A team in central China has done something simple and bold, they directly dated dinosaur eggs instead of the rocks around them. The eggshell calcite from the Qinglongshan site yielded an age of 85.91 ± 1.74 million years.



This matters because it turns eggs from interesting <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/where-did-dinosaurs-come-from-missing-fossils-hold-the-secret/">fossils</a> into reliable timestamps for life on land during the Late Cretaceous, a time of shifting climates and ecosystems.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dinosaur-eggshells-dated">Dinosaur eggshells dated</h2>



The fossils come from Qinglongshan in the Yunyang Basin of Hubei Province, where thousands of intact eggs rest in stacked layers with little distortion.&nbsp;



“We show that these dinosaur eggs were deposited roughly 85 million years ago, in the Late Cretaceous period,” said <a href="https://loop.frontiersin.org/people/3140051/overview" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Dr. Bi Zhao</a>, from the Hubei Institute of Geosciences (<a href="https://en.cug.edu.cn/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">HIG</a>).



The group used carbonate <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/earth-and-planetary-sciences/zircon-u-pb-dating" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">U-Pb dating</a> on eggshell material, measuring uranium and lead atoms to calculate time since the shell formed. 



In their tests, the radiogenic signal sits in biogenic calcite, the carbonate built by the egg-laying animal, which behaved as a semi-closed system for uranium uptake after burial.



The <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/earth-science/articles/10.3389/feart.2025.1638838/full" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">analysis</a> relied on <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/materials-science/laser-ablation" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">laser ablation</a>, a micro laser that vaporizes pinpoint spots of carbonate which are then analyzed by a mass spectrometer for uranium and lead ratios.&nbsp;



The resulting age is not from ash fall or nearby minerals, it is from the eggshell itself, which frees researchers from indirect age constraints that can mislead if volcanic layers formed earlier or later than the nest horizon.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-carbonate-u-pb-works">How carbonate U-Pb works</h2>



Uranium isotopes in carbonates decay into lead at known, constant rates, and the proportion of parent to daughter isotopes reveals elapsed time. 



Cross checks, like repeated spots in different shell areas and agreement between fragments, keep the numbers honest, and the reported uncertainty of ± 1.74 million years reflects instrument precision and sample scatter, not guesswork.



Indirect <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S1367912012005019" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">approaches</a> have anchored many Asian egg sites by dating interbedded tuffs, for example zircon based SIMS ages from the Tiantai Basin that bracket egg layers in the Laijia and Chichengshan formations at roughly 96 to 99 million years and 91 to 94 million years. 



That prior dating set a framework that eggshell ages can now refine where ash is missing.



Carbonate geochronology has matured fast, with careful comparisons between uranium thorium and U-Pb techniques on the same samples showing strong consistency over wide timescales. 



That broader look at geochronology <a href="https://gchron.copernicus.org/articles/7/335/2025/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">methods</a> helps explain why a tiny eggshell can carry a credible age.



The study team also separated signals, finding consistent ages from biogenic carbonates, and noisy or unusable signals from late pore filling calcite, a reminder that not all carbonates are equal for keeping time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dinosaur-eggshell-site">Dinosaur eggshell site</h2>



The Qinglongshan reserve preserves egg clutches in red siltstones and sandstones, with many eggs still three dimensional and minimally deformed, a rare condition that helps both taphonomy and dating. 



The sampled clutch belonged to an oblate style of egg typical of the family <a href="https://animaldiversity.org/accounts/Dendrobatidae/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Dendroolithidae</a>, which is known for highly porous shells.



Those Yunyang eggs have been assigned to Placoolithus tumiaolingensis by <a href="https://www.app.pan.pl/archive/published/app63/app005232018.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">work</a> that cleaned up the taxonomy and emphasized the diagnostic shell microstructure. That classification anchors the site in a broader Chinese record of dendroolithid eggs.



Porous eggshell architecture affects gas exchange and incubation, and the microstructure varies in ways that may reflect nesting style in a semi arid fluvial landscape. 



The new age puts those choices in a tight slice of time, late Coniacian to early Santonian, rather than a vague Late Cretaceous window.



Thousands of eggs across stacked horizons also open the door to building a basin scale timeline where shell ages from different levels track local ecological change, sedimentation rates, and any shifts in the nesting fauna.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/09/dinosaur-eggs_dating-method_china_credit-Bi-Zhao_1m.jpg"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/09/dinosaur-eggs_dating-method_china_credit-Bi-Zhao_1s.webp" alt="Egg clutch sampled for chronological studies. Credit Dr. Bi Zhao" class="wp-image-1985991"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Egg clutch sampled for chronological studies. Click image to enlarge. Credit Dr. Bi Zhao</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dinosaur-climate-context">Dinosaur climate context</h2>



Marine records indicate the Late Cretaceous did not stay uniformly hot. 



One North Atlantic sea surface temperature <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/24937202/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">record</a> shows a drop of about 7 degrees Celsius (12.6 degrees Fahrenheit), from around 35 degrees to below 28 degrees, between the earliest Campanian and the Maastrichtian.



Independent <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18187651/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evidence</a> from oxygen isotopes suggests brief glaciation episodes punctuated parts of the mid Cretaceous greenhouse, showing that climate could swing even when the world was generally warm. 



Inland Asia would have felt those shifts in precipitation, seasonality, and vegetation.



Pinned ages on terrestrial <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dinosaur-extinction-theories-are-challenged-by-new-research/">fossils</a> let scientists ask tighter questions about whether nesting density changed across cooler intervals or whether certain egg types rose or fell with climate. 



The eggshell ages at Qinglongshan now give one fixed point for such tests, and more layers can add the sequence needed to see patterns.



Cause and effect claims are premature at a single site, but a direct eggshell chronology makes it practical to compare neighboring basins and see whether bird and non avian <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dog-sized-baby-dinosaur-unearthed-after-166-million-years/">dinosaur</a> nesting moved, paused, or persisted during regional climate transitions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-comes-next">What comes next</h2>



The team plans to sample eggs from additional horizons at Qinglongshan, then from basins to the north and south, to build a regional timeline that can be compared with dated marine and volcanic records. 



That will clarify which changes are local quirks and which ones reflect broader environmental forcing across East Asia.



Applying the same protocol to eggs in the Xixia, Jiaolai, and Nanxiong basins would close large age gaps where ash beds are absent. 



Those basins have different egg assemblages, so a uniform clock could test migration ideas and turnover hypotheses without assuming rock ages transfer cleanly between sites.



Direct dinosaur eggshell dating also complements existing zircon frameworks rather than replacing them, since both tools answer different parts of the age question. 



Zircons pin eruptive or depositional moments for ash, while eggshells date the biological event of nesting, and together they can resolve the tempo of life on land.



With better <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mammals-ground-dwellers-survived-the-asteroid-impact-that-killed-the-dinosaurs/">timescales</a>, small details like pore geometry, clutch spacing, and shell thickness will be tied to environmental context, not guesswork. 



That is how a few careful ages can turn a crowded egg hillside into a precise chronicle of Late Cretaceous life in central China.



The study is published in <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/earth-science/articles/10.3389/feart.2025.1638838/full" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Frontiers in Earth Science</a>.



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These dinosaur eggs tell an incredible story from 85 million years ago

A team in central China has done something simple and bold, they directly dated dinosaur eggs instead of the rocks around them. The eggshell calcite from the Qinglongshan site yielded an age of 85.91 ± 1.74 million years. This matters because it turns eggs from interesting fossils into reliable timestamps for life on land during the Late Cretaceous, a time of shifting climates and ecosystems. Dinosaur eggshells dated The fossils come from Qinglongshan in the Yunyang Basin of Hubei Province, where thousands of intact eggs rest in...

Paleontologists unearth a treasure trove of Cambrian fossils in China. A treasure trove of fossils dating back as far as 518 million years discovered in Southern China is rivaling that of other rich fossil sites and further analysis of the fossils could help provide insight into what life was like during the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/animals-diversify-earth/#.XJkyJChKhPY">Cambrian Explosion</a>. 

The Cambrian Explosion marks the sudden emergence of diverse life forms in the fossil record, and fossils from the Cambrian Explosion make up some of our earliest understandings of life during the Paleozoic Era.

[caption id="attachment_1870250" align="aligncenter" width="631"]<a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/03/fossils-1.jpg"><img class="size-full wp-image-1870250" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/03/fossils-1.jpg" alt="" width="631" height="421" /></a> Fossilized jellyfish, Image Credit: Fu et al., Science, 2019[/caption]

Thanks to rich fossil sites like the Burgess Shale in the Canadian Rocky Mountains and the Emu Bay Shale in Australia, researchers have been able to identify and study the early origins of our complex marine ecosystems as we know them today. 

However, the discovery of thousands of fossils from Qingjiang site in China are quickly proving even more valuable, some of which belong to never before described species. 

The Qingjiang biota, as it’s called in a study published in the journal Science, is older than the Burgess Shale and is helping researchers fill in the gaps in the Cambrian fossil record.

[caption id="attachment_1870251" align="aligncenter" width="629"]<a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/03/fossils-2.jpg"><img class="size-full wp-image-1870251" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/03/fossils-2.jpg" alt="" width="629" height="352" /></a> Fossilized comb jelly and mud dragon, Image Credit: Fu et al., Science, 2019[/caption]

The fossil site is believed to be left over from a 500-million-year-old mudslide, and researchers have excavated 4,351 separate fossils of early jellyfish, sponges, anemones, algae, and arthropods. 

Qingjiang is also unique from other Cambrian fossil troves in that the researchers have found evidence of both hard and soft-bodied organisms. 

Of the thousands of fossils, the researchers were able to identify 101 species, and 53 of those species are unknown. Paleontologists unearth a treasure trove of Cambrian fossils in China 

“The treasure trove of the Qinjiang biota provides an exciting opportunity to explore how paleoenvironmental conditions influenced ecological structuring and evolutionary drivers during the Cambrian Explosion,” said Dr. Allison Daley, a paleontologist not involved in the study who penned an accompanying perspective on the research. 

--

By <a href="mailto:kayvandette@gmail.com">Kay Vandette</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Main Image Credit: Jon Husson, Shanan Peters, <a href="https://www.wisc.edu/">University of Wisconsin-Madison</a>

Paleontologists unearth a treasure trove of Cambrian fossils in China

Paleontologists unearth a treasure trove of Cambrian fossils in China....

Every year, humpback whales make long migrations from their preferred cold feeding grounds to warmer tropical waters to breed and give birth. 

Even though many large species of whales migrate, migratory patterns are so varied from species to species and even from <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/humpback-whales-sing/#.XJkCgyhKhPY">males to females</a>, that tracking the ancient origins of these migrations can prove challenging. 

It’s been suggested that whales started traveling long-distances around five million years ago, but the specifics of ancient whale migration have remained unclear. 

Researchers from the <a href="https://stri.si.edu/">Smithsonian Tropical Research Institute</a> and the <a href="https://www.universityofcalifornia.edu/">University of California</a>, Berkeley decided to tackle ancient whale migration, not by looking at ancient whale fossils as one would expect, but also by focusing on the fossils of ancient whale barnacles. 

“Instead of looking for clues to migration patterns from the whale's bones, we used hitch-hiking whale barnacles instead,” said Larry Taylor, the leader of the study, which was published in the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 

Whale barnacles are crustaceans that attach themselves to whales by sucking in the whale’s skin. 

This relationship doesn’t seem to serve any advantage for the whale, but for the barnacle, life attached to a whale provides easy access to nutrient-rich waters as the whale slowly meanders through the ocean.

[caption id="attachment_1870239" align="aligncenter" width="640"]<a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/03/barnacle-fossil.jpg"><img class="size-full wp-image-1870239" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/03/barnacle-fossil.jpg" alt="" width="640" height="480" /></a> Fossil whale barnacle, Image Credit: Larry Taylor[/caption]

“Whale barnacles are usually species-specific --one species of barnacle on one type of whale,” said Aaron O'Dea, a co-author of the study. “This gives the barnacle several advantages-- a safe surface to live on, a free ride to some of the richest waters in the world and a chance to meet up with others when the whales get together to mate.”

For this study, the researchers examined barnacle fossils and modern whale barnacles to analyze isotope signatures.

Because barnacles are crustaceans, their shells take in oxygen isotopes from the water throughout a barnacle’s lifespan. These isotopes allow the researchers to age the barnacles and estimate where the barnacle has traveled in its life. 

“The signals we found in the fossil barnacles showed us quite clearly that ancient humpback and grey whales were undertaking journeys very similar to those that these whales make today,” said Taylor. “It seems like the summer-breeding, and winter-feeding migrations have been an integral part of the way of life of these whales for hundreds of thousands of years.”

The study helps provide a more detailed picture of ancient whale migrations, and the researchers plan to continue tracking whale migrations using whale barnacle fossils.

“Hunting for fossil whale barnacles is easier than whales, and they provide a wealth of information waiting to be uncovered,” said Seth Finnegan, a co-author of the study. 

--

By <a href="mailto:kayvandette@gmail.com">Kay Vandette</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Main Image Credit: Aleria Jensen, NOAA/NMFS/AKFSC

Barnacle fossils reveal secrets of ancient whale migrations

Every year, humpback whales make long migrations from their preferred...

A new study from the <a href="https://www.sfn.org/">Society for Neuroscience</a> has revealed that damage to parts of the orbitofrontal cortex (OFC) in <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/golden-snub-nosed-monkeys-nurse/">monkeys</a> heightens their defensive response to threats. The study findings suggest that subregions of the brain’s prefrontal cortex play an important role in different anxiety disorders.

Previous studies have already linked the OFC and its larger brain network to anxiety disorders in humans. For example, researchers found a correlation between arachnophobia and generalized anxiety disorder and reduced activity in the lateral and medial OFC.

A research team from the <a href="https://www.nimh.nih.gov/index.shtml">National Institute of Mental Health</a> and the <a href="https://icahn.mssm.edu/">Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai</a> investigated the role of these OFC subregions in male rhesus macaques. The animals had been trained to retrieve a fruit snack reward in the presence of one of two fake predators, including a grayish-green snake or a black, hairy spider. The monkeys also retrieved the rewards in the presence of neutral objects. 

After lesions were selectively produced in the lateral or medial OFC of eight monkeys, these animals took longer to reach for the fruit snack in the presence of the predator stimuli compared to animals with no brain alterations. The researchers also found that this effect could be attributed to heightened defensive behaviors.

According to the experts, the heightened defensive responses to the snake and spider that followed damage to either subregion of the OFC persisted among the monkeys over time and were not reduced. In addition, monkeys with medial OFC lesions showed a greater tendency to express defensive behaviors even in the absence of a threat. 

The study results indicate that dysfunction in distinct subregions of the OFC may be responsible for specific symptoms of various anxiety disorders.

The study is published in the <a href="http://www.jneurosci.org/">Journal of Neuroscience</a>.

--

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Damage to the prefrontal cortex of the brain may cause anxiety disorders

A new study from the Society for Neuroscience has revealed...

In a recent assessment, the <a href="https://www.iucn.org/">International Union for the Conservation of Nature (IUCN)</a> Shark Specialist Group evaluated 58 shark species found that and 17 shark species are now classified as facing extinction. 

Six of the 58 species assessed were found to be critically endangered, and 11 were listed as endangered. 

Three of the species, the whitefin swellshark, the Argentine angel shark, and the smoothback angel shark, are new additions to the <a href="https://www.iucnredlist.org/">IUCN Red List</a>. 

The results of the assessment show that shark populations are declining mostly due to demand for the shark’s meat, fins, and even oil. Despite being one of nature’s fiercest predators and a key player in marine food webs, sharks are extremely vulnerable to human activities. 

“Our results are alarming and yet not surprising, as we find the sharks that are especially slow-growing, sought-after, and unprotected from overfishing tend to be the most threatened,” said Nicholas Dulvy, the IUCN's Shark Specialist Group (SSG) co-chair based at Simon Fraser University. 

Shark fins are considered a delicacy in some Asian cuisines.  

“Today, one of the biggest shark fisheries on the high seas is the mako,” said Dulvy to the AFP, “It is also one of the least protected.” 

The <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/mako-sharks-swim-fast/">shortfin mako</a> is the fastest of all sharks, but in the last 75 years, shortfin mako populations have decreased by 60 percent in the Atlantic. 

However, there may be some hope for the shortfin mako as the world’s nations will vote in May on a proposal to put the species on the <a href="https://www.cites.org/eng/app/index.php">Appendix II of CITES</a>, the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species list, which would regulate mako fishing.

The reason sharks are so vulnerable to fishing and other human activities is that sharks mature relatively late in life and don’t produce many offspring. The greeneye spurdog shark, for example, has the longest gestation period in the animal kingdom. 

It’s estimated that nearly <a href="https://www.nationalgeographic.com/people-and-culture/onward/2013/03/01/100-million-sharks-killed-every-year-study-shows-on-eve-of-international-conference-on-shark-protection/">100 million sharks are fished every year</a>, according to a 2013 peer-reviewed study, and more than half of all shark species on Earth are threatened or near-threatened with extinction.

The IUCN Shark Specialist Group will continue to evaluate shark populations, and the group is currently in the process of a two-year review of over 400 species of sharks. 

--

By <a href="mailto:kayvandette@gmail.com">Kay Vandette</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

17 different shark species are now classified as facing extinction

In a recent assessment, the International Union for the Conservation...

The trip from wild wolf to domestic dog was most likely a long one, full of complications.  It’s impossible to know all the details of that transition but there’s some science that sheds a light on how man’s best friend came to be.  A self-domestication process is a popular hypothesis but the details of the process is still a bit fuzzy.

The general idea is that humans and dogs were both hunters roughly 25,000 years ago, occupying the same landscape, perhaps even competing for the same food.  The wolves that eventually became dogs noticed that scraps were a source of food and started hanging around hunting camps, getting what tidbits they could. Over time, natural selection favored the wolves with closer relationships to humans, those capable of getting more scraps.  Early dogs were hunting companions as well as guards and even beasts of burden. The self domestication hypothesis is only a small part of the story, though, and there are many details of the mechanics of dog domestication left to be filled in. 

One famous experiment sheds some light on how dogs might have become domesticated.  Recent archaeological evidence shows that foxes may have been at least partially <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/foxes-domesticated-bronze-age/#.XJVeBBplChA">domesticated during the Bronze Age</a> but more recently, a Russian scientist undertook fox domestication experimentally.

Dmitry Belyaev began his scientific work on genetics secretly.  At the time, the Soviet Union was opposed to genetic research and imprisoned hundreds of scientist, <a href="https://www.pbs.org/newshour/science/domesticated-foxes-genetically-fascinating-terrible-pets">PBS</a> reports.  With the death of Joseph Stalin, restrictions were relaxed and Belyaev was able to more openly pursue his research. Dmitry Belyaev became the director of a new Institute of Cytology and Genetics, which continues his work today decades after his death.  His research focused on the domestication of dogs. As a parallel, he decided to experiment with foxes, a fairly close relative. Belyaev and his research team visited fur farms in the Soviet Union buying up all of the tamest foxes. As a control group, the team also purchased the least tame or most aggressive foxes as well.  The experiment was designed to highlight the genetic component of animal domestication or ‘tameness’.

As <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/domestication-foxes/#.XJZo_hplChB">we previously reported,</a> foxes from the initial group were selectively bred to each other based entirely on ‘tameness’ or ‘friendliness’.       

Strangely, foxes selected for docility and friendliness alone also tended to have dog-like features such as floppy ears as adults and shorter, wider snouts suggesting that perhaps some traits are linked.  One of the most stunning aspects of the study was how quickly foxes were domesticated from wild stock. After 50 generations, the majority of foxes were deemed ‘elite’ foxes, that is, animals that seek out human companionship, wagging their tails when approached by humans.  Clearly the brains of these foxes changed to be more amiable to humans than wild foxes. 

‘Friendly’ foxes have higher levels of serotonin than their wild counterparts; serotonin has been linked to inhibition of aggressive behaviors. Corticosteroid levels are also lower in domesticated foxes than their wild counterparts.  Cortisol is a type of corticosteroid generally lower in all domestic animals. Corticosteroids are hormones with a large number of functions, importantly for domestication, one of those functions is related to stress. When you’re stressed, cortisol is released and is used partially in the creation of emotionally charged memories, why some especially stressful memories seem clear or different than other memories.  Cortisol is regulated by a complex interaction between parts of the brain known as the hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal axis (HPA axis). The HPA axis is an important neuroendocrine system that regulates digestion, the immune system, and of course stress. 

A <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Christoph_Jung8/publication/321489441_Is_dog_domestication_due_to_epigenetic_modulation_in_brain/links/5a8c6ffdaca27292c0f81dd4/Is-dog-domestication-due-to-epigenetic-modulation-in-brain.pdf?origin=publication_detail">2017 paper</a> on the domestication of dogs published in the journal <a href="https://www.dogbehavior.it/index.php?journal=dogbehavior&amp;page=article&amp;op=view&amp;path%5B%5D=55">Dog Behavior</a> suggests that the HPA axis was important in the genetic changes undergone from wild wolf to modern dog.  How the changes to such a complex system in the brain could change genetically so quickly seems a mystery when viewed from the perspective of traditional genetics and natural selection.  It’s likely that changes in the HPA axis happen so quickly as we’ve seen in the domestic foxes due to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/epigenetic-passed-future-generations/#.XJaj3BplChA">epigenetics</a>.

Epigenetics controls the expression of genetic traits.  Put another way, epigenetics turn ‘on’ or ‘off’ certain genes depending on complex internal systems and environmental factors.  For instance, schizophrenia is a disorder that can be inherited genetically but it takes specific environmental or other poorly understood conditions for someone with those genes to show symptoms of the disorder.  Some types of changes in the expression of genes can be inherited, although the study of this is a relatively new avenue of research. 

In DNA, form is often function.  The packaging and shape of genes are important to how they’re expressed.  The bundling of DNA on histones is the mechanism behind the turning ‘on’ or ‘off’ genes.  This can be inherited at least in nematode worms, new research shows. This means that the expression or suppression of certain genes could potentially quickly show inheritable changes in wolves or foxes.  Of course, such changes would depend on basic genetics, even if not expressed already being in place. 

Dogs and humans have similar brains due to their basic mammalian heritage and the shared similarities in social structure.  Empathy is part of this shared heritage. Yawning is contagious among humans because of our mental structure and an ability to empathize.  Yawning is also contagious among wolves. Not only this, but dogs are also empathetic towards humans (as humans are often also empathetic towards their dogs).  All of this together shows that the evolution from wolf to dog could occur very rapidly due to packaged suits of connected genes as well as dormant traits that could be turned ‘on’ or other less desirable traits that are turned ‘off’.

Our continued understanding of the complex ways in which genes are selected for, suppressed or expressed, sheds more light on the creation of humanity’s closest friend – the dog; the first domesticated animal and one of the most widespread.  It seems that when dogs were wolves sniffing around hunting camps, they may have already had their destinies written in their DNA. 

--

By <a href="mailto:zachfitzner@yahoo.com">Zach Fitzner</a>, <a href="http://earth.com">Earth.com</a> Contributing Writer

How epigenetics may have played a crucial role in dog domestication

The trip from wild wolf to domestic dog was most...

A team of researchers led by the <a href="https://welcome.miami.edu/">University of Miami</a> has found that toxic chemicals in ocean algae may be causing neurodegeneration in dolphins. The toxic algal blooms contain a neurotoxin called BMAA, which has previously been linked to a protein involved in Alzheimer’s among nonhuman primates. 

Evidence of BMAA has also been found in the brains of deceased Alzheimer’s patients and in those who suffered from another neurodegenerative condition called amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS), which is commonly known as Lou Gehrig’s disease.

“The findings of protein-bound BMAA in brain tissues from patients with Alzheimer’s disease has advanced the hypothesis that BMAA may be linked to dementia. Since dolphins are apex predators and consume prey containing high amounts of BMAA, we examined necropsy specimens to determine if dietary and environmental exposures may result in the accumulation of BMAA in the brains of dolphins,” wrote the researchers. 

The investigation was focused on 14 <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/captive-dolphins-kept-healthy/">dolphins</a> that washed up in Florida and Massachusetts. Using two analytical methods of liquid chromatography, the experts found significant levels of BMAA in all but one of the dolphins. The animals also showed neurodegenerative changes that resembled those seen in patients with Alzheimer's.

The study revealed that the amount of BMAA found in the dolphins’ brains was 1.4 times greater than levels observed in the brains of human patients with Alzheimer’s and ALS. 

The experts noted that the findings do not confirm that BMAA is the direct cause of neurodegeneration in dolphins, but the research indicates that there is a correlation. 

Study lead author David Davis is a neuropathologist at the <a href="https://welcome.miami.edu/">University of Miami</a> Miller School of Medicine. “Not to be too political, but it goes to show the health of marine animals and water quality,” Davis told the <a href="https://www.miamiherald.com/">Miami Herald</a>. “Everything’s directly related.”

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosone/">PLOS ONE</a>.

--

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Toxic algae may be linked to neurodegenerative disease in dolphins

A team of researchers led by the University of Miami...

They’re not quite zombies. They’re vegetarians. They make babies in the usual way … no unseemly gnawing of flesh necessary to spawn the next generation. Plants though? Well, those are fair game. Any hapless herbs unlucky enough to have eggs deposited upon them are goners. They are, in fact, utterly harmless to most animals, aside from an unpleasant taste if ingested. But homeowners and farmers in the United States might nonetheless be forgiven for making the comparison.

The bumbling incursions of the <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/warmer-temps-rise-stink-bugs/">brown marmorated stink bug</a> (Haly­omorpha halys) do almost resemble the mindless march of the undead. With a seemingly endless supply of footsoldiers, the species has trooped its way across the majority of America and made significant inroads in South America and Europe as well. And, as homeowners who have had their fortifications breached during hibernation season can attest, they’re undeterred by the defenses that might be deployed against most insect invaders. Pesticides have limited effect. Even swatting at them and sealing up their available points of ingress doesn’t stop them. They don’t seem to fear death. And they just keep coming.

These intruders have staged perhaps the most successful Asian conquest since Genghis Khan. And unlike the armies of Khan, they’re dormant for half of the year in colder climes. 

They weren’t always botanical pillagers. They once lived in relative harmony with their fellow creatures. In their native Asia, where they range through China, Korea, and Japan, they are kept in check by parasitic wasps. While they are pests there, their depredations are not nearly so severe. It was when they voyaged across the Atlantic and settled in North America that their rapacious tendencies really blossomed. 

They were first recorded in the United States <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/257141471_Tracing_the_origin_of_US_brown_marmorated_stink_bugs_Halyomorpha_halys">in 1996</a>, on Adams Island in Allentown, Pennsylvania, where they probably arrived in shipments from China. Further immigrants were noted in the Allentown area in 1998 and 1999. It wasn’t, however, until 2001 that the species was formally identified. That year, entomologist Karen M. Bernhard, who worked for the Lehigh County Cooperative Extension, was sent several specimens by homeowners. She shipped them off to the Cornell Univer­sity Insect Diagnostic Lab. There, it was confirmed that the species that had begun creeping into local homes was in fact the exotic brown marmorated stink bug, or BMSB. First identified by Western science in 1855, they are so named for their “marbled”—marmorated—brown exoskeletons and for the <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5027987/">pungent aldehydes</a> that they release when alarmed.

[caption id="attachment_1870137" align="aligncenter" width="650"]<a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/03/stinkbugs.jpg"><img class="wp-image-1870137" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/03/stinkbugs.jpg" alt="" width="650" height="488" /></a> Image Credit: Mike Lewinski/Flickr[/caption]

From Pennsylvania, the campaign rapidly proceeded to other states on the Eastern Seaboard. Currently, BMSBs are common east of the Mississippi. They spread to Oregon by 2004 and California by 2006, possibly as the result of separate introductions. The species is now <a href="https://www.stopbmsb.org/where-is-bmsb/state-by-state/">established in 44 states and in four Canadian provinces</a>. Genetic analysis has <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/257141471_Tracing_the_origin_of_US_brown_marmorated_stink_bugs_Halyomorpha_halys">traced the American populations to Beijing</a>, a major center of international commerce and thus a logical point of dispersal. 

Because they overwinter, human habitations are a perfect respite for BMSBs that might otherwise be forced to crawl under tree bark and wait out the cold. The cracks and crevices afforded by your average home provide superior shelter. And because the insects secrete an <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/263476623_Discovery_of_the_Aggregation_Pheromone_of_the_Brown_Marmorated_Stink_Bug_Halyomorpha_halys_through_the_Creation_of_Stereoisomeric_Libraries_of_1-Bisabolen-3-ols">aggregation pheromone</a>, attracting droves of their brethren to appealing habitats, this means that thousands may come pouring into attics and other unsealed areas. (They are <a href="https://bioone.org/journals/florida-entomologist/volume-99/issue-3/024.099.0304/Stink-Bugs-Hemiptera--Pentatomidae-in-Pheromone-Baited-Traps-Near/10.1653/024.099.0304.full">negatively geotactic</a>—they prefer higher areas and thus gravitate towards the upper reaches of a given abode.)

Over this past Thanksgiving, I visited the uninhabited attic room in my childhood home and the floors were carpeted with dead stink bugs that had failed to make their way outdoors after their hibernations in previous years. And a living one took a nosedive into my dinner, presumably attracted to the light fixture above the table. Indeed, the creatures are also positively phototactic—that is, they are drawn to sources of light. This has proven to be a boon to those beset by swarms of the insects. They are not particularly susceptible to indoor pesticide applications, which, in any case, present risks to humans. One of the best ways to combat indoor infestations is to set up a pan of soapy water and put a light over it in a dark room. The creatures will swarm to the light and inadvertently drown themselves in the pan. 

Farmers, however, are not so lucky. They usually must resort to more draconian measures, a distressing turn of events in an age where pesticide use is increasingly linked to all sorts of ecological problems, from the decline of beneficial insects to the poisoning of waterways. The generalist BMSBs feed on all sorts of crops and particularly afflict stone fruits, apples, corn, soybeans, and nightshades such as tomatoes. These insects caused $37 million in damaged to apple crops in the mid-Atlantic region <a href="https://www.growingproduce.com/fruits/apples-pears/brown-marmorated-stink-bug-causes-37-million-in-losses-to-mid-atlantic-apple-growers/">in 2010 alone</a> and other growers have also seen significant losses. The BMSB, which preferentially feeds on fruits, penetrates them with its sucking mouthparts, known as a rostrum, leaving wounds that affect the quality of the fruits. Some fail to develop around the area of penetration, leaving indentations known as “cat face.” Others form mushy or corky areas that make the fruits unsaleable. The creatures will also feed on other areas of plants and can even pierce the bark of some trees. Because the bugs are less susceptible to pesticides than other insects, applications must be heavier. Luckily, a number of solutions have gotten around that. 

BMSBs appear to congregate on the perimeters of crop fields and orchards adjacent to forests. Thus, it may be more effective to treat those areas rather than the entire growing area. This effect can be amplified by the use of aggregation pheromone baits. The BSMB is drawn to pheromones released by its conspecifics. It loves a crowd and when it finds one, it excretes a substance that signals its satisfaction and attracts more. The application of artificial formulations of this pheromone can concentrate the invaders in specific areas, which can then be treated with localized applications of pesticides. 

More effective, however, may be its natural predators, namely the parasitoid Trissolcus japonicus, colloquially known as the samurai wasp. This tiny winged assassin deposits its eggs inside stink bug eggs, where its larvae devour the developing embryos. Up to 90% of stink bug eggs are parasitized where the wasp’s range overlaps with that of the stink bug in their native habitat. Agricultural Research (ARS) scientists discovered the miniature wasp, hardly bigger than a period, in the stink bug’s native Asian range. They began conducting lab trials to see if the wasp would have deleterious effects on native stink bugs and other insects in introduced in the United States. (Given the disastrous effects of other introductions intended to control agricultural pests, such as the cane toad in Australia, such trials are essential in assessing risk.) 

However, <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/274639916_Trissolcus_japonicus_Ashmead_Hymenoptera_Scelionidae_emerges_in_North_America_Trissolcus_japonicus_Ashmead_Hymenoptera_Scelionidae_emerges_in_North_America">in 2014</a>, it was discovered that the wasp had already <a href="https://www.sciencemag.org/news/2018/08/scientists-spent-years-plan-import-wasp-kill-stinkbugs-then-it-showed-its-own">colonized the United States on its own</a>. They had been found in Maryland and soon turned up elsewhere, including British Columbia, Virginia, and New York, as well as Oregon and Washington. <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10340-018-1061-2">By 2017</a>, they had popped up in Switzerland too, giving hope to afflicted farmers and gardeners in Europe. That year and the next, experimental populations of the wasp were released to determine their effects on the stink bugs. More wide-scale introductions await USDA approval.

[caption id="attachment_1870138" align="aligncenter" width="650"]<a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/03/female-parasitoid-wasp.jpg"><img class="wp-image-1870138" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/03/female-parasitoid-wasp.jpg" alt="" width="650" height="427" /></a> Female parasitoid wasp (Trissolcus mitsukurii), Image Credit: US Department of Agriculture[/caption]

Predaceous insects native to or already well-established in North America may be having an effect as well. <a href="http://bugoftheweek.com/blog/2013/9/20/death-of-a-stink-bug-part-1-a-curious-reunion-between-the-brown-marmorated-stink-bug-ihaylomorpha-halysi-and-the-chinese-praying-mantis-itenodera-sinensisi?rq=stink%20bug">Praying mantises</a>—originally from the BSMB’s native China—have been observed eating them and so have some spiders. Some birds, too, have been seen gobbling up them up. This may explain the fact that populations are declining in some of their East Coast strongholds. Cold winters, too, may have taken out some of the insect mercenaries. The polar vortex this year, which saw sub-zero temperatures, will likely prove to have been particularly devastating, at least to bugs that remained outdoors. 

For now, though, the BMSB is still shambling its way across our fruited plains—and sucking the life out of them.

--

By <a href="mailto:rtpallardy@gmail.com">Richard Pallardy</a>, <a href="http://earth.com">Earth.com</a> Contributing Writer

Where did all of these stink bugs come from?

They’re not quite zombies. They’re vegetarians. They make babies in...

Experts at the <a href="https://www.uea.ac.uk/">University of East Anglia</a> have discovered that when female birds have help raising their offspring, they live longer and healthier lives. The research may help to explain why <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/people-unconsciously-recreate-ancient-africa/">humans</a> and other social species that live together in groups tend to live longer.

The study was focused on the relationship between offspring rearing patterns and aging among Seychelles warblers.

“There is huge variation in lifespan between different species, and also between individuals within a species. But we know very little about what causes one individual to live a long healthy life, and another to die young. Or indeed, why individuals in one species live much longer than individuals in another similar species,” said Professor David S. Richardson.

“Finding out more about what causes biological ageing is really important. And, until now, there has been very little known about the relationship between sociality and ageing within species.”

There are many species that use cooperative breeding systems in which offspring are cared for by their parents and also by other adult members of the group known as “helpers.” To investigate how this cooperation may affect the process of aging, the research team analyzed more than 15 years of data on the breeding patterns of Seychelles warblers living on the small island of Cousin.

[caption id="attachment_1870120" align="aligncenter" width="650"]<a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/03/warbler-family-group.jpg"><img class="wp-image-1870120" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/03/warbler-family-group.jpg" alt="" width="650" height="488" /></a> Seychelles Warbler family, Image Credit: Janske Van De Crommenacker[/caption]

“In the Seychelles warbler the majority of helpers are female - and they assist with incubating the eggs and providing food for the chicks. This means that the parents don't need to do as much work when they have help,” said Professor Richardson. 

“We found that older dominant females really benefit from having female helpers - they lose less of their telomeres and are less likely to die in the near future. This shows they are aging slower than females without helpers. Interestingly, these older female mothers were also more likely to have female helpers.”

“Meanwhile the survival of elderly birds who were not assisted by helpers declined rapidly with age. The birds only need one female helper to show the effect of delayed ageing, and indeed most only have either one or no helpers. Very few may have two or three helpers, but there were not enough of those to determine whether there would be a greater benefit in having more helpers.”

Dr. Martijn Hammers explained that, for the older mothers, there are real benefits to cooperative breeding. 

“Biologically speaking they stay 'younger' for longer, and they are more likely to live longer,” said Dr. Hammers. “What we don't know yet is why some older individuals have helpers, which enable them to live longer, and some don't despite the obvious benefits. Further research is needed to confirm the causality of the associations we have found."

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/ncomms/">Nature Communications</a>.

--

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Image Credit: Janske Van De Crommenacker

Female birds live longer lives when they have help raising the kids

Experts at the University of East Anglia have discovered that...

Orcas are certainly among the most recognizable marine mammals.  From their place in Sea World, to appearances in movies like <a href="https://www.imdb.com/title/tt0106965/">Free Willy</a>, orcas are well known and even beloved by the public.  Also known as <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/male-killer-whales-hunt-eat/">killer whales</a>, these animals are also important culturally and spiritually to many native peoples of the coastal northwest and polar regions.  But despite the orca’s cultural presence, we don’t know as much as we think we do about the large porpoise.

Nature documentaries have shown the skill and cunning orcas can use when hunting or even playing.  It’s obvious from the most basic observations that orcas are social animals, living in pods and working together to secure food.  

There are an estimated 50,000 orcas in the wild today.  According to the <a href="https://www.nwfsc.noaa.gov/news/features/killer_whale_report/pdfs/bigreport62514.pdf">National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA)</a>, orcas live in every ocean in the world, and even the killer whales found in the ocean off the northwestern US coast show a lot of variability.  There are at least three different types of orca known to science in the Pacific Northwest. 

Resident orcas include northern and southern west coast populations that remain relatively close to a particular location, without much migration or long distance wandering.  Residents live in large pods and eat fish primarily. 

Transient killer whales, also known as Bigg’s killer whales, live in smaller groups of ten or fewer individual orcas.  These orcas wander extensively up and down the west coast of North America and feed exclusively marine mammals, which require more complex hunting skills. 

Offshore orcas are thought to feed on fish, squid and sharks.  These orcas have been found in groups as large as 200 individual killer whales.  This is the least studied group of orcas in the Pacific Northwest.

According to the <a href="https://us.whales.org/meet-the-different-types-of-orcas/">Whale and Dolphin Conservation</a>, there are even more specific types of orca in other parts of the world.  In the North Atlantic region, there are two orca ecotypes. The first type feeds mainly on herring and mackerel near Norway and occasionally on seals.  The other North Atlantic orca group feeds on other cetaceans, mainly minke whales. 

In the Southern Hemisphere as in the Northern, there are five distinct orca ecotypes with separate but related hunting techniques, vocalizations and social groups.

One group like their northern counterparts mainly hunts minke whales.  Another group often appears brown from the growth of diatoms on their skins.  These brown orcas are famous for hunting by washing seals and other prey off safe pieces of ice by creating waves.  

Another group is smaller and also colored with diatoms but less is known about their diet.  These orcas have been seen eating penguins and are often found near penguin colonies. 

The last two orca ecotypes are the smallest, and there is relatively little known about them. The most recently discovered orca with shorter dorsal fins, a rounded head and the smallest eye patch, has only been seen a few times since first sighted in the 1950s.  This last orca type, officially named type D, has been in the news recently. 

With so many distinct populations spread over such wide expanses of ocean, orcas are difficult animals to study.  Even harder is determining how deep the differences between populations go. <a href="https://www.fisheries.noaa.gov/species/killer-whale">NOAA</a> reports that there may be different species or subspecies but so far there’s officially only one identified – Orcinus orca.  But scientists are now saying that might soon change.  

Previously, type D orcas were known to science only by amateur photographs and descriptions as well as one mass stranding in New Zealand.  Live type D orcas have never been studied by professional marine biologists... until now. <a href="https://www.nationalgeographic.com/animals/2019/03/new-killer-whale-species-discovered/">National Geographic</a> reports that for the first time, scientists have observed live type D orcas in the wild.  The orcas were found off the coast of Chile, a place famous for rough waters and some of the worst weather in the world. 

Robert Pitman, a scientist with NOAA, was one of the team members that observed the orcas and told National Geographic that he suspects that they are a separate species of orca from Orcinus orca.

The researchers were tipped off by fishermen who had recently seen a pod of orcas in the area.  Following up on the sighting, the scientists set sail in the research vessel Australis, dropped anchor and waited.  After more than a week, a pod of about 25 orcas finally approached the scientist’s ship. 

The scientists were ready for the large marine mammals.  A hydrophone set in the water to record vocalizations was inspected by the curious orcas but they didn’t cooperate by making any noises.  The team also filmed the killer whales from above and below the water. Most importantly for the research, a small tissue sample of skin and blubber was collected for DNA analysis, a common procedure.  

The DNA analysis when completed, should be complete proof of whether type d orcas are indeed a different species.  For now, the scientists are still waiting for a permit to export the tissue sample they collected from Chile.

The type D orcas are also especially hard to study, living in the open ocean, an environment foreign to humans.  Their large range too makes it hard to consistently find the same group of orcas again and again. These factors combined with the remote and dangerous nature of the ocean waters between Chile and Antarctica help explain why so little is known about Orcas and why only now researchers may be collecting proof of another species of Orca.  

Some scientists suspect there may be even more than two species of orca, but without solid evidence, it’s just speculation.  So far, all that can be said with certainty is that there are several ecotypes of orca, each exhibiting to some degree unique behavior and diets.  Whether two or more species of orca will be found to exist is a question that will only be answered with time. 

For now, we should be thrilled with this vivid example of how large and how wild the seas are.  Even orcas, animals we feel we know, are mysterious to us. 

--

By <a href="mailto:zachfitzner@yahoo.com">Zach Fitzner</a>, <a href="http://earth.com">Earth.com</a> Contributing Writer

Orcas spotted off the coast of Chile could be a new species

Orcas are certainly among the most recognizable marine mammals.  From...

The sighting of a pregnant <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/manta-rays-filtration-system/#.XJQNLihKhPY">manta ray</a> off the Cocos Island in Costa Rica in the eastern Pacific Ocean is making waves among marine scientists. 

It’s the first time that a manta ray has been spotted so far away from the coastal waters it usually inhabits, and researchers from <a href="https://finsattached.org/">Fins Attached Marine Research and Conservation</a> say that the female traveled further than any other known reef manta ray. 

Cocos Island is located around 300 miles from any suitable habitat for the species, and the ray was spotted 3,000 miles away from the nearest confirmed manta ray sighting, according to research published in the journal <a href="https://mbr.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s41200-019-0162-9">Marine Biodiversity Records. </a>

How the manta ray ended up near Cocos is uncertain, but it’s possible that stress or some other factor forced the manta away from familiar territory and the animal swam in a straight line into the open ocean. 

“Reef mantas may travel several hundred kilometres, although they tend not to travel too far offshore,” said Randall Arauz, the first author of the study. “It is unclear how this individual could have steered so far off course, leading us to assume it was not intentional.”

Typically reef manta rays stay near coastal reefs, and female mantas give birth to just one pup every two to five years. Researchers have yet to witness a live manta ray birth in the wild. 

Manta rays can grow up to 16 feet and this particularly manta ray is about 11 feet long. An acoustic tag has been attached to the manta ray to help keep track of its movements. 

“This extraordinary sighting challenges everything we currently know about the migratory behavior of this species and its ability to undertake long-distance movements across open ocean environments,” said Dr. Andrea Marshall, a co-author of the study. “It will be interesting to monitor her over the coming months and see how she uses this new, unfamiliar habitat.” 

--

By <a href="mailto:kayvandette@gmail.com">Kay Vandette</a>,<a href="https://www.earth.com/"> Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 

Image Credit: Mauricio Hoyos

Pregnant reef manta ray spotted thousands of miles from its habitat

The sighting of a pregnant manta ray off the Cocos Island...

<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/marine-jellies-first-animals/#.XJO0AihKhPY">Comb jellies</a> are iridescent swimming carnivores that are covered in hairy like protrusions called cilia. These densely packed hairs help the comb jellies maneuver through the ocean. Comb jellies given new spot on the evolutionary tree of life 

The comb jelly’s cilia have also helped researchers create a clearer picture of the species’ evolution after it was discovered that comb jellies closely resemble a 520 million-year-old fossil found in the Yunnan Province in South China. 

In a new study conducted by paleontologists from the <a href="http://www.bristol.ac.uk/">University of Bristol</a>, <a href="http://english.ynu.edu.cn/">Yunnan University</a>, and the <a href="http://www.nhm.ac.uk/">Natural History Museum in London</a>, researchers compared comb jellies to an ancient fossil that has 18 tentacles surrounding its mouth and on the tentacles are feathery branches with well-preserved cilia hairs. 

The research was published in the journal Current Biology, and the results show that comb jellies are related to seafloor dwelling ancestors that had polyp tentacles.Comb jellies given new spot on the evolutionary tree of life 

The discovery has led to the comb jellies being given a new spot on the evolutionary tree of life, as the researchers say that comb jellies should be placed next to sea anemones and corals. 

“When I first saw the fossil, I immediately noticed some features I had seen in comb jellies,” said Dr. Jakob Vinther, a member of the research team. “You could see these repeated dark stains along each tentacle that resembles how comb jelly combs fossilise. The fossil also preserves rows of cilia, which can be seen because they are huge. Across the Tree of Life, such large ciliary structures are only found in comb jellies.”

[caption id="attachment_1870095" align="aligncenter" width="650"]<a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/03/comb-specimen.jpg"><img class="wp-image-1870095" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/03/comb-specimen.jpg" alt="" width="650" height="861" /></a> Holotype specimen of Daihua sanqiong. Image Credit: Yang Zhao[/caption]

The researchers were able to track the evolution of the 520-million-year-old floor dwelling fossil to comb jellies that roam the oceans today. The combs of comb jellies evolved from polyp-like tentacles, and their mouths expanded into balloon-like spheres. 

“It was probably one of the most exhilarating moments of my life,” said Vinther. “We pulled out a zoology textbook and tried to wrap our head around the various differences and similarities, and then, bam!--here is another fossil that fills this gap.”

--

By <a href="mailto:kayvandette@gmail.com">Kay Vandette</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/">Earth.com </a>Staff Writer

Comb jellies given new spot on the evolutionary tree of life

Comb jellies are iridescent swimming carnivores that are covered in...

A new study from the <a href="https://www.usda.gov/">U.S. Department of Agriculture</a> (USDA) has found that honey bee colonies become more healthy and productive with a cover of clover species and alfalfa. The colonies were found to be three times as successful in these non-crop fields compared to their performance next to crop fields of canola or sunflowers.

The investigation was focused on managed <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/pesticide-honey-bee-deaths/">honey bee</a> colonies placed next to land in the U.S. Department of Agriculture Conservation Reserve Program (CRP) in North Dakota. 

The colonies were found to have higher numbers of bees and demonstrated the improved ability to produce vitellogenin, which has many important roles. Vitellogenin serves as the base for royal jelly and provides a critical food storage reservoir for honey bee colonies. In the spring, a colony's success depends on total vitellogenin reserves carried by specialized bees over the winter. 

After six months of foraging on CRP land, over 78 percent of the colonies were graded A, the highest possible level. On the other hand, only 20 percent of colonies placed near crop fields could be rated with a grade of A and 55 percent of these colonies were either struggling or dead.

Kirk E. Anderson is a microbiologist at the USDA Agricultural Research Service (ARS) Carl Hayden Bee Research Center in Tucson, Arizona.

“With California almond growers having paid an average of $190 per Grade A colony in the 2018 almond pollination season, the need for beekeepers to have access to land that has diverse and substantial nectar and pollen sources is obvious,” explained Anderson.

[caption id="attachment_1870087" align="aligncenter" width="650"]<a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/03/field.jpg"><img class="wp-image-1870087" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/03/field.jpg" alt="" width="650" height="351" /></a> Image Credit: ARS-USDA[/caption]

“We've also shown that the benefits of high quality forage such as that provided by CRP land carries right through the overwintering period and leaves bees in the best shape to build up their numbers before being needed to pollinate almonds in February and early March,” added ARS molecular biologist Vincent Ricigliano.

Anderson said that the findings provide land managers and scientists with methods to evaluate the relationship between bees and the landscape. “For beekeepers, it provides a basis for making decisions about where to put their apiaries for the summer and fall after crop pollination ends so that the colonies will be in a position to build up robust healthy numbers in time for the migration to California for almond pollination.”

The study is published in the journal <a href="http://www.nature.com/scientificreports">Scientific Reports</a>.

--

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Main Image Credit: ARS-USDA

Honey bee colonies are healthier and more productive in non-crop fields

A new study from the U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA)...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2E0mn5mTvhQ
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">'Death Star' moon Mimas conceals a 15-million-year-old ocean that scientists never expected.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hidden-waters-beneath-ancient-craters">Hidden waters beneath ancient craters</h2>



Scientists have made a startling discovery that challenges everything we thought we knew about <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/saturn-moon-mimas-has-remarkably-young-ocean/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Saturn's moon Mimas</a>. Beneath the heavily cratered surface that earned it the nickname "Death Star" lies a global ocean that formed just 5 to 15 million years ago—a remarkably young age by cosmic standards.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cassini-data-reveals-orbital-secrets">Cassini data reveals orbital secrets</h2>



The discovery, led by Dr. Valéry Lainey of the <a href="https://observatoiredeparis.psl.eu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Observatoire de Paris</a>, emerged from careful analysis of <a href="https://www.nasa.gov" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NASA</a>'s Cassini spacecraft data. By studying subtle irregularities in Mimas's orbit around Saturn, researchers detected the gravitational signature of liquid water hidden 20 to 30 kilometers beneath the moon's icy shell.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-an-unlikely-ocean-world">An unlikely ocean world</h2>



At only 400 kilometers in diameter, Mimas seemed like the least likely candidate to harbor a subsurface ocean. Unlike other ocean moons such as Europa and Enceladus, which show clear surface signs of internal activity, Mimas displays no obvious hints of the liquid water beneath its ancient, crater-scarred exterior.



"Mimas is a small moon, and its heavily cratered surface gave no hint of the hidden ocean beneath," explained Dr. Nick Cooper from <a href="https://www.qmul.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Queen Mary University of London</a>, a study co-author.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-astrobiology">Implications for astrobiology</h2>



The ocean's recent formation makes Mimas a prime target for studying how oceans develop and potentially support life. This discovery adds another member to the exclusive club of ocean worlds in our solar system, each offering unique insights into the conditions necessary for habitability.



The research, published in <a href="https://www.nature.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature</a> journal, demonstrates how advanced orbital analysis can reveal hidden features of celestial bodies, opening new possibilities for understanding ocean formation throughout the cosmos.



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Scientists discover unexpected young ocean on Saturn's cratered moon Mimas

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2E0mn5mTvhQ 'Death Star' moon Mimas conceals a 15-million-year-old ocean that...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE
</div></figure>



On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop and sunlight barely penetrates through the polar winter. It was here, however, that an international team of scientists found <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/predatory-worms-were-terror-beasts-half-a-billion-years-ago/#google_vignette" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evidence of sea monsters</a> that would change our understanding of ocean life in the past.



This video captures the discovery of Timorebestia fossils that had been hidden for more than 500 million years in the Sirius Passet formation. The "terror beasts," as they are called, are a hidden chapter in the evolutionary history of <a href="https://www.earth.com" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Earth</a>, showing that sophisticated predator-prey interactions occurred much earlier than previously envisioned.



Dr. Jakob Vinther and his research team at the <a href="https://www.bristol.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Bristol</a>, in collaboration with researchers at the <a href="https://eng.kopri.re.kr/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Korean Polar Research Institute</a>, braved extreme weather conditions at 82.5 north latitude to locate these giant creatures. Using sophisticated electron microprobe analysis, they revealed the detailed anatomy of the animals, including their muscle and nerve tissues.



The find upsets the traditional timeline of sea predators. Although we've long appreciated that Cambrian oceans were at one time ruled by <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jWI3-UgA3_o&amp;list=PL1QLQMW9MWDwpkFOnvgAmu7wT6rZmYqdJ&amp;index=19" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">arthropods</a>, these discoveries indicate that relatives of arrow worms were first to dominate the seas. These worms were building sophisticated food webs several million years before other predator groups arose.



Each fossil is a story of ancient hunger, with fossil stomach contents revealing these meter-long beasts dined on heavily armored arthropods regularly, cementing their place as the ocean's first apex predators.



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Worms dominated seas before dinosaurs

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">New York is the site of the world's oldest forest.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-385-million-year-old-trees-discovered">385-million-year-old trees discovered</h2>



Scientists have uncovered something extraordinary just two hours north of New York City. The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/worlds-oldest-forest-discovered-close-to-new-york-city/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">world's oldest forest</a>, dating back 385 million years, offers a window into how Earth's first complex forests shaped our planet's atmosphere.



Located near <a href="https://townofcairo.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cairo, New York</a>, in Greene County, these weren't merely primitive plants struggling to survive. These were sophisticated trees with root systems remarkably similar to modern forests. This ancient woodland predates dinosaurs by 140 million years.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-cairo-forest-discovery">The Cairo forest discovery</h2>



385 million years ago, upstate New York was a tropical paradise near the equator. Thanks to continental drift, this ancient forest has traveled thousands of miles to its current location.



The fossil forest sits in an abandoned quarry, roughly half the size of a football field. This represents just a slice of what was likely a massive forest system stretching from New York into Pennsylvania.



Charles Ver Straeten, curator of sedimentary rocks at the <a href="https://www.nysm.nysed.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">New York State Museum</a>, made the discovery in 2009. While scouting the former highway department property, his trained eye spotted wandering patterns in the stone that looked like marine features.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-revolutionary-age-and-preservation">Revolutionary age and preservation</h2>



The site contains 385-million-year-old rocks with fossilized woody roots forming horizontal patterns up to 18 feet (5.5 meters) wide. As Christopher Berry, a paleobotanist at Cardiff University, explains: "You are walking through the roots of ancient trees."



This discovery pushes back advanced tree evolution by millions of years. The research, published in <a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/home" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Current Biology</a> in December 2019, fundamentally changes our understanding of when complex forests first emerged.



Researchers believe a massive flood buried the forest floor, creating perfect fossilization conditions. Over millions of years, sediment hardened into rock, preserving these root patterns like nature's time capsule.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-meet-archaeopteris-the-first-modern-tree">Meet Archaeopteris: the first modern tree</h2>



The star of this ancient forest is Archaeopteris – not to be confused with the feathered dinosaur Archaeopteryx. This tree was far older and more revolutionary.



William Stein from <a href="https://www.binghamton.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Binghamton University</a> describes the roots as "strikingly modern, essentially what you'd see outside in my yard right now." These weren't simple root systems you'd expect from ancient plants.



Some fossilized roots are six inches (15 centimeters) in diameter, forming 36-foot-wide (11-meter) patterns. These giants grew up to 65 feet (20 meters) tall with five-foot-diameter (1.5-meter) trunks.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-changing-impact">Climate-changing impact</h2>



These trees fundamentally changed Earth's environment. Kevin Boyce, a Stanford University geoscientist, explains how their deep roots triggered "weathering," chemical reactions that pulled carbon dioxide from the atmosphere.



This process dropped atmospheric CO2 levels from 10-15 times higher than today to roughly modern concentrations. These ancient trees helped create atmospheric conditions that made complex life possible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ancient-forest-ecosystem">Ancient forest ecosystem</h2>



The forest was remarkably diverse. Scientists identified Eospermatopteris, palm tree-like plants with short roots that reached 30 feet (9 meters) tall but lacked woody structure. The forest also housed cladoxylopsids and a mysterious third species still being studied.



All reproduced through spores rather than seeds – millions of years before seeds evolved. This tropical environment had no grass, flowers, or flying insects, just towering trees creating Earth's first complex forest canopy.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-scientific-significance">Scientific significance</h2>



Before this finding, the Gilboa forest, located 25 miles (40 kilometers) away, held the "oldest forest" title. Cairo's trees are 2-3 million years older, showing that complex forest ecosystems developed much faster than scientists believed possible.



Patricia Gensel, a <a href="https://www.unc.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of North Carolina</a> paleobotanist, notes: "The size of those root systems is really changing the picture. Even 20 years ago, researchers assumed trees with such complex root systems didn't evolve so early."



The Cairo site presents three unique root systems, suggesting Devonian period forests were diverse ecosystems with different trees occupying different environmental niches, much like today's forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-modern-preservation-efforts">Modern preservation efforts</h2>



In 2022, New York State Senator Michelle Hinchey secured a $170,000 grant for the town of Cairo to construct specialized fencing around the fossil forest site. The town plans to conduct a feasibility study exploring the possibility of creating an educational center and working lab on-site.



Joe Hasenkopf, chair of the Cairo Planning Board, hopes to partner with educational institutions to create a research facility serving scientists, students, and the public.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lessons-for-today-s-climate">Lessons for today's climate</h2>



Why does a 385-million-year-old forest matter today? It shows how dramatically forests can change Earth's climate. These ancient woodlands created the atmospheric conditions supporting complex life.



Understanding how prehistoric forests transformed the planet helps us appreciate modern forests' critical role in addressing climate change. Forests remain Earth's most effective carbon capture systems.



These prehistoric trees changed Earth's atmosphere by pulling massive amounts of carbon dioxide from the air. As we face modern climate challenges, this ancient forest reminds us of trees' incredible power to transform our planet's environment.



The next time you walk through a forest, remember you're experiencing an ecosystem whose blueprint was established 385 million years ago in upstate New York. These ancient pioneers didn't just survive – they thrived and changed the world forever.



The full study was published in the journal Current Biology.



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Earth's oldest forest found in the United States

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ New York is the site of the world's oldest...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Acid rain and a crisis solved.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-don-t-we-ever-hear-about-acid-rain-anymore-the-environmental-crisis-that-was-solved">Why don't we ever hear about "acid rain" anymore? The environmental crisis that was solved</h2>



Remember the 1980s when acid rain dominated headlines? Dire warnings about rain eating buildings, killing fish, and destroying forests filled every news cycle. Then, almost like magic, acid rain vanished from public discourse. What happened? Did we actually solve one of the late 20th century's most pressing environmental challenges?



The answer might surprise you. Unlike many environmental issues that drag on indefinitely, acid rain represents one of modern history's most successful ecological recovery stories. It's a tale of science, politics, and technology working together to tackle what seemed impossible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What was acid rain?</h2>



Acid rain isn't regular rain having a bad day – it's precipitation that became significantly more acidic due to air pollution. When power plants, factories, and vehicles burn fossil fuels, they release sulfur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides (NOx) into the atmosphere.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The science behind it</h2>



Think of acid rain as nature's chemistry experiment gone wrong. These compounds react with water, oxygen, and other chemicals to form sulfuric and nitric acids. When mixed with water vapor in clouds, they create precipitation with dangerously low pH levels.



While clean rain has a pH of about 5.6, acid rain could drop as low as 4.2 to 4.4 – roughly as acidic as tomato juice or coffee. According to US Geological Survey documentation, Scottish chemist Angus Smith first coined "acid rain" in 1872, but it didn't become a household phrase until the 1960s and 1970s when Swedish scientist Svante Odén documented its devastating effects on Scandinavian lakes and European forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The crisis at its peak</h2>



During the height of public concern, environmental damage was both widespread and visible. This wasn't some abstract future threat – people could see destruction happening in real-time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Environmental devastation</h2>



The most dramatic impacts were impossible to ignore. Research documented by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation and the New York State Department of Environmental Conservation shows that in the Adirondack Mountains, more than 200 lakes became so acidic they couldn't support fish life. The Adirondack Council reports that 409 lakes once supported brook trout, but many lost their fish populations due to acid rain.



By 1976, when scientists cataloged all acidified lakes in the Adirondack Park, researchers found that half of the lakes over 2,000 feet above sea level had no fish, according to studies published in environmental journals. The acidification process worked like a slow-motion disaster. As acid rain fell into watersheds, it gradually lowered pH levels. Fish couldn't survive in acidic water, and their food sources died off too.



Trees at high elevations showed stress directly linked to acid rain. It weakened them by leaching nutrients and making them susceptible to disease. Historical records show Germany's Black Forest saw nearly half its trees damaged by the mid-1980s.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Economic impact</h2>



Acid rain wasn't just environmental – it was expensive. Acidic precipitation corroded infrastructure, buildings, and monuments. Historic stone structures deteriorated at accelerated rates. Tourism suffered as lakes became fishless and forests declined. EPA economic analyses from the period documented repair costs mounting into billions annually.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The solution: government action and technology</h2>



Transformation from crisis to success required unprecedented cooperation between governments, industries, and environmental groups.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The Clean Air Act of 1990</h2>



The turning point came with the Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990, signed by President George H.W. Bush. This represented a fundamentally new approach to environmental regulation, as documented in EPA historical records.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Cap-and-trade success</h2>



Instead of mandating specific technologies, the 1990 amendments introduced something revolutionary: a cap-and-trade system for sulfur dioxide emissions. EPA program documentation shows this market-based approach set overall limits but allowed companies to trade emission allowances.



The genius was harnessing market forces to find cost-effective pollution reduction. Companies reducing emissions cheaply could sell excess allowances to those facing higher costs. Research published in environmental economics journals and EPA progress reports shows this resulted in dramatic SO2 reduction at a fraction of projected costs.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Technology advances</h2>



Policy provided the framework, but technology made reductions possible. Studies in atmospheric science journals document the widespread adoption of flue gas desulfurization systems ("scrubbers") that removed sulfur dioxide before it reached the atmosphere. By the 2000s, new installations could remove over 95% of SO2 emissions, according to EPA technical reports.



The push coincided with cleaner energy development. Natural gas produces fewer sulfur compounds than coal. Wind and solar, emerging in the 1990s, captured growing market share, reducing reliance on high-sulfur coal.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-we-don-t-hear-about-it-today">Why we don't hear about it today</h2>



Why did acid rain disappear from headlines? Simple: the problem was largely solved.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Success doesn't make news</h2>



There's an old journalism saying: "If it bleeds, it leads." Environmental success stories don't generate urgency like crisis reporting. Media attention shifted to other challenges: climate change, plastic pollution, and biodiversity loss. There's only so much environmental anxiety the public can absorb, and newer concerns replaced acid rain.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Mission accomplished</h2>



The primary reason is beautifully simple: interventions worked. EPA monitoring data shows sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990. Academic research published in environmental science journals confirms pH levels in formerly affected areas returned closer to normal. This represents one of history's most dramatic environmental recoveries. Studies by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation show fishless lakes now support healthy populations. Forests recovered, and building damage slowed dramatically.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-is-it-really-gone">Is it really gone?</h2>



The crisis is largely resolved, but monitoring data shows the problem isn't completely eliminated – it's managed to acceptable levels. Some areas still experience occasional events during high pollution periods. International environmental research indicates that rapidly industrializing Asian countries face similar problems to what we experienced decades ago, though they're implementing successful strategies.



EPA research shows nitrogen oxide emissions proved more challenging than sulfur dioxide, coming from vehicles and mobile sources. Climate science studies suggest changing weather patterns add complexity to how acid rain forms and falls.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What this teaches us</h2>



The acid rain experience proves that seemingly intractable environmental problems can be solved with scientific understanding, political will, and technological innovation. Environmental monitoring data shows recovery speed was remarkable – within a decade, measurable improvements appeared in air quality and ecosystem health.



Success came from bipartisan support across party lines. Policy analysis studies show the market-based approach appealed to those preferring economic incentives while achieving environmental goals. This support created lasting policy surviving political changes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Conclusion</h2>



Acid rain's disappearance from public consciousness represents environmental science's greatest success stories. Through effective regulation, technological innovation, and international cooperation, we transformed an overwhelming crisis into a manageable challenge.



Today's silence isn't because we forgot – it's because we solved it. The 1990 Clean Air Act, combined with technology and energy market changes, reduced acid rain emissions over 90%, according to comprehensive EPA data analysis.



This success offers hope for current challenges. It proves complex problems can be solved when science, policy, and technology work together. As we face climate change and plastic pollution, acid rain reminds us that dramatic positive change is possible.



Next time someone asks whether environmental regulations work, remember acid rain. It's proof that sometimes, we get it right.



<hr class="wp-block-separator has-alpha-channel-opacity"/>



Sources: This article draws from EPA official documentation and progress reports, peer-reviewed research published in environmental and atmospheric science journals, historical data from the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation, New York State Department of Environmental Conservation records, US Geological Survey publications, policy analysis studies, and environmental monitoring data collected over three decades.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Frequently Asked Questions</h2>



1. Is acid rain completely gone? No, but EPA monitoring shows it's reduced to manageable levels. US sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990, making acid rain much less severe than the 1980s crisis.



2. How long did solving take? Environmental monitoring data shows significant improvements began within 5-10 years of 1990s emission controls. Full ecosystem recovery took longer – some areas need 20-30 years for complete recovery.



3. What made the solution successful? Clear scientific understanding, visible damage motivating action, bipartisan support, available technology, and innovative market-based policies like cap-and-trade.



4. Do other countries have acid rain problems? Yes, particularly rapidly industrializing Asian countries. However, international environmental research shows many implement similar successful control strategies.



5. Could acid rain return? Potentially, if regulations weaken or we return to high-sulfur coal without controls, though effects would take years to become severe according to environmental projections.



6. Can you recommend any teaching tools on the subject of "acid rain"? The United States Environmental Protection Agency produced a wonderful teacher's guide for ages 14 and under that you can find on the EPA website here: <a href="https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf</a>



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The environmental problem we actually solved

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk Acid rain and a crisis solved. Why don't we...

Fresh,Radish,Harvest,On,Soil,In,Garden.

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://youtu.be/Fi2OeEwuzRM?si=vTyd2m9FMmtyWkex
</div></figure>







Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving fall garden, and this guide lays out the best vegetables and herbs to plant now for a fruitful autumn harvest. 



Fast-growing leafy greens such as spinach, lettuce, kale, and arugula perform especially well in the waning summer heat, with harvests beginning as soon as 30 days. 



These cool-season crops relish the transition into fall, offering repeated yields with cut-and-come-again methods.



Root vegetables like radishes, carrots, and beets also excel during this period. Radishes deliver satisfaction in under a month, while carrots and beets mature in about two months. Employing succession planting ensures a continuous stream of produce deep into the cooler months. 



For a boost of fresh flavor, herbs like cilantro, basil, dill, and chervil are excellent picks. These heat-loving varieties flourish in July’s warmth and are harvest-ready in about 30 days, especially when sown continuously.



Gardeners in zones 6 through 9 can benefit from planting bush beans and snap peas, which don’t require trellising and are ideal for compact plots. 



Maturing in 50–60 days, they’re a smart choice for quick, protein-rich harvests. For those in hotter regions, heat-tolerant crops such as okra and southern peas provide reliable yields and thrive in scorching conditions.



This guide emphasizes more than crop selection—it highlights the importance of timing, soil preparation, and ongoing sowing techniques. 



With thoughtful planning and attention to regional climate needs, even late-summer gardeners can enjoy fresh salads, hearty stews, and the satisfaction of a robust, homegrown harvest well into fall.



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What to plant in your garden in mid-July

https://youtu.be/Fi2OeEwuzRM?si=vTyd2m9FMmtyWkex Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving...

Green,Ecoduct,Over,An,Empty,Highway,During,Sunset.

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://youtu.be/XYgiPzmNBTU?si=eFYY7gPHU1JznLvU
</div></figure>



A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that wildlife tunnels significantly reduce amphibian road mortality during seasonal migrations. 



Frogs and salamanders often cross roads to reach breeding ponds each spring, but many are killed by vehicles. 



Researchers from the <a href="https://www.uvm.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Vermont</a>, in collaboration with local citizens and the Vermont Agency of Natural Resources, installed two underpass tunnels in 2015. 



Over a 12-year monitoring period, they observed an 80.2% reduction in amphibian deaths, and up to 94% for non-climbing species like salamanders. 



The study used a before-after-control-impact design and documented more than 5,200 amphibians, highlighting the tunnels’ effectiveness even in nearby buffer zones.



Funded at $342,397 - far cheaper than wildlife crossings for large mammals - the project showcased the power of community-led conservation.



Local groups initiated the effort after observing mass amphibian deaths. Wildlife cameras later captured over 2,200 amphibians using a tunnel in just one spring, along with other species like raccoons and bobcats, indicating wider ecosystem benefits.



This marks the first peer-reviewed, long-term data set in the northeastern U.S. confirming amphibian-specific underpasses work. 



The study urges transportation departments to incorporate these designs into road planning and highlights how community action, thoughtful infrastructure, and persistence can make a real difference for biodiversity.



The full study was published in the <a href="https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1617138125000780" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal for Nature Conservation</a>.



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Wildlife tunnels save millions of amphibians

https://youtu.be/XYgiPzmNBTU?si=eFYY7gPHU1JznLvU A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that...

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing it with probiotics and prebiotics, aiming to create a treat that satisfies cravings while supporting gut health. 



The challenge lies in maintaining chocolate's beloved texture and flavor while adding health benefits.



<figure class="wp-block-embed aligncenter is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://youtu.be/Ug657J67iEo?si=w96YjGMsg939LD_3
</div></figure>



Probiotics - beneficial microbes that balance gut bacteria and aid digestion - are typically fragile and can be destroyed by stomach acid or processing. 



Prebiotics act as food for these microbes, helping them thrive. Together, they form "synbiotics," a powerful health combination.



Researchers Smriti Gaur and Shubhi Singh from India's Jaypee Institute of Information Technology took an innovative approach, using natural prebiotics like corn and honey instead of complex processing methods. 



They created five chocolate varieties: a control and four synbiotic versions containing different combinations of prebiotics, probiotics (Lactobacillus strains), and flavor enhancers (cinnamon or orange).



Laboratory simulations of human digestion showed the probiotics remained viable for over five hours, suggesting they could survive long enough to benefit gut health.



Taste tests were positive, with researchers particularly enjoying the orange-flavored variety, describing it as having "vibrant citrus notes" complementing the "rich cocoa" with a "luxurious" texture.



This research represents just the beginning. With further refinement of strains, textures, and flavors, chocolate could evolve beyond mere indulgence to become a functional food that nourishes while it delights.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.4c00741" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ACS Food Science &amp; Technology</a>.

Is chocolate the next nutritional powerhouse?

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="0ynNMYkMKa-2340414-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How does salt makes things taste better?

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Santiago, Chile in South America

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Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.



According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."



Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;



ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. 



Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

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Earth,Like,Exoplanet,3d,Render

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

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