Two iconic dinosaurs - Tyrannosaurus rex and Brachylophosaurus canadensis - have yielded a fresh line of evidence that traces of their original biology can survive for tens of millions of years. 



In new work, researchers at <a href="https://www.ncsu.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">North Carolina State University</a> identified hemoglobin - the oxygen-carrying protein in blood - and its iron-bearing heme group in bone extracts from both animals.



The finding strengthens a growing body of data showing that certain biomolecules can persist in exceptional fossils. It also clarifies how they change as fossils form.



Researchers have debated and re-examined soft, stretchy tissues from these same specimens for nearly two decades. 



Teams have used high-resolution imaging, antibodies, and protein sequencing to argue that the materials are genuine remnants of dinosaur biology rather than modern contaminants. The latest study adds another tool - and another confirmation.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-light-unlocks-dinosaur-chemistry">Light unlocks dinosaur chemistry</h2>



The team turned to <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/biochemistry-genetics-and-molecular-biology/resonance-raman-spectroscopy" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Resonance Raman (RR) spectroscopy</a>. In this method, laser light is tuned to a molecule’s electronic transitions. This causes only that molecule to “sing” back with a strong signal.



“Raman spectroscopy essentially uses light waves to identify a molecule’s energetic ‘fingerprint,’” said physicist Hans Hallen, the study’s corresponding author. 



“Resonance Raman, which we use here, takes that process one step further by using light already tuned to the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seeking-the-origins-of-the-molecule-that-made-the-universe/">molecule</a> of interest - so only that type of molecule will resonate.”



That resonance dramatically boosts the signal from specific bonds - crucial when your targets are rare, damaged molecules embedded in a complex fossil matrix.



“This strong signal allows us to find the needle (hemoglobin remnants) in the haystack (messy fossil) to see how this molecule has changed from the functional living state, revealing the chemical changes molecules undergo in deep time,” Hallen added.



RR spectra from T. rex and Brachylophosaurus extracts showed signatures consistent with heme still bound to globin proteins. In addition, they indicated heme bound to goethite, an iron oxide mineral linked to oxidized iron.



The researchers cross-checked those signals against demineralized modern <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/discovery-of-a-cretaceous-ostrich-mexidracon-longimanus-with-extremely-long-arms/">ostrich</a> bone and human blood to anchor their interpretations.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-blood-molecules-traced-to-dinosaurs">Blood molecules traced to dinosaurs</h2>



Because Raman detects bonds rather than whole molecules, skeptics often point out that generic signals could arise from modern microbes or other contaminants. 



That’s where the extra selectivity of RR - and the structural information in the spectra - matters.



“RR identifies both bonds and structure," said paleobiologist Mary Schweitzer, a co-author on the work. 



"We know that heme is there and that it is still bound to hemoglobin protein - contaminants like <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/reusable-water-bottles-are-breeding-ground-for-strep-and-fecal-bacteria/">bacteria</a> don’t have those specific bonds, so we can say that the molecules are from the animal, or in this case, the dinosaur,”



The team also mapped how those spectral fingerprints shift as hemoglobin decays. After death, the protein breaks down, damaging the heme ring and oxidizing the iron inside it. 



RR data show that goethite forms on that iron, and the heme can bind to the mineral surface.



Tellingly, the researchers observed the early stages of the same degradation pathway in modern samples, suggesting that key steps happen relatively quickly and then stabilize.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dinosaur-blood-survived-fossilization">Dinosaur blood survived fossilization</h2>



Beyond confirming what the molecules are, the spectral changes reveal a plausible route for how they survived. 



Goethite is a bio-related mineral - it often forms in association with biological activity - and the new data hint that it doesn’t just grow near proteins; it can latch onto and stabilize fragments. "We didn’t know that it could bind to and stabilize <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-modified-plant-proteins-to-create-delicious-meat-alternatives/">protein</a> fragments,” Hallen said.



That matters because it shows a mechanism that locks delicate organics in place and protects them during fossilization. 



Researchers already know that heme persists in sediments far older than the age of dinosaurs, but the path from fresh blood to ancient rock has remained murky.



Pinning down the chemistry helps explain why hemoglobin, in particular, shows up as a survivor - and why some fossils preserve molecular vestiges while others do not.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-new-view-of-fossil-preservation">A new view of fossil preservation</h2>



The study reinforces a shift in paleontology: under the right conditions, original biochemistry can endure deep time, and modern tools can detect and interpret it. 



Instead of a binary “preserved or not,” researchers are piecing together degradation pathways, mineral partnerships, and microenvironments that favor survival.



For dinosaur biology, that means more than just curiosity. Hemoglobin and heme in blood play key roles in metabolism, oxygen transport, and overall physiology. 



Their presence, and the way they degrade, defines how tissues fossilize and what information we can still extract.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/09/dinosaur-bone_hemoglobin_preserved_NCSU_1m.jpg"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/09/dinosaur-bone_hemoglobin_preserved_NCSU_1s.webp" alt="Vessels isolated from Tyrannosaurus cortical bone by demineralization in EDTA. Credit: NC State University" class="wp-image-1985867"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Vessels isolated from Tyrannosaurus cortical bone by demineralization in EDTA. Click image to enlarge. Credit: NC State University</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-blood-chemistry-spans-eons">Blood chemistry spans eons</h2>



For dinosaur fossil science, mineral–organic interactions like heme–goethite may help preserve blood proteins and molecular fragments throughout Earth’s history.



“Heme has been identified in sediments that are much, much older than dinosaurs, so we know that it persists,” Schweitzer noted. 



“Understanding why <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/secrets-of-human-genetics-could-optimize-medical-care/">hemoglobin</a> preserves, and the role that heme plays in the process, is really important if we want to know how these ancient molecules survive through time.”



The upshot is both practical and provocative. Resonance Raman pinpoints specific ancient molecules within messy fossils, and the chemistry it reveals also serves as a preservation roadmap. 



That’s a powerful combination for anyone trying to read life’s oldest diaries written in stone.



The study is published in the <a href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rspa.2025.0175" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Proceedings of the Royal Society A Mathematical Physical and Engineering Sciences</a>.



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Hemoglobin and other blood molecules found preserved in dinosaur fossils

Two iconic dinosaurs - Tyrannosaurus rex and Brachylophosaurus canadensis - have yielded a fresh line of evidence that traces of their original biology can survive for tens of millions of years. In new work, researchers at North Carolina State University identified hemoglobin - the oxygen-carrying protein in blood - and its iron-bearing heme group in bone extracts from both animals. The finding strengthens a growing body of data showing that certain biomolecules can persist in exceptional fossils. It also clarifies how they change as fossils form. Researchers...

Aedes aegypti

Suppressing mosquito appetites could persuade them not to bite. New research from scientists at the <a href="https://www.rockefeller.edu/our-scientists/heads-of-laboratories/913-leslie-b-vosshall/">lab of Leslie B. Vosshall</a> from <a href="https://www.rockefeller.edu/">The Rockefeller University</a> reveals it may be possible shut down the host-seeking and blood-feeding behaviors of female mosquitoes. Their findings, published February 7th in the journal <a href="https://www.cell.com/">Cell</a>, could result in mosquitoes being rendered harmless creatures in the future.

Scientists experimented on the Aedes aegypti mosquito, the species of mosquito responsible for spreading life-threatening diseases like Zika, chikungunya, yellow fever, and dengue. Female Aedes feed on human beings because our blood possesses protein needed for the Aedes to produce her eggs. After they feed and become bloated, they do not seek blood for several days.

This bloated phenomenon can be recreated by scientists injecting female <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/malarial-mosquitoes-cattle-decoys/">mosquitoes</a> with large doses of neuropeptides, which activate certain receptors. Laura Duvall, the postdoctoral fellow project leader, and her team were able to figure out which neuropeptide compound would work to suppress the mosquitos’ appetite — by studying similar receptors in our own human bodies. 

Duvall and her team found that anti-obesity drugs used to inhibit Neuropeptide Y or NPY receptors in humans — those being receptors that regulate food intake — could affect NPY-like receptors in mosquitoes as well.

"We were impressed and amazed that drugs designed to affect human appetite worked perfectly to suppress mosquito appetite," said Vosshall, Rockefeller’s Robin Chemers Neustein Professor.

After a series of neuropeptide cloning tests, the team found that the drug was affecting the mosquito NPY-like receptor known as NPYLR7.

Because this human drug could not be safely introduced into the wild, the team then searched for molecules that would activate NPYLR7 without triggering human NPY receptors. They narrowed down a list of 250,000 candidates to one molecule — compound 18, the molecule that suppressed Aedes' host-seeking behavior without showing off-target effects.Mosquitoes who were fed compound 18 didn’t hunt for human blood, nor other mammal’s blood. 

The next step is to find where the receptor is located within the mosquitoes’ bodies to help stop the spread of mosquito-transmitted diseases. And perhaps, compound 18 could be delivered to female mosquitoes in the wild to thwart disease before new disease-carrying mosquitoes are born.

--

By <a href="mailto:oliviagharvey24@gmail.com">Olivia Harvey</a>, <a href="http://earth.com">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Suppressing mosquito appetites could persuade them not to bite

Suppressing mosquito appetites could persuade them not to bite. New...

When fish swim up to the glass, do they recognize their own reflection? Are fish self-aware?

A new study conducted by researchers from the <a href="https://www.orn.mpg.de/en">Max Planck Institute for Ornithology</a> and <a href="https://www.osaka-cu.ac.jp/en">Osaka City University</a> says yes and no, as the results beg a broader question of what constitutes “awareness” in different species. 

The study was published in the journal <a href="http://journals.plos.org/plosbiology/article?id=10.1371/journal.pbio.3000021">PLOS Biology</a>, and the researchers focused on the cleaner wrasse (Labroides dimidiatus) fish to better understand self-awareness, a cognitive trait that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/elephants-body-conscious/">few animals are thought to possess</a>. 

When the fish saw themselves in the mirror, the researchers observed behavior that seemed to suggest self-awareness, and the fish “passed” the mark mirror test which is used to test awareness in animals like primates. 

However, the researchers are cautious to compare the wrasse’s passing marks to the self-awareness of other animals, and the study results are more complicated than a black and white definition of self-awareness and recognition.  

The results do show that the fish are far more intelligent than previously given credit for. 

“The behaviours we observe leave little doubt that this fish behaviourally fulfils all criteria of the mirror test as originally laid out,” said Alex Jordan, the senior author of the study. “What is less clear is whether these behaviours should be considered as evidence that fish are self-aware--even though in the past these same behaviours have been interpreted as self-awareness in so many other animals.” 

Mirror self-recognition, or the ability to recognize one’s reflection for what it is, is an essential marker of awareness and cognition in animals. With the cleaner wrasse, a mirror mark test is more challenging. 

Researchers usually consider the mark mirror test “passed” if an animal recognizes a foreign mark on its reflection and tries to investigate or remove it, but fish don't have limbs. 

For this study, the researchers placed a colored mark on a cleaner wrasse and waited to see how it reacted to its reflection. The fish tried to remove the mark after seeing themselves in the mirror by scraping their bodies on different surfaces which the researchers saw as self-aware behavior. 

The fish didn’t try to remove transparent marks, and they didn’t remove marks if they never saw their reflection. 

The fish also didn’t attempt to remove a mark on themselves if they saw another fish had one which means that the wrasse understood the difference between another fish and its reflection. 

However, what exactly this means for fish awareness is unclear, according to the study. 

“Depending on your position, you might reject the interpretation that these behaviours in a fish satisfy passing the test at all,” Jordan said. “But on what objective basis can you do this when the behaviours they show are so functionally similar to those of other species that have passed the test?”

In a companion commentary to the study, Frans de Waas, a primatologist at <a href="http://www.emory.edu/home/index.html">Emory</a>, is also quick to point out that self-awareness for fish probably doesn’t mean the same thing that it does for humans or other species. 

‘What if self-awareness develops like an onion, building layer upon layer, rather than appearing all at once?” said Waal. “To explore self-awareness further, we should stop looking at responses to the mirror as its litmus test. Only with a richer theory of the self and a larger test battery will we be able to determine all of the various levels of self-awareness, including where exactly fish fit in.”

--

By <a href="mailto:kayvandette@gmail.com">Kay Vandette</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Can fish recognize their own reflection?

When fish swim up to the glass, do they recognize...

A previously unknown <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/dinosaur-like-reptile-chewed-bones/">dinosaur</a> species from 140 million years ago has been discovered in Patagonia. The fossilized skeleton has extremely long and sharp spikes protruding from its spine.

The new species, which was named Bajadasaurus pronuspinax, had thick sheaths covering the backbone spikes that may have created the appearance of horns. This is believed to have deterred attackers, while helping the creatures look more sexually appealing to potential mates.

“These spines must have been covered by a keratin sheath similar to what happens in the horns of many mammals,” said Pablo Gallina, a researcher at the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Scientific_and_Technical_Research_Council">National Scientific and Technical Research Council</a> (CONICET).

“We think that had they been just bare bone structures or covered only by skin, they could have been easily broken or fractured with a blow or when being attacked by other animals.”

The dinosaur existed just after the Jurassic period at the beginning of the Cretaceous period, and was most likely an herbivore.  

[caption id="attachment_1867336" align="aligncenter" width="650"]<a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/02/spikes-spikes.jpg"><img class="size-full wp-image-1867336" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/02/spikes-spikes.jpg" alt="" width="650" height="263" /></a> Image Credit: Jorge A. Gonzalez[/caption]

The skeleton represents the most complete specimen that has ever been found in the family of dinosaurs known as Dicraeosaurus. The family is part of the sauropods group of dinosaurs, which had long tails, long necks and small heads. The previous examples of these sauropods were not found with the extreme spikes on their backs. 

Amargasaurus cazaui, a dinosaur from the same family that lived 130 million years ago, had much shorter protrusions on its back. Scientists previously theorized that these spiked extensions supported a hump acting as a fat reservoir. Experts now believe that the spikes may have helped the dinosaurs look more attractive while providing them with a “passive defense system.”

The study is published in the journal <a href="http://www.nature.com/scientificreports">Scientific Reports</a>.

--

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer
Main Image Credit: EPA

New dinosaur species had huge spikes to appear sexy and intimidating

A previously unknown dinosaur species from 140 million years ago...

Butterflies have sexual preference encoded in their genes, according to a pair of studies published in the journal PlOS Biology. The research helps explain why butterflies are driven to choose mates that have a similar appearance and coloring. 

The <a href="http://journals.plos.org/plosbiology/article?id=10.1371/journal.pbio.2005902">first study</a> was conducted by researchers from the <a href="https://www.cam.ac.uk/">University of Cambridge</a>, the <a href="https://www.en.uni-muenchen.de/">Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität</a> in Munich, and the <a href="https://stri.si.edu/">Smithsonian Tropical Research Institute</a> in Panama and examined the courtship behaviors among Heliconius butterflies. 

DNA from 300 <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/monarch-butterflies-winter-locations/">butterflies</a> was sequenced for the study and researchers wanted to know what part of the genome influenced mating preference. 

It’s the first study of its kind to look to butterfly DNA to help explain behavior and evolution. 

“There has previously been lots of research done on finding genes for things like color patterns on the butterfly wing, but it's been more difficult to locate the genes that underlie changes in behavior,” said Chris Jiggins, a lead author of the first study. “What we found was surprisingly simple - three regions of the genome explain a lot of their behaviors. There's a small region of the genome that has some very big effects.”

To understand courting and sexual preference, the researchers observed how male butterflies interacted with two different species of female butterflies. The team recorded the level of sexual interest and how long the male butterflies chased a female. 

Heliconius butterflies rely on their sight to find suitable mates, and the butterflies possess unique brightly colored wings. 

Hybridization among these species of butterflies is rare, and if a male butterfly hovered toward a hybrid female, it was because she possessed similar wing markings, the researchers found. 

After analyzing the butterfly genomes, the researchers also found that the same area of the genome that influences wing color drives sexual preferences. 

“It explains why hybrid butterflies are so rare - there is a strong genetic preference for similar partners which mostly stops inter-species breeding,” said Richard Merrill, an author of the study. “This genetic structure promotes long-term evolution of new species by reducing intermixing with others.”

For the <a href="http://journals.plos.org/plosbiology/article?id=10.1371/journal.pbio.2006288">second study</a>, researchers from the <a href="https://www.ed.ac.uk/home">University of Edinburgh</a> further investigated hybridization among these species of butterflies. 

Because males seek out similar looking partners, hybrids are rare. However, upon further analyses, the researchers found a rich history of genetic mixing among the few hybrids that do exist. 

A considerable amount of DNA has been shared between the different butterflies, ten times more DNA than what occurred between humans and Neanderthals. 

The butterfly’s genome not only helps sway mating behavior, as the second study also found that the genome helps maintain the unique coloring and mating preference in the different species. This ensures the long-term survival of the species.

The researchers plan to study the butterfly genomes and evolution further to see if behavior can be manipulated with genetic changes. 

“Next we would like to know how novel behavior can arise and what kind of genetic changes you need to alter behavior,” said Jiggins. “We already know that you can make different wing patterns by editing the genes. These studies suggest that potentially new behaviors could come about by putting different genes together in new combinations.”

--

By <a href="mailto:kayvandette@gmail.com">Kay Vandette</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Image Credit: Chris Jiggins

Butterflies evolved to choose similar looking mates

Butterflies have sexual preference encoded in their genes, according to...

It started with President Donald Trump, who ordered the Bureau of Land Management (BLM) to maximize water for the farmers of the San Joaquin Valley as drought and climate change continue to plague the arid western United States.  Evidence shows that fish in the estuary of the Sacramento-San Joaquin delta are in decline. Despite this, Trump’s plan proposes to pump water from the delta southward. The plan is largely supported by agri-business that would potentially profit from more water.  Those opposed to the Trump plan include commercial fishermen that would suffer as well as environmentalists and those concerned with water quality near the delta itself. 

As for now, the Sacramento-San Joaquin Delta is part of an ecosystem supporting a diversity of species despite the human impact of water usage.  The <a href="https://www.watereducation.org/aquapedia/sacramento-san-joaquin-delta-fish-and-wildlife">Water Education Foundation</a> reports that the delta is home to more than 55 fish species as well as more than 750 wildlife and plant species.  Four separate runs of Chinook Salmon spawn in the San Joaquin River, identified by the different times of year they cross under the Golden Gate Bridge.  The Winter-run Chinook Salmon are an endangered species and the spring-run Chinook are a threatened species. In addition to the native species, there are over 200 introduced species living in the area.  Invasive species include fish that were introduced for fishing.

Competition from exotic species along with contaminants, water usage and overfishing have led to a decline of native wildlife in the delta.  Studies from 2002 and 2004 have shown a decline in pelagic species and especially a decline in juvenile striped bass and Delta smelt. The Delta smelt is a small, three inch long fish found only in the Sacramento-San Joaquin delta.  The smelt is naturally vulnerable, besides living in such a small area, it has a lifespan of only one year and has a limited diet. Overall the decline of the delta due to human causes has led to 100 wildlife species, 140 plant species and 13 fish to be protected in one way or another by state or federal regulation.            

<a href="https://www.mercurynews.com/2018/01/08/editorial-block-trump-plan-to-pump-delta-water-south-to-the-central-valley/">The Mercury News</a> reports that the California state government is trying to block the Trump administration’s plan to allocate less water to the fragile Sacramento-San Joaquin Delta. Currently, as little as 20% of the San Joaquin River reaches the ocean, making it one of the most overused rivers in California.  Preliminary proposals by California’s State Water Resources Board would raise the amount of water reaching the sea to 45-65%. More detailed water usage plans are to follow. 

Trump won support of the California farmers he would now supply with water, saying on the campaign trail, “It’s is ridiculous where they’re taking the water and shoving it out to sea.”

Now it appears President Trump is trying to fulfill promises by promoting a maximum water delivery plan.  Unfortunately for the president, the state of California has very different ideas on how to allocate water.          

<a href="https://www.sacbee.com/latest-news/article214437104.html">The Sacramento Bee</a> reported last year on a new plan for water allocation in California.  California’s State Water Resources Control Board boldly proposed allocating less water for humans and agriculture and more for fish.  The board cited the decline of several fish species and the possibility of a looming environmental catastrophe as justification for the plan.  Not only does allowing more water to flow to the sea support wildlife and communities in the delta region, it also allows more water to refill the ground water, including aquifers that are being used for agriculture.  

The plans by the board are also in conflict with plans by California’s former governor Jerry Brown, who proposed new pipes in the Sacramento-San Joaquin Delta to move water south.  Under Jerry Brown’s plan, water flow of the San Joaquin to the sea would increase to 30%-50% of its natural state. 

For an idea of the impact of less or more water flow into the Sacramento-San Joaquin Delta, it’s helpful to look at salmon numbers of salmon caught that were hatched during <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/california-drought-winners-losers/">historic drought conditions</a>.  <a href="https://fishbio.com/field-notes/the-fish-report/value-california-salmon">Fish Bio</a> reports that salmon and the profits made from fishing them declined from 2013 to 2015. The profit from commercial salmon fishing in 2013 was $244 million in economic impact and $104.5 economic impact from recreational fishing.  Those numbers dropped to $88.4 million economic impact for commercial fishing and $33 million for recreational fishing in 2015. The fish being caught in 2015 were hatched during drought conditions. The other side of the issue is farmers who feel more water would help them succeed.  

According to the <a href="https://www.ppic.org/wp-content/uploads/californias-water-water-for-farms-november-2018.pdf">Public Policy Institute of California</a>, agriculture in California produced $50 billion in sales in 2017.  California farmers also use 40% of available water, while cities use only 10% of the state’s water, and the rest is categorized as ‘environmental’.  Farmers have steadily shifted to crops that create more profits and jobs per share of water, the financial value of farming more than doubling since the 1960s when adjusted for inflation.  Still, other businesses in California have grown, overshadowing agriculture which now is only about 2% of California’s economy. The main issue is still that everyone needs water and every industry is dependent on agriculture to feed workers at very least.

Efficiency in water delivery systems has improved, with water being more often delivered with drip and micro irrigation systems than the previous flood systems.  Unfortunately the new systems also leave no water to seep back in and recharge ground water, leading to an overall drop in ground water levels. Farmers are also growing more crops like nuts, fruits and vegetables as opposed to grains, which create more income per acre allowing them to drill deeper wells, further decreasing the ground water levels.  Unfortunately these new crops are also thirstier and less drought resistant than previous crops. Nitrates from farm runoff have also started to damage the quality of groundwater. 

California’s State Water Resources Board argues that agriculture and conservation can co-exist.  With the decline of quality water throughout California and the western US as a whole, it becomes obvious that extreme efforts at efficiency and good planning on the part of all parties is necessary.  We stand at a crossroads and the quality of life for humans and non-humans alike in the western US is at stake.

--

By <a href="mailto:zachfitzner@yahoo.com">Zach Fitzner</a>, <a href="http://earth.com">Earth.com</a> Contributing Writer

Paid for by <a href="http://earth.com">Earth.com</a>

Conservation vs agriculture: The battle over water in California

It started with President Donald Trump, who ordered the Bureau...

Scientists at the <a href="https://www.pasteur.fr/en">Institut Pasteur</a> in Paris have found evidence that suggests the most recent common ancestor of all life on Earth may have actually preferred a moderately warm environment rather than the scorching hot conditions that were previously assumed. The finding, if confirmed, could provide new insight into where some of the earliest organisms existed, according to <a href="https://www.newscientist.com/">New Scientist</a>.

All organisms living on <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/life-earth-another-planet/">Earth</a> today can be traced back to the last universal common ancestor (LUCA), which lived around 3.5 to 3.8 billion years ago in the Paleoarchean Era.  Any other organisms that may have existed this far back went extinct, while LUCA split into two groups that can be found in most living species today - bacteria and archaea.

Scientists have theorized that LUCA lived somewhere extremely hot, such as a geothermal pond, where temperatures exceeded 100 or even 200 degrees Fahrenheit. With no fossils available to study LUCA, experts must compare the genomes of its descendents. 

In 2016, a German team led by Bill Martin at <a href="https://www.uni-duesseldorf.de/home/en/">Heinrich Heine University</a> searched for universal genes that may have been present in LUCA. The researchers identified 355 genes, including one that is only found in thermophiles, organisms which thrive in scorching hot temperatures between 106 and 252 degrees Fahrenheit. 

However, New Scientist reports that Ryan Catchpole and Patrick Forterre at the Institut Pasteur do not believe this particular gene was present in LUCA. Their investigation produced two possible scenarios: LUCA lacked the reverse gyrase gene and it emerged instead in an early archaean, or LUCA did have the gene but it was lost during the evolution of bacteria. 

Martin told New Scientist that it is still possible that LUCA lived in hot conditions in an alkaline vent on the seafloor, where he believes all life originated. He explained that some of the water in alkaline vents may not have been hot enough to require the reverse gyrase gene found in thermophiles.

“The fact we found reverse gyrase in there, that’s nice, but it’s just one gene out of 355,” Martin said.
--
By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Where did the earliest common ancestor of all life actually exist?

Scientists at the Institut Pasteur in Paris have found evidence...

Scientists from the <a href="https://www.cam.ac.uk/">University of Cambridge</a> have figured out how and why species “hotspots” of <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/dams-tropical-forest-biodiversity/">biodiversity</a> from California to the Galapagos have accumulated such a wide variety of species. Thanks to a “big data” study, published February 6th in <a href="http://advances.sciencemag.org/">Science Advances</a>, scientists now know evolution speed is reliant on climate.

According to the study’s findings, tropical hotspots located near the equator have generated new species at a faster rate during the last 25 million years in comparison to areas surrounding them. However, biodiversity hotspots in more temperate areas of the world are mostly populated by immigrant species that evolved elsewhere but moved to warmer climate to either escape long-term “geological processes” like glaciers, and/or needed a location with more shelter.

“We've known for decades that just a subset of places on Earth, no more than 20%, contain about half of all vertebrate species. However, we lacked the tools and data to understand why these patterns exist," said senior author Dr. Andrew Tanentzap, from the <a href="https://www.plantsci.cam.ac.uk/">University of Cambridge's Department of Plant Sciences</a>. "Large-scale initiatives to map species across the planet and in the Tree of Life, as well as advances in computing, are expanding our understanding of evolution in exciting ways. This study can now provide an answer to the old question of why diversity varies so much across the world."

Researchers used computational techniques to combine datasets that included global distribution of 11,093 bird species and 5,302 mammals, as well as the evolutionary trees that track the origin of thousands of organisms through history. Using these datasets, researchers could then follow the development of specific species-rich areas.

By doing so, researchers found that tropical biodiversity hotspots had higher rates of speciation, the development of new species, over the last 25 million years.

"Species generation is faster in the tropics, but we can now see it is extra-quick in these hotspots of biodiversity," said lead author D.r Javier Igea, also from Cambridge's Department of Plant Sciences. "More rainfall and hotter temperatures bolster the ecosystems of tropical hotspots, producing more plants, more animals that feed on those plants, and so on. The greater available energy and range of habitats within these hotspots supported the acceleration of species diversification."

For example, Madagascar has 12 species of lemurs that diversified over the last 10 million years. And the Philippines’ 17 species of earthworm mice popped up over the last 6 million years.

But biodiversity hotspots in temperate areas of the world told a different story. "Biodiversity hotspots in temperate zones have been shaped mainly by migration that occurred during the last 25 million years," Igea said. "We suspect that this influx of immigrant species resulted from climate fluctuations across millions of years, particularly cooling. Biodiversity hotspots may have acted as a refuge where more species could survive in harsh climatic conditions.”

The Iberian lynx, for example, is now a native of the Mediterranean Basin, however it was initially found in central Europe during the Pleistocene, before the last Ice Age. And the yellow-billed magpie of California most likely was cut off to its ancestral species due to glaciations over three million years ago.

"We found that hotspots across the world all have a greater complexity of habitats and more environmental energy, but the processes that drive the biodiversity are very different for tropical and temperate zones," Igea said.

Tanentzap added, "Many of these hotspot regions have species found nowhere else on Earth, yet face devastating levels of habitat loss. Protecting these areas is vital to conserving the natural world's diversity.”

--

By <a href="mailto:oliviagharvey24@gmail.com">Olivia Harvey</a>, <a href="http://earth.com">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Climate dictates evolutionary speed in biodiversity hotspots

Scientists from the University of Cambridge have figured out how...

Elk have developed a number of adaptations for surviving harsh environments, and are even known to persevere after major forest disturbances such as <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/amazon-forest-fires-carbon/">forest fires</a> and logging. However, a new study has revealed that elk seem to be avoiding areas hit by the bark-beetle epidemic.

Across the northern portions of the Rocky Mountains in the United States, a large beetle outbreak has killed millions of trees. Researchers discovered that during the summer, elk are not returning to areas with extensive tree mortality. 

This behavior will greatly limit the amount of  land that will be occupied by elk in the summer months. The findings will be important to many wildlife and land managers who are responsible for managing elk populations in regions that are impacted by the bark-beetle epidemic.

“Although it is common following forest disturbances for elk to seek out and capitalize on the resulting increases in highly palatable and nutritious forage, during the summer months, elk in our study area fairly consistently avoided beetle-kill. This result is somewhat counter to how we typically think elk respond to forest disturbances,” said study lead author Bryan G. Lamont of the <a href="http://www.uwyo.edu/">University of Wyoming</a>. “It appears there are some subtle, but real differences between disturbances such as forest fires and the bark-beetle epidemic.”

Lamont pointed out that elk examined in the study were much more influenced by the presence of downed trees and the loss of canopy cover compared to the small increases in understory found in areas affected by beetles. 

“Ultimately this means that if elk are avoiding beetle-kill areas, this translates to much less forest habitat that elk typically would utilize during the summer.”

The study is published in the <a href="https://wildlife.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/journal/19372817">Journal of Wildlife Management</a>.

--

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

The bark-beetle epidemic is pushing elk out of their natural habitats

Elk have developed a number of adaptations for surviving harsh...

Can bees really do math? Researchers from <a href="https://www.rmit.edu.au/">RMIT University</a> in Melbourne, Australia have discovered that bees are capable of doing basic mathematics.

In their study, the researchers found that <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/first-vaccine-bee-colonies/">bees</a> can be taught to recognize colors as symbolic representations for addition and subtraction. They were then able to use this information to solve math problems presented to them by the researchers. And while addition and subtraction may come easily to us, they are actually complex operations as they require two levels of processing. 

“You need to be able to hold the rules around adding and subtracting in your long-term memory, while mentally manipulating a set of given numbers in your short-term memory,” says RMIT associate professor Adrian Dyer. “On top of this, our bees also used their short-term memories to solve arithmetic problems, as they learned to recognize plus or minus as abstract concepts rather than being given visual aids.”

The experiment involved training the bees in a Y-shaped maze, where the bees received a reward of sugar water when they made a correct choice, or received a bitter quinine solution if they made an incorrect choice. Because honeybees will return to a location if it provides a good source of food, they were able to keep going back to the experimental set-up to collect nutrition and continue learning. 

When a bee entered the maze, they would see a set of elements between 1 to 5 shapes. These shapes would either be blue (meaning the bee had to add) or yellow (meaning the bee had to subtract). The bee would then fly into a decision chamber, where it could choose to fly to the left or right side of the maze. One side had the correct solution of either plus or minus one, while the other side had the incorrect solution. After more than 100 learning trials, the bees learned that blue meant +1 and yellow meant -1. They then were able to apply these rules to new numbers.

“Our findings suggest that advanced numerical cognition may be found much more widely in nature among non-human animals than previously suspected,” says Dyer. “If maths doesn’t require a massive brain, there might also be new ways for us to incorporate interactions of both long-term rules and working memory into designs to improve rapid AI learning of new problems.”

--

By <a href="mailto:certz@earth.com">Connor Ertz</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Image Credit: RMIT University

Honeybees are capable of solving basic math problems

Can bees really do math? Researchers from RMIT University in...

The vast majority of humans on this planet <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/meat-consumption-climate-change-2/">consume meat</a> in one form or another, and it’s no secret that our omnivorous ways can have a negative impact on the environment. 

Now, a new study published in <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/journal/1755263x">Conservation Letters</a> has found that at least 200 species of large animals (known as megafauna) are decreasing in number. Over 150 of these species are under threat of extinction due in part to our meat consumption habits. 

A team of researchers from the <a href="https://oregonstate.edu/">Oregon State University</a> College of Forestry took part in an international collaboration that built a list of megafauna based on body size and taxonomy. The animals studied were considered unusually large in comparison to other species within their class. 

Analysis of these species’ populations found that 70 percent were in decline. Also, almost 60 percent were threatened with disappearing all together.

“Direct harvest for human consumption of meat or body parts is the biggest danger to nearly all of the large species with threat data available,” says William Ripple, distinguished professor of ecology in the College of Forestry at OSU. 

“Thus, minimizing the direct killing of these vertebrate animals is an important conservation tactic that might save many of these iconic species as well as all of the contributions they make to their ecosystems.”

As hunting and fishing strategies have become more coordinated and refined in the last few centuries, our proficiency in killing wildlife has only increased. As a result, 2 percent of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/vanishing-giants-study-reveals-shocking-decline-of-large-mammals-in-africa/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">megafauna</a> species are now extinct. “Our results suggest we’re in the process of eating megafauna to extinction,” Ripple says. 

“Through the consumption of various body parts, users of Asian traditional medicine also exert heavy tolls on the largest species. In the future, 70 percent will experience further population declines and 60 percent of the species could become extinct or very rare.”

Besides the intentional harvesting of megafauna species, many become accidentally caught in traps, snares, trawls, and nets – a consequence of our more efficient hunting methods. 

“And there's also habitat degradation to contend with,” Ripple explains. “When taken together, these threats can have major negative cumulative effects on vertebrate species.”

Preserving many of these species will likely be challenging as the human population continues to grow, creating more mouths to feed. 

“There will be economic arguments against it, as well as cultural and social obstacles,” says Ripple. “But if we don’t consider, critique and adjust our behaviors, our heightened abilities as hunters may lead us to consume much of the last of the Earth's megafauna.”

--

By <a href="mailto:certz@earth.com">Connor Ertz</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Our meat-eating is pushing Earth’s largest animals towards extinction

The vast majority of humans on this planet consume meat...

If you are active on social media, chances are high that you have seen a video of an otter living as a pet. The videos quickly become viral because otters are, frankly, adorable. But these videos actually shed a light on a severe threat to otter species: the pet trade. 

Proposals submitted ahead of the 18th Conference of the Parties to the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES) hope to address this.

CITES is an international agreement between governments that sets regulations on the trade in wild animals and plants. Every three years, proposals can be submitted for consideration at the Conference of the Parties. This year, 57 proposals have been submitted including the two proposals to increase protections for otter species affected by the pet trade.

The proposals aim to move the Smooth-coated otter and the Asian small-clawed otter from Appendix II to Appendix I, which would prohibit the international commercial trade in the species. Both species are currently listed as Vulnerable on the IUCN Red List but conservationists worry that their new-found popularity online might accelerate population declines.

Human activity has historically threatened otter populations. Otters have been hunted for years for their fur and have suffered habitat loss as a result of human expansion. But the pet trade is a relatively new and little understood threat to the species.

As videos of otters proliferate online, so will demand for otters in the pet trade. The online videos glorify otter pet ownership and encourage individuals to buy their own pet to achieve social media fame. But not only do otters make poor pets, increased demand can lead to otters being smuggled from the wild. According to the<a href="http://www.otter.org/public/IOSFCurrentProjects_Asia.aspx"> International Otter Survival Fund,</a> the mother otter is often killed by poachers so they can capture the cubs.

A <a href="http://www.cpsg.org/sites/cbsg.org/files/2018%20SEAsia-Otter-report.pdf">report</a> released last year by TRAFFIC found a large illegal market for otters in Southeast Asia. Researchers found 560 advertisements for up to 1,189 otters over a four-month period in 2018. In addition, the report found that 59 live otters, most of which were juveniles, were seized by officials from 2015-2017.

Otters were rarely found in physical marketplaces. Otters are currently protected by national laws and a CITES Appendix II listing, therefore the internet may provide an easier marketplace for traffickers to sell otters without fear of detection.

Of the four otter species native to Southeast Asia, the Asian small-clawed and the Smooth-coated otter were the most commonly encountered species, which is in line with the proposals ahead of the Conference of the Parties.

A <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2287884X18302681">study</a>, released in December 2018, found similar results. Researchers monitored Facebook groups during a 14-month period and found 160 advertisements for 337 otters. Asian small-clawed otters represented over 80% of the otters for sale and Smooth-coated otters accounted for the rest. In addition, 53% of the otters for sale were newborn pups and 35% were young otters.

These recent findings suggest that the pet trade is a growing and urgent threat to Asian small-clawed and Smooth-coated otters. The fate of these two species will be decided at the Conference of the Parties this May.

--

By <a href="mailto:brianna.grant134@gmail.com">Brianna Lynne</a>, <a href="http://earth.com">Earth.com</a> Contributing Writer

New international protections sought for otters as online trade booms

If you are active on social media, chances are high...

A team of evolutionary biologists at <a href="https://www.osu.edu/">The Ohio State University</a> has found a surprising amount of variation in venom within populations of Florida pygmy rattlesnakes. The study, which is the first of its kind, has revealed that the venom produced by one pygmy rattlesnake can be much more toxic and deadly compared to the venom of a snake in the same group.

It has long been established that snakes of the same species often have variations in <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/venom-snakes-dangerous/">venom</a> based on the prey that exist in different environments. However, according to study senior author Professor H. Lisle Gibbs, the discovery of widespread venom variability between individual members of a group of snakes that were born and bred in the same area is perplexing and exciting at the same time. 

“We found differences within the same population that were almost four times greater than differences in toxicity between snakes from different regions,” said Professor Gibbs. “To my knowledge, nobody has ever documented anything like this before - we've all been focused on the snakes from different populations living in different habitats.”

To investigate, the researchers sampled venom from 32 pygmy rattlesnakes located within about 60 miles of each other in Florida. The team compared the effects of each snake's venom against brown anole lizards collected in the same region.

In some cases, an individual snake’s venom proved to be deadly against most lizards. In other snakes, however, venom was found to be much less deadly or not deadly at all.

The researchers are now curious about how the toxicity of the rattlesnakes' venom would vary against another type of prey.

“It could be that the snakes that aren't good at killing these lizards are great at killing other prey, such as frogs. We just don't know,” said Professor Gibbs. “Another big question from an evolutionary perspective is ‘Why aren't they good at killing everything all the time?’”

Professor Gibbs explained that producing the proteins found within venom takes a lot of energy, and so the energy of different snakes may have simply been devoted to toxicity against various types of prey.

“This is a whole new way of looking at how evolution operates on venom that we haven't considered. There's a new act in this evolutionary play that we didn't know about until now.”


The study is published in the journal <a href="http://rsbl.royalsocietypublishing.org/">Biology Letters</a>.

--

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Image Credit: Peter May

Venom toxicity varies greatly among rattlesnake populations

A team of evolutionary biologists at The Ohio State University...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2E0mn5mTvhQ
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">'Death Star' moon Mimas conceals a 15-million-year-old ocean that scientists never expected.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hidden-waters-beneath-ancient-craters">Hidden waters beneath ancient craters</h2>



Scientists have made a startling discovery that challenges everything we thought we knew about <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/saturn-moon-mimas-has-remarkably-young-ocean/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Saturn's moon Mimas</a>. Beneath the heavily cratered surface that earned it the nickname "Death Star" lies a global ocean that formed just 5 to 15 million years ago—a remarkably young age by cosmic standards.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cassini-data-reveals-orbital-secrets">Cassini data reveals orbital secrets</h2>



The discovery, led by Dr. Valéry Lainey of the <a href="https://observatoiredeparis.psl.eu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Observatoire de Paris</a>, emerged from careful analysis of <a href="https://www.nasa.gov" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NASA</a>'s Cassini spacecraft data. By studying subtle irregularities in Mimas's orbit around Saturn, researchers detected the gravitational signature of liquid water hidden 20 to 30 kilometers beneath the moon's icy shell.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-an-unlikely-ocean-world">An unlikely ocean world</h2>



At only 400 kilometers in diameter, Mimas seemed like the least likely candidate to harbor a subsurface ocean. Unlike other ocean moons such as Europa and Enceladus, which show clear surface signs of internal activity, Mimas displays no obvious hints of the liquid water beneath its ancient, crater-scarred exterior.



"Mimas is a small moon, and its heavily cratered surface gave no hint of the hidden ocean beneath," explained Dr. Nick Cooper from <a href="https://www.qmul.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Queen Mary University of London</a>, a study co-author.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-astrobiology">Implications for astrobiology</h2>



The ocean's recent formation makes Mimas a prime target for studying how oceans develop and potentially support life. This discovery adds another member to the exclusive club of ocean worlds in our solar system, each offering unique insights into the conditions necessary for habitability.



The research, published in <a href="https://www.nature.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature</a> journal, demonstrates how advanced orbital analysis can reveal hidden features of celestial bodies, opening new possibilities for understanding ocean formation throughout the cosmos.



—–



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Scientists discover unexpected young ocean on Saturn's cratered moon Mimas

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2E0mn5mTvhQ 'Death Star' moon Mimas conceals a 15-million-year-old ocean that...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE
</div></figure>



On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop and sunlight barely penetrates through the polar winter. It was here, however, that an international team of scientists found <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/predatory-worms-were-terror-beasts-half-a-billion-years-ago/#google_vignette" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evidence of sea monsters</a> that would change our understanding of ocean life in the past.



This video captures the discovery of Timorebestia fossils that had been hidden for more than 500 million years in the Sirius Passet formation. The "terror beasts," as they are called, are a hidden chapter in the evolutionary history of <a href="https://www.earth.com" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Earth</a>, showing that sophisticated predator-prey interactions occurred much earlier than previously envisioned.



Dr. Jakob Vinther and his research team at the <a href="https://www.bristol.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Bristol</a>, in collaboration with researchers at the <a href="https://eng.kopri.re.kr/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Korean Polar Research Institute</a>, braved extreme weather conditions at 82.5 north latitude to locate these giant creatures. Using sophisticated electron microprobe analysis, they revealed the detailed anatomy of the animals, including their muscle and nerve tissues.



The find upsets the traditional timeline of sea predators. Although we've long appreciated that Cambrian oceans were at one time ruled by <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jWI3-UgA3_o&amp;list=PL1QLQMW9MWDwpkFOnvgAmu7wT6rZmYqdJ&amp;index=19" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">arthropods</a>, these discoveries indicate that relatives of arrow worms were first to dominate the seas. These worms were building sophisticated food webs several million years before other predator groups arose.



Each fossil is a story of ancient hunger, with fossil stomach contents revealing these meter-long beasts dined on heavily armored arthropods regularly, cementing their place as the ocean's first apex predators.



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Worms dominated seas before dinosaurs

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">New York is the site of the world's oldest forest.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-385-million-year-old-trees-discovered">385-million-year-old trees discovered</h2>



Scientists have uncovered something extraordinary just two hours north of New York City. The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/worlds-oldest-forest-discovered-close-to-new-york-city/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">world's oldest forest</a>, dating back 385 million years, offers a window into how Earth's first complex forests shaped our planet's atmosphere.



Located near <a href="https://townofcairo.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cairo, New York</a>, in Greene County, these weren't merely primitive plants struggling to survive. These were sophisticated trees with root systems remarkably similar to modern forests. This ancient woodland predates dinosaurs by 140 million years.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-cairo-forest-discovery">The Cairo forest discovery</h2>



385 million years ago, upstate New York was a tropical paradise near the equator. Thanks to continental drift, this ancient forest has traveled thousands of miles to its current location.



The fossil forest sits in an abandoned quarry, roughly half the size of a football field. This represents just a slice of what was likely a massive forest system stretching from New York into Pennsylvania.



Charles Ver Straeten, curator of sedimentary rocks at the <a href="https://www.nysm.nysed.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">New York State Museum</a>, made the discovery in 2009. While scouting the former highway department property, his trained eye spotted wandering patterns in the stone that looked like marine features.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-revolutionary-age-and-preservation">Revolutionary age and preservation</h2>



The site contains 385-million-year-old rocks with fossilized woody roots forming horizontal patterns up to 18 feet (5.5 meters) wide. As Christopher Berry, a paleobotanist at Cardiff University, explains: "You are walking through the roots of ancient trees."



This discovery pushes back advanced tree evolution by millions of years. The research, published in <a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/home" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Current Biology</a> in December 2019, fundamentally changes our understanding of when complex forests first emerged.



Researchers believe a massive flood buried the forest floor, creating perfect fossilization conditions. Over millions of years, sediment hardened into rock, preserving these root patterns like nature's time capsule.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-meet-archaeopteris-the-first-modern-tree">Meet Archaeopteris: the first modern tree</h2>



The star of this ancient forest is Archaeopteris – not to be confused with the feathered dinosaur Archaeopteryx. This tree was far older and more revolutionary.



William Stein from <a href="https://www.binghamton.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Binghamton University</a> describes the roots as "strikingly modern, essentially what you'd see outside in my yard right now." These weren't simple root systems you'd expect from ancient plants.



Some fossilized roots are six inches (15 centimeters) in diameter, forming 36-foot-wide (11-meter) patterns. These giants grew up to 65 feet (20 meters) tall with five-foot-diameter (1.5-meter) trunks.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-changing-impact">Climate-changing impact</h2>



These trees fundamentally changed Earth's environment. Kevin Boyce, a Stanford University geoscientist, explains how their deep roots triggered "weathering," chemical reactions that pulled carbon dioxide from the atmosphere.



This process dropped atmospheric CO2 levels from 10-15 times higher than today to roughly modern concentrations. These ancient trees helped create atmospheric conditions that made complex life possible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ancient-forest-ecosystem">Ancient forest ecosystem</h2>



The forest was remarkably diverse. Scientists identified Eospermatopteris, palm tree-like plants with short roots that reached 30 feet (9 meters) tall but lacked woody structure. The forest also housed cladoxylopsids and a mysterious third species still being studied.



All reproduced through spores rather than seeds – millions of years before seeds evolved. This tropical environment had no grass, flowers, or flying insects, just towering trees creating Earth's first complex forest canopy.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-scientific-significance">Scientific significance</h2>



Before this finding, the Gilboa forest, located 25 miles (40 kilometers) away, held the "oldest forest" title. Cairo's trees are 2-3 million years older, showing that complex forest ecosystems developed much faster than scientists believed possible.



Patricia Gensel, a <a href="https://www.unc.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of North Carolina</a> paleobotanist, notes: "The size of those root systems is really changing the picture. Even 20 years ago, researchers assumed trees with such complex root systems didn't evolve so early."



The Cairo site presents three unique root systems, suggesting Devonian period forests were diverse ecosystems with different trees occupying different environmental niches, much like today's forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-modern-preservation-efforts">Modern preservation efforts</h2>



In 2022, New York State Senator Michelle Hinchey secured a $170,000 grant for the town of Cairo to construct specialized fencing around the fossil forest site. The town plans to conduct a feasibility study exploring the possibility of creating an educational center and working lab on-site.



Joe Hasenkopf, chair of the Cairo Planning Board, hopes to partner with educational institutions to create a research facility serving scientists, students, and the public.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lessons-for-today-s-climate">Lessons for today's climate</h2>



Why does a 385-million-year-old forest matter today? It shows how dramatically forests can change Earth's climate. These ancient woodlands created the atmospheric conditions supporting complex life.



Understanding how prehistoric forests transformed the planet helps us appreciate modern forests' critical role in addressing climate change. Forests remain Earth's most effective carbon capture systems.



These prehistoric trees changed Earth's atmosphere by pulling massive amounts of carbon dioxide from the air. As we face modern climate challenges, this ancient forest reminds us of trees' incredible power to transform our planet's environment.



The next time you walk through a forest, remember you're experiencing an ecosystem whose blueprint was established 385 million years ago in upstate New York. These ancient pioneers didn't just survive – they thrived and changed the world forever.



The full study was published in the journal Current Biology.



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Earth's oldest forest found in the United States

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ New York is the site of the world's oldest...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Acid rain and a crisis solved.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-don-t-we-ever-hear-about-acid-rain-anymore-the-environmental-crisis-that-was-solved">Why don't we ever hear about "acid rain" anymore? The environmental crisis that was solved</h2>



Remember the 1980s when acid rain dominated headlines? Dire warnings about rain eating buildings, killing fish, and destroying forests filled every news cycle. Then, almost like magic, acid rain vanished from public discourse. What happened? Did we actually solve one of the late 20th century's most pressing environmental challenges?



The answer might surprise you. Unlike many environmental issues that drag on indefinitely, acid rain represents one of modern history's most successful ecological recovery stories. It's a tale of science, politics, and technology working together to tackle what seemed impossible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What was acid rain?</h2>



Acid rain isn't regular rain having a bad day – it's precipitation that became significantly more acidic due to air pollution. When power plants, factories, and vehicles burn fossil fuels, they release sulfur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides (NOx) into the atmosphere.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The science behind it</h2>



Think of acid rain as nature's chemistry experiment gone wrong. These compounds react with water, oxygen, and other chemicals to form sulfuric and nitric acids. When mixed with water vapor in clouds, they create precipitation with dangerously low pH levels.



While clean rain has a pH of about 5.6, acid rain could drop as low as 4.2 to 4.4 – roughly as acidic as tomato juice or coffee. According to US Geological Survey documentation, Scottish chemist Angus Smith first coined "acid rain" in 1872, but it didn't become a household phrase until the 1960s and 1970s when Swedish scientist Svante Odén documented its devastating effects on Scandinavian lakes and European forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The crisis at its peak</h2>



During the height of public concern, environmental damage was both widespread and visible. This wasn't some abstract future threat – people could see destruction happening in real-time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Environmental devastation</h2>



The most dramatic impacts were impossible to ignore. Research documented by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation and the New York State Department of Environmental Conservation shows that in the Adirondack Mountains, more than 200 lakes became so acidic they couldn't support fish life. The Adirondack Council reports that 409 lakes once supported brook trout, but many lost their fish populations due to acid rain.



By 1976, when scientists cataloged all acidified lakes in the Adirondack Park, researchers found that half of the lakes over 2,000 feet above sea level had no fish, according to studies published in environmental journals. The acidification process worked like a slow-motion disaster. As acid rain fell into watersheds, it gradually lowered pH levels. Fish couldn't survive in acidic water, and their food sources died off too.



Trees at high elevations showed stress directly linked to acid rain. It weakened them by leaching nutrients and making them susceptible to disease. Historical records show Germany's Black Forest saw nearly half its trees damaged by the mid-1980s.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Economic impact</h2>



Acid rain wasn't just environmental – it was expensive. Acidic precipitation corroded infrastructure, buildings, and monuments. Historic stone structures deteriorated at accelerated rates. Tourism suffered as lakes became fishless and forests declined. EPA economic analyses from the period documented repair costs mounting into billions annually.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The solution: government action and technology</h2>



Transformation from crisis to success required unprecedented cooperation between governments, industries, and environmental groups.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The Clean Air Act of 1990</h2>



The turning point came with the Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990, signed by President George H.W. Bush. This represented a fundamentally new approach to environmental regulation, as documented in EPA historical records.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Cap-and-trade success</h2>



Instead of mandating specific technologies, the 1990 amendments introduced something revolutionary: a cap-and-trade system for sulfur dioxide emissions. EPA program documentation shows this market-based approach set overall limits but allowed companies to trade emission allowances.



The genius was harnessing market forces to find cost-effective pollution reduction. Companies reducing emissions cheaply could sell excess allowances to those facing higher costs. Research published in environmental economics journals and EPA progress reports shows this resulted in dramatic SO2 reduction at a fraction of projected costs.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Technology advances</h2>



Policy provided the framework, but technology made reductions possible. Studies in atmospheric science journals document the widespread adoption of flue gas desulfurization systems ("scrubbers") that removed sulfur dioxide before it reached the atmosphere. By the 2000s, new installations could remove over 95% of SO2 emissions, according to EPA technical reports.



The push coincided with cleaner energy development. Natural gas produces fewer sulfur compounds than coal. Wind and solar, emerging in the 1990s, captured growing market share, reducing reliance on high-sulfur coal.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-we-don-t-hear-about-it-today">Why we don't hear about it today</h2>



Why did acid rain disappear from headlines? Simple: the problem was largely solved.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Success doesn't make news</h2>



There's an old journalism saying: "If it bleeds, it leads." Environmental success stories don't generate urgency like crisis reporting. Media attention shifted to other challenges: climate change, plastic pollution, and biodiversity loss. There's only so much environmental anxiety the public can absorb, and newer concerns replaced acid rain.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Mission accomplished</h2>



The primary reason is beautifully simple: interventions worked. EPA monitoring data shows sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990. Academic research published in environmental science journals confirms pH levels in formerly affected areas returned closer to normal. This represents one of history's most dramatic environmental recoveries. Studies by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation show fishless lakes now support healthy populations. Forests recovered, and building damage slowed dramatically.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-is-it-really-gone">Is it really gone?</h2>



The crisis is largely resolved, but monitoring data shows the problem isn't completely eliminated – it's managed to acceptable levels. Some areas still experience occasional events during high pollution periods. International environmental research indicates that rapidly industrializing Asian countries face similar problems to what we experienced decades ago, though they're implementing successful strategies.



EPA research shows nitrogen oxide emissions proved more challenging than sulfur dioxide, coming from vehicles and mobile sources. Climate science studies suggest changing weather patterns add complexity to how acid rain forms and falls.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What this teaches us</h2>



The acid rain experience proves that seemingly intractable environmental problems can be solved with scientific understanding, political will, and technological innovation. Environmental monitoring data shows recovery speed was remarkable – within a decade, measurable improvements appeared in air quality and ecosystem health.



Success came from bipartisan support across party lines. Policy analysis studies show the market-based approach appealed to those preferring economic incentives while achieving environmental goals. This support created lasting policy surviving political changes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Conclusion</h2>



Acid rain's disappearance from public consciousness represents environmental science's greatest success stories. Through effective regulation, technological innovation, and international cooperation, we transformed an overwhelming crisis into a manageable challenge.



Today's silence isn't because we forgot – it's because we solved it. The 1990 Clean Air Act, combined with technology and energy market changes, reduced acid rain emissions over 90%, according to comprehensive EPA data analysis.



This success offers hope for current challenges. It proves complex problems can be solved when science, policy, and technology work together. As we face climate change and plastic pollution, acid rain reminds us that dramatic positive change is possible.



Next time someone asks whether environmental regulations work, remember acid rain. It's proof that sometimes, we get it right.



<hr class="wp-block-separator has-alpha-channel-opacity"/>



Sources: This article draws from EPA official documentation and progress reports, peer-reviewed research published in environmental and atmospheric science journals, historical data from the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation, New York State Department of Environmental Conservation records, US Geological Survey publications, policy analysis studies, and environmental monitoring data collected over three decades.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Frequently Asked Questions</h2>



1. Is acid rain completely gone? No, but EPA monitoring shows it's reduced to manageable levels. US sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990, making acid rain much less severe than the 1980s crisis.



2. How long did solving take? Environmental monitoring data shows significant improvements began within 5-10 years of 1990s emission controls. Full ecosystem recovery took longer – some areas need 20-30 years for complete recovery.



3. What made the solution successful? Clear scientific understanding, visible damage motivating action, bipartisan support, available technology, and innovative market-based policies like cap-and-trade.



4. Do other countries have acid rain problems? Yes, particularly rapidly industrializing Asian countries. However, international environmental research shows many implement similar successful control strategies.



5. Could acid rain return? Potentially, if regulations weaken or we return to high-sulfur coal without controls, though effects would take years to become severe according to environmental projections.



6. Can you recommend any teaching tools on the subject of "acid rain"? The United States Environmental Protection Agency produced a wonderful teacher's guide for ages 14 and under that you can find on the EPA website here: <a href="https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf</a>



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The environmental problem we actually solved

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk Acid rain and a crisis solved. Why don't we...

Fresh,Radish,Harvest,On,Soil,In,Garden.

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</div></figure>







Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving fall garden, and this guide lays out the best vegetables and herbs to plant now for a fruitful autumn harvest. 



Fast-growing leafy greens such as spinach, lettuce, kale, and arugula perform especially well in the waning summer heat, with harvests beginning as soon as 30 days. 



These cool-season crops relish the transition into fall, offering repeated yields with cut-and-come-again methods.



Root vegetables like radishes, carrots, and beets also excel during this period. Radishes deliver satisfaction in under a month, while carrots and beets mature in about two months. Employing succession planting ensures a continuous stream of produce deep into the cooler months. 



For a boost of fresh flavor, herbs like cilantro, basil, dill, and chervil are excellent picks. These heat-loving varieties flourish in July’s warmth and are harvest-ready in about 30 days, especially when sown continuously.



Gardeners in zones 6 through 9 can benefit from planting bush beans and snap peas, which don’t require trellising and are ideal for compact plots. 



Maturing in 50–60 days, they’re a smart choice for quick, protein-rich harvests. For those in hotter regions, heat-tolerant crops such as okra and southern peas provide reliable yields and thrive in scorching conditions.



This guide emphasizes more than crop selection—it highlights the importance of timing, soil preparation, and ongoing sowing techniques. 



With thoughtful planning and attention to regional climate needs, even late-summer gardeners can enjoy fresh salads, hearty stews, and the satisfaction of a robust, homegrown harvest well into fall.



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What to plant in your garden in mid-July

https://youtu.be/Fi2OeEwuzRM?si=vTyd2m9FMmtyWkex Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving...

Green,Ecoduct,Over,An,Empty,Highway,During,Sunset.

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https://youtu.be/XYgiPzmNBTU?si=eFYY7gPHU1JznLvU
</div></figure>



A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that wildlife tunnels significantly reduce amphibian road mortality during seasonal migrations. 



Frogs and salamanders often cross roads to reach breeding ponds each spring, but many are killed by vehicles. 



Researchers from the <a href="https://www.uvm.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Vermont</a>, in collaboration with local citizens and the Vermont Agency of Natural Resources, installed two underpass tunnels in 2015. 



Over a 12-year monitoring period, they observed an 80.2% reduction in amphibian deaths, and up to 94% for non-climbing species like salamanders. 



The study used a before-after-control-impact design and documented more than 5,200 amphibians, highlighting the tunnels’ effectiveness even in nearby buffer zones.



Funded at $342,397 - far cheaper than wildlife crossings for large mammals - the project showcased the power of community-led conservation.



Local groups initiated the effort after observing mass amphibian deaths. Wildlife cameras later captured over 2,200 amphibians using a tunnel in just one spring, along with other species like raccoons and bobcats, indicating wider ecosystem benefits.



This marks the first peer-reviewed, long-term data set in the northeastern U.S. confirming amphibian-specific underpasses work. 



The study urges transportation departments to incorporate these designs into road planning and highlights how community action, thoughtful infrastructure, and persistence can make a real difference for biodiversity.



The full study was published in the <a href="https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1617138125000780" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal for Nature Conservation</a>.



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-----

Wildlife tunnels save millions of amphibians

https://youtu.be/XYgiPzmNBTU?si=eFYY7gPHU1JznLvU A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that...

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing it with probiotics and prebiotics, aiming to create a treat that satisfies cravings while supporting gut health. 



The challenge lies in maintaining chocolate's beloved texture and flavor while adding health benefits.



<figure class="wp-block-embed aligncenter is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://youtu.be/Ug657J67iEo?si=w96YjGMsg939LD_3
</div></figure>



Probiotics - beneficial microbes that balance gut bacteria and aid digestion - are typically fragile and can be destroyed by stomach acid or processing. 



Prebiotics act as food for these microbes, helping them thrive. Together, they form "synbiotics," a powerful health combination.



Researchers Smriti Gaur and Shubhi Singh from India's Jaypee Institute of Information Technology took an innovative approach, using natural prebiotics like corn and honey instead of complex processing methods. 



They created five chocolate varieties: a control and four synbiotic versions containing different combinations of prebiotics, probiotics (Lactobacillus strains), and flavor enhancers (cinnamon or orange).



Laboratory simulations of human digestion showed the probiotics remained viable for over five hours, suggesting they could survive long enough to benefit gut health.



Taste tests were positive, with researchers particularly enjoying the orange-flavored variety, describing it as having "vibrant citrus notes" complementing the "rich cocoa" with a "luxurious" texture.



This research represents just the beginning. With further refinement of strains, textures, and flavors, chocolate could evolve beyond mere indulgence to become a functional food that nourishes while it delights.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.4c00741" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ACS Food Science &amp; Technology</a>.

Is chocolate the next nutritional powerhouse?

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

[sendtonews key="0ynNMYkMKa-2340414-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

[sendtonews key="G9bUoxcjr4-2511624-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

[sendtonews key="3upvlAaHgO-2256633-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

[sendtonews key="LvS8v8bp9z-2564889-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="X0f6OHYoI4-2310561-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How does salt makes things taste better?

[sendtonews key="X0f6OHYoI4-2310561-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Santiago, Chile in South America

[sendtonews key="JRaP49ISmm-2357509-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

[sendtonews key="e4ZG0Jawp3-2374785-12187" type="single"] Astronomers at Johns Hopkins University have created...

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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.



According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."



Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;



ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. 



Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

[sendtonews key="uV9Lh2fQbV-1760058-12187" type="single"] Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

[sendtonews key="qjvhBOBnY8-2426650-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

[sendtonews key="oL4FnPTGCV-2384527-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

[sendtonews key="0879czfG3k-1785905-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from NASA...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

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Earth,Like,Exoplanet,3d,Render

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

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