders. 



The study used a before-after-control-impact design and documented more than 5,200 amphibians, highlighting the tunnels’ effectiveness even in nearby buffer zones.



Funded at $342,397 - far cheaper than wildlife crossings for large mammals - the project showcased the power of community-led conservation.



Local groups initiated the effort after observing mass amphibian deaths. Wildlife cameras later captured over 2,200 amphibians using a tunnel in just one spring, along with other species like raccoons and bobcats, indicating wider ecosystem benefits.



This marks the first peer-reviewed, long-term data set in the northeastern U.S. confirming amphibian-specific underpasses work. 



The study urges transportation departments to incorporate these designs into road planning and highlights how community action, thoughtful infrastructure, and persistence can make a real difference for biodiversity.



The full study was published in the <a href="https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1617138125000780" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal for Nature Conservation</a>.



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Wildlife tunnels save millions of amphibians

https://youtu.be/XYgiPzmNBTU?si=eFYY7gPHU1JznLvU A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that...

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing it with probiotics and prebiotics, aiming to create a treat that satisfies cravings while supporting gut health. 



The challenge lies in maintaining chocolate's beloved texture and flavor while adding health benefits.



<figure class="wp-block-embed aligncenter is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://youtu.be/Ug657J67iEo?si=w96YjGMsg939LD_3
</div></figure>



Probiotics - beneficial microbes that balance gut bacteria and aid digestion - are typically fragile and can be destroyed by stomach acid or processing. 



Prebiotics act as food for these microbes, helping them thrive. Together, they form "synbiotics," a powerful health combination.



Researchers Smriti Gaur and Shubhi Singh from India's Jaypee Institute of Information Technology took an innovative approach, using natural prebiotics like corn and honey instead of complex processing methods. 



They created five chocolate varieties: a control and four synbiotic versions containing different combinations of prebiotics, probiotics (Lactobacillus strains), and flavor enhancers (cinnamon or orange).



Laboratory simulations of human digestion showed the probiotics remained viable for over five hours, suggesting they could survive long enough to benefit gut health.



Taste tests were positive, with researchers particularly enjoying the orange-flavored variety, describing it as having "vibrant citrus notes" complementing the "rich cocoa" with a "luxurious" texture.



This research represents just the beginning. With further refinement of strains, textures, and flavors, chocolate could evolve beyond mere indulgence to become a functional food that nourishes while it delights.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.4c00741" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ACS Food Science &amp; Technology</a>.

Is chocolate the next nutritional powerhouse?

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

[sendtonews key="0ynNMYkMKa-2340414-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

[sendtonews key="G9bUoxcjr4-2511624-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="3upvlAaHgO-2256633-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

[sendtonews key="3upvlAaHgO-2256633-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

[sendtonews key="LvS8v8bp9z-2564889-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="X0f6OHYoI4-2310561-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How does salt makes things taste better?

[sendtonews key="X0f6OHYoI4-2310561-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="JRaP49ISmm-2357509-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Santiago, Chile in South America

[sendtonews key="JRaP49ISmm-2357509-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

[sendtonews key="e4ZG0Jawp3-2374785-12187" type="single"] Astronomers at Johns Hopkins University have created...

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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.



According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."



Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;



ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. 



Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

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Earth,Like,Exoplanet,3d,Render

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

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