In the wild mountain ranges of Morocco and northeast Algeria, there’s a small, shimmering butterfly that most people have never heard of. It flutters through cedar forests and scrubby hillsides, unnoticed by nearly everyone. But deep inside its cells, this insect is doing something no other animal has ever been seen to do.



This butterfly, called the Atlas blue, just set a world record. And scientists are paying attention - not just because it’s rare, but because its strange biology could help us understand one of the most complex problems in science: how species evolve, and even how cancer works.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-butterfly-with-chopped-up-chromosomes">Butterfly with chopped up chromosomes </h2>



Inside every living thing, from a mushroom to a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-whale-species-is-already-threatened-with-extinction/">whale</a>, there’s DNA - the instruction manual of life. That DNA is packaged into structures called chromosomes. Humans have 23 pairs, and most butterflies have 23 or 24 pairs.



The Atlas blue butterfly carries 229 pairs of chromosomes - more than any other multicellular animal. Scientists had long suspected it held the record, and new genome sequencing has now confirmed it.



And here’s what’s even more surprising: the butterfly's <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dna-analysis-can-predict-which-animals-are-at-risk-of-extinction/">DNA</a> hasn’t been duplicated. Instead, the chromosomes have been chopped up into smaller pieces - like taking 24 books and ripping them into 229 booklets.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-peek-into-evolution-s-toolbox">A peek into evolution’s toolbox</h2>



The researchers behind the new study came from the <a href="https://www.sanger.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Wellcome Sanger Institute</a> in the UK and the Institute of Evolutionary Biology in Barcelona. They produced the first-ever high-quality genome for the Atlas blue and discovered that its extra chromosomes were not caused by copying, but by splitting.



This process happened fast in evolutionary terms. In about three million years, the butterfly went from 24 to 229 chromosomes. That’s like a blink of an eye for species development.



The cuts happened in parts of the DNA that were loosely packed. That means the total genetic information didn’t really change, it was just reorganized. All of the chromosomes, except for sex chromosomes, were broken up.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-rapidly-evolving-butterfly">A rapidly evolving butterfly </h2>



Changes in chromosome number are one way that species evolve. They can affect how genes are turned on or off, how traits are passed down, and how well an <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/genomics-can-help-farm-animals-adapt-to-climate-change/">animal adapts</a> to its environment. The Atlas blue butterfly belongs to a group that evolved rapidly, creating lots of closely related species.



This new research helps explain how that might have happened. The split chromosomes may have allowed more mixing and matching of DNA, possibly helping the species survive in tough environments.



But that same complexity could also come with risks. Too many chromosomes might make a species more vulnerable over time. And unfortunately, the Atlas blue is already in trouble. Climate change, overgrazing, and destruction of cedar forests are putting pressure on its populations.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-butterfly-chromosomes-and-cancer">Butterfly chromosomes and cancer</h2>



The implications go far beyond butterflies. Professor Mark Blaxter noted that genomes hold the key to how a creature came to be, but also, where it might go in the future.



“To be able to tell the story of our planet, we must have the story of each species and see where they overlap and interact with each other. It also allows us to apply learnings from one genome to another."



"For example, rearranging <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/animal-chromosomes-have-conserved-specific-elements-for-600-million-years/">chromosomes</a> is also seen in human cancer cells, and understanding this process in the Atlas blue butterfly could help find ways to limit or stop this in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ai-scientist-discovers-that-common-non-cancer-drugs-when-combined-can-kill-cancer-cells/">cancer cells</a> in the future.”



That might seem like a stretch - a tiny insect helping us battle a major disease - but it’s happened before. From bacteria to mice and worms, scientists have used all kinds of living things to understand human health. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-extreme-atlas-blue-butterfly">The extreme Atlas blue butterfly</h2>



There are still big questions to answer. What benefits, if any, come from having so many chromosomes? Are there specific genes that make this butterfly more adaptable? Could this give clues about how life responds to a changing planet?



“When we set out to start to understand <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/unraveling-the-story-of-early-animal-evolution/">evolution</a> in butterflies, we knew we had to sequence the most extreme, and somewhat mysterious, Atlas blue butterfly,” said Dr. Charlotte Wright, first author of the study. 



She noted that it was thanks to Dr. Roger Vila, who had previously worked with his colleague to find and identify this elusive butterfly, that the team was able to sequence this species.



"Being able to see, in detail, how the Atlas blue butterfly chromosomes have been split over time in specific places, we can start to investigate what benefits this might have, how it impacts their ability to adapt to their environment, and whether there are any lessons we can learn from their DNA that might aid conservation in the future.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-understanding-species-evolution">Understanding species evolution</h2>



This kind of research is just the beginning. The team now has a “gold-standard” genome to compare with other butterflies and moths, opening the door to understanding more about how species split, adapt, or vanish.



“Breaking down chromosomes has been seen in other species of butterflies, but not on this level, suggesting that there are important reasons for this process which we can now start to explore," said Dr. Vila, senior author of the study. 



"Additionally, as chromosomes hold all the secrets of a species, investigating whether these changes impact a butterfly’s behavior could help form a full picture of how and why new species occur."



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/fulltext/S0960-9822(25)01098-X?_returnURL=https%3A%2F%2Flinkinghub.elsevier.com%2Fretrieve%2Fpii%2FS096098222501098X%3Fshowall%3Dtrue">Current Biology</a>.



Image Credit: Roger Vila



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Butterfly sets an astonishing  chromosome record

In the wild mountain ranges of Morocco and northeast Algeria, there’s a small, shimmering butterfly that most people have never heard of. It flutters through cedar forests and scrubby hillsides, unnoticed by nearly everyone. But deep inside its cells, this insect is doing something no other animal has ever been seen to do. This butterfly, called the Atlas blue, just set a world record. And scientists are paying attention - not just because it’s rare, but because its strange biology could help us understand one of the...

African mole-rats have an unbelievable tolerance for pain which allows them to burrow next to venomous ants and eat roots that other animals would avoid. 

In a new study, researchers from the <a href="https://www.mdc-berlin.de/">Max Delbrück Center for Molecular Medicine </a>(MDC) and the <a href="https://www.up.ac.za/">University of Pretoria </a>in South Africa isolated the genes that are directly responsible for pain insensitivity in mole rats. 

Published in the journal Science, the results help show the underlying genetic mechanisms that make some mole rats less <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/chinese-tree-shrews-spicy-peppers/">sensitive to pain</a>.

“The insights provided by our studies of these animals should help, among other things, in the development of new pain-relieving drugs,” said Gary Lewin who first discovered the extent of mole-rat pain tolerance back in 2008. 

For the study, Lewin and colleagues tested pain tolerance in naked mole-rats and eight related species of mole rats. 

The mole rats were exposed to diluted hydrochloric acid, capsaicin, and allyl isothiocyanate (AITC). Each substance is known to cause a burning sensation when it touches the skin of humans and mammals. 

Mole rats are naturally exposed to some of these substances which are found in the roots and tubers they forage for and eat. 

The researchers injected the substance into the paws of the rats, and three mole-rat species were unphased by the hydrochloric acid. Two of the species in the study did feel the capsaicin solution but only one species, the highveld mole-rat, was unaffected by the AITC. 

“This was a thrilling finding for us,” says Lewin. “AITC attacks amino acids in the body and can thus destroy proteins. That is why all the other species we know avoid coming into contact with the substance.” 

After establishing which species were impervious to which substances, the researchers collected sensory tissue from the spinal cord and dorsal root ganglia from all nine species in the study.

Gene sequencing technology allowed the researchers to compare gene activity and isolate two altered genes in the highveld rat. 

The genes contain the blueprint for the ion channels TRPA1 and NaV1.7, which are known for their role in pain sensitivity and perception.

Substances like AITC activate these channels, and in highveld rats, the TRPA1 channel is completely switched off. 

The researchers also found that pain sensitivity could be “turned on” again in the mole-rats. 

“From the thousands of genes we were looking at, we had obviously found the very gene responsible for the highveld mole-rat’s remarkable pain resistance,” said Lewin. 

--

By <a href="mailto:kayvandette@gmail.com">Kay Vandette</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/">Earth.com </a>Staff Writer 

Image Credit: Dewald Kleynhans, University of Pretoria

African mole-rats are insensitive to pain thanks to a special gene

African mole-rats have an unbelievable tolerance for pain which allows...

A new study led by Timothy Jones of the <a href="https://depts.washington.edu/coasst/what/vision.html">University of Washington’s citizen science program COASST</a> and Lauren Divine from the <a href="https://www.kucb.org/term/aleut-community-st-paul-island-s-ecosystem-conservation-office-eco#stream/0">Aleut Community of St. Paul Island Ecosystem Conservation Office</a> reports that climate change is most likely partially responsible for a mass starvation-based die-off of puffins in the Bering Sea.

Rising ocean temperatures have caused massive shifts in sea ecosystems, and thus damaged the natural predator-prey cycle within the Bering Sea. 

For four months, Jones, Divine, and their colleagues tracked the die-off of <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/puffins-migrate-struggle-breeding/">puffins</a> as well as the Crested auklet on St. Paul Island.

In October 2016, community and tribal members of St. Paul Island collected 350 emaciated carcasses, most which were in the stressful process of molting. 

A lack of food resources due to rising ocean temperatures — which affect the amount of plankton and therefore fish for puffins to eat — before the molting process may have led to the birds’ demise.

The team estimated that between 3,150 and 8,500 birds could have died during the event.

"This paper is a successful application of citizen science in the real world,” Divine said in the paper, published in <a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0216532">PLOS One</a>. “Island residents collected high quality data in real time and provided COASST with a detailed context for their analysis. Without the positive and mutually beneficial relationship built over years of collaboration, this massive die-off of Tufted Puffins would have gone unreported in the scientific community."

--

By <a href="mailto:oliviagharvey24@gmail.com">Olivia Harvey</a>, <a href="http://earth.com">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Paid for by <a href="http://earth.com">Earth.com</a>

Image Credit: Nick Pecker/Shutterstock

Climate change may be to blame for mass die-off of puffins in the Bering Sea

A new study led by Timothy Jones of the University...

The population of seabirds on a British island has made an impressive recovery after a project was launched to eradicate thousands of rats that were eating all the bird eggs. 

In less than two decades, the number of puffins on Lundy Island has bounced back from less than 20 to 375 birds. The project has also boosted the population of Manx shearwaters from hundreds to thousands. 

According to the <a href="https://www.rspb.org.uk/">Royal Society for the Protection of Birds</a> (RSPB), the total number of seabirds on Lundy has tripled to 21,000 in the 15 years after the rats were removed. The RSPB, which is a wildlife charity in the UK, said the initiative has been a great success. 

"This study clearly shows how quickly and positively seabirds respond to the removal of non-native predators," said Helen Booker, who is RSPB's senior conservation officer. "Of course, we had anticipated major population increases when the project was launched, but the scale of this recovery has far exceeded our expectations."

In 2003, efforts were launched to get rid of the rats on Lundy Island in a collaboration among the RSPB, Natural England, the Landmark Trust, and the National Trust. Ever since the island was declared free of rats, the <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/balloons-biggest-threat-seabirds/">seabird populations</a> have been steadily increasing. 

"It is exciting to see this level of recovery in Manx shearwaters, one of our most important seabirds," said Dean Jones, who is the warden on Lundy Island. "In spring the island comes alive at night with the sound of these amazing birds."

"The increases in puffins, guillemots and razorbills is also very encouraging for the future of seabirds on Lundy and we are maintaining our vigilance to ensure rats cannot return to the island."

--

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Image Credit: Shutterstock/Johnny Giese

Seabirds have recovered on British island after predatory rats were removed

The population of seabirds on a British island has made...

Scientists are working to gain a better understanding of the genetic makeup of wolves that are isolated on Isle Royale, which is one of the most remote national parks in the United States located in Lake Superior. 

Researchers led by <a href="https://www.mtu.edu/">Michigan Technological University</a> studied the genes of one particular pair of wolves and discovered they were father and daughter, yet shared the same mother. According to the experts, this type of close inbreeding causes abnormalities that likely contributed to the crash of the Isle Royale wolf population over the last decade. 

In the absence of wolves, the moose population has become detrimental to many other species by wiping out much of the island's vegetation. To address the issue, the National Park Service has been restocking wolves on the island. Last fall and winter, 13 new wolves were introduced from the mainland.

The researchers are describing how homozygosity, or the possession of two identical strains of the same gene, could have caused the inbreeding depression among the Isle Royale wolves. When a gene is homozygous, uncommon traits that are usually recessive often become dominant. In this case, inbreeding led to deleterious recessive mutations causing spinal deformities and other health problems.

"This new study, including whole-genome analysis of wolves from Isle Royale, directly links specific candidate genes with spinal abnormalities, which became more prevalent as decades progressed and inbreeding became more severe," explained study co-author and research scientist Rolf Peterson.

The wolves on Isle Royale may be an extreme example, but an understanding of population genetics is needed to inform future conservation efforts elsewhere. The genetic makeup of the wolves can be used to investigate how their reintroduction affects the overall population. The research will also help conservationists meet the increasing challenges of fragmented habitats and genetic pools around the world.

The study will be published next week in the journal <a href="https://advances.sciencemag.org/">Science Advances</a>. 

--

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Image Credit: Rolf Peterson/Michigan Tech

Isle Royale wolves illustrate the harmful effects of inbreeding

Scientists are working to gain a better understanding of the...

Crowdsourcing has become an incredibly popular tool. Books, movies, medical procedures have all been paid for by people donating small amounts online combined into a ‘crowd’ of people donating a large amount. It isn’t just direct monetary donations either, as data is harvested by millions of people worldwide to benefit businesses and political campaigns. Increasingly, little bits of money, data or time from large groups of people are being funneled through the internet to create real world results. This is now true even in conservation biology. 

<a href="https://www.zooniverse.org">Zooniverse</a> is a research platform that utilizes volunteers on the internet to collect data for scientific projects. The types of projects vary and are created by a number of different researchers. For instance, <a href="https://www.zooniverse.org/projects/sandiegozooglobal/wildwatch-burrowing-owl/about/research">Wildwatch Burrowing Owl</a> asks on its homepage, ‘Will you help us save burrowing owls?’ The question refers to the iconic burrowing owl that takes over <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/prairie-dogs-true-underdog/">prairie dog</a> and other burrowing mammal dens as its home, an increasingly rare icon of the western deserts and prairie. It’s estimated that there are only 10,000 breeding pairs of the special owl left, according to <a href="https://defenders.org/burrowing-owl/basic-facts">Defenders of Wildlife</a>. 

Western burrowing owls (Athene cunciularia hypugaea) in California are especially in decline. To stop this decline, <a href="https://www.sandiegozooglobal.org/">San Diego Zoo Global</a> has set up artificial dens for the owls as well as reintroduction of ground squirrels. The ground squirrels dig their own burrows that are eventually taken over by burrowing owls.

The burrowing owl project has motion cameras set up at the borrows to monitor who is coming and going from the burrows. Cameras like these collect hundreds if not thousands of photos in a short amount of time. Many photos from cameras like these inevitably aren’t even of the animals being studied, and sometimes a camera takes a shot of another animal, a person or even grass moving in the wind. Because of the amount of photos to sort through, the platform on Zooniverse allows untrained volunteers working at home on their computer to donate whatever time they’d like to sorting through the owl photos. The goal is to note how many owls are in each photo, allowing researchers to sort through the data faster than if they did the work themselves. 

Other projects on zooniverse include similar projects with large mammals in <a href="https://www.zooniverse.org/projects/pangorilla/wild-gabon">Gabon</a>, Africa, <a href="https://www.zooniverse.org/projects/penguintom79/penguin-watch/about/research">penguins</a> in Antarctica and even <a href="https://www.zooniverse.org/projects/lawildlife/wildlife-of-los-angeles/about/research">urban wildlife</a> in Los Angeles. The penguin project once was even gave away a free trip to Antarctica to a lucky volunteer. Some of these projects like Wildwatch Burrowing Owl are directly related to conservation, others less so, but they all potentially contribute data that can be used by wildlife managers. Zooniverse isn’t the only way you can contribute to science or conservation from home, though.

Of course if you have specific skill sets, you can be more valuable to organizations or causes as a volunteer, and this is as true with volunteering time online as it is volunteering in person. If you have knowledge of law, computer programming or writing skills for example, you may be able to contribute real assistance to non-profits without ever leaving home. 

Like Zooniverse, <a href="https://taprootfoundation.org/nonprofits/?utm_source=&amp;utm_medium=&amp;utm_campaign=&amp;utm_term=&amp;utm_content=">Taproot Foundation</a> is an online platform allowing non-profit organizations to seek volunteers. Unlike Zooniverse, most of these organizations are seeking one or two skilled volunteers to help on a limited time project. The focus is also much broader than Zooniverse and virtually any sort of non-profit can be involved in Taproot. You can do work such as consulting, writing, web design or even phone work for a non-profit from home.

Because of the nature of the volunteer positions listed on Taproot, projects you can become involved with are always changing. A nice feature is that you can sign up for an account with Taproot, listing your skills and interests and when a project that seems like a good match comes up, you get emailed a link to see if you’re interested. Of course, if you’re interested in a serious internship in conservation to build your skills or want to be involved in a long term project, most of these shorter projects might be less satisfying. 

Occasionally, online jobs in wildlife biology or conservation come along that actually pay. For example, <a href="https://wfscjobs.tamu.edu/jobs/acoustic-recording-bird-song-identifier-various-locations/">some academic institutions</a> seek out a person with exceptional birding skills to identify birds by the sound of their calls from home for a short contract period. Others may be lucky enough to find longer term employment in the same vein. There are also plenty of nature and science publications that might take you on as a writer or intern if you have writing abilities and a story to tell. Other online volunteer positions are to help people access natural history interpretive material.

The <a href="https://www.amnh.org/">American Museum of Natural History</a> is taking on volunteers for <a href="https://projectdescribe.amnh.org/#/">Project Describe</a>. The project involves describing items in the museum’s collection of images on their website so that these images are more accessible to those with disabilities. The Smithsonian Institute also takes <a href="https://transcription.si.edu">online volunteers</a> for many of its museums. The work for the Smithsonian involves transcribing photos of labels in an attempt to make more material available online. For those interested in biodiversity, volunteer positions are available in entomology, invertebrate zoology, botany at the Smithsonian Tropical Research Institute (which includes a famous research station in Panama). 

Projects that still need assistance can be found in the <a href="https://transcription.si.edu/browse?filter=collection%3A2&amp;sort=">Biodiverse Planet</a> category. Helping museum work may or may not contribute directly to the environment, but it least is helping to educate the public about the environments we live in and the wildlife we share them with. 

In the end, volunteering online can help you learn a bit about animals or science and help organization or researchers out, but it can also feel a bit isolating. For some experiences, there’s no substitute for getting outside into the actual environment and interacting with it. After all, there is no wildlife living online, there are no outdoor places in your computer. Often there is no mystery or surprise in sorting through images or labels on a home computer. Much like reading a book, volunteering online can be a part of learning about the world... but it shouldn’t be the only part.           

--

By <a href="mailto:zachfitzner@yahoo.com">Zach Fitzner</a>, <a href="http://earth.com">Earth.com</a> Contributing Writer

Image Credit: Shutterstock/Mauricio S Ferreira

Conservation projects you can participate in from home

Crowdsourcing has become an incredibly popular tool. Books, movies, medical...

Wolf-dog <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/extinct-red-wolf-dna-texas/">hybrids</a> have become so numerous in Europe that there are now concerns that the hybrid animals could drive wolf populations to extinction. 

In a new study published in the journal Frontiers in Ecology and Evolution, researchers from the <a href="https://www.exeter.ac.uk/">University of Exeter</a> warn that wolf-dog “swarms” are overtaking purebred wolves. 

Both wolves and dogs are members of the genus Canis which means that the two species can interbreed and produce offspring. 

Habitat loss due to urban expansion and other human activities are making wolf and free-roaming dog encounters more frequent. 

More than 40 scientists with a range of backgrounds and expertise weighed in on the issue, and although the majority consensus is that hybridization is a problem, no one can agree on a solution. 

“We need to address this issue before wolf-dog hybrids backcross with wolves to the extent that wolf populations will be lost to hybrid swarms, and the conservation of wild populations will become unfeasible,” said Valerio Donfrancesco, the lead author of the study. “In this paper, we argue that scientific agreement is crucial to encourage decision-makers to act, and to raise awareness about this conservation issue in society at large.

For the study, scientists were given the opportunity to share their views on the issue anonymously. 

It was agreed that free-roaming dogs are a big part of the problem and that wolf-dog hybrids should be kept away from wolf populations. 

However, when it came to suggestions for how to prevent wolf-dog hybrid encounters, the results were mixed. Some scientists supported the idea of keeping hybrids and dogs captive, or sterilizing free-roaming dogs to prevent reproduction, while others even recommended killing hybrids. 

The lack of research dedicated to wolf-dog hybrids further emphasizes the complex issue, but this should not dissuade action, the study authors say. 

“We hope that by highlighting areas of disagreement and why they occur, we will be able to build a more unified scientific opinion, and aid an effective management of this urgent issue,” said Dr. Nibedita Mukherjee, a co-author of the study. 

--

By <a href="mailto:kayvandette@gmail.com">Kay Vandette</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 

Image Credit: Nicole Hollenstein

Wolf-dog hybrids threaten wolf populations in Europe

Wolf-dog hybrids have become so numerous in Europe that there...

When a fight occurs between two <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/competing-mate-sperm-quality/">competing animals</a>, the loser of the battle often avoids violent altercations for some time. This is called the “loser effect,” and a new study shows that fighting ability does not affect how soon an animal returns to fight off others. 

Researchers from the <a href="https://www.exeter.ac.uk/">University of Exeter</a>, <a href="http://www.okayama-u.ac.jp/index_e.html">Okayama University</a> and <a href="https://www.tmu.ac.jp/english/index.html">Tokyo Metropolitan University</a> studied and selectively bred captive beetles to understand how the loser effect evolves in a species. 

The findings were published in the journal Proceedings of the Royal Society B. 

Broad-horned beetles fight over females, and once a beetle lost a battle, most would not start another fight for about four days. 

However, after selectively breeding the beetles to lose the “loser effect,” the beetles started fights sooner even though their fighting ability had stayed the same. 

In other words, the loser effect is not determined by fighting ability, and the two evolve independently. 

“By selecting males who experienced the loser effect for the shortest time, we were able to breed beetles willing to fight again sooner,” said David Hosken, a member of the research team. “It is fascinating that these males were no better at fighting. In other words, there is a complete disconnect between actual fighting ability and the duration of the loser effect.”

For the study, the researchers paired males together to see how they interacted for an hour. A winner was determined if the beetle had pushed or chased away his opponent. 

Next, the researchers took the beetles that were less impacted by the loser effect, and after ten generations, loser beetles returned to fight other males after three days rather than four despite having the same fighting abilities. 

The study shows that past experiences and losses determine future decisions for some species rather than actual fighting ability. 

“It makes sense for animals to use past experience to decide whether to engage in a behaviour,” said Kensuke Okada, an associate professor at Okayama University. “Losing a fight is a useful clue of the likely benefits of further fighting for a particular individual. Some species also show a ‘winner effect’ - being more willing to fight after a victory - but that is not the case among broad-horned flour beetles.”

--

By <a href="mailto:kayvandette@gmail.com">Kay Vandette</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 

Image Credit: Shutterstock/Tomasz Klejdysz

Fighting ability does not impact how soon a beetle gets back in the ring

When a fight occurs between two competing animals, the loser...

Most people are well aware of the impressively long distances covered by some butterflies. Monarch butterflies (Danaus plexippus) migrate up 2,500 miles each year between cold and warm habitats. How the migration started is hard to know but it gives obvious benefits to the butterfly and allows wonderful spectacles for humans to enjoy. 

According to the <a href="https://www.fs.fed.us/wildflowers/pollinators/Monarch_Butterfly/migration/index.shtml">United States Department of Agriculture</a> (USDA), eastern populations of monarch butterflies overwinter in oyamel forests in the eastern Sierra Madre range of Mexico. Mainly these butterflies are known for their wintering grounds in the <a href="https://www.fs.fed.us/wildflowers/pollinators/Monarch_Butterfly/conservation/index.shtml#monarca">Monarch Butterfly Biosphere Reserve</a>, founded in 1986 in the Mexican state of Michoacan. The western population of monarch butterflies overwinters in California. As we’ve reported, there has been some <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/monarch-butterflies-winter-locations/">recent evidence</a> that monarch butterflies have been finding other places to overwinter as well. What is surprising is how far afield monarch butterflies have made it. 

Monarch butterflies were potentially caught in a storm and blown far out to sea where the tired and battered insects found a small island to make home. No one knows for sure if this is how it happened. It’s possible that a person carried a monarch knowingly or on accident with them to a Pacific island. What is known is that at some point in the not too distant past, monarch butterflies colonized islands in the Pacific Ocean. 

From the islands in the Pacific, it was less of a jump to colonize other parts of the world. According to <a href="http://cookislands.bishopmuseum.org/showarticle.asp?id=21">Cook Island Biodiversity &amp; Natural Heritage</a>, the monarch butterfly is the largest of the native species of butterfly in the Cook Islands. Despite its recent arrival, the monarch is called native in this context because it probably arrived under its own power. 

Animals, plants and other organisms have always moved from one place to another, colonizing or invading new lands, depending on perspective. Interestingly though, the monarch butterfly migration isn’t so simple. For the butterflies to move, so did their host plants, the milkweeds. Milkweed plants are full of toxic alkaloid compounds that mother monarch butterflies taste the plants for before depositing eggs on a host. 

The monarch caterpillars ingest the alkaloid compounds when feeding on the plant for a very important purpose. Birds often eat butterflies. A brightly colored butterfly such as a monarch, slowly flapping through a sunlit meadow seems like an easy target for a hungry robin or blue jay. However, the bright colors of the monarch wings are a warning that they’re not too tasty. In fact, the monarchs secrete the alkaloids they ingest into their skin, making them bitter and poisonous. The poison is a potent protection for monarchs. 

Birds were fed monarch butterflies in a <a href="http://images.peabody.yale.edu/lepsoc/jls/1960s/1964/1964-18(3)165-Petetersen.pdf">famous experiment</a> carried out by researchers at <a href="https://www.colorado.edu/">UC Boulder</a>. The birds vomited violently after eating them and refused to try the butterfly again. Even butterflies that look similar to monarchs but don’t dine on toxic plants are avoided by hungry birds. Without the presence of the milkweed, it’s unlikely that birds in new places would ever learn the meaning of the monarch’s bright wings, making them an easy meal. So before monarchs could spread to Pacific islands, milkweed had to spread. This is why the first record for monarch butterflies in Hawaii is in 1840 or Tonga in 1863. Slowly, the monarch butterfly colonized much of the Pacific following in the wake of transplanted milkweed.

Eventually, monarchs arrived on the largest landmass in the South Pacific – Australia. The first record of monarch sightings in Australia come from the summer of 1870-71, according to <a href="https://www.abc.net.au/radionational/programs/offtrack/flying-weeds:-how-the-monarch-butterfly-colonised-australia/6768228">ABC</a>, when several sightings were recorded. 

The fact that there were several sightings all at once indicates that the butterfly was probably already established in Australia. It’s impossible to know when the first monarch actually alighted on the Australian continent but it’s possible that the butterfly blew in from New Caledonia, where today monarchs still live with two other butterfly species in the same genus. Interestingly, monarch butterflies in their expanded range have shown themselves to be quite adaptable. In Australia, the species is rightly called the ‘<a href="https://australianmuseum.net.au/learn/animals/insects/wanderer-butterfly/">wanderer butterfly</a>’ due to the roaming nature that allows it to migrate such long distances and that originally brought it to Australia in the first place.

In the more northern parts of eastern Australia where monarchs live, they migrate to the warmer coastal areas during the winter and move more inland during the summer, according to <a href="https://australianmuseum.net.au/learn/animals/insects/wanderer-butterfly/">Australian Museum</a>. In warmer areas of Australia, the monarchs breed nearly continuously throughout the year, with a large overlap between generations occurring which is unusual in North America. In the southern part of Australia where temperatures are cooler, monarchs don’t mate immediately when they mature in the fall. Instead southern Australia monarch butterflies overwinter, sometimes in large groups as in North America and mate in the warmer months. 

After mating the monarchs fly northward, and after several generations arrive in the northern part of their range, a similar life history to the butterflies in North America. Interestingly in Australia, there appear to be a few birds immune to the monarch butterfly poisons Pied Currawongs (Strepera graculina) and Black-faced Cuckoo-shrikes (Coracina novaehollandiae) have been seen eating monarchs without apparent illness. Monarchs even on occasion have been found wandering in Tasmania, although they’re a rare visitor. Monarchs in other parts of their new homes also migrate.

In New Zealand, large groups of monarch butterflies overwinter. Enough butterflies have been overwintering in large groups at Tauranga Bay that the <a href="https://www.monarch.org.nz">New Zealand Monarch Butterfly Trust</a> was originally formed to protect the site. Like in parts of Australia, New Zealand monarch butterflies generally overwinter in coastal areas where temperatures are mild and move inland to mate and lay eggs in the summer. Unfortunately, troubles have followed the wandering butterfly.

Pesticides, deforestation, pesticide use and disappearance of milkweed have lowered the monarch butterfly populations in North America. Unfortunately, the same things as well as climate change and perhaps an occasional random storm have hurt the monarch populations in Australia, according to <a href="https://theconversation.com/iconic-monarch-butterflies-under-threat-from-rising-herbicide-use-27596">The Conversation</a>. Humans are partially responsible for the global success of monarch butterflies, but tragically we may be the ones to put an abrupt end to it as well.

--

By <a href="mailto:zachfitzner@yahoo.com">Zach Fitzner</a>, <a href="http://earth.com">Earth.com</a> Contributing Writer

Image Credit: Shutterstock/Sean Xu

How monarch butterflies gradually spread vast distances across the globe

Most people are well aware of the impressively long distances...

Gray whales have been <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/whales-washed-ashore-san-francisco/">turning up dead</a> in alarming numbers along the western coast of the United States from California up to Washington. Scientists believe they are starving to death as they make their annual journey from Mexico to Alaska, but the conditions driving the lack of food remain unknown.

So far this season, 61 dead gray whales have washed up along the shoreline. According to the experts, most of the animals showed signs of malnutrition, and autopsies revealed that some had starved to death. 

"Clearly something is going on with the forage, as these animals’ tanks of gas are either empty or very low," said Justin Viezbicke of the <a href="https://www.noaa.gov/">National Oceanic Atmospheric Administration</a> (NOAA).

This is not the first time that there was an unusual number of gray whales found stranded on the west coast. In 1999 and 2000, the bodies of more than 600 whales were recovered. Experts at NOAA considered many possible causes including starvation, chemical contaminants, biotoxins, infectious diseases, parasites, fisheries interactions, and ship strikes.

"While the emaciated condition of many of the stranded whales supports the idea that starvation could be a significant contributing factor in these mortalities, the underlying cause of starvation during this event is unknown," <a href="https://www.afsc.noaa.gov/techmemos/nmfs-afsc-150.htm">stated</a> NOAA.

This year, the actual number of whales affected is likely much higher than what is realized because only about 10 percent of the bodies make it to the shore.

The gray whales are in the middle of their migratory season, during which they travel thousands of miles to the nutrient-rich waters of the North Pacific and the Arctic where they feed in the summer months. 

Scientists are investigating whether there is simply not enough food available for the whales and if this mortality event may be tied to climate change. The Arctic is extremely susceptible to climate change, and the changing conditions may be impacting the food chain. 

"Climbing temperatures have begun melting ice that used to be impassable," states the Scripps Institution of Oceanography. "In the Arctic, this increases competition for food as more fish migrate through areas where gray whales historically feed upon crustaceans, plankton, and mollusks that they dredge from the ocean floor."

--

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Image Credit: Shutterstock/Kyle Munson

Gray whales may be starving to death during their annual migration

Gray whales have been turning up dead in alarming numbers...

An international team of scientists has determined that the rate of <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/ivory-poaching-elephants-tusks/">elephant poaching</a> in Africa is now declining after reaching its peak in 2011. The researchers said that the world's elephants will remain threatened, however, until more action is taken to address poverty and corruption and there is a drop in the demand for ivory. 

"We need to reduce demand in Asia and improve the livelihoods of people who are living with elephants in Africa; these are the two biggest targets to ensure the long-term survival of elephants," said Dr. Beale. "While we can't forget about anti-poaching and law enforcement, improving this alone will not solve the poaching problem."

The study, which was led by the <a href="https://www.york.ac.uk/">University of York</a>, has revealed that the annual mortality rate from poaching dropped from 10 percent in 2011 to four percent in 2017. There are an estimated 350,000 elephants left in Africa, but as many as 15,000 are killed by poachers every year. At the current rate of poaching, elephants could almost completely vanish, with the few survivors living in small, protected populations. 

"We are seeing a downturn in poaching, which is obviously positive news, but it is still above what we think is sustainable so the elephant populations are declining," said study co-author Dr. Colin Beale. "The poaching rates seem to respond primarily to ivory prices in Southeast Asia and we can't hope to succeed without tackling demand in that region."

According to the study authors, it is impossible to know the impact of the ivory trade ban that China introduced in 2017. They pointed out that ivory prices started to fall before the ban and may reflect a broader downward trend in the Chinese economy.

"Ensuring a future with wild elephants, and myriad other species, will require stronger laws and enforcement efforts and genuine community engagement; however, as long as demand exists supply will find a way to quench it," explained study co-author Lisa Rolls Hagelberg. "Only about 6% of the current funding going towards tackling illegal trade in wildlife is directed to communication."

"For long-term success, governments need to prioritize comprehensive social and behavioural change interventions to both prevent and reduce demand. We have the know how, now we need to invest to truly influence environmental consciousness."

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/ncomms/">Nature Communications</a>.

--

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Image Credit: Colin Beale, University of York

While poaching rates have dropped, elephants are still far from safe

An international team of scientists has determined that the rate...

The last male Sumatran rhino in Malaysia has died of liver and kidney damage, the <a href="http://www.borneorhinoalliance.org/">Borneo Rhino Alliance</a> (BORA) confirmed. The rhino’s name was Tam and he was believed to have been in his 30s.

Sumatran Rhinos were declared extinct in the wild in 2015 in Malaysia, with only three small populations remaining in Indonesia. The small rhinos population has declined by 70% in the last twenty years. 

Tam was captured in a palm oil plantation at approximately 20 years old in 2008 and relocated to Tabin Nature Reserve where he has lived since, according to <a href="http://www.heraldmalaysia.com/news/malaysia-holds-vigil-the-last-male-sumatra-rhino-is-dying/48003/5">Herald Malaysia</a>. Tam was part of an unrealized breeding program plan in Malaysia. There is only one other Sumatran Rhino in Malaysia, a female, Iman who was captured for captive breeding in 2014 but is now past her reproductive prime, and she has never successfully bred in captivity. 

Iman showed signs of a ruptured tumor in her uterus in 2017. Another female rhino in Malaysia was euthanized in 2011 after suffering from skin cancer. These illnesses seem to be the result of poor genetics from a dwindling population of animals, the death throes of if not a species, a population. The decline of the Sumatran Rhino in Malaysia has been exasperated by neglect from conservationists in Indonesia. 

In modern times, where data is collected on wild animals and they are often kept in cages, it’s much easier to notice the passing of a species. Sometimes it comes down to the death of one, iconic individual animal. Martha was the name of the last known passenger pigeon, who was kept in the Cincinnati Zoo until she <a href="https://abcbirds.org/martha-the-last-of-her-kind/">died in 1914</a>. In <a href="https://www.historychannel.com.au/this-day-in-history/the-last-tasmanian-tiger-dies/">1936</a>, a Tasmanian Tiger or thylacine died in the Hobart Zoo in Tasmania. A mechanism designed to allow the animal inside to stay warm failed and apparently the Tasmanian Tiger died from the cold.

Sometimes extinctions like these haunt us. Whether real or not, several sightings have been reported of thylacines after the animal was officially written off as extinct. The more common pigeons easily bring to mind what must have been awe inspiring flocks of passenger pigeons moving like clouds across the sun for entire days. Museums hold the remains of these dead species. Preserved in life-like poses, they become relict for the faithful, but I wonder if these extinctions mean more to us than when a hunter went out and simply no longer found a certain prey. 

Despite the lingering ghosts of the human slaughtered dead, species continue to die. Individuals pass away in undignified cages, prisoners of the same that killed their kin or alone under the sky of their eerily quieted homes. With individuals, so go species. With blood on our hands, we swear to learn from our mistakes and yet, on it goes. The <a href="https://www.biologicaldiversity.org/programs/biodiversity/elements_of_biodiversity/extinction_crisis/">Center for Biological Diversity</a> reports that the rate of extinction is 1,000 times greater than a natural background of extinction. 99% of endangered species are threatened by human activities. The rhinoceroses of Malaysia are no different. 

In 2018, the <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/northern-white-rhino-died/">last male northern white rhino</a> died, signaling the end of a subspecies. The last of his kind, the northern white rhino was named Sudan, he died at the age of 45 in captivity in Kenya, according to the <a href="https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-43468066">BBC</a>. The <a href="https://rhinos.org/2018-state-of-the-rhino/">International Rhino Foundation</a> reported that as a species, white rhinos are doing better than many others, with an estimated population of approximately 20,000 animals. Greater One-Horned Rhino populations are on the rise as well, with more than 3,500 animals. Unfortunately, Black rhino populations have dropped drastically but with about 5,000 individuals, there’s still a lot of hope.

Poaching is a huge factor in the decline of rhinoceroses, whose horns are valuable on the black market for traditional Chinese medicine. Despite this, the rhinos in Africa have in some cases grown in population, proof of some successful conservation measures. 

Rhinoceros species in Asia haven’t fared nearly as well as these in Africa. There are perhaps only 67 Javan Rhinos left alive in the world, found only in Ujung Kulon National Park, Indonesia, where they are fiercely protected. Unfortunately, the park is near an active volcano, an eruption could quickly push the Javan Rhino into extinction. The last Javan rhino known to live in Vietnam was found dead with its horn hacked off.  

In 2012, the Indonesian government and several conservation organizations signed an agreement committing themselves to a program of collaboration with Malaysian groups on the conservation of the Sumatran Rhino. Despite efforts on the part of Malaysia, the agreement apparently came to nothing. Now, it seems that the last of Malaysia’s rhinoceroses will soon be gone. 

The <a href="http://www.heraldmalaysia.com/news/malaysia-holds-vigil-the-last-male-sumatra-rhino-is-dying/48003/5">Herald Malaysia</a> reported that Tam stopped eating in April. The passing of Tam represents the end of a slender hope to successfully breed rhinos in Malaysia and save a population there. 

In Indonesia, conservation efforts are still under way. <a href="https://news.mongabay.com/2019/04/to-rescue-sumatran-rhinos-indonesia-starts-by-counting-them-first/">Mongabay</a> reported in February that the Indonesian government aims to officially tally the rhino population within three years, which currently stands at estimates of 30-100 wild animals with several in captivity. The <a href="https://rhinos.org/where-we-work/sumatran-rhino-conservation-program/">International Rhino Foundation</a> reports that it has been involved in creating a Sumatran Rhino Sanctuary as well as sponsoring rhino protection units. The result of the efforts is the prevention of poaching in areas where these units operate for nine years. Along with captive breeding programs in Indonesia as well as collaboration with organizations in the US, there is some hope. 

--

By <a href="mailto:zachfitzner@yahoo.com">Zach Fitzner</a>, <a href="http://earth.com">Earth.com</a> Contributing Writer

Image Credit: WWF-Malaysia

The last male Sumatran rhino in Malaysia has died

The last male Sumatran rhino in Malaysia has died of...

A recent study led by the <a href="https://www.utas.edu.au/">University of Tasmania</a> has revealed that the global fishing fleet grew from 1.7 million vessels in 1950 to 3.7 million in 2015. However, the total catch dropped by more than 80 percent in the same time frame.

According to study lead author Yannick Rousseau, the findings reflect growing pressure on marine resources and a fall in the abundance of <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/tiny-fish-coral-reefs-thrive/">fish</a>.

"What we have seen over the last 65 years is more and more fishing vessels chasing fewer fish," said Rousseau. "Since 1950, a dramatic increase in the size of the fishing fleet in Asia has more than offset small declines in North America and Western Europe."

"Most of the increase in vessel numbers has been in motorized fishing boats, a change from the unpowered 'artisanal' fishing vessels that once characterized Asian and African fishing fleets. But, despite its advanced technology and increased numbers, the modern motorized fleet is having to work much harder to catch fewer fish."

Rousseau explained that scientists use a measure of catch per unit of effort (CPUE) to evaluate fisheries management and the well-being of fish stocks.

"CPUE reflects how many fish are caught for the amount of effort expended, such as during a day's fishing, and this measure paints a dark picture of the state of the ocean's resources," said Rousseau.

"In recent years, a sharp drop in CPUE in Southeast Asia, Latin America and the Southern Mediterranean indicates their fisheries expanded at a much faster rate than fish stocks could support."

In developed countries such as Australia, the researchers found that CPUE has recently stabilized due to more effective fisheries management and a sharp fall in the size of the fishing fleet over the last decade.

"However, on current worldwide trends we can expect to see a further one-million vessels on the water by mid-century and the average engine power of the global fleet continues to increase," said Rousseau. "These changes will further challenge the sustainable use of fisheries resources in coming years."

"This is a particular concern for populations in regions such as Southeast Asia, where a high proportion of people rely on fish for sustenance. Our findings suggest that additional management measures are urgently warranted to ensure the future sustainability of global marine resources."

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.pnas.org/">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a>.

--

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Image Credit: Shutterstock/Irina Bg

Fishing vessels have doubled since 1950, but catch has dropped by 80 percent

A recent study led by the University of Tasmania has...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2E0mn5mTvhQ
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">'Death Star' moon Mimas conceals a 15-million-year-old ocean that scientists never expected.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hidden-waters-beneath-ancient-craters">Hidden waters beneath ancient craters</h2>



Scientists have made a startling discovery that challenges everything we thought we knew about <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/saturn-moon-mimas-has-remarkably-young-ocean/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Saturn's moon Mimas</a>. Beneath the heavily cratered surface that earned it the nickname "Death Star" lies a global ocean that formed just 5 to 15 million years ago—a remarkably young age by cosmic standards.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cassini-data-reveals-orbital-secrets">Cassini data reveals orbital secrets</h2>



The discovery, led by Dr. Valéry Lainey of the <a href="https://observatoiredeparis.psl.eu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Observatoire de Paris</a>, emerged from careful analysis of <a href="https://www.nasa.gov" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NASA</a>'s Cassini spacecraft data. By studying subtle irregularities in Mimas's orbit around Saturn, researchers detected the gravitational signature of liquid water hidden 20 to 30 kilometers beneath the moon's icy shell.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-an-unlikely-ocean-world">An unlikely ocean world</h2>



At only 400 kilometers in diameter, Mimas seemed like the least likely candidate to harbor a subsurface ocean. Unlike other ocean moons such as Europa and Enceladus, which show clear surface signs of internal activity, Mimas displays no obvious hints of the liquid water beneath its ancient, crater-scarred exterior.



"Mimas is a small moon, and its heavily cratered surface gave no hint of the hidden ocean beneath," explained Dr. Nick Cooper from <a href="https://www.qmul.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Queen Mary University of London</a>, a study co-author.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-astrobiology">Implications for astrobiology</h2>



The ocean's recent formation makes Mimas a prime target for studying how oceans develop and potentially support life. This discovery adds another member to the exclusive club of ocean worlds in our solar system, each offering unique insights into the conditions necessary for habitability.



The research, published in <a href="https://www.nature.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature</a> journal, demonstrates how advanced orbital analysis can reveal hidden features of celestial bodies, opening new possibilities for understanding ocean formation throughout the cosmos.



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Scientists discover unexpected young ocean on Saturn's cratered moon Mimas

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2E0mn5mTvhQ 'Death Star' moon Mimas conceals a 15-million-year-old ocean that...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE
</div></figure>



On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop and sunlight barely penetrates through the polar winter. It was here, however, that an international team of scientists found <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/predatory-worms-were-terror-beasts-half-a-billion-years-ago/#google_vignette" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evidence of sea monsters</a> that would change our understanding of ocean life in the past.



This video captures the discovery of Timorebestia fossils that had been hidden for more than 500 million years in the Sirius Passet formation. The "terror beasts," as they are called, are a hidden chapter in the evolutionary history of <a href="https://www.earth.com" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Earth</a>, showing that sophisticated predator-prey interactions occurred much earlier than previously envisioned.



Dr. Jakob Vinther and his research team at the <a href="https://www.bristol.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Bristol</a>, in collaboration with researchers at the <a href="https://eng.kopri.re.kr/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Korean Polar Research Institute</a>, braved extreme weather conditions at 82.5 north latitude to locate these giant creatures. Using sophisticated electron microprobe analysis, they revealed the detailed anatomy of the animals, including their muscle and nerve tissues.



The find upsets the traditional timeline of sea predators. Although we've long appreciated that Cambrian oceans were at one time ruled by <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jWI3-UgA3_o&amp;list=PL1QLQMW9MWDwpkFOnvgAmu7wT6rZmYqdJ&amp;index=19" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">arthropods</a>, these discoveries indicate that relatives of arrow worms were first to dominate the seas. These worms were building sophisticated food webs several million years before other predator groups arose.



Each fossil is a story of ancient hunger, with fossil stomach contents revealing these meter-long beasts dined on heavily armored arthropods regularly, cementing their place as the ocean's first apex predators.



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Worms dominated seas before dinosaurs

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">New York is the site of the world's oldest forest.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-385-million-year-old-trees-discovered">385-million-year-old trees discovered</h2>



Scientists have uncovered something extraordinary just two hours north of New York City. The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/worlds-oldest-forest-discovered-close-to-new-york-city/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">world's oldest forest</a>, dating back 385 million years, offers a window into how Earth's first complex forests shaped our planet's atmosphere.



Located near <a href="https://townofcairo.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cairo, New York</a>, in Greene County, these weren't merely primitive plants struggling to survive. These were sophisticated trees with root systems remarkably similar to modern forests. This ancient woodland predates dinosaurs by 140 million years.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-cairo-forest-discovery">The Cairo forest discovery</h2>



385 million years ago, upstate New York was a tropical paradise near the equator. Thanks to continental drift, this ancient forest has traveled thousands of miles to its current location.



The fossil forest sits in an abandoned quarry, roughly half the size of a football field. This represents just a slice of what was likely a massive forest system stretching from New York into Pennsylvania.



Charles Ver Straeten, curator of sedimentary rocks at the <a href="https://www.nysm.nysed.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">New York State Museum</a>, made the discovery in 2009. While scouting the former highway department property, his trained eye spotted wandering patterns in the stone that looked like marine features.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-revolutionary-age-and-preservation">Revolutionary age and preservation</h2>



The site contains 385-million-year-old rocks with fossilized woody roots forming horizontal patterns up to 18 feet (5.5 meters) wide. As Christopher Berry, a paleobotanist at Cardiff University, explains: "You are walking through the roots of ancient trees."



This discovery pushes back advanced tree evolution by millions of years. The research, published in <a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/home" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Current Biology</a> in December 2019, fundamentally changes our understanding of when complex forests first emerged.



Researchers believe a massive flood buried the forest floor, creating perfect fossilization conditions. Over millions of years, sediment hardened into rock, preserving these root patterns like nature's time capsule.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-meet-archaeopteris-the-first-modern-tree">Meet Archaeopteris: the first modern tree</h2>



The star of this ancient forest is Archaeopteris – not to be confused with the feathered dinosaur Archaeopteryx. This tree was far older and more revolutionary.



William Stein from <a href="https://www.binghamton.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Binghamton University</a> describes the roots as "strikingly modern, essentially what you'd see outside in my yard right now." These weren't simple root systems you'd expect from ancient plants.



Some fossilized roots are six inches (15 centimeters) in diameter, forming 36-foot-wide (11-meter) patterns. These giants grew up to 65 feet (20 meters) tall with five-foot-diameter (1.5-meter) trunks.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-changing-impact">Climate-changing impact</h2>



These trees fundamentally changed Earth's environment. Kevin Boyce, a Stanford University geoscientist, explains how their deep roots triggered "weathering," chemical reactions that pulled carbon dioxide from the atmosphere.



This process dropped atmospheric CO2 levels from 10-15 times higher than today to roughly modern concentrations. These ancient trees helped create atmospheric conditions that made complex life possible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ancient-forest-ecosystem">Ancient forest ecosystem</h2>



The forest was remarkably diverse. Scientists identified Eospermatopteris, palm tree-like plants with short roots that reached 30 feet (9 meters) tall but lacked woody structure. The forest also housed cladoxylopsids and a mysterious third species still being studied.



All reproduced through spores rather than seeds – millions of years before seeds evolved. This tropical environment had no grass, flowers, or flying insects, just towering trees creating Earth's first complex forest canopy.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-scientific-significance">Scientific significance</h2>



Before this finding, the Gilboa forest, located 25 miles (40 kilometers) away, held the "oldest forest" title. Cairo's trees are 2-3 million years older, showing that complex forest ecosystems developed much faster than scientists believed possible.



Patricia Gensel, a <a href="https://www.unc.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of North Carolina</a> paleobotanist, notes: "The size of those root systems is really changing the picture. Even 20 years ago, researchers assumed trees with such complex root systems didn't evolve so early."



The Cairo site presents three unique root systems, suggesting Devonian period forests were diverse ecosystems with different trees occupying different environmental niches, much like today's forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-modern-preservation-efforts">Modern preservation efforts</h2>



In 2022, New York State Senator Michelle Hinchey secured a $170,000 grant for the town of Cairo to construct specialized fencing around the fossil forest site. The town plans to conduct a feasibility study exploring the possibility of creating an educational center and working lab on-site.



Joe Hasenkopf, chair of the Cairo Planning Board, hopes to partner with educational institutions to create a research facility serving scientists, students, and the public.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lessons-for-today-s-climate">Lessons for today's climate</h2>



Why does a 385-million-year-old forest matter today? It shows how dramatically forests can change Earth's climate. These ancient woodlands created the atmospheric conditions supporting complex life.



Understanding how prehistoric forests transformed the planet helps us appreciate modern forests' critical role in addressing climate change. Forests remain Earth's most effective carbon capture systems.



These prehistoric trees changed Earth's atmosphere by pulling massive amounts of carbon dioxide from the air. As we face modern climate challenges, this ancient forest reminds us of trees' incredible power to transform our planet's environment.



The next time you walk through a forest, remember you're experiencing an ecosystem whose blueprint was established 385 million years ago in upstate New York. These ancient pioneers didn't just survive – they thrived and changed the world forever.



The full study was published in the journal Current Biology.



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Earth's oldest forest found in the United States

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ New York is the site of the world's oldest...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Acid rain and a crisis solved.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-don-t-we-ever-hear-about-acid-rain-anymore-the-environmental-crisis-that-was-solved">Why don't we ever hear about "acid rain" anymore? The environmental crisis that was solved</h2>



Remember the 1980s when acid rain dominated headlines? Dire warnings about rain eating buildings, killing fish, and destroying forests filled every news cycle. Then, almost like magic, acid rain vanished from public discourse. What happened? Did we actually solve one of the late 20th century's most pressing environmental challenges?



The answer might surprise you. Unlike many environmental issues that drag on indefinitely, acid rain represents one of modern history's most successful ecological recovery stories. It's a tale of science, politics, and technology working together to tackle what seemed impossible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What was acid rain?</h2>



Acid rain isn't regular rain having a bad day – it's precipitation that became significantly more acidic due to air pollution. When power plants, factories, and vehicles burn fossil fuels, they release sulfur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides (NOx) into the atmosphere.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The science behind it</h2>



Think of acid rain as nature's chemistry experiment gone wrong. These compounds react with water, oxygen, and other chemicals to form sulfuric and nitric acids. When mixed with water vapor in clouds, they create precipitation with dangerously low pH levels.



While clean rain has a pH of about 5.6, acid rain could drop as low as 4.2 to 4.4 – roughly as acidic as tomato juice or coffee. According to US Geological Survey documentation, Scottish chemist Angus Smith first coined "acid rain" in 1872, but it didn't become a household phrase until the 1960s and 1970s when Swedish scientist Svante Odén documented its devastating effects on Scandinavian lakes and European forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The crisis at its peak</h2>



During the height of public concern, environmental damage was both widespread and visible. This wasn't some abstract future threat – people could see destruction happening in real-time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Environmental devastation</h2>



The most dramatic impacts were impossible to ignore. Research documented by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation and the New York State Department of Environmental Conservation shows that in the Adirondack Mountains, more than 200 lakes became so acidic they couldn't support fish life. The Adirondack Council reports that 409 lakes once supported brook trout, but many lost their fish populations due to acid rain.



By 1976, when scientists cataloged all acidified lakes in the Adirondack Park, researchers found that half of the lakes over 2,000 feet above sea level had no fish, according to studies published in environmental journals. The acidification process worked like a slow-motion disaster. As acid rain fell into watersheds, it gradually lowered pH levels. Fish couldn't survive in acidic water, and their food sources died off too.



Trees at high elevations showed stress directly linked to acid rain. It weakened them by leaching nutrients and making them susceptible to disease. Historical records show Germany's Black Forest saw nearly half its trees damaged by the mid-1980s.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Economic impact</h2>



Acid rain wasn't just environmental – it was expensive. Acidic precipitation corroded infrastructure, buildings, and monuments. Historic stone structures deteriorated at accelerated rates. Tourism suffered as lakes became fishless and forests declined. EPA economic analyses from the period documented repair costs mounting into billions annually.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The solution: government action and technology</h2>



Transformation from crisis to success required unprecedented cooperation between governments, industries, and environmental groups.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The Clean Air Act of 1990</h2>



The turning point came with the Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990, signed by President George H.W. Bush. This represented a fundamentally new approach to environmental regulation, as documented in EPA historical records.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Cap-and-trade success</h2>



Instead of mandating specific technologies, the 1990 amendments introduced something revolutionary: a cap-and-trade system for sulfur dioxide emissions. EPA program documentation shows this market-based approach set overall limits but allowed companies to trade emission allowances.



The genius was harnessing market forces to find cost-effective pollution reduction. Companies reducing emissions cheaply could sell excess allowances to those facing higher costs. Research published in environmental economics journals and EPA progress reports shows this resulted in dramatic SO2 reduction at a fraction of projected costs.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Technology advances</h2>



Policy provided the framework, but technology made reductions possible. Studies in atmospheric science journals document the widespread adoption of flue gas desulfurization systems ("scrubbers") that removed sulfur dioxide before it reached the atmosphere. By the 2000s, new installations could remove over 95% of SO2 emissions, according to EPA technical reports.



The push coincided with cleaner energy development. Natural gas produces fewer sulfur compounds than coal. Wind and solar, emerging in the 1990s, captured growing market share, reducing reliance on high-sulfur coal.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-we-don-t-hear-about-it-today">Why we don't hear about it today</h2>



Why did acid rain disappear from headlines? Simple: the problem was largely solved.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Success doesn't make news</h2>



There's an old journalism saying: "If it bleeds, it leads." Environmental success stories don't generate urgency like crisis reporting. Media attention shifted to other challenges: climate change, plastic pollution, and biodiversity loss. There's only so much environmental anxiety the public can absorb, and newer concerns replaced acid rain.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Mission accomplished</h2>



The primary reason is beautifully simple: interventions worked. EPA monitoring data shows sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990. Academic research published in environmental science journals confirms pH levels in formerly affected areas returned closer to normal. This represents one of history's most dramatic environmental recoveries. Studies by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation show fishless lakes now support healthy populations. Forests recovered, and building damage slowed dramatically.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-is-it-really-gone">Is it really gone?</h2>



The crisis is largely resolved, but monitoring data shows the problem isn't completely eliminated – it's managed to acceptable levels. Some areas still experience occasional events during high pollution periods. International environmental research indicates that rapidly industrializing Asian countries face similar problems to what we experienced decades ago, though they're implementing successful strategies.



EPA research shows nitrogen oxide emissions proved more challenging than sulfur dioxide, coming from vehicles and mobile sources. Climate science studies suggest changing weather patterns add complexity to how acid rain forms and falls.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What this teaches us</h2>



The acid rain experience proves that seemingly intractable environmental problems can be solved with scientific understanding, political will, and technological innovation. Environmental monitoring data shows recovery speed was remarkable – within a decade, measurable improvements appeared in air quality and ecosystem health.



Success came from bipartisan support across party lines. Policy analysis studies show the market-based approach appealed to those preferring economic incentives while achieving environmental goals. This support created lasting policy surviving political changes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Conclusion</h2>



Acid rain's disappearance from public consciousness represents environmental science's greatest success stories. Through effective regulation, technological innovation, and international cooperation, we transformed an overwhelming crisis into a manageable challenge.



Today's silence isn't because we forgot – it's because we solved it. The 1990 Clean Air Act, combined with technology and energy market changes, reduced acid rain emissions over 90%, according to comprehensive EPA data analysis.



This success offers hope for current challenges. It proves complex problems can be solved when science, policy, and technology work together. As we face climate change and plastic pollution, acid rain reminds us that dramatic positive change is possible.



Next time someone asks whether environmental regulations work, remember acid rain. It's proof that sometimes, we get it right.



<hr class="wp-block-separator has-alpha-channel-opacity"/>



Sources: This article draws from EPA official documentation and progress reports, peer-reviewed research published in environmental and atmospheric science journals, historical data from the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation, New York State Department of Environmental Conservation records, US Geological Survey publications, policy analysis studies, and environmental monitoring data collected over three decades.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Frequently Asked Questions</h2>



1. Is acid rain completely gone? No, but EPA monitoring shows it's reduced to manageable levels. US sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990, making acid rain much less severe than the 1980s crisis.



2. How long did solving take? Environmental monitoring data shows significant improvements began within 5-10 years of 1990s emission controls. Full ecosystem recovery took longer – some areas need 20-30 years for complete recovery.



3. What made the solution successful? Clear scientific understanding, visible damage motivating action, bipartisan support, available technology, and innovative market-based policies like cap-and-trade.



4. Do other countries have acid rain problems? Yes, particularly rapidly industrializing Asian countries. However, international environmental research shows many implement similar successful control strategies.



5. Could acid rain return? Potentially, if regulations weaken or we return to high-sulfur coal without controls, though effects would take years to become severe according to environmental projections.



6. Can you recommend any teaching tools on the subject of "acid rain"? The United States Environmental Protection Agency produced a wonderful teacher's guide for ages 14 and under that you can find on the EPA website here: <a href="https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf</a>



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The environmental problem we actually solved

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk Acid rain and a crisis solved. Why don't we...

Fresh,Radish,Harvest,On,Soil,In,Garden.

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://youtu.be/Fi2OeEwuzRM?si=vTyd2m9FMmtyWkex
</div></figure>







Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving fall garden, and this guide lays out the best vegetables and herbs to plant now for a fruitful autumn harvest. 



Fast-growing leafy greens such as spinach, lettuce, kale, and arugula perform especially well in the waning summer heat, with harvests beginning as soon as 30 days. 



These cool-season crops relish the transition into fall, offering repeated yields with cut-and-come-again methods.



Root vegetables like radishes, carrots, and beets also excel during this period. Radishes deliver satisfaction in under a month, while carrots and beets mature in about two months. Employing succession planting ensures a continuous stream of produce deep into the cooler months. 



For a boost of fresh flavor, herbs like cilantro, basil, dill, and chervil are excellent picks. These heat-loving varieties flourish in July’s warmth and are harvest-ready in about 30 days, especially when sown continuously.



Gardeners in zones 6 through 9 can benefit from planting bush beans and snap peas, which don’t require trellising and are ideal for compact plots. 



Maturing in 50–60 days, they’re a smart choice for quick, protein-rich harvests. For those in hotter regions, heat-tolerant crops such as okra and southern peas provide reliable yields and thrive in scorching conditions.



This guide emphasizes more than crop selection—it highlights the importance of timing, soil preparation, and ongoing sowing techniques. 



With thoughtful planning and attention to regional climate needs, even late-summer gardeners can enjoy fresh salads, hearty stews, and the satisfaction of a robust, homegrown harvest well into fall.



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What to plant in your garden in mid-July

https://youtu.be/Fi2OeEwuzRM?si=vTyd2m9FMmtyWkex Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving...

Green,Ecoduct,Over,An,Empty,Highway,During,Sunset.

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://youtu.be/XYgiPzmNBTU?si=eFYY7gPHU1JznLvU
</div></figure>



A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that wildlife tunnels significantly reduce amphibian road mortality during seasonal migrations. 



Frogs and salamanders often cross roads to reach breeding ponds each spring, but many are killed by vehicles. 



Researchers from the <a href="https://www.uvm.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Vermont</a>, in collaboration with local citizens and the Vermont Agency of Natural Resources, installed two underpass tunnels in 2015. 



Over a 12-year monitoring period, they observed an 80.2% reduction in amphibian deaths, and up to 94% for non-climbing species like salamanders. 



The study used a before-after-control-impact design and documented more than 5,200 amphibians, highlighting the tunnels’ effectiveness even in nearby buffer zones.



Funded at $342,397 - far cheaper than wildlife crossings for large mammals - the project showcased the power of community-led conservation.



Local groups initiated the effort after observing mass amphibian deaths. Wildlife cameras later captured over 2,200 amphibians using a tunnel in just one spring, along with other species like raccoons and bobcats, indicating wider ecosystem benefits.



This marks the first peer-reviewed, long-term data set in the northeastern U.S. confirming amphibian-specific underpasses work. 



The study urges transportation departments to incorporate these designs into road planning and highlights how community action, thoughtful infrastructure, and persistence can make a real difference for biodiversity.



The full study was published in the <a href="https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1617138125000780" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal for Nature Conservation</a>.



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-----

Wildlife tunnels save millions of amphibians

https://youtu.be/XYgiPzmNBTU?si=eFYY7gPHU1JznLvU A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that...

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing it with probiotics and prebiotics, aiming to create a treat that satisfies cravings while supporting gut health. 



The challenge lies in maintaining chocolate's beloved texture and flavor while adding health benefits.



<figure class="wp-block-embed aligncenter is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://youtu.be/Ug657J67iEo?si=w96YjGMsg939LD_3
</div></figure>



Probiotics - beneficial microbes that balance gut bacteria and aid digestion - are typically fragile and can be destroyed by stomach acid or processing. 



Prebiotics act as food for these microbes, helping them thrive. Together, they form "synbiotics," a powerful health combination.



Researchers Smriti Gaur and Shubhi Singh from India's Jaypee Institute of Information Technology took an innovative approach, using natural prebiotics like corn and honey instead of complex processing methods. 



They created five chocolate varieties: a control and four synbiotic versions containing different combinations of prebiotics, probiotics (Lactobacillus strains), and flavor enhancers (cinnamon or orange).



Laboratory simulations of human digestion showed the probiotics remained viable for over five hours, suggesting they could survive long enough to benefit gut health.



Taste tests were positive, with researchers particularly enjoying the orange-flavored variety, describing it as having "vibrant citrus notes" complementing the "rich cocoa" with a "luxurious" texture.



This research represents just the beginning. With further refinement of strains, textures, and flavors, chocolate could evolve beyond mere indulgence to become a functional food that nourishes while it delights.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.4c00741" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ACS Food Science &amp; Technology</a>.

Is chocolate the next nutritional powerhouse?

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="0ynNMYkMKa-2340414-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

[sendtonews key="0ynNMYkMKa-2340414-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="G9bUoxcjr4-2511624-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

[sendtonews key="G9bUoxcjr4-2511624-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="3upvlAaHgO-2256633-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

[sendtonews key="3upvlAaHgO-2256633-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

[sendtonews key="LvS8v8bp9z-2564889-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="X0f6OHYoI4-2310561-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How does salt makes things taste better?

[sendtonews key="X0f6OHYoI4-2310561-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="JRaP49ISmm-2357509-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Santiago, Chile in South America

[sendtonews key="JRaP49ISmm-2357509-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="e4ZG0Jawp3-2374785-12187" type="single"]</div>



Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

[sendtonews key="e4ZG0Jawp3-2374785-12187" type="single"] Astronomers at Johns Hopkins University have created...

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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.



According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."



Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;



ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. 



Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

[sendtonews key="qjvhBOBnY8-2426650-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

[sendtonews key="oL4FnPTGCV-2384527-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

[sendtonews key="0879czfG3k-1785905-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from NASA...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

[sendtonews key="6HyfrAJTBI-1831843-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

Earth,Like,Exoplanet,3d,Render

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

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