Portrait,Of,A,Wild,Octopus,Under,Water.

The octopus is a creature that continues to surprise scientists and inspire engineers. With eight arms that move in ways no human limb can, it demonstrates flexibility and control that seem almost otherworldly. 



Each arm bends, twists, elongates, and shortens with unmatched precision, enabling these animals to hunt, hide, and explore with ease. 



Researchers hope that unlocking the secrets of these movements may guide the design of flexible robotic arms capable of lifesaving missions.



Imagine a robotic arm slipping through rubble after a building collapse, delivering food or medicine to someone trapped below. 



This vision has motivated scientists to study octopus arms in detail - both in the laboratory and in their natural <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-dumbo-octopus-species-carnarvon-flapjack-discovered-in-very-deep-ocean-waters/">environment</a>.



Until recently, most studies were limited to tanks, where behaviors may not reflect the complexity of life in the wild. That gap is now being addressed.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-understanding-octopus-intelligence">Understanding octopus intelligence</h2>



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/octopuses-could-dominate-earth-if-humans-vanish/">Octopuses</a> are some of the most intelligent invertebrates on Earth. Unlike most animals without backbones, they can solve puzzles, open jars, and even escape from aquariums by remembering routes back to the ocean. 



Their brains are incredibly complex, with about 500 million neurons - similar to a dog. What makes them even more fascinating is that two-thirds of those neurons are in their arms. 



This means each arm can sense, move, and even make decisions on its own while still communicating with the central brain. It’s like having eight mini-brains working together with <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/octopuses-are-tricked-by-the-rubber-hand-illusion-like-humans-suggesting-self-awareness/">one big brain</a>.



Their intelligence also shows up in how they hunt and survive. Octopuses use tools, like carrying coconut shells to hide inside when threatened, and they can change color and texture in an instant to camouflage perfectly against rocks or coral. 



They’ve been observed watching other animals and learning from them, which is rare in the animal kingdom.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-flexible-octopus-arms-inspire-robotics">Flexible octopus arms inspire robotics</h2>



A new study from the <a href="https://www.mbl.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Marine Biological Laboratory</a> in Woods Hole and Florida Atlantic University has provided the most comprehensive analysis of octopus arm movements in natural habitats. 



Researchers recorded 25 wild octopuses in six locations, ranging from the Caribbean to Spain. The footage captured thousands of arm movements across a variety of behaviors, including foraging, locomotion, and even defense.



“I’ve been trying for a long time to work out the natural behavior of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/deep-sea-octopus-footage-could-revolutionize-flexible-robot-design-eyeris/">cephalopods</a> in their natural habitat,” said MBL Senior Scientist Roger Hanlon, who led the project. 



“Studying and recording octopus behavior from wild octopuses in the field gave us the opportunity to analyze a larger behavioral repertoire and further understand how they use their arms to achieve such complex behaviors,” added Chelsea Bennice, research fellow at <a href="https://www.fau.eu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">FAU</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-guided-by-touch-not-sight">Guided by touch, not sight</h2>



Octopuses rely heavily on touch, guided by sensory organs in their arm suckers. “The octopus is a very tactile animal - it’s more tactile than visual,” said Hanlon. 



Each of their nearly 100 suckers per arm contains chemosensory-tactile receptors, combining functions similar to the human nose, lips, and tongue.



Finding octopuses to observe was not simple. Their <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-squid-power-their-amazing-camouflage-abilities/">camouflage</a> skills make them almost invisible in coral reefs or sandy seabeds. Divers often relied on clues like discarded shells and food debris near their dens.



Once located, octopuses emerged briefly from hiding, offering precious opportunities to record their natural actions.



These moments revealed unique hunting strategies, arm movements, and subtle interactions with their environment otherwise impossible to witness.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-complex-arm-mechanics-of-octopuses">Complex arm mechanics of octopuses</h2>



The researchers identified 12 distinct arm actions across 15 behaviors, built from four fundamental deformations: shortening, elongating, bending, and torsion. They discovered a pattern of specialization within each arm. 



For instance, elongation and shortening were most common near the base, while bending occurred more at the tips. 



This functional partitioning allows octopuses to combine motions across arms for tasks like crawling, probing reef crevices, or launching sudden prey attacks.



“These are the actions that make up the whole complex of octopus <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/octopuses-and-squids-defy-the-slow-pace-of-evolution/">behaviors</a>,” said study co-author Kendra Buresch. 



In the wild, researchers observed octopuses using different combinations of arm actions - sometimes relying on a single arm for tasks like grabbing food, and other times coordinating multiple arms for behaviors such as crawling or launching a parachute attack.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-behavior-that-guides-technology">Behavior that guides technology</h2>



The findings go beyond understanding animal behavior. With nearly 7,000 observed arm deformations, the study highlights an extraordinary degree of control and flexibility. 



This knowledge may inform robotics research, where engineers seek to design soft, adaptable arms capable of both precise and exploratory tasks.



“Understanding these natural behaviors not only deepens our knowledge of octopus biology but also opens exciting new avenues in fields like neuroscience, animal behavior, and even soft robotics inspired by these remarkable creatures,” Bennice said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lessons-in-flexibility-and-change">Lessons in flexibility and change</h2>



From the ocean floor to robotics labs, octopuses continue to inspire, offering lessons in both biology and technology. 



Their flexible arms not only influence the design of machines that could navigate disaster zones or <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-deep-sea-crustacean-species-discovered-in-the-bahamas/">deep-sea environments</a>, but also remind us how problem-solving in nature often leads to solutions with real-world applications.



Beyond robotics, their adaptability symbolizes the broader principle that survival depends on innovation and change, a message equally relevant to ecosystems, human health, and future technologies.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-025-10674-y" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Scientific Reports</a>.



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Octopus arms are probably the most complex and flexible structures in nature

The octopus is a creature that continues to surprise scientists and inspire engineers. With eight arms that move in ways no human limb can, it demonstrates flexibility and control that seem almost otherworldly. Each arm bends, twists, elongates, and shortens with unmatched precision, enabling these animals to hunt, hide, and explore with ease. Researchers hope that unlocking the secrets of these movements may guide the design of flexible robotic arms capable of lifesaving missions. Imagine a robotic arm slipping through rubble after a building collapse, delivering food...

Every species on Earth is constantly adapting and changing – and for many of those species, ladies’ choice guides how they evolve, from mate selection habits to how they raise their young.

Led by Dr. David Reznick of the University of California, Riverside, a team of researchers analyzed guppy DNA and studied how different varieties of the colorful, tiny fish evolved. Their goal was to determine how guppy species with more colorful males differed from their less bright cousins – and why so many of the colorful males’ mates shared a particular pair of reproductive traits.

Reznick said he was inspired to take on the research after browsing the guppy aisle of a pet store.

"The fish I saw that day all belong to the Poeciliidae family, which give birth to live young, rather than lay eggs. Some of them even have placentas, like mammals," Reznick said in a press release. "The ones offered for sale were only species with colorful males and all of those species had mothers that lack placentas. I wanted to know how having this type of mother might relate to the evolution of male traits."

He and his team analyzed the data from 170 different species in the Poeciliidae family, creating a sort of genetic family tree. They then mapped out each of the species male and female traits, in hopes they could determine what behaviors direct the evolution of those traits.

They found that the common denominator for many of those traits was, essentially, ladies’ choice. 

For example, the guppies without a placenta: They invest more time and physical energy into their young than those without one. The guppies that did have a placenta had more physical control over reproduction, such as the ability to abort eggs they didn’t want or even to control which sperm fertilizes those eggs. But for guppies without one, choice of a mate was more important. Once they choose, there is no going back until the young are ready to go out on their own.

"When mothers lack a placenta, they've already invested all they've got to give into the eggs prior to fertilization," Reznick said. "So, the mothers are picky about the males they choose."

So they tend to choose flashier males.

Those fancy species also tended to evolve and split into new species faster than their plain counterparts, the researchers found. That ladies' choice is linked to male traits indicates that how mothers choose mates and the investments they make in their young can determine how quickly a species evolves.

The study did confirm a hypothesis first suggested by Drs. David and Jean Zeh at the <a href="https://www.unr.edu/">University of Nevada, Reno</a>: how mothers raise their young influences the evolution of male traits. However, it also debunked their prediction that species with placentas evolve more quickly than those without. 

"I wasn't expecting to learn what we did about these connections between mothering and evolution, but I'm so pleased to have provided here a better understanding of how and why organisms evolve the way they do and how that evolution can affect the formation of new species," Reznick said.

The study only looked at fish, but Reznick believes their findings can be applied across most of the animal kingdom.

The study has been published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41467-019-11307-5">Nature Communications</a>.

—

By Kyla Cathey, <a href="https://www.earth.com/">Earth.com</a> staff writer

Paid for by Earth.com.

Ladies' choice: Females direct evolution for most species

Every species on Earth is constantly adapting and changing –...

Tiny bacteria could be the key to protecting coral reefs from climate change. The microorganisms may boost coral resilience, allowing the delicate reefs to adapt to warmer temperatures and environmental pollution.

As <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/protect-coral-reefs-climate-change/">scientists brainstorm</a> the best way to preserve endangered coral reefs, a team of researchers from the <a href="https://www.uni-konstanz.de/en/">University of Konstanz</a> set out to study how coral might be saved from predicted rising global temperatures. Led by Dr. Christian Voolstra, the scientists investigated two coral species that have different relationships with bacteria. 

Acropora hemprichii may associate with various types of bacteria, while Pocillopora verrucosa consistently harbors only certain microorganisms. The team studied the coral resilience of the two species at various sites in the Red Sea – a region greatly affected by human activity – over 21 months.

To ensure the test corals weren’t affected by genetic variations, the team used coral fragments from the same colonies – one for each species – for the various tests.

“We could show that some corals respond flexibly to changing environmental conditions by associating themselves with certain bacteria, while other corals looked the same everywhere," Voolstra said in a press release about the research.

The researchers found that coral resilience may rely on being able to form relationships flexibly with bacteria. Generalist coral species like A. hemprichii adapt better to changing water temperatures and pollution because they can associate with new and different bacteria without going through an evolutionary process to develop the new relationship. 

Species like P. verrucosa, on the other hand, seem to suffer when their preferred bacteria is not available. But that doesn’t mean they can’t adapt.

"We must remember that the species we examined are those that have survived the tremendous changes of the past decade – thus, both types of corals harbor successful strategies," Voolstra said.

Coral resilience is increasingly important as mass bleaching of reefs <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/coral-bleaching-altering-fish-communities/">affects the fish species</a> that depend on them.

Figuring out how to boost coral resilience in addition to recovering and replacing bleached coral could be key to protecting marine species.

The study has been published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41467-019-10969-5">Nature Communications</a>.

—

By Kyla Cathey, <a href="https://www.earth.com/">Earth.com</a> staff writer

Image credit: Anna Roik, <a href="https://www.uni-konstanz.de/en/">University of Konstanz</a>

Paid for by Earth.com.

Bacteria boost coral resilience in warming oceans

Tiny bacteria could be the key to protecting coral reefs...

In a new study published by <a href="https://www.cell.com/">Cell Press</a>, scientists have identified the <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/jellyfish-kill-toxin-genes/">genes</a> that give pufferfish their spiky skin structures known as spines. The researchers discovered that the development of pufferfish spines is similar to the process by which birds get their feathers or other animals grow hair.

"Pufferfish are some of the strangest fish in the ocean, particularly because they have a reduced skeleton, beak-like dentition and they form spines instead of scales--not everywhere, but just in certain patches around the body," said study co-author Professor Gareth Fraser of the <a href="http://www.ufl.edu/">University of Florida</a>.

When the researchers analyzed the evolution of pufferfish spines in embryos, they initially expected to find that the spines formed from scales. However, they found that the spines are developmentally unique from scales. The experts also discovered that the growth of pufferfish spines depends on the same network of genes that are commonly expressed in the feathers and hairs of other vertebrates. 

"It just blows me away that regardless of how evolutionarily-different skin structures in animals are, they still use the same collection of genes during development," said Fraser.

Using CRISPR and other editing techniques, the researchers blocked particular genes that are classic markers of skin appendage development. This reduced the number of spines that appeared on the pufferfish, and loosened the restriction on where the spines grew. According to Fraser, the spines are usually localized to specific areas on the pufferfish to enhance protection. 

"When pufferfish inflate by ingesting water or in some cases air, their skin becomes stretched, especially around the abdomen and is more susceptible to damage, such as being torn," said Fraser. "Spines reinforce the puffed-up abdomen. In extreme cases, some pufferfish have lost all other spines on their body and retain only the abdominal spines."

"What really drives these changes, in terms of loss or gain of spines, is multifactorial, but the shifts in spine coverage and morphology may allow pufferfish to take advantage of new ecological niches that are available to them. As the climate changes and environments become different, pufferfish may use these evolving traits to tolerate and adapt to change."

By sequencing the genome of the pufferfish, the team hopes to ultimately identify the differences that allow for the diversity in spine coverage and the transition from scales to spines.

"We can manipulate different things associated with pufferfish diversity, which gives us clues about the function of genes that are necessary for normal development and helps us understand the evolution and patterns of pufferfish spines," said Fraser. "Pufferfish are wildly-derived fish that are incredibly different from other groups, and ultimately, we want to see if there's something specific to the genome of the pufferfish that can provide clues to suggest mechanisms that allow them to create these weird structures."

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.cell.com/iscience/home">iScience</a>.

--

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Image Credit: Shutterstock/Randi Kayu

Scientists uncover the genes that give pufferfish their protective spikes

In a new study published by Cell Press, scientists have...

Cats can be finicky pets. One minute your four-legged friend is purring and rubbing against your legs, but as soon as you start stroking its fur, the cat does a 180 and starts hissing, scratching and biting. 

If you’ve experienced this kind of rejection from your cat, there is a simple reason behind the behavior. According to Lauren Finka, a postdoctoral research associate at <a href="https://www.ntu.ac.uk/">Nottingham Trent University</a>, you might be petting your cat wrong. 

In an article for the <a href="https://theconversation.com/how-to-stroke-a-cat-according-to-science-116025">Conversation</a>, Finka takes readers through the ancestry of house cats and helps shed light on the odd quirks of felines. 

Cats, like dogs, evolved alongside humans, but their path to domestication took a few different turns. 

First of all, domestication of dogs is said to have begun between <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/humans-dogs-bond/">20,000 and 40,000 years ago</a>. As dogs diverged from their wild ancestors, they started working alongside humans, and a beneficial partnership arose. 

With cats, this domestication process is said to have begun around 4,000 years ago. Cats helped keep pests under control. Four thousand years ago seems like a long time, but your snuggly little kitten probably still thinks like a wildcat. 

Dogs and their wild wolf ancestors are social creatures, hunting, living, and communicating in packs. Wildcats, on the other hand, prefer a more solitary life. 

This doesn’t mean you can’t ever pet your cat. Many cat owners will attest that their cat is extremely affectionate (on their terms).

It’s just important to understand the subtle clues you cat might be giving you. 

First and foremost, let your cat come to you for affection. As social creatures ourselves who use touch to communicate, using restraint when faced with something cute, soft, and fluffy does not come naturally, according to Finka. 

However, restraint is exactly what’s required. Research has shown that cats will let their owners stroke them for longer when the cat initiates contact rather than humans. 

If your cat does hop on your lap for a good cuddle, you’re not in the clear entirely. Look for crucial body language and behavior signals while you pet your cat. 

Less is more, according to Finka. Stick to the base of the ears, under the chin and cheeks rather than the tummy or back. 

If your cat is purring, relaxed, and gently waving their tail, chances are that your cat is happy. 

However, if while stroking your cat and you don’t hear any purring, notice that the cat is shaking their head, licking their nose, twitching, or flattening their ears, stop stroking and walk away. 

“Ultimately though, when it comes to cats, it’s important to respect their boundaries – and the wildcat within – even if that means admiring their cuteness from afar,” Finka concludes. 

--

By <a href="mailto:kayvandette@gmail.com">Kay Vandette</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 

Image Credit: Shutterstock/PHOTOCREO Michal Bednarek

How to pet your cat the right way

Cats can be finicky pets. One minute your four-legged friend...

Living with large reptiles that can eat humans is always a tenuous position.  The reality of being eaten by a <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/cultures-crocodiles-worshipped/">crocodilian</a> is a very ancient one for humans. Fossil evidence from the Olduvai Gorge in Tanzania shows that hominid fossils, perhaps those of human ancestors, were <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/humans-predators-prey/">preyed upon</a> by a crocodile, Crocodylus anthropophagus as long as 1.8 million years ago.  Alligators in Florida have killed 24 people since 1973.  <a href="http://www.crocodile-attack.info/data/map">CrocBITE</a>, the worldwide crocodilian attack database, has already recorded 116 worldwide crocodilian attacks on humans this year, some of which were fatal. 

Attacks by crocodiles have captured the imagination both in the US and abroad.  <a href="https://youtu.be/H6MLJG0RdDE">Crawl</a>, a movie in which a giant crocodilian hunts people trapped in a flooded basement in Florida, hit theaters July 12 in the US.  In other parts of the world, crocodilians are more reality than terrifying flight of imagination, but sometimes unreasonable fear is mixed in.  The <a href="https://www.sanpedrosun.com/community-and-society/2010/09/06/crocodile-sanctuary-in-belize-destroyed-by-mob/">San Pedro Sun</a> reported in 2010 that a crocodile conservation facility was burned down and crocodiles killed and mutilated by a mob.  The mob was apparently motivated by the advice of a clairvoyant who falsely claimed the remains of missing children would be found in the bellies of the crocodiles.  

Despite the violence of crocodilians and the intense fear humans often feel for them, humans and crocodilians have found ways to coexist in some parts of the world.  In the United States, American Alligator populations plunged close to extinction from hunting and habitat destruction. Alligators were put on the endangered species list in 1967, but were removed in the 1980s after a long recovery.  

Today, the American Alligator is considered a conservation success story.  <a href="https://defenders.org/american-alligator/basic-facts">Defenders of Wildlife</a> estimates that there are now 5 million alligators in the southeastern US and as many as 1.2 million in Florida alone.  The species is carefully managed for hunting and raised in captivity for entertainment as well as for alligator skins used to make clothing and accessories.  

Crocodiles in Australia are also thriving. So called ‘salties’ are one of the most dangerous crocodilians to humans.  Despite their common name, salt water crocodiles (Crocodylus porosus) can live in fresh water as well as salt.  <a href="https://www.hakaimagazine.com/features/crocodiles-rising/">Haika Magazine</a> reported in 2016 that despite a previous history of decline, like the American Alligator the species had rebounded.  According to the Australian <a href="http://www.environment.gov.au/cgi-bin/sprat/public/publicspecies.pl?taxon_id=1774">Department of the Environment and Energy</a>, the population of salt water crocodiles is estimated to be 100,000, although there could be as many as 200,000 living in the wild.  Much like in the United States, crocodiles are raised in captivity but on an even broader scale for skins, meat and entertainment for tourists.  Native peoples have the right to limited hunting of crocodiles as well.  

Despite these instances of successfully managing co-habitation between crocodilians and humans, it doesn’t always work out so well.  <a href="https://news.mongabay.com/2019/04/rise-in-crocodile-sightings-linked-to-habitat-degradation-in-indonesia/">Mongabay</a> reports that in Indonesia, salt water crocodile sightings and conflicts are on the rise.  Last February, villagers captured a crocodile, tied its mouth shut and beat it before turning the animal over to a wildlife organization which released the crocodile far from human habitation.  The crocodile was suspected of preying on local villagers livestock and the presence of the large reptile was seen as threatening, thus prompting the villagers to attack the animal. The fear of more crocodiles following in the wake of the one captured is very real in a region where crocodile attacks are on the rise.  

Human encroachment into the habitat of a dangerous wild animal is a double-edged sword.  On the one hand, the habitat destruction that comes with human development endangers the animal.  On the other hand, more humans close to (in this case dangerous) wild animals increases the likelihood of conflict.  Over the long history of humanity, we’ve mostly killed off dangerous animals or moved away from them, to the point where less of us are knowledgeable about the proper way to live near dangerous predators or are willing to accept the risk of doing so.  One of the purposes of parks is to preserve wildlife in a way that isn’t very threatening to humans or human society.  

Wild animals don’t recognize the boundaries of parks, though.  Alligators can potentially be in almost any pool of water within their range, even if it’s an artificial pool of water <a href="https://www.latimes.com/nation/la-na-gator-attack-disney-world-20160822-snap-story.html">inside Disney World</a>. Unfortunately, humans are increasingly living in close quarters with dangerous crocodilians.  

The reason for the increase in crocodile encounters in part of Indonesia is due to a greater human presence and destruction of habitat.  Blast fishing and turn over of habitat into farms push the crocodiles into a desperate situation with less of their traditional food or habitat available.  Sometimes human encounters with crocodiles can become incredibly nasty. <a href="https://www.reuters.com/article/us-indonesia-crocodiles/indonesian-villagers-kill-nearly-300-crocodiles-in-revenge-attack-idUSKBN1K60HQ">Reuters</a> reported that last year, a man was killed by a crocodile at a conservation breeding facility in Indonesia.  In the wake of the man’s death, the local villagers killed all 292 crocodiles in the facility with clubs, knives and hammers in revenge.  

For now in America and Australia, crocodilians are protected by law but human populations in those areas are growing as well.  <a href="https://www.hakaimagazine.com/features/crocodiles-rising/">Haika Magazine</a> points out that Darwin, right in salt water crocodile’s range, is one of the fastest growing capitals in Australia.  Key West Aquarium suggests it’s best to not encounter alligators in close proximity, however human populations in Florida it notes are 20 million in a state with one million alligators.  People are increasingly close to the dangerous animals. The conservationists managing hunting and farming the crocodilians point to monetization as a way to save dangerous animals.  

I wonder if putting a cash value is enough to protect crocodilians or if it cheapens them and actually ourselves.  If we’re concerned for our own lives, aren’t we monetizing ourselves when we put a price on a crocodile or alligator?  It seems what we need more is true respect and we rarely respect what we spend money on, we instead objectify it. It also denies the crocodilians their place as free agents in complex ecosystems. Is there enough room for danger left in the world?    

--

By <a href="mailto:zachfitzner@yahoo.com">Zach Fitzner</a>, <a href="http://earth.com">Earth.com</a> Contributing Writer

Image Credit: Shutterstock/Andi syahputra

Habitat destruction leads to confrontations with crocodiles in Indonesia

Living with large reptiles that can eat humans is always...

New York is officially the first state in the US to ban declawing procedures for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/household-products-harmful-cats/">cats</a>. Governor Andrew Cuomo signed the bill into law on Monday after legislators passed the proposed ban last month. 

Declawing is considered an inhumane and cruel practice that can lead to lifelong health problems, and the practice is banned in most countries in the EU and several provinces in Canada. 

Cities like Denver and Los Angeles in the US also prohibit declawing but never has a state made an official stand against it. 

Declawing was used as a means to ensure that house cats wouldn’t scratch up and ruin furniture, floors, and carpets. However, with simple modifications like adding a scratching post, there are easy, cheap, and non-invasive ways to keep the claws away from your favorite couch. 

“Declawing is cruelty, plain and simple, and with so many low-cost and pain-free alternatives available, there is no reason to allow this barbaric practice to continue, not here in New York or anywhere,” said Assemblywoman Linda Rosenthal in a <a href="https://www.governor.ny.gov/news/governor-cuomo-signs-legislation-banning-cat-declawing">statement.</a> 

Rosenthal, a cat lover herself, introduced the bill in 2015, and the newly implemented law comes after years of hard work to raise awareness about the dangers of declawing. 

People have misconceived notions about what the declawing procedure entails. The very name makes people think that the claw or nail is surgically removed from the paw with no harmful side effects. 

This is not the case. It’s an invasive procedure where the last bone in each digit of the paw is amputated. Sections of the bones, including tendons and ligaments, are removed. 

The surgery can take anywhere between 30 and 60 minutes and is undoubtedly painful.  

While many cats heal normally, and pain medications are used to help with the healing process, there can be complications. 

“They can have trouble scratching in a litter box or cleaning themselves, their posture is thrown off, and in severe circumstances, it leads to permanent back pain,” Lisa Alter, from the Long Beach Humane Society/Kitty Cove Adoption Center, told <a href="https://www.npr.org/2019/07/23/744436827/cats-can-keep-their-claws-new-york-bans-declawing">NPR</a>. 

The new law has gone into effect immediately, and now declawing is illegal unless the procedure is necessary to treat a life-threatening problem like a tumor or infection. 

If a veterinarian unlawfully performs the procedure, they could be fined $1,000. 

--

By <a href="mailto:kayvandette@gmail.com">Kay Vandette</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 

Image Credit: Shutterstock/Karrrtinki

New York becomes first state to ban declawing

New York is officially the first state in the US...

Temperatures control the timing of hibernation for monarch butterflies. Every year in the fall, millions of North American <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/monarch-butterflies-vast-distances/">monarch butterflies</a> travel thousands of miles to the same overwintering sites in central Mexico and along the coast of California. Once they reach their destination, the butterflies spend several months in a state of dormancy known as diapause, which helps them survive the winter months.

Scientists who study biological timing have been perplexed by how the end of diapause is signaled among the butterflies. A type of internal timer alerts the monarchs that it is time for spring migration weeks before the temperatures change or the days get longer.

Previous research focused on other organisms has shown that cold temperatures can influence the diapause-termination timer. Dr. André Green, a biologist at the <a href="https://umich.edu/">University of Michigan</a>, theorized that diapause timing among monarchs is also sensitive to cold temperatures. After investigating at monarch overwintering sites in central California, Dr. Green confirmed this theory.  

"These results are particularly interesting because they address a counterintuitive result: How does cold temperature, which normally slows down an organism's metabolism and development, speed up diapause? This work is one of the first to provide insights into this question," said Dr. Green.

According to the researchers, the findings have important implications for North America's monarchs, whose populations have declined steadily for decades at overwintering sites as a result of climate change.

"Understanding how diapause dynamics are affected by environmental and anthropogenic factors at their overwintering sites may be critical for understanding North American monarch population decline and guiding future conservation efforts, a point highlighted by the record low number of monarchs recorded in the western North American monarch population in 2018," wrote Dr. Green and his co-author Marcus Kronforst.

For the investigation, the team captured female monarch butterflies at overwintering sites after they entered diapause. The live insects were then transported to a lab where they were placed in an environmental chamber. 

The butterflies were exposed to light and temperatures that were designed to mimic the November conditions of central California, which is where they had been hibernating. In both December and January, additional female monarchs were moved to the lab from the same region. 

Next, Dr. Green compared the reproductive maturity of the different groups by counting the number of eggs in each female. An abundance of mature eggs is an indication that the female has terminated diapause, while a scarcity indicates that she is still in a dormant state. Temperatures control the timing of hibernation for monarch butterflies

"The monarchs collected from the wild in December showed increased reproductive development compared to the monarchs that had been in the laboratory since November," said Dr. Green. "This indicated that an environmental condition in the wild - cold temperature - sped up the timer."

Dr. Green is currently working on a study of monarch migration at a site in U-M's Matthaei Botanical Gardens.

The research is published in the journal <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/journal/1365294x">Molecular Ecology</a>.

--

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Image Credit: D. André Green

Temperatures control the timing of hibernation for monarch butterflies

Temperatures control the timing of hibernation for monarch butterflies. Every...

Scientists at <a href="https://www.rockefeller.edu/">Rockefeller University</a> are beginning to understand how insects achieve their navigational goals. The researchers found that <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/fruit-flies-travel-miles/">fruit flies</a> calculate the difference between the direction they are headed and the direction of their desired destination, and use this estimate to guide their next move.

The findings may shed new light on how internal goals are used to direct moment-to-moment actions on a cellular level.

In species ranging from insects to mammals, there are specific neurons called heading cells that keep track of which way the animals are facing. These neurons are critical for survival, providing guidance to resources such as food and shelter. 

The researchers set out to understand how heading cells guide moment-to-moment behavior, such as how an animal is prompted to turn left or right, by analyzing fruit flies in the lab of Dr. Gaby Maimon.

"These flies will walk in the same direction for meters at a time," said Dr. Maimon. "But we wanted to prove that they're not just walking straight by chance - we believed that they have an internal goal direction, along which they intend to walk."

In one experiment, the flies walked on a rotating ball with a brightly illuminated vertical bar as a reference point for the heading cells.

As expected, the flies excelled at walking in a straight line with reference to the bright stimulus. For example, the flies would maintain the same orientation for as long as an hour if the position of the light remained constant. When the light was abruptly shifted to the left or to the right, the flies turned their bodies until the bar was back at their preferred angle.

The experiment confirmed that the flies do not walk straight by chance, but that they have an internal goal orientation system that informs their steps. This was supported by the fact that the further the LED bar shifted, the harder the animals turned their bodies.

Next, the researchers monitored the brain activity of flies as they pursued navigational goals. By manipulating the heading cells, known E-PGs, the team noted that the fly's internal compass could be rotated. Further experiments showed that the flies changed their orientation at an angle that matched the degree of rotation in their compass.

"We've known that flies have a compass-like system in their brain since 2015, but this work is the first to describe how the animals use this system to guide navigational behavior," said Dr. Maimon. "Because mammalian brains have heading cells with similar properties, our work may ultimately help us better understand how humans navigate - a process that's impaired in psychiatric disorders, like Alzheimer's disease."

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/neuro/">Nature Neuroscience</a>.

--

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Image Credit: Shutterstock/nechaevkon

Fruit flies have a goal-oriented navigation system

Scientists at Rockefeller University are beginning to understand how insects...

A pair of marine scientists surveying herring populations in the ocean southwest of Ireland spotted a rare sight: a hammerhead shark.

The distinctive predators aren’t usually seen so far north, and none have been sighted in that location before, researchers said.

“While scanning the ocean surface, we sighted a dorsal fin unlike anything we had encountered before. It was quite different to the fins seen on basking sharks and blue sharks,” said John Power, one of the marine scientists who spotted the hammerhead shark. “After consulting available ID keys, we agreed that the shark must be a smooth hammerhead.”

Hammerhead sharks can grow to 20 feet in length, and are recognizable due to their flattened head with long protrusions for their eyes. The shark species is <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/people-eating-endangered-sharks/">endangered</a>, but also <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sharks-adapted-changing-world/">known for its adaptability</a>.

The researchers, from the <a href="https://www.marine.ie/Home/home">Marine Institute</a> in Galway, were participating in the annual <a href="https://oar.marine.ie/handle/10793/1326">Western European Shelf Pelagic Acoustic Survey</a>, which stretches from France to Scotland and west of Ireland. The survey use acoustic and biological data to study the populations of herring, boarfish, horse mackeral, and some marine mammals and seabirds. 

"Our Irish waters support a range of marine life and diverse ecosystems, including 35 known species of sharks,” Dr. Paul Connolly, director of fisheries and ecosystems services at the Marine Institute, said in a news update on the organization’s website. “This is an exciting encounter, especially since a rare deep-water shark nursery, 200 miles west of Ireland, was discovered by Irish scientists last year using the Marine Institute's Remotely Operated Vehicle.”

But the hammerhead shark sighting represents a changing ecosystem, Connolly said. 

"This sighting of a new shark species, shows the importance of our fishery surveys to monitor our marine environment, and to observe changes in our oceans and marine ecosystems. Observing and understanding a changing ocean, is essential for protecting and managing our marine ecosystems for the future," Connolly said.

The shark species prefers warmer waters, and usually spend most of the year in the Caribbean and off the coast of West Africa. They summer in cooler waters, but not generally as far north as Ireland’s southern coast.

Dr. Simon Boxall of the <a href="https://www.noc.ac.uk/">Southampton Oceanography Institute</a> told the <a href="https://www.dailymail.co.uk/home/index.html">Daily Mail</a> that he had never heard of a hammerhead shark in Irish waters before. However, the rising temperatures of the ocean near Ireland – which have increased by 2.5 degrees Celsius over the past 20 years – are likely to bring other new species to the area, he said.

“It could be a very lost hammerhead shark but more likely it is because our oceans are getting warmer,” Boxall told the Mail. “There is no reason why more shark species like hammerheads and Great Whites can't exist in our waters. I am sure these species are more common than people realise, it's just that they haven't been seen.”

Local residents don’t need to fear the hammerhead shark, he added. 

“They are not particularly interested in humans and attacks on humans are rare,” he said.

No fatalities due to hammerhead shark attacks have been recorded, the Daily Mail reported.

—

By Kyla Cathey, <a href="https://www.earth.com/">Earth.com</a> staff writer

Hammerhead shark spotted near Irish coast for first time

A pair of marine scientists surveying herring populations in the...

An 80-million-year-old <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/duck-billed-dinosaur-texas/">dinosaur</a> nesting site in the Gobi Desert of southeastern Mongolia has revealed that mothers worked in groups to protect their eggs just like some birds do today. 

Study co-author François Therrien is an expert at the <a href="http://www.tyrrellmuseum.com/">Royal Tyrrell Museum of Paleontology</a> in Canada.

"Dinosaurs are often portrayed as solitary creatures that nested on their own, buried their eggs and then just went away,” said Therrien. "But here we show that some dinosaurs were much more gregarious. They came together and established a colony that they likely protected."

The study was focused on the fossils of 15 nests and more than 50 eggs. The research has produced the strongest evidence to date that complex reproductive behaviors evolved before modern birds diverged from dinosaurs 66 million years ago.

Many paleontologists believe that this type of  "colonial nesting" was first used by dinosaurs to deter nest predators, but this theory had never been fully confirmed. 

For decades, fossilized eggs and nests have been found clustered together. But according to study co-author Darla Zelenitsky, the surrounding rock often represents several thousand years or more, which makes it difficult for researchers to tell whether the eggs were laid at the same time or just in the same place.

In the newly-described nest site, however, the eggs appeared to have been laid during the same breeding season. A streak of bright red rock contains 15 clutches of relatively undisturbed eggs. "Geologically, I don’t think we could’ve asked for a better site,” said Zelenitsky.

Based on the exterior and interior textures of the eggs, as well as the shell thickness, the team concluded that they most likely belonged to a type of non-avian theropod.

The researchers estimated that over half of the nests had at least one successful hatch, which is comparable to the hatching success of modern birds and crocodiles that constantly monitor their nests in groups. 

"Sometimes you can extract a fascinating and detailed story about the ecology and behaviour of these animals simply by looking at the rocks themselves,” said Therrien.

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.geoscienceworld.org/geology">Geology</a>.

--

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Image Credit: Masato Hattori

Mother dinosaurs may have protected their nests in groups

An 80-million-year-old dinosaur nesting site in the Gobi Desert of...

According to a report in the <a href="https://www.denverpost.com/">Denver Post</a>, red-wing blackbirds have been randomly swooping down and attacking walkers and joggers near Sloan's Lake. Experts say the <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/scavenging-birds-rise-climate-change/">birds</a> are on high alert because it is nesting season, and that some are more aggressive than others.

Those who have witnessed the attacks say the birds are emerging from the treetops and dive-bombing people's heads as they pass underneath tree branches that contain nests. 

On the NextDoor app, one woman posted that she was running with her roommate on the north side of the lake when they were attacked. A user who commented on the post compared the recent events to a real-life version of Angry Birds. Another comment suggested that wearing a mask backward may help to defend against the blackbirds because they usually attack the back of the head. 

No one has been seriously injured, but some residents have been very shaken up by the sneak attacks. A reporter from the Denver Post went to the scene to investigate and witnessed a red-winged blackbird abruptly diving at people's heads while it squawked loudly.

Mary Heiman, who frequently walks her dog around the lake, told the Denver Post that she first thought the bird was just getting very close to her head. She reported that the bird "slams you in the back of the head" with its body before it "flies around frantically and then goes back in the bush." Heiman said the experience is funny, yet "startling when it happens.”

Red-wing blackbirds are named after the distinctive red shoulder patches found on the adult males. These birds are known for aggressively defending their territory, and will even strike at larger birds. 

--

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Image Credit: Shutterstock/Feng Yu

Red-wing blackbirds are sneak attacking Denver residents

According to a report in the Denver Post, red-wing blackbirds...

Scientists at the <a href="https://oregonstate.edu/">Oregon State University</a> Marine Mammal Institute have used a statistical model to predict the feeding behavior of <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/sonar-signals-disrupt-blue-whales/">blue whales</a> in the California Current Ecosystem. The research will provide new insight that could help protect the endangered blue whales.

The model used by the team combines long-term satellite tracking of the population's movements with environmental data such as ocean temperatures. This gives experts a larger ecosystem view to help them understand how threats such as climate change and ship strikes may affect the whales over time. 

"Most management decisions up to now have been based on locations where the whales tend to be found," said study lead author Daniel Palacios. "But it's not just where the whales are, but also the activity - are they actually eating there or simply moving through - that matters. This model can tell us which areas are the most important for actual foraging."

Blue whales grow up to 90 feet in length and weigh up to 300,000 pounds, yet they feed primarily on tiny shrimp-like krill that are less than two inches long. It is estimated that 1,600 of the world's 10,000 blue whales, known as the North Pacific population, spend the summer and fall off the western coast of the United States. 

The California Current Ecosystem stretches from Baja California up to the Canadian border. Along this stretch, steady winds in the spring and summer seasons promote a rich and productive marine community. The study was focused on the relationship between the whales' feeding behavior and the ocean conditions during the feeding season in this particular region. 

The researchers found that blue whales were more likely to forage in areas that are known for hosting large whale aggregations.

"The same environmental parameters - water temperature, depth, abundance of phytoplankton - that drive hotspots of whale aggregation also drive where foraging behavior is more likely to occur," said Palacios. "While this was not necessarily surprising, it was good to be able to demonstrate that we can predict whale behavioral states, as this helps inform management in terms of not just what areas are used more often by the whales, but also what they do once they get there."

The study also revealed that whales were less likely to exhibit foraging behavior in waters that were further away from the coastline. A few locations along the coast where krill are the most abundant were found to be hotspots. 

A couple of these prime foraging locations are located in areas of intense commercial shipping traffic near Los Angeles and San Francisco, which is significant because blue whale mortality due to ship strikes is a growing concern.

"If there are some areas along the coast that are more biologically important for the whales, based on intensified foraging activity, that's important for management agencies to know, compared to areas where the whales are just passing through," said Palacios.

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://movementecologyjournal.biomedcentral.com/">Movement Ecology</a>.

--

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Image Credit: Craig Hayslip, Marine Mammal Institute, Oregon State University

New model will help experts protect endangered blue whales

Scientists at the Oregon State University Marine Mammal Institute have...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2E0mn5mTvhQ
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">'Death Star' moon Mimas conceals a 15-million-year-old ocean that scientists never expected.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hidden-waters-beneath-ancient-craters">Hidden waters beneath ancient craters</h2>



Scientists have made a startling discovery that challenges everything we thought we knew about <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/saturn-moon-mimas-has-remarkably-young-ocean/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Saturn's moon Mimas</a>. Beneath the heavily cratered surface that earned it the nickname "Death Star" lies a global ocean that formed just 5 to 15 million years ago—a remarkably young age by cosmic standards.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cassini-data-reveals-orbital-secrets">Cassini data reveals orbital secrets</h2>



The discovery, led by Dr. Valéry Lainey of the <a href="https://observatoiredeparis.psl.eu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Observatoire de Paris</a>, emerged from careful analysis of <a href="https://www.nasa.gov" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NASA</a>'s Cassini spacecraft data. By studying subtle irregularities in Mimas's orbit around Saturn, researchers detected the gravitational signature of liquid water hidden 20 to 30 kilometers beneath the moon's icy shell.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-an-unlikely-ocean-world">An unlikely ocean world</h2>



At only 400 kilometers in diameter, Mimas seemed like the least likely candidate to harbor a subsurface ocean. Unlike other ocean moons such as Europa and Enceladus, which show clear surface signs of internal activity, Mimas displays no obvious hints of the liquid water beneath its ancient, crater-scarred exterior.



"Mimas is a small moon, and its heavily cratered surface gave no hint of the hidden ocean beneath," explained Dr. Nick Cooper from <a href="https://www.qmul.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Queen Mary University of London</a>, a study co-author.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-astrobiology">Implications for astrobiology</h2>



The ocean's recent formation makes Mimas a prime target for studying how oceans develop and potentially support life. This discovery adds another member to the exclusive club of ocean worlds in our solar system, each offering unique insights into the conditions necessary for habitability.



The research, published in <a href="https://www.nature.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature</a> journal, demonstrates how advanced orbital analysis can reveal hidden features of celestial bodies, opening new possibilities for understanding ocean formation throughout the cosmos.



—–



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Scientists discover unexpected young ocean on Saturn's cratered moon Mimas

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2E0mn5mTvhQ 'Death Star' moon Mimas conceals a 15-million-year-old ocean that...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE
</div></figure>



On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop and sunlight barely penetrates through the polar winter. It was here, however, that an international team of scientists found <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/predatory-worms-were-terror-beasts-half-a-billion-years-ago/#google_vignette" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evidence of sea monsters</a> that would change our understanding of ocean life in the past.



This video captures the discovery of Timorebestia fossils that had been hidden for more than 500 million years in the Sirius Passet formation. The "terror beasts," as they are called, are a hidden chapter in the evolutionary history of <a href="https://www.earth.com" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Earth</a>, showing that sophisticated predator-prey interactions occurred much earlier than previously envisioned.



Dr. Jakob Vinther and his research team at the <a href="https://www.bristol.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Bristol</a>, in collaboration with researchers at the <a href="https://eng.kopri.re.kr/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Korean Polar Research Institute</a>, braved extreme weather conditions at 82.5 north latitude to locate these giant creatures. Using sophisticated electron microprobe analysis, they revealed the detailed anatomy of the animals, including their muscle and nerve tissues.



The find upsets the traditional timeline of sea predators. Although we've long appreciated that Cambrian oceans were at one time ruled by <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jWI3-UgA3_o&amp;list=PL1QLQMW9MWDwpkFOnvgAmu7wT6rZmYqdJ&amp;index=19" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">arthropods</a>, these discoveries indicate that relatives of arrow worms were first to dominate the seas. These worms were building sophisticated food webs several million years before other predator groups arose.



Each fossil is a story of ancient hunger, with fossil stomach contents revealing these meter-long beasts dined on heavily armored arthropods regularly, cementing their place as the ocean's first apex predators.



-----



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Worms dominated seas before dinosaurs

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">New York is the site of the world's oldest forest.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-385-million-year-old-trees-discovered">385-million-year-old trees discovered</h2>



Scientists have uncovered something extraordinary just two hours north of New York City. The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/worlds-oldest-forest-discovered-close-to-new-york-city/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">world's oldest forest</a>, dating back 385 million years, offers a window into how Earth's first complex forests shaped our planet's atmosphere.



Located near <a href="https://townofcairo.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cairo, New York</a>, in Greene County, these weren't merely primitive plants struggling to survive. These were sophisticated trees with root systems remarkably similar to modern forests. This ancient woodland predates dinosaurs by 140 million years.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-cairo-forest-discovery">The Cairo forest discovery</h2>



385 million years ago, upstate New York was a tropical paradise near the equator. Thanks to continental drift, this ancient forest has traveled thousands of miles to its current location.



The fossil forest sits in an abandoned quarry, roughly half the size of a football field. This represents just a slice of what was likely a massive forest system stretching from New York into Pennsylvania.



Charles Ver Straeten, curator of sedimentary rocks at the <a href="https://www.nysm.nysed.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">New York State Museum</a>, made the discovery in 2009. While scouting the former highway department property, his trained eye spotted wandering patterns in the stone that looked like marine features.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-revolutionary-age-and-preservation">Revolutionary age and preservation</h2>



The site contains 385-million-year-old rocks with fossilized woody roots forming horizontal patterns up to 18 feet (5.5 meters) wide. As Christopher Berry, a paleobotanist at Cardiff University, explains: "You are walking through the roots of ancient trees."



This discovery pushes back advanced tree evolution by millions of years. The research, published in <a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/home" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Current Biology</a> in December 2019, fundamentally changes our understanding of when complex forests first emerged.



Researchers believe a massive flood buried the forest floor, creating perfect fossilization conditions. Over millions of years, sediment hardened into rock, preserving these root patterns like nature's time capsule.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-meet-archaeopteris-the-first-modern-tree">Meet Archaeopteris: the first modern tree</h2>



The star of this ancient forest is Archaeopteris – not to be confused with the feathered dinosaur Archaeopteryx. This tree was far older and more revolutionary.



William Stein from <a href="https://www.binghamton.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Binghamton University</a> describes the roots as "strikingly modern, essentially what you'd see outside in my yard right now." These weren't simple root systems you'd expect from ancient plants.



Some fossilized roots are six inches (15 centimeters) in diameter, forming 36-foot-wide (11-meter) patterns. These giants grew up to 65 feet (20 meters) tall with five-foot-diameter (1.5-meter) trunks.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-changing-impact">Climate-changing impact</h2>



These trees fundamentally changed Earth's environment. Kevin Boyce, a Stanford University geoscientist, explains how their deep roots triggered "weathering," chemical reactions that pulled carbon dioxide from the atmosphere.



This process dropped atmospheric CO2 levels from 10-15 times higher than today to roughly modern concentrations. These ancient trees helped create atmospheric conditions that made complex life possible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ancient-forest-ecosystem">Ancient forest ecosystem</h2>



The forest was remarkably diverse. Scientists identified Eospermatopteris, palm tree-like plants with short roots that reached 30 feet (9 meters) tall but lacked woody structure. The forest also housed cladoxylopsids and a mysterious third species still being studied.



All reproduced through spores rather than seeds – millions of years before seeds evolved. This tropical environment had no grass, flowers, or flying insects, just towering trees creating Earth's first complex forest canopy.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-scientific-significance">Scientific significance</h2>



Before this finding, the Gilboa forest, located 25 miles (40 kilometers) away, held the "oldest forest" title. Cairo's trees are 2-3 million years older, showing that complex forest ecosystems developed much faster than scientists believed possible.



Patricia Gensel, a <a href="https://www.unc.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of North Carolina</a> paleobotanist, notes: "The size of those root systems is really changing the picture. Even 20 years ago, researchers assumed trees with such complex root systems didn't evolve so early."



The Cairo site presents three unique root systems, suggesting Devonian period forests were diverse ecosystems with different trees occupying different environmental niches, much like today's forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-modern-preservation-efforts">Modern preservation efforts</h2>



In 2022, New York State Senator Michelle Hinchey secured a $170,000 grant for the town of Cairo to construct specialized fencing around the fossil forest site. The town plans to conduct a feasibility study exploring the possibility of creating an educational center and working lab on-site.



Joe Hasenkopf, chair of the Cairo Planning Board, hopes to partner with educational institutions to create a research facility serving scientists, students, and the public.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lessons-for-today-s-climate">Lessons for today's climate</h2>



Why does a 385-million-year-old forest matter today? It shows how dramatically forests can change Earth's climate. These ancient woodlands created the atmospheric conditions supporting complex life.



Understanding how prehistoric forests transformed the planet helps us appreciate modern forests' critical role in addressing climate change. Forests remain Earth's most effective carbon capture systems.



These prehistoric trees changed Earth's atmosphere by pulling massive amounts of carbon dioxide from the air. As we face modern climate challenges, this ancient forest reminds us of trees' incredible power to transform our planet's environment.



The next time you walk through a forest, remember you're experiencing an ecosystem whose blueprint was established 385 million years ago in upstate New York. These ancient pioneers didn't just survive – they thrived and changed the world forever.



The full study was published in the journal Current Biology.



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Earth's oldest forest found in the United States

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ New York is the site of the world's oldest...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Acid rain and a crisis solved.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-don-t-we-ever-hear-about-acid-rain-anymore-the-environmental-crisis-that-was-solved">Why don't we ever hear about "acid rain" anymore? The environmental crisis that was solved</h2>



Remember the 1980s when acid rain dominated headlines? Dire warnings about rain eating buildings, killing fish, and destroying forests filled every news cycle. Then, almost like magic, acid rain vanished from public discourse. What happened? Did we actually solve one of the late 20th century's most pressing environmental challenges?



The answer might surprise you. Unlike many environmental issues that drag on indefinitely, acid rain represents one of modern history's most successful ecological recovery stories. It's a tale of science, politics, and technology working together to tackle what seemed impossible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What was acid rain?</h2>



Acid rain isn't regular rain having a bad day – it's precipitation that became significantly more acidic due to air pollution. When power plants, factories, and vehicles burn fossil fuels, they release sulfur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides (NOx) into the atmosphere.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The science behind it</h2>



Think of acid rain as nature's chemistry experiment gone wrong. These compounds react with water, oxygen, and other chemicals to form sulfuric and nitric acids. When mixed with water vapor in clouds, they create precipitation with dangerously low pH levels.



While clean rain has a pH of about 5.6, acid rain could drop as low as 4.2 to 4.4 – roughly as acidic as tomato juice or coffee. According to US Geological Survey documentation, Scottish chemist Angus Smith first coined "acid rain" in 1872, but it didn't become a household phrase until the 1960s and 1970s when Swedish scientist Svante Odén documented its devastating effects on Scandinavian lakes and European forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The crisis at its peak</h2>



During the height of public concern, environmental damage was both widespread and visible. This wasn't some abstract future threat – people could see destruction happening in real-time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Environmental devastation</h2>



The most dramatic impacts were impossible to ignore. Research documented by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation and the New York State Department of Environmental Conservation shows that in the Adirondack Mountains, more than 200 lakes became so acidic they couldn't support fish life. The Adirondack Council reports that 409 lakes once supported brook trout, but many lost their fish populations due to acid rain.



By 1976, when scientists cataloged all acidified lakes in the Adirondack Park, researchers found that half of the lakes over 2,000 feet above sea level had no fish, according to studies published in environmental journals. The acidification process worked like a slow-motion disaster. As acid rain fell into watersheds, it gradually lowered pH levels. Fish couldn't survive in acidic water, and their food sources died off too.



Trees at high elevations showed stress directly linked to acid rain. It weakened them by leaching nutrients and making them susceptible to disease. Historical records show Germany's Black Forest saw nearly half its trees damaged by the mid-1980s.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Economic impact</h2>



Acid rain wasn't just environmental – it was expensive. Acidic precipitation corroded infrastructure, buildings, and monuments. Historic stone structures deteriorated at accelerated rates. Tourism suffered as lakes became fishless and forests declined. EPA economic analyses from the period documented repair costs mounting into billions annually.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The solution: government action and technology</h2>



Transformation from crisis to success required unprecedented cooperation between governments, industries, and environmental groups.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The Clean Air Act of 1990</h2>



The turning point came with the Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990, signed by President George H.W. Bush. This represented a fundamentally new approach to environmental regulation, as documented in EPA historical records.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Cap-and-trade success</h2>



Instead of mandating specific technologies, the 1990 amendments introduced something revolutionary: a cap-and-trade system for sulfur dioxide emissions. EPA program documentation shows this market-based approach set overall limits but allowed companies to trade emission allowances.



The genius was harnessing market forces to find cost-effective pollution reduction. Companies reducing emissions cheaply could sell excess allowances to those facing higher costs. Research published in environmental economics journals and EPA progress reports shows this resulted in dramatic SO2 reduction at a fraction of projected costs.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Technology advances</h2>



Policy provided the framework, but technology made reductions possible. Studies in atmospheric science journals document the widespread adoption of flue gas desulfurization systems ("scrubbers") that removed sulfur dioxide before it reached the atmosphere. By the 2000s, new installations could remove over 95% of SO2 emissions, according to EPA technical reports.



The push coincided with cleaner energy development. Natural gas produces fewer sulfur compounds than coal. Wind and solar, emerging in the 1990s, captured growing market share, reducing reliance on high-sulfur coal.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-we-don-t-hear-about-it-today">Why we don't hear about it today</h2>



Why did acid rain disappear from headlines? Simple: the problem was largely solved.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Success doesn't make news</h2>



There's an old journalism saying: "If it bleeds, it leads." Environmental success stories don't generate urgency like crisis reporting. Media attention shifted to other challenges: climate change, plastic pollution, and biodiversity loss. There's only so much environmental anxiety the public can absorb, and newer concerns replaced acid rain.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Mission accomplished</h2>



The primary reason is beautifully simple: interventions worked. EPA monitoring data shows sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990. Academic research published in environmental science journals confirms pH levels in formerly affected areas returned closer to normal. This represents one of history's most dramatic environmental recoveries. Studies by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation show fishless lakes now support healthy populations. Forests recovered, and building damage slowed dramatically.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-is-it-really-gone">Is it really gone?</h2>



The crisis is largely resolved, but monitoring data shows the problem isn't completely eliminated – it's managed to acceptable levels. Some areas still experience occasional events during high pollution periods. International environmental research indicates that rapidly industrializing Asian countries face similar problems to what we experienced decades ago, though they're implementing successful strategies.



EPA research shows nitrogen oxide emissions proved more challenging than sulfur dioxide, coming from vehicles and mobile sources. Climate science studies suggest changing weather patterns add complexity to how acid rain forms and falls.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What this teaches us</h2>



The acid rain experience proves that seemingly intractable environmental problems can be solved with scientific understanding, political will, and technological innovation. Environmental monitoring data shows recovery speed was remarkable – within a decade, measurable improvements appeared in air quality and ecosystem health.



Success came from bipartisan support across party lines. Policy analysis studies show the market-based approach appealed to those preferring economic incentives while achieving environmental goals. This support created lasting policy surviving political changes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Conclusion</h2>



Acid rain's disappearance from public consciousness represents environmental science's greatest success stories. Through effective regulation, technological innovation, and international cooperation, we transformed an overwhelming crisis into a manageable challenge.



Today's silence isn't because we forgot – it's because we solved it. The 1990 Clean Air Act, combined with technology and energy market changes, reduced acid rain emissions over 90%, according to comprehensive EPA data analysis.



This success offers hope for current challenges. It proves complex problems can be solved when science, policy, and technology work together. As we face climate change and plastic pollution, acid rain reminds us that dramatic positive change is possible.



Next time someone asks whether environmental regulations work, remember acid rain. It's proof that sometimes, we get it right.



<hr class="wp-block-separator has-alpha-channel-opacity"/>



Sources: This article draws from EPA official documentation and progress reports, peer-reviewed research published in environmental and atmospheric science journals, historical data from the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation, New York State Department of Environmental Conservation records, US Geological Survey publications, policy analysis studies, and environmental monitoring data collected over three decades.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Frequently Asked Questions</h2>



1. Is acid rain completely gone? No, but EPA monitoring shows it's reduced to manageable levels. US sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990, making acid rain much less severe than the 1980s crisis.



2. How long did solving take? Environmental monitoring data shows significant improvements began within 5-10 years of 1990s emission controls. Full ecosystem recovery took longer – some areas need 20-30 years for complete recovery.



3. What made the solution successful? Clear scientific understanding, visible damage motivating action, bipartisan support, available technology, and innovative market-based policies like cap-and-trade.



4. Do other countries have acid rain problems? Yes, particularly rapidly industrializing Asian countries. However, international environmental research shows many implement similar successful control strategies.



5. Could acid rain return? Potentially, if regulations weaken or we return to high-sulfur coal without controls, though effects would take years to become severe according to environmental projections.



6. Can you recommend any teaching tools on the subject of "acid rain"? The United States Environmental Protection Agency produced a wonderful teacher's guide for ages 14 and under that you can find on the EPA website here: <a href="https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf</a>



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The environmental problem we actually solved

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk Acid rain and a crisis solved. Why don't we...

Fresh,Radish,Harvest,On,Soil,In,Garden.

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</div></figure>







Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving fall garden, and this guide lays out the best vegetables and herbs to plant now for a fruitful autumn harvest. 



Fast-growing leafy greens such as spinach, lettuce, kale, and arugula perform especially well in the waning summer heat, with harvests beginning as soon as 30 days. 



These cool-season crops relish the transition into fall, offering repeated yields with cut-and-come-again methods.



Root vegetables like radishes, carrots, and beets also excel during this period. Radishes deliver satisfaction in under a month, while carrots and beets mature in about two months. Employing succession planting ensures a continuous stream of produce deep into the cooler months. 



For a boost of fresh flavor, herbs like cilantro, basil, dill, and chervil are excellent picks. These heat-loving varieties flourish in July’s warmth and are harvest-ready in about 30 days, especially when sown continuously.



Gardeners in zones 6 through 9 can benefit from planting bush beans and snap peas, which don’t require trellising and are ideal for compact plots. 



Maturing in 50–60 days, they’re a smart choice for quick, protein-rich harvests. For those in hotter regions, heat-tolerant crops such as okra and southern peas provide reliable yields and thrive in scorching conditions.



This guide emphasizes more than crop selection—it highlights the importance of timing, soil preparation, and ongoing sowing techniques. 



With thoughtful planning and attention to regional climate needs, even late-summer gardeners can enjoy fresh salads, hearty stews, and the satisfaction of a robust, homegrown harvest well into fall.



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What to plant in your garden in mid-July

https://youtu.be/Fi2OeEwuzRM?si=vTyd2m9FMmtyWkex Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving...

Green,Ecoduct,Over,An,Empty,Highway,During,Sunset.

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https://youtu.be/XYgiPzmNBTU?si=eFYY7gPHU1JznLvU
</div></figure>



A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that wildlife tunnels significantly reduce amphibian road mortality during seasonal migrations. 



Frogs and salamanders often cross roads to reach breeding ponds each spring, but many are killed by vehicles. 



Researchers from the <a href="https://www.uvm.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Vermont</a>, in collaboration with local citizens and the Vermont Agency of Natural Resources, installed two underpass tunnels in 2015. 



Over a 12-year monitoring period, they observed an 80.2% reduction in amphibian deaths, and up to 94% for non-climbing species like salamanders. 



The study used a before-after-control-impact design and documented more than 5,200 amphibians, highlighting the tunnels’ effectiveness even in nearby buffer zones.



Funded at $342,397 - far cheaper than wildlife crossings for large mammals - the project showcased the power of community-led conservation.



Local groups initiated the effort after observing mass amphibian deaths. Wildlife cameras later captured over 2,200 amphibians using a tunnel in just one spring, along with other species like raccoons and bobcats, indicating wider ecosystem benefits.



This marks the first peer-reviewed, long-term data set in the northeastern U.S. confirming amphibian-specific underpasses work. 



The study urges transportation departments to incorporate these designs into road planning and highlights how community action, thoughtful infrastructure, and persistence can make a real difference for biodiversity.



The full study was published in the <a href="https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1617138125000780" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal for Nature Conservation</a>.



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-----

Wildlife tunnels save millions of amphibians

https://youtu.be/XYgiPzmNBTU?si=eFYY7gPHU1JznLvU A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that...

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing it with probiotics and prebiotics, aiming to create a treat that satisfies cravings while supporting gut health. 



The challenge lies in maintaining chocolate's beloved texture and flavor while adding health benefits.



<figure class="wp-block-embed aligncenter is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://youtu.be/Ug657J67iEo?si=w96YjGMsg939LD_3
</div></figure>



Probiotics - beneficial microbes that balance gut bacteria and aid digestion - are typically fragile and can be destroyed by stomach acid or processing. 



Prebiotics act as food for these microbes, helping them thrive. Together, they form "synbiotics," a powerful health combination.



Researchers Smriti Gaur and Shubhi Singh from India's Jaypee Institute of Information Technology took an innovative approach, using natural prebiotics like corn and honey instead of complex processing methods. 



They created five chocolate varieties: a control and four synbiotic versions containing different combinations of prebiotics, probiotics (Lactobacillus strains), and flavor enhancers (cinnamon or orange).



Laboratory simulations of human digestion showed the probiotics remained viable for over five hours, suggesting they could survive long enough to benefit gut health.



Taste tests were positive, with researchers particularly enjoying the orange-flavored variety, describing it as having "vibrant citrus notes" complementing the "rich cocoa" with a "luxurious" texture.



This research represents just the beginning. With further refinement of strains, textures, and flavors, chocolate could evolve beyond mere indulgence to become a functional food that nourishes while it delights.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.4c00741" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ACS Food Science &amp; Technology</a>.

Is chocolate the next nutritional powerhouse?

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

[sendtonews key="0ynNMYkMKa-2340414-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

[sendtonews key="G9bUoxcjr4-2511624-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

[sendtonews key="3upvlAaHgO-2256633-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

[sendtonews key="LvS8v8bp9z-2564889-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="X0f6OHYoI4-2310561-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How does salt makes things taste better?

[sendtonews key="X0f6OHYoI4-2310561-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Santiago, Chile in South America

[sendtonews key="JRaP49ISmm-2357509-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

[sendtonews key="e4ZG0Jawp3-2374785-12187" type="single"] Astronomers at Johns Hopkins University have created...

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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.



According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."



Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;



ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. 



Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

[sendtonews key="uV9Lh2fQbV-1760058-12187" type="single"] Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

[sendtonews key="qjvhBOBnY8-2426650-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

[sendtonews key="oL4FnPTGCV-2384527-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

[sendtonews key="0879czfG3k-1785905-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from NASA...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

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Earth,Like,Exoplanet,3d,Render

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

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