Two iconic dinosaurs - Tyrannosaurus rex and Brachylophosaurus canadensis - have yielded a fresh line of evidence that traces of their original biology can survive for tens of millions of years. 



In new work, researchers at <a href="https://www.ncsu.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">North Carolina State University</a> identified hemoglobin - the oxygen-carrying protein in blood - and its iron-bearing heme group in bone extracts from both animals.



The finding strengthens a growing body of data showing that certain biomolecules can persist in exceptional fossils. It also clarifies how they change as fossils form.



Researchers have debated and re-examined soft, stretchy tissues from these same specimens for nearly two decades. 



Teams have used high-resolution imaging, antibodies, and protein sequencing to argue that the materials are genuine remnants of dinosaur biology rather than modern contaminants. The latest study adds another tool - and another confirmation.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-light-unlocks-dinosaur-chemistry">Light unlocks dinosaur chemistry</h2>



The team turned to <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/biochemistry-genetics-and-molecular-biology/resonance-raman-spectroscopy" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Resonance Raman (RR) spectroscopy</a>. In this method, laser light is tuned to a molecule’s electronic transitions. This causes only that molecule to “sing” back with a strong signal.



“Raman spectroscopy essentially uses light waves to identify a molecule’s energetic ‘fingerprint,’” said physicist Hans Hallen, the study’s corresponding author. 



“Resonance Raman, which we use here, takes that process one step further by using light already tuned to the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seeking-the-origins-of-the-molecule-that-made-the-universe/">molecule</a> of interest - so only that type of molecule will resonate.”



That resonance dramatically boosts the signal from specific bonds - crucial when your targets are rare, damaged molecules embedded in a complex fossil matrix.



“This strong signal allows us to find the needle (hemoglobin remnants) in the haystack (messy fossil) to see how this molecule has changed from the functional living state, revealing the chemical changes molecules undergo in deep time,” Hallen added.



RR spectra from T. rex and Brachylophosaurus extracts showed signatures consistent with heme still bound to globin proteins. In addition, they indicated heme bound to goethite, an iron oxide mineral linked to oxidized iron.



The researchers cross-checked those signals against demineralized modern <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/discovery-of-a-cretaceous-ostrich-mexidracon-longimanus-with-extremely-long-arms/">ostrich</a> bone and human blood to anchor their interpretations.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-blood-molecules-traced-to-dinosaurs">Blood molecules traced to dinosaurs</h2>



Because Raman detects bonds rather than whole molecules, skeptics often point out that generic signals could arise from modern microbes or other contaminants. 



That’s where the extra selectivity of RR - and the structural information in the spectra - matters.



“RR identifies both bonds and structure," said paleobiologist Mary Schweitzer, a co-author on the work. 



"We know that heme is there and that it is still bound to hemoglobin protein - contaminants like <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/reusable-water-bottles-are-breeding-ground-for-strep-and-fecal-bacteria/">bacteria</a> don’t have those specific bonds, so we can say that the molecules are from the animal, or in this case, the dinosaur,”



The team also mapped how those spectral fingerprints shift as hemoglobin decays. After death, the protein breaks down, damaging the heme ring and oxidizing the iron inside it. 



RR data show that goethite forms on that iron, and the heme can bind to the mineral surface.



Tellingly, the researchers observed the early stages of the same degradation pathway in modern samples, suggesting that key steps happen relatively quickly and then stabilize.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dinosaur-blood-survived-fossilization">Dinosaur blood survived fossilization</h2>



Beyond confirming what the molecules are, the spectral changes reveal a plausible route for how they survived. 



Goethite is a bio-related mineral - it often forms in association with biological activity - and the new data hint that it doesn’t just grow near proteins; it can latch onto and stabilize fragments. "We didn’t know that it could bind to and stabilize <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-modified-plant-proteins-to-create-delicious-meat-alternatives/">protein</a> fragments,” Hallen said.



That matters because it shows a mechanism that locks delicate organics in place and protects them during fossilization. 



Researchers already know that heme persists in sediments far older than the age of dinosaurs, but the path from fresh blood to ancient rock has remained murky.



Pinning down the chemistry helps explain why hemoglobin, in particular, shows up as a survivor - and why some fossils preserve molecular vestiges while others do not.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-new-view-of-fossil-preservation">A new view of fossil preservation</h2>



The study reinforces a shift in paleontology: under the right conditions, original biochemistry can endure deep time, and modern tools can detect and interpret it. 



Instead of a binary “preserved or not,” researchers are piecing together degradation pathways, mineral partnerships, and microenvironments that favor survival.



For dinosaur biology, that means more than just curiosity. Hemoglobin and heme in blood play key roles in metabolism, oxygen transport, and overall physiology. 



Their presence, and the way they degrade, defines how tissues fossilize and what information we can still extract.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/09/dinosaur-bone_hemoglobin_preserved_NCSU_1m.jpg"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/09/dinosaur-bone_hemoglobin_preserved_NCSU_1s.webp" alt="Vessels isolated from Tyrannosaurus cortical bone by demineralization in EDTA. Credit: NC State University" class="wp-image-1985867"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Vessels isolated from Tyrannosaurus cortical bone by demineralization in EDTA. Click image to enlarge. Credit: NC State University</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-blood-chemistry-spans-eons">Blood chemistry spans eons</h2>



For dinosaur fossil science, mineral–organic interactions like heme–goethite may help preserve blood proteins and molecular fragments throughout Earth’s history.



“Heme has been identified in sediments that are much, much older than dinosaurs, so we know that it persists,” Schweitzer noted. 



“Understanding why <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/secrets-of-human-genetics-could-optimize-medical-care/">hemoglobin</a> preserves, and the role that heme plays in the process, is really important if we want to know how these ancient molecules survive through time.”



The upshot is both practical and provocative. Resonance Raman pinpoints specific ancient molecules within messy fossils, and the chemistry it reveals also serves as a preservation roadmap. 



That’s a powerful combination for anyone trying to read life’s oldest diaries written in stone.



The study is published in the <a href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rspa.2025.0175" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Proceedings of the Royal Society A Mathematical Physical and Engineering Sciences</a>.



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Hemoglobin and other blood molecules found preserved in dinosaur fossils

Two iconic dinosaurs - Tyrannosaurus rex and Brachylophosaurus canadensis - have yielded a fresh line of evidence that traces of their original biology can survive for tens of millions of years. In new work, researchers at North Carolina State University identified hemoglobin - the oxygen-carrying protein in blood - and its iron-bearing heme group in bone extracts from both animals. The finding strengthens a growing body of data showing that certain biomolecules can persist in exceptional fossils. It also clarifies how they change as fossils form. Researchers...

Wildlife poaching has long been a threat to many threatened and endangered species throughout the world. As populations of targeted species continue to decline, technology has increasingly been used as a tool to combat poaching.

<a href="https://www.bbc.com/news/av/magazine-41672803/drones-are-being-used-to-protect-elephants-and-rhinos-from-poachers">Drones</a> are being used in Africa to watch over wild elephant and rhino populations and <a href="https://www.worldwildlife.org/stories/new-anti-poaching-technology-leads-to-dozens-of-arrests-of-wildlife-criminals-in-africa">infrared cameras</a> have already resulted in the arrest of dozens of poachers. But now, in an effort to protect sea turtles, fake GPS eggs are being used to track the movement of poachers.

There are seven species of <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/microplastics-sea-turtle-species/">sea turtles</a>, all of whom face pressures from poaching. All but one species of sea turtle is listed as Vulnerable or higher on the IUCN Red List. The elusive Flatback turtle is listed as Data Deficient on the IUCN Red List but is listed as Vulnerable under the Australian Commonwealth’s Endangered Species Protection Act, according to <a href="https://www.seeturtles.org/flatback-turtle/">See Turtles</a>.  

Despite protection under national and international laws, sea turtles are heavily poached for their meat, shells and eggs. Turtle eggs are considered a delicacy, aphrodisiac or even a bar snack in some places. Their shells can be used to make jewelry and souvenirs. In the last 100 years,<a href="https://www.iucnredlist.org/species/8005/12881238#threats"> millions</a> of Hawksbill turtles have been killed for the tortoiseshell trade alone.

Without intervention, poaching could result in the extinction of our ocean’s sea turtles. That is where the fake GPS eggs come in. Paso Pacifico, a non-profit that works to conserve ecosystems along Central America’s Pacific slope, has developed a unique product called the InvestEGGator, a GPS tracking device that looks and feels like a real sea turtle egg. 

The non-profit works in Central America, where sea turtle egg poaching is common. Hawksbill turtles in El Salvador, Nicaragua and Ecuador and Leatherback turtles in Mexico, Costa Rica and Nicaragua are among the<a href="https://www.iucn.org/sites/dev/files/import/downloads/ci_threatened_turtlemap_final.pdf"> world’s 11 most threatened sea turtle populations.</a> It is believed that poachers destroy more than 90% of sea turtle nests on many Central American beaches.

The GPS eggs are placed in real sea turtle nests for poachers to grab. Once the poachers take the tracking devices, Paso Pacifico can receive information on poachers’ smuggling routes. 

“Armed with that information, we intend to work with authorities to dismantle egg trafficking, both domestically and internationally,” the group says on their<a href="http://pasopacifico.org/project/investeggator-sea-turtle-eggs/"> website</a>.

“If you're deploying eggs on several beaches in a country, and let's say they all end up going to the same neighborhood or the same block, then that suggests maybe a very centralized network with a couple of really key players,” Kim Williams-Guillén, who works for Paso Pacifico, explained in a<a href="https://www.pbs.org/newshour/show/cracking-down-on-poaching-with-3d-printed-fake-turtle-eggs"> PBS interview</a>.

The eggs have the potential to provide important insight into the movement of poachers and traffickers who sell the products in the illicit wildlife market. In addition, the eggs may also help locals, some of whom may be poachers themselves. 

Paso Pacifico hires locals to work as rangers who patrol the beaches and collect scientific data. The ranger jobs provide an alternative for individuals who may rely on poaching for an income. In this way, the ranger program is not only helping to watch over sea turtles but transform individuals from poachers to guardians.

Paso Pacifico continues to refine the InvestEGGator in the hopes of making the technology available for widespread use. The technology may be able to help other species such as birds whose eggs are smuggled for the wildlife trade.

--

By <a href="mailto:brianna.grant134@gmail.com">Brianna Lynne</a>, <a href="http://earth.com">Earth.com</a> Contributing Writer

Fake GPS turtle eggs are being used to help track wildlife poachers

Wildlife poaching has long been a threat to many threatened...

The analysis of 250 million-year-old fossils has led to the discovery of a marine reptile that resembled a duck-billed platypus. Eretmorhipis carrolldongi existed in shallow seas during the Triassic period, and hunted for prey by relying on its sense of touch using a platypus-like bill.


In addition to having a cartilaginous bill, Eretmorhipis was about 70 centimeters in length with a rigid body, small head, and tiny eyes. The creature also had four flippers for swimming and steering, with bony plates along its back.

Study co-author Professor Ryosuke Motani is a paleontologist at the <a href="https://www.ucdavis.edu/">University of California, Davis</a>. He explained that Eretmorhipis was previously known only from partial fossils without a head.

“This is a very strange animal,” said Professor Motani. “When I started thinking about the biology I was really puzzled.”

The two new fossils revealed that the animal's skull had bones that would have supported a bill of cartilage. Just like the modern platypus, there is a large hole in the bones in the middle of the bill.

[caption id="attachment_1866047" align="aligncenter" width="700"]<a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/01/marine-animal.jpg"><img class="wp-image-1866047" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/01/marine-animal.jpg" alt="" width="700" height="525" /></a> Image Credit: Gianluca Danini[/caption]

In the early <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/new-pterodactyl-species-triassic/">Triassic</a>, the region in China where the Eretmorhipis fossils were found was covered by a shallow sea that was around a meter deep. Underneath, a carbonate platform extended for hundreds of miles. The remains were recovered at what would have been deeper holes, or lagoons, in the platform. 

While there are no fossils to show what Eretmorhipis ate, it likely fed on shrimp, worms, and other small invertebrates, according to Professor Motani. He said that the creature’s long, bony body likely meant that it was a poor swimmer. “It wouldn't survive in the modern world, but it didn't have any rivals at the time.”

The study is published in the journal <a href="http://www.nature.com/scientificreports">Scientific Reports</a>.

--

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Image Credit: Gianluca Danini

Strange marine animal from the Triassic had a platypus-like bill

The analysis of 250 million-year-old fossils has led to the...

A new study published by the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> may help to explain why toxic methylmercury concentrations in <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/record-payment-tuna-ocean-fish/">tuna fish</a> vary across different geographic regions. The researchers have mapped the regional variations in an effort to examine the biological, environmental, and ecological factors that are driving these fluctuations. 

Methylmercury is highly toxic form of mercury that can cause damage to the central nervous system in humans. Methylmercury is known to accumulate in the aquatic food chain, potentially leading to greater concentrations in fish that are higher up on the food chain, including tuna. 

Mercury compounds are released into the atmosphere from natural sources, such as volcanoes and human activities like gold mining. When these compounds reach the ocean, natural bacterial reactions convert them into methylmercury.

The scientists focused their investigation on bigeye, yellowfin, and albacore tuna captured in a region known as the Western and Central Pacific Ocean (WCPO). For most of the samples, the researchers found that methylmercury levels were below food safety guidelines.

The study also confirmed previous findings from other ocean regions that body size is the primary factor in determining contamination within a species. Bigger fish accumulate a higher concentration of methylmercury in their tissues compared to smaller fish. Furthermore, the experts determined that this concentration is affected by sea-surface temperature and the depth of the ocean layer in which tuna feed. 

Based on their findings, the team developed a model to help predict methylmercury levels in tuna. The model was found to be accurate for WCPO, as well as for the North Central and Central Equatorial Pacific Oceans, but underestimated levels in fish from the Eastern Equatorial Pacific Ocean. The researchers explained that the research could help in assessing the risks and benefits of eating tuna caught in a particular location.


The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/journal/esthag">Environmental Science &amp; Technology</a>.
--
By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Why do some tuna contain toxic mercury levels, while others don’t?

A new study published by the American Chemical Society may...

<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/antarctic-krill-ocean-acidification/">Krill</a> are a key food source for many marine animals including whales, penguins, seabirds, seals, and fish. Krill are small, shrimp-like crustaceans that swim in vast swarms that are sometimes dense and wide enough that they can be viewed from space, according to <a href="https://www.nationalgeographic.com/animals/invertebrates/group/krill/">National Geographic</a>.

Unfortunately, Antarctic krill populations appear to be declining. A new study has found that climate change is driving Antarctic krill southward and changing species distribution which could have an irreversible impact on the Southern Ocean food web.

The study was led by researchers from the <a href="https://www.pml.ac.uk/">Plymouth Marine Laboratory</a> and the <a href="https://www.bas.ac.uk/">British Antarctic Survey</a> and published in the journal Nature Climate Change.

Not only did the researchers find that krill are shifting towards the South Pole, but the further north you go, the steeper the declines in krill density.

The shifts are bad news for the many species that rely on krill, and the study shows that krill distribution predictions based on environmental changes are coming true.

Researchers have been collecting data on Antarctic Krill since the 1920s. At first, the data was meant to help inform whale conservation efforts but the researchers identified an interesting trend in krill distribution in the data.

The researchers say that from the 1980s onwards, the data shows clear changes in distribution and density in Antarctic krill populations.

“Our results suggest that over the past 40 years, the amount of krill has, on average, gone down, and also the location of the krill has contracted to much less of the habitat,” Simeon Hill, a lead author of the study, told <a href="https://www.bbc.com/news/science-environment-46953652">BBC News</a>. “That suggests all these other animals that eat krill will face much more intense competition with each other for this important food resource.”

Krill feed on phytoplankton, and the distribution changes likely have a lot to do with the krill’s search for abundant food and a more hospitable habitat with more sea ice.

The late 80s saw a climate oscillation called the Southern Annular Mode which produced warmer temperatures and reduced sea ice coverage.

According to the BBC, the Southern Annular Mode is one of the main drivers of krill distribution changes in recent years. The researchers also found changes in krill size. 

“And that's because the population has increasingly become dominated by older and larger animals,” Hill told BBC News. “This is a result of a decline in the number of krill entering the population - what we call juvenile recruitment.”

The study shows how sensitive the Antarctic ecosystem is to climate change and calls for stronger climate change mitigation to protect the Southern Ocean food web from collapsing as krill get more scarce.

--

By <a href="mailto:kayvandette@gmail.com">Kay Vandette</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 

Paid for by <a href="http://earth.com">Earth.com</a>

Changes in Antarctic krill numbers could disrupt an entire food web

Krill are a key food source for many marine animals...

A new study has found that the flashy feathers which make peacocks so noticeable to one another may actually help them to hide from predators in the wild. According to the experts, many of the animals that pose the biggest threats to <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/male-peacocks-courtship-display/">peacocks</a> lack the color vision to detect the brilliant colors of the tail feathers. 

The research team pointed out that while a peacock’s feathers would dramatically stand out to humans, large cats and stray dogs only have two color receptors, which would make the feathers blend into the natural surroundings.

“Feathers perceived by humans to be vividly colorful are often presumed to be equally conspicuous to other mammals, and thus to present an enhanced predation risk,” wrote the researchers.

“However, many mammals that prey on adult birds have dichromatic visual systems with only two types of color-sensitive visual receptors (one sensitive to ultraviolet light), rather than the three characteristic of humans and four of most birds.”

This means that a male peacock could show off its tail feathers for mating purposes without getting the attention of predators.

The study was focused on how peacock tail feathers would appear to predators and to other peacocks. The team also used multispectral imaging and reflectance spectroscopy to compare the appearance of color against green vegetation.

The investigation confirmed that the feathers would look very different to mammals than to other peacocks.

“When viewed by tetrachromatic birds against a background of green vegetation, most of the feathers studied had color and brightness contrasts similar to values previously found for ripe fruit,” wrote the study authors. 

“By contrast, when viewed by dichromat mammalian predators, the color and brightness contrasts of these feathers were only weakly detectable and often did not reach detection thresholds for typical viewing distances.”

The study is published online at <a href="https://www.biorxiv.org/">bioRxiv.org</a>.

--

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

How a peacock may use its flashy feathers to evade predators

A new study has found that the flashy feathers which...

Researchers have found previously unknown colonies of two native <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/hawaiian-forest-birds-endangered/">Hawaiian bird species</a> on the island of Oahu. The discovery of Newell's Shearwaters and Hawaiian Petrels comes as a welcome surprise to conservationists after habitat loss and other threats have dramatically driven down the numbers of these two populations. 

Between 1993 and 2013, Newell's Shearwaters declined by 94 percent and Hawaiian Petrels declined by 78 percent. Both bird species were thought to have disappeared entirely from Oahu in the late 1700s.

A team led by Lindsay Young of the <a href="https://pacificrimconservation.org/">Pacific Rim Conservation</a> used a spatial model based on elevation, forest cover, and illumination to identify potential suitable breeding habitat for both bird species on Oahu. In 2016 and 2017, the researchers deployed acoustic recording units across the island to listen for bird calls at 16 different sites. They were surprised to detect the presence of petrels at one site and shearwaters at two sites.

“We were doing a statewide survey for these species for the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service as part of recovery action planning, but Oahu was not initially included as one of the sites to survey, since evidence suggested they weren't there,” said Young. “Since we're Oahu-based, we thought we would at least put a few recording units out to see if there was anything. And we were surprised, to say the least, that we not only had calls detected, but detected both species across two years.”

According to the researchers, the birds may be the last survivors of remnant breeding populations on Oahu, or young birds from other islands searching for mates and breeding sites.

“Either way, it gives us hope that we will be able to use social attraction - that is, using calls and decoys - to attract them nest on an island where they were once abundant,” said Young. 

The study is published in <a href="http://www.americanornithology.org/content/condor-ornithological-applications">The Condor: Ornithological Applications</a>.

--

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer
Image Credit: Lindsay Young

Endangered birds found unexpectedly on the island of Oahu

Researchers have found previously unknown colonies of two native Hawaiian...

Centrosaurus pair

Everyone knows or thinks they know of T. Rex and Velociraptor sp. from popular portrayals in movies and books like Jurassic Park.  We’re accustomed to these examples of dangerous predatory dinosaurs but those of us seriously interested in dinosaurs know they’re just the tip of the iceberg.  

Large raptors like Utahraptor and other Tyrannosaurids like Albertosaurus of Canada or Teratophoneus of the Grand Staircase-Escalante barely start to fill out a history of almost 200 million years occupied by the likes of Allosaurus and even giant birds (technically dinosaurs) like Moas.  It’s a history that spans the whole globe as well. Predatory Tarbosaurus lived in Mongolia with Velociraptor, theropod (two legged predator) dinosaurs have been found in South America and Africa.  A few theropod fossils have been found in Australia and even Antarctica as well. But now, a new chapter in the history of predator dinosaurs has been discovered.

As <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/largest-predatory-jurassic-dinosaur/">we reported</a> last month, researchers working in the Italian Alps have discovered what so far is the oldest example of a ceratosaurian.  Ceratosaurians are the oldest clade of theropod dinosaurs, perhaps best known by the horned Ceratosaurus as well as the Dilophosaurus that played an important role in Jurassic Park.  Both of these examples have strange head gear, the crest on top of the Dilophosaurus (sorry but the neck frill was pure Hollywood invention) and a horn on the nose of the Ceratosaurus.  

As the oldest of theropods, it’s possible that these dinosaurs were the ancestors of all theropod dinosaurs but it’s impossible to say for sure at this point.  According to the <a href="http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/diapsids/saurischia/ceratosauria.html">University of California Museum of Paleontology</a>, Ceratosaurians were very bird-like that scientists believe first evolved during the Triassic, a period that started about 225 million years ago.  Despite this, no examples of Ceratosaurians have been found earlier than the Jurassic. 

The new dinosaur discovered in Italian Alps is still a Jurassic dinosaur of about 198 million years ago but it’s the oldest of its type found so far.  Other theropod dinosaurs close to the same age are rare and often incomplete. Other old theropod dinosaurs from Europe include incomplete discoveries like a pelvis, vertebrae and femur found in England and a 40% complete Dracoraptor skeleton from Wales. 

The new dinosaur has been named Saltriovenator zanellai and is not only older than any other Ceratosaurians found so far, it also seems to represent the largest predator dinosaur that old known to science. The dinosaur is about 25 million years older than previously known large theropod dinosaurs.  This is also the first Jurassic dinosaur fossil found in Italy. The find was <a href="https://peerj.com/articles/5976/">just recently published</a> but the fossil was found by an amateur fossil hunter at a quarry back in 1996.

It seems from bite marks left by invertebrates on the bones that the dinosaur died and was nibbled at in the ocean, it likely drifted into before eventually being covered in sediment and fossilized in an area that slowly became part of the Italian Alps.  

The dinosaur is estimated to have weighed 1 ton, measuring 7.5 meters in length when alive and was armed with sharp serrated teeth similar in form and function to other theropod dinosaur teeth as well as living Komodo dragons.  Uniquely S. zanellai has three fingers rather than four as would be expected and seems to have some features common to later dinosaurs mixed with those of earlier dinosaurs.  

The new dinosaur is important in showing the state of dinosaur evolution at that time.  Despite the probability of Ceratosaurians in the Triassic, we know very little about these early theropod dinosaurs.  The end of the Triassic represented a major extinction much less famous than the one that killed off dinosaurs. So the beginning of the Jurassic represent a time when new forms were evolving and filling niches left open by the earlier extinction event. 

 It seems that Saltriovenator zanellai is just one example of an explosion in the diversity of Ceratosaurians spreading across the world.  Examples of other dinosaurs from Morrocco, South Africa, Massachusetts, Antarctica and elsewhere seem to reflect this interpretation of dinosaur evolution.  In <a href="https://peerj.com/articles/5976/">their paper</a>, the scientists, Cristiano Dal Sasso​, Simone Maganuco and Andrea Cau describe the importance of the find to dinosaur paleontology, 

“…In this context, the discovery of a new specimen from the Sinemurian of Italy is extremely relevant as it is among the oldest Jurassic theropods, it is larger than all other pre-Aalenian theropods (see Skeletal reconstruction and body size section, below) and it improves our knowledge on some of the macroevolutionary patterns that would have characterized the evolution of Theropoda during the Jurassic. It also represents the first dinosaur skeleton from the Italian Alps, the first of Jurassic age, and the second theropod skeleton found in Italy...”

In the evolution of birds more generally, this find also represents a new piece of information on the formation of bird hands (and eventually wings).  The fossil shows that long before evolving into wings, the arrangement of bones in dinosaurs were for grasping and struggling with prey. Today, we’re more accustomed to thinking of living dinosaurs (birds) as having no real hands at all but wings, flippers or nearly useless vestiges.  While munching on hot wings or watching birds sitting on a wire, it’s interesting to reflect on the amazing power of evolution over mind boggling lengths of time. 

It’s likely that older Ceratosaurian dinosaurs are still hidden somewhere waiting to be found.  Paleontology itself is a speculative science relying on necessarily incomplete physical evidence and hypotheses based on the best of this evidence.  This discovery if anything verifies what scientists have thought about the origins of theropod dinosaurs, showing that they were evolved into something similar to what we expect later in geologic history by the Jurassic.  Scientists speculate that they may have existed even earlier than that. This discovery also shows that Europe played an important role in the evolution of theropod dinosaurs and opens up new possibilities of where to look for them.

--

By <a href="mailto:zachfitzner@yahoo.com">Zach Fitzner</a>, <a href="http://earth.com">Earth.com</a> Contributing Writer

Image Credit: Lucas Attwell

Meet the oldest large predatory dinosaur ever found

Everyone knows or thinks they know of T. Rex and...

A subglacial <a href="https://www.earth.com/image/operation-icebridge-returns-to-antartica/">Antarctic</a> lake buried beneath a kilometer of ice contains the remains of ancient life that have been preserved for thousands of years. 

Researchers that drilled into Lake Mercer to study the lake and collect sediment samples found carcasses of crustaceans, a tardigrade, and even preserved plant material in the mud collected from the lake floor. 

The discovery was part of the <a href="https://salsa-antarctica.org/concept-and-purpose/">Subglacial Antarctic Lakes Scientific Access</a> expedition which used a high-pressure water drill to melt a small hole through the thick layer of ice that sits above Lake Mercer. 

This is the first time that the lake has ever been explored in depth, as previously, radar and remote sensing technology were the only way to access the lake. 

After cleaning mud off a water temperature instrument, David Hardwood, a micro-paleontologist who was part of the SALA expedition, examined the mud under a microscope, according to a release from <a href="https://www.nature.com/">Nature</a>.

Hardwood found diatom shells and crustacean carcasses that looked relatively new. 

“It looked really fresh,” Hardwood told Nature. “Like something that had been living.”

Lake water samples that were collected were also analyzed and revealed that the lake was teeming with bacteria and had plenty of oxygen to support life. 

At first, Hardwood was concerned that the equipment used to measure the water temperature might have been contaminated, and so the SALA team cleaned the equipment and dropped it back in the lake for another test. Again, Hardwood found ancient animal remains. 

The ancient signs of life are both exciting and puzzling for the researchers who discovered them, according to Nature.

It is unclear how the carcasses, shells, and microbes got there in the first place, especially since some of the ancient species discovered used to live on or near land.

One potential theory is that the creatures originated from ponds in the Transantarctic Mountains near Lake Mercer and a period of warming washed sediment and organic material into the lake which was then covered by ice as temperatures shifted. 

The next step for the SALA researchers is to carbon date the organic material found in the mud, which could help show exactly how and when the different animals ended up in Lake Mercer. 

--

By <a href="mailto:kayvandette@gmail.com">Kay Vandette</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 

Image Credit: Billy Collins/SALSA Science Team/Nature

Ancient fossils found preserved in Antarctic subglacial lake

A subglacial Antarctic lake buried beneath a kilometer of ice...

The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/save-endangered-killer-whale/">Southern resident killer whale population</a>, a community of whales made up of three pods that spend much of the year swimming in the Salish Sea off the coasts of Washington State and British Columbia, has reached a 35-year low, according to the <a href="https://www.seattletimes.com/seattle-news/environment/i-am-worried-and-i-am-afraid-two-more-puget-sound-orcas-predicted-to-die-in-critically-endangered-population/">Seattle Times</a>. 

After 3 deaths in just four months, only 74 members of the population remain. 

Conservationists have identified many threats that are causing orca whale declines in the Pacific Northwest including fishing and boat traffic, ocean pollution, and climate change. 

But now, a new report has identified a new threat never before considered that has a huge impact on Southern resident killer whales. 

A group of four biologists from <a href="https://nrccorp.com/">Natural Resources Consultants</a> in Seattle, the <a href="https://www.uaf.edu/">University of Alaska at Fairbanks</a>, the<a href="https://www.adfg.alaska.gov/"> Alaska Department of Fish and Game</a>, and an independent researcher on salmon recently examined data on Pacific Northwest orca whale populations and discovered an interesting biennial trend. 

The researchers reviewed data from the <a href="https://www.whaleresearch.com/">Center for Whale Research</a> and found that over the past two decades, whale declines were more noticeable in even-numbered years. 

This every other year pattern was then linked to pink salmon, an abundant species of salmon which form massive salmon runs back to their home streams, completing a two-year life cycle. 

Other salmon like the Chinook, which is a crucial food source for Orca whales, tend to stay in the ocean longer, according to <a href="https://komonews.com/news/local/scientists-id-another-possible-threat-to-orcas-pink-salmon">KOMO News</a> which reported on the surprising new findings.  

Pink salmon populations have thrived as of late due to both increases in salmon protections and changes in ocean conditions. 

The researchers found that from 1998 to 2017, the Southern resident killer whale population dropped to 76 and more whales were dying in even years compared to odd years. There were also fewer calves that survived in even years.

It didn’t take long for the researchers to find correlations between these biennial declines and the surges in pink salmon populations in recent years that have benefited from new protection efforts and changes in ocean currents. 

Orcas prefer Chinook salmon and do not eat pink salmon. The researchers theorize that the large numbers of pink salmon that enter the Salish sea every other year disrupt the orca’s ability to hunt and echolocate properly. 

The researchers published a paper on the pink salmon as soon as they discovered the pattern in the hopes of getting the information out to the public as quickly as possible. Orca whales may soon face extinction unless more is done to protect the species.

“The main point was getting out to the public word about this biennial pattern so people can start thinking about this important, completely unexpected factor in the decline of these whales,” Greg Ruggerone, a member of the research team and author of the paper told KOMO News. “It's important to better understand what's occurring here because that could help facilitate recovery actions.”

--

By <a href="mailto:kayvandette@gmail.com">Kay Vandette</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Paid for by <a href="http://earth.com">Earth.com</a>

Pink salmon identified as new threat to orca populations

The Southern resident killer whale population, a community of whales...

Cats are more friendly than you think, but take cues from humans. While dogs have long been known as man’s best friend, <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/dogs-not-smarter-cats/">cats</a> are famous for their grumpy and aloof attitude. Dogs run to greet us at the door when we get home, meanwhile cats knock over our favorite possessions while staring right at us. But studies show that cats are not necessarily unsocial, they just take cues from our behavior.

A recent <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0376635718300998?via%3Dihub#bib0190">study</a>, published in Behavioural Processes this month, looked at the influence of human attention on cat sociability. The authors note that little research has been conducted on cat social behavior, which may be a result of the perception of cats as unsocial. 

“Although many think of cats as solitary, domestic cats are facultatively social and can live either socially or solitarily, depending on their environment and upbringing,” the authors write.Cats are more friendly than you think, but take cues from humans

For the study, researchers examined cat-human interactions to measure the cats’ time near humans, time directly interacting with humans and number of meow vocalizations. The human participants would enter the room and either sit on the floor and ignore the cat or interact with the cat by calling and petting the cat.

The researchers found that cats spent significantly more time socializing with attentive humans rather than humans who ignored them. 

Previous studies on cat behavior have also found that human behavior affects a cat’s behavior. A <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.2752/089279389787058109">study</a> which examined first encounters between humans and cats found that cats initiated contact more quickly with humans who gave them attention over those who ignored them.

Cats have even been shown to respond to humans’ emotional cues. In a 2015 <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25573289">study</a>, cats were given either a positive or negative message from their owners in the presence of an unfamiliar object. Cats in the study altered their behavior towards the object based on whether their owner was using happy or fearful tones and expressions.

Studies on cat behavior illustrate how our beliefs about cats may be too simplistic. Instead of simply being less friendly, cats may be responding to cues they receive from humans. While dogs often need direct interaction through walks and regular feedings, cats are more independent and, therefore, do not need as much attention. Cat owners may inadvertently be less attentive towards their cats, causing the cats to respond with less social interactions.

In addition, the evolutionary history of cats and dogs may play a role. According to the 2015 study, “Whereas cats’ ancestors were solitary, and today this species is dubbed ‘optionally social’ (i.e. likely to choose whether to establish strong relationships or simply tolerate social situations), dogs’ ancestor were pack-living animals and dogs today have been shown to organize in multi-male, multi-female packs when food is prevalent.”

Cats also have individual personalities which can affect their sociability levels. Just like humans, some cats may be in your face looking for attention while others prefer their own company. But overall, cats seem to want to interact with us, they just don’t always want to initiate.

Hopefully, this new research can teach us all to give our kitty companions a little more love and attention.

--

By <a href="mailto:brianna.grant134@gmail.com">Brianna Lynne</a>, <a href="http://earth.com">Earth.com</a> Contributing Writer

Cats are more friendly than you think, but take cues from humans

Cats are more friendly than you think, but take cues...

SUE the T. rex is famous for being the most complete skeleton ever discovered of the world's most popular dinosaur. And now, hidden in the leftover sediment that once surrounded SUE's bones, experts have found the remains of a new shark species.

For decades, the leftover rock that Sue was recovered from has been stored underground. When scientists took a new look at it, they found teeth from a <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/exploding-star-shark-megalodon/">shark</a> that they believe lived in a river SUE drank from.

“This shark lived at the same time as SUE the T. rex, it was part of the same world,” said study co-author Pete Makovicky, the curator of dinosaurs at the <a href="https://www.fieldmuseum.org/">Field Museum</a>. “Most of its body wasn't preserved, because sharks' skeletons are made of cartilage, but we were able to find its tiny fossilized teeth.”

The team of researchers, led by Terry Gates of <a href="https://www.ncsu.edu/">North Carolina State University</a>, named the shark Galagadon nordquista. This name honors Karen Nordquist, a retired chemist and Field Museum volunteer who discovered the tiny fossils, and also references the shark’s teeth, which have a triangle shape like the spaceships in the 1980s video game Galaga.

“Galagadon was less than two feet long - it's not exactly Jaws,” said Makovicky. “It's comparable to bamboo sharks living today. It probably had a flat face and was very likely camouflage-colored, since its relatives today have a camouflage pattern. It would have eaten small invertebrates and probably spent a fair amount of time lying on the bottom of the riverbed.”

The discovery of Galagadon is shedding completely new light on the area where SUE the T. rex once lived. 

“We had always thought of the SUE locality as being by a lake formed from a partially dried-up river - the presence of this shark suggests there must have been at least some connection to marine environments,” said Makovicky. “This wasn't some Sharknado event - these animals were making their way up rivers from the sea.”

[caption id="attachment_1865592" align="aligncenter" width="700"]<a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/01/Galagadon-tooth.jpg"><img class="wp-image-1865592" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/01/Galagadon-tooth.jpg" alt="" width="700" height="595" /></a> Image (c) Terry Gates[/caption]

Study co-author Eric Gorscak explained, “Today, carpet sharks, which include bamboo sharks and wobbegongs, mostly live in the waters in southeast Asia and Australia, so it's surprising to find their fossils at the SUE locality.”

“During the Late Cretaceous the continents continued to drift apart, further isolating dinosaurs and other land animals, and at the same time created the Atlantic and Indian oceans. With occasional seaways connecting these young oceans, we have found fossils of marine life flourishing globally, including Galagadonand its relatives.”

The study highlights the importance of fossils beyond those belonging to dinosaurs. 

“Every species in an ecosystem plays a supporting role, keeping the whole network together,” said Gates. “There is no way for us to understand what changed in the ecosystem during the time of the mass extinction at the end of the Cretaceous without knowing all the wonderful species that existed before.”

The research is published in the <a href="https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/journal-of-paleontology">Journal of Paleontology</a>.

--

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Main Image (c) Velizar Simeonovski, Field Museum

Shark species discovered in the rock that contained SUE the T.Rex

SUE the T. rex is famous for being the most...

A giant lizard that lived almost 300 million years ago has been reconstructed in the form of a robot. The study revealed that the ancient creature was capable of more upright walking than what was previously thought.  

The investigation was focused on the remains of a lizard known as Orobates pabsti, which dates back millions of years before <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/dinosaurs-nasal-passages-cool/">dinosaurs</a>. The scientists digitally scanned the fossils and matched them with well-preserved O. pabsti footprints to create computer simulations that could accurately represent the unique gait of the ancient animal. 

Reptiles, birds, and mammals known as amniotes were thought to be the first to evolve stronger muscles and limbs that were positioned well for efficient upright movement. The findings of this study, however, suggest that the development of an upright gait predated amniotes.

Study co-author Dr. John Nyakatura from <a href="https://www.hu-berlin.de/en/">Humboldt University</a> said: “Our metrics indicate that Orobates exhibited more advanced locomotion than has previously been assumed for earlier tetrapods (four-legged animals), which suggests that advanced terrestrial locomotion preceded the diversification of crown amniote.”

O. pabsti  grew up to five feet in length and weighed around nine pounds. Much like a crocodile, it had a long body and tail with a small skull and short legs.

[caption id="attachment_1865564" align="aligncenter" width="700"]<a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/01/lizard-robot.jpg"><img class="wp-image-1865564" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/01/lizard-robot.jpg" alt="" width="700" height="350" /></a> Image Credit: Tomislav Horvat / Kamilo Melo / EPFL Lausanne[/caption]

“To our knowledge, no reconstructions of the locomotor characteristics of stem amniotes based on multiple quantitative methods have previously been attempted,” said Dr. Nyakatura. “Previous methods have relied on anatomical features alone, ambiguous locomotor information preserved in fossils or unspecific modelling of dynamics.”

“Here we quantitatively examine plausible gaits of the stem amniote Orobates pabsti, a species that is known from a complete body fossil preserved in association with trackways.”

“We reconstruct likely gaits that match the footprints. Our metrics indicate that Orobates exhibited more advanced locomotion than has previously been assumed for earlier tetrapods.”

According to the researchers, the study sheds new light on how animals moved from the oceans to conquer land. 


The research is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/">Nature</a>.

--

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Image Credit: Tomislav Horvat / Kamilo Melo / EPFL Lausanne

Scientists reconstruct 290 million-year-old lizard as a robot

A giant lizard that lived almost 300 million years ago...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2E0mn5mTvhQ
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">'Death Star' moon Mimas conceals a 15-million-year-old ocean that scientists never expected.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hidden-waters-beneath-ancient-craters">Hidden waters beneath ancient craters</h2>



Scientists have made a startling discovery that challenges everything we thought we knew about <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/saturn-moon-mimas-has-remarkably-young-ocean/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Saturn's moon Mimas</a>. Beneath the heavily cratered surface that earned it the nickname "Death Star" lies a global ocean that formed just 5 to 15 million years ago—a remarkably young age by cosmic standards.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cassini-data-reveals-orbital-secrets">Cassini data reveals orbital secrets</h2>



The discovery, led by Dr. Valéry Lainey of the <a href="https://observatoiredeparis.psl.eu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Observatoire de Paris</a>, emerged from careful analysis of <a href="https://www.nasa.gov" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NASA</a>'s Cassini spacecraft data. By studying subtle irregularities in Mimas's orbit around Saturn, researchers detected the gravitational signature of liquid water hidden 20 to 30 kilometers beneath the moon's icy shell.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-an-unlikely-ocean-world">An unlikely ocean world</h2>



At only 400 kilometers in diameter, Mimas seemed like the least likely candidate to harbor a subsurface ocean. Unlike other ocean moons such as Europa and Enceladus, which show clear surface signs of internal activity, Mimas displays no obvious hints of the liquid water beneath its ancient, crater-scarred exterior.



"Mimas is a small moon, and its heavily cratered surface gave no hint of the hidden ocean beneath," explained Dr. Nick Cooper from <a href="https://www.qmul.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Queen Mary University of London</a>, a study co-author.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-astrobiology">Implications for astrobiology</h2>



The ocean's recent formation makes Mimas a prime target for studying how oceans develop and potentially support life. This discovery adds another member to the exclusive club of ocean worlds in our solar system, each offering unique insights into the conditions necessary for habitability.



The research, published in <a href="https://www.nature.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature</a> journal, demonstrates how advanced orbital analysis can reveal hidden features of celestial bodies, opening new possibilities for understanding ocean formation throughout the cosmos.



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Scientists discover unexpected young ocean on Saturn's cratered moon Mimas

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2E0mn5mTvhQ 'Death Star' moon Mimas conceals a 15-million-year-old ocean that...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE
</div></figure>



On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop and sunlight barely penetrates through the polar winter. It was here, however, that an international team of scientists found <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/predatory-worms-were-terror-beasts-half-a-billion-years-ago/#google_vignette" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evidence of sea monsters</a> that would change our understanding of ocean life in the past.



This video captures the discovery of Timorebestia fossils that had been hidden for more than 500 million years in the Sirius Passet formation. The "terror beasts," as they are called, are a hidden chapter in the evolutionary history of <a href="https://www.earth.com" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Earth</a>, showing that sophisticated predator-prey interactions occurred much earlier than previously envisioned.



Dr. Jakob Vinther and his research team at the <a href="https://www.bristol.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Bristol</a>, in collaboration with researchers at the <a href="https://eng.kopri.re.kr/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Korean Polar Research Institute</a>, braved extreme weather conditions at 82.5 north latitude to locate these giant creatures. Using sophisticated electron microprobe analysis, they revealed the detailed anatomy of the animals, including their muscle and nerve tissues.



The find upsets the traditional timeline of sea predators. Although we've long appreciated that Cambrian oceans were at one time ruled by <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jWI3-UgA3_o&amp;list=PL1QLQMW9MWDwpkFOnvgAmu7wT6rZmYqdJ&amp;index=19" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">arthropods</a>, these discoveries indicate that relatives of arrow worms were first to dominate the seas. These worms were building sophisticated food webs several million years before other predator groups arose.



Each fossil is a story of ancient hunger, with fossil stomach contents revealing these meter-long beasts dined on heavily armored arthropods regularly, cementing their place as the ocean's first apex predators.



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Worms dominated seas before dinosaurs

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">New York is the site of the world's oldest forest.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-385-million-year-old-trees-discovered">385-million-year-old trees discovered</h2>



Scientists have uncovered something extraordinary just two hours north of New York City. The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/worlds-oldest-forest-discovered-close-to-new-york-city/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">world's oldest forest</a>, dating back 385 million years, offers a window into how Earth's first complex forests shaped our planet's atmosphere.



Located near <a href="https://townofcairo.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cairo, New York</a>, in Greene County, these weren't merely primitive plants struggling to survive. These were sophisticated trees with root systems remarkably similar to modern forests. This ancient woodland predates dinosaurs by 140 million years.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-cairo-forest-discovery">The Cairo forest discovery</h2>



385 million years ago, upstate New York was a tropical paradise near the equator. Thanks to continental drift, this ancient forest has traveled thousands of miles to its current location.



The fossil forest sits in an abandoned quarry, roughly half the size of a football field. This represents just a slice of what was likely a massive forest system stretching from New York into Pennsylvania.



Charles Ver Straeten, curator of sedimentary rocks at the <a href="https://www.nysm.nysed.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">New York State Museum</a>, made the discovery in 2009. While scouting the former highway department property, his trained eye spotted wandering patterns in the stone that looked like marine features.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-revolutionary-age-and-preservation">Revolutionary age and preservation</h2>



The site contains 385-million-year-old rocks with fossilized woody roots forming horizontal patterns up to 18 feet (5.5 meters) wide. As Christopher Berry, a paleobotanist at Cardiff University, explains: "You are walking through the roots of ancient trees."



This discovery pushes back advanced tree evolution by millions of years. The research, published in <a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/home" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Current Biology</a> in December 2019, fundamentally changes our understanding of when complex forests first emerged.



Researchers believe a massive flood buried the forest floor, creating perfect fossilization conditions. Over millions of years, sediment hardened into rock, preserving these root patterns like nature's time capsule.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-meet-archaeopteris-the-first-modern-tree">Meet Archaeopteris: the first modern tree</h2>



The star of this ancient forest is Archaeopteris – not to be confused with the feathered dinosaur Archaeopteryx. This tree was far older and more revolutionary.



William Stein from <a href="https://www.binghamton.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Binghamton University</a> describes the roots as "strikingly modern, essentially what you'd see outside in my yard right now." These weren't simple root systems you'd expect from ancient plants.



Some fossilized roots are six inches (15 centimeters) in diameter, forming 36-foot-wide (11-meter) patterns. These giants grew up to 65 feet (20 meters) tall with five-foot-diameter (1.5-meter) trunks.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-changing-impact">Climate-changing impact</h2>



These trees fundamentally changed Earth's environment. Kevin Boyce, a Stanford University geoscientist, explains how their deep roots triggered "weathering," chemical reactions that pulled carbon dioxide from the atmosphere.



This process dropped atmospheric CO2 levels from 10-15 times higher than today to roughly modern concentrations. These ancient trees helped create atmospheric conditions that made complex life possible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ancient-forest-ecosystem">Ancient forest ecosystem</h2>



The forest was remarkably diverse. Scientists identified Eospermatopteris, palm tree-like plants with short roots that reached 30 feet (9 meters) tall but lacked woody structure. The forest also housed cladoxylopsids and a mysterious third species still being studied.



All reproduced through spores rather than seeds – millions of years before seeds evolved. This tropical environment had no grass, flowers, or flying insects, just towering trees creating Earth's first complex forest canopy.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-scientific-significance">Scientific significance</h2>



Before this finding, the Gilboa forest, located 25 miles (40 kilometers) away, held the "oldest forest" title. Cairo's trees are 2-3 million years older, showing that complex forest ecosystems developed much faster than scientists believed possible.



Patricia Gensel, a <a href="https://www.unc.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of North Carolina</a> paleobotanist, notes: "The size of those root systems is really changing the picture. Even 20 years ago, researchers assumed trees with such complex root systems didn't evolve so early."



The Cairo site presents three unique root systems, suggesting Devonian period forests were diverse ecosystems with different trees occupying different environmental niches, much like today's forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-modern-preservation-efforts">Modern preservation efforts</h2>



In 2022, New York State Senator Michelle Hinchey secured a $170,000 grant for the town of Cairo to construct specialized fencing around the fossil forest site. The town plans to conduct a feasibility study exploring the possibility of creating an educational center and working lab on-site.



Joe Hasenkopf, chair of the Cairo Planning Board, hopes to partner with educational institutions to create a research facility serving scientists, students, and the public.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lessons-for-today-s-climate">Lessons for today's climate</h2>



Why does a 385-million-year-old forest matter today? It shows how dramatically forests can change Earth's climate. These ancient woodlands created the atmospheric conditions supporting complex life.



Understanding how prehistoric forests transformed the planet helps us appreciate modern forests' critical role in addressing climate change. Forests remain Earth's most effective carbon capture systems.



These prehistoric trees changed Earth's atmosphere by pulling massive amounts of carbon dioxide from the air. As we face modern climate challenges, this ancient forest reminds us of trees' incredible power to transform our planet's environment.



The next time you walk through a forest, remember you're experiencing an ecosystem whose blueprint was established 385 million years ago in upstate New York. These ancient pioneers didn't just survive – they thrived and changed the world forever.



The full study was published in the journal Current Biology.



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Earth's oldest forest found in the United States

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ New York is the site of the world's oldest...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Acid rain and a crisis solved.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-don-t-we-ever-hear-about-acid-rain-anymore-the-environmental-crisis-that-was-solved">Why don't we ever hear about "acid rain" anymore? The environmental crisis that was solved</h2>



Remember the 1980s when acid rain dominated headlines? Dire warnings about rain eating buildings, killing fish, and destroying forests filled every news cycle. Then, almost like magic, acid rain vanished from public discourse. What happened? Did we actually solve one of the late 20th century's most pressing environmental challenges?



The answer might surprise you. Unlike many environmental issues that drag on indefinitely, acid rain represents one of modern history's most successful ecological recovery stories. It's a tale of science, politics, and technology working together to tackle what seemed impossible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What was acid rain?</h2>



Acid rain isn't regular rain having a bad day – it's precipitation that became significantly more acidic due to air pollution. When power plants, factories, and vehicles burn fossil fuels, they release sulfur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides (NOx) into the atmosphere.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The science behind it</h2>



Think of acid rain as nature's chemistry experiment gone wrong. These compounds react with water, oxygen, and other chemicals to form sulfuric and nitric acids. When mixed with water vapor in clouds, they create precipitation with dangerously low pH levels.



While clean rain has a pH of about 5.6, acid rain could drop as low as 4.2 to 4.4 – roughly as acidic as tomato juice or coffee. According to US Geological Survey documentation, Scottish chemist Angus Smith first coined "acid rain" in 1872, but it didn't become a household phrase until the 1960s and 1970s when Swedish scientist Svante Odén documented its devastating effects on Scandinavian lakes and European forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The crisis at its peak</h2>



During the height of public concern, environmental damage was both widespread and visible. This wasn't some abstract future threat – people could see destruction happening in real-time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Environmental devastation</h2>



The most dramatic impacts were impossible to ignore. Research documented by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation and the New York State Department of Environmental Conservation shows that in the Adirondack Mountains, more than 200 lakes became so acidic they couldn't support fish life. The Adirondack Council reports that 409 lakes once supported brook trout, but many lost their fish populations due to acid rain.



By 1976, when scientists cataloged all acidified lakes in the Adirondack Park, researchers found that half of the lakes over 2,000 feet above sea level had no fish, according to studies published in environmental journals. The acidification process worked like a slow-motion disaster. As acid rain fell into watersheds, it gradually lowered pH levels. Fish couldn't survive in acidic water, and their food sources died off too.



Trees at high elevations showed stress directly linked to acid rain. It weakened them by leaching nutrients and making them susceptible to disease. Historical records show Germany's Black Forest saw nearly half its trees damaged by the mid-1980s.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Economic impact</h2>



Acid rain wasn't just environmental – it was expensive. Acidic precipitation corroded infrastructure, buildings, and monuments. Historic stone structures deteriorated at accelerated rates. Tourism suffered as lakes became fishless and forests declined. EPA economic analyses from the period documented repair costs mounting into billions annually.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The solution: government action and technology</h2>



Transformation from crisis to success required unprecedented cooperation between governments, industries, and environmental groups.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The Clean Air Act of 1990</h2>



The turning point came with the Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990, signed by President George H.W. Bush. This represented a fundamentally new approach to environmental regulation, as documented in EPA historical records.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Cap-and-trade success</h2>



Instead of mandating specific technologies, the 1990 amendments introduced something revolutionary: a cap-and-trade system for sulfur dioxide emissions. EPA program documentation shows this market-based approach set overall limits but allowed companies to trade emission allowances.



The genius was harnessing market forces to find cost-effective pollution reduction. Companies reducing emissions cheaply could sell excess allowances to those facing higher costs. Research published in environmental economics journals and EPA progress reports shows this resulted in dramatic SO2 reduction at a fraction of projected costs.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Technology advances</h2>



Policy provided the framework, but technology made reductions possible. Studies in atmospheric science journals document the widespread adoption of flue gas desulfurization systems ("scrubbers") that removed sulfur dioxide before it reached the atmosphere. By the 2000s, new installations could remove over 95% of SO2 emissions, according to EPA technical reports.



The push coincided with cleaner energy development. Natural gas produces fewer sulfur compounds than coal. Wind and solar, emerging in the 1990s, captured growing market share, reducing reliance on high-sulfur coal.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-we-don-t-hear-about-it-today">Why we don't hear about it today</h2>



Why did acid rain disappear from headlines? Simple: the problem was largely solved.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Success doesn't make news</h2>



There's an old journalism saying: "If it bleeds, it leads." Environmental success stories don't generate urgency like crisis reporting. Media attention shifted to other challenges: climate change, plastic pollution, and biodiversity loss. There's only so much environmental anxiety the public can absorb, and newer concerns replaced acid rain.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Mission accomplished</h2>



The primary reason is beautifully simple: interventions worked. EPA monitoring data shows sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990. Academic research published in environmental science journals confirms pH levels in formerly affected areas returned closer to normal. This represents one of history's most dramatic environmental recoveries. Studies by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation show fishless lakes now support healthy populations. Forests recovered, and building damage slowed dramatically.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-is-it-really-gone">Is it really gone?</h2>



The crisis is largely resolved, but monitoring data shows the problem isn't completely eliminated – it's managed to acceptable levels. Some areas still experience occasional events during high pollution periods. International environmental research indicates that rapidly industrializing Asian countries face similar problems to what we experienced decades ago, though they're implementing successful strategies.



EPA research shows nitrogen oxide emissions proved more challenging than sulfur dioxide, coming from vehicles and mobile sources. Climate science studies suggest changing weather patterns add complexity to how acid rain forms and falls.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What this teaches us</h2>



The acid rain experience proves that seemingly intractable environmental problems can be solved with scientific understanding, political will, and technological innovation. Environmental monitoring data shows recovery speed was remarkable – within a decade, measurable improvements appeared in air quality and ecosystem health.



Success came from bipartisan support across party lines. Policy analysis studies show the market-based approach appealed to those preferring economic incentives while achieving environmental goals. This support created lasting policy surviving political changes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Conclusion</h2>



Acid rain's disappearance from public consciousness represents environmental science's greatest success stories. Through effective regulation, technological innovation, and international cooperation, we transformed an overwhelming crisis into a manageable challenge.



Today's silence isn't because we forgot – it's because we solved it. The 1990 Clean Air Act, combined with technology and energy market changes, reduced acid rain emissions over 90%, according to comprehensive EPA data analysis.



This success offers hope for current challenges. It proves complex problems can be solved when science, policy, and technology work together. As we face climate change and plastic pollution, acid rain reminds us that dramatic positive change is possible.



Next time someone asks whether environmental regulations work, remember acid rain. It's proof that sometimes, we get it right.



<hr class="wp-block-separator has-alpha-channel-opacity"/>



Sources: This article draws from EPA official documentation and progress reports, peer-reviewed research published in environmental and atmospheric science journals, historical data from the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation, New York State Department of Environmental Conservation records, US Geological Survey publications, policy analysis studies, and environmental monitoring data collected over three decades.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Frequently Asked Questions</h2>



1. Is acid rain completely gone? No, but EPA monitoring shows it's reduced to manageable levels. US sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990, making acid rain much less severe than the 1980s crisis.



2. How long did solving take? Environmental monitoring data shows significant improvements began within 5-10 years of 1990s emission controls. Full ecosystem recovery took longer – some areas need 20-30 years for complete recovery.



3. What made the solution successful? Clear scientific understanding, visible damage motivating action, bipartisan support, available technology, and innovative market-based policies like cap-and-trade.



4. Do other countries have acid rain problems? Yes, particularly rapidly industrializing Asian countries. However, international environmental research shows many implement similar successful control strategies.



5. Could acid rain return? Potentially, if regulations weaken or we return to high-sulfur coal without controls, though effects would take years to become severe according to environmental projections.



6. Can you recommend any teaching tools on the subject of "acid rain"? The United States Environmental Protection Agency produced a wonderful teacher's guide for ages 14 and under that you can find on the EPA website here: <a href="https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf</a>



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The environmental problem we actually solved

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk Acid rain and a crisis solved. Why don't we...

Fresh,Radish,Harvest,On,Soil,In,Garden.

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Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving fall garden, and this guide lays out the best vegetables and herbs to plant now for a fruitful autumn harvest. 



Fast-growing leafy greens such as spinach, lettuce, kale, and arugula perform especially well in the waning summer heat, with harvests beginning as soon as 30 days. 



These cool-season crops relish the transition into fall, offering repeated yields with cut-and-come-again methods.



Root vegetables like radishes, carrots, and beets also excel during this period. Radishes deliver satisfaction in under a month, while carrots and beets mature in about two months. Employing succession planting ensures a continuous stream of produce deep into the cooler months. 



For a boost of fresh flavor, herbs like cilantro, basil, dill, and chervil are excellent picks. These heat-loving varieties flourish in July’s warmth and are harvest-ready in about 30 days, especially when sown continuously.



Gardeners in zones 6 through 9 can benefit from planting bush beans and snap peas, which don’t require trellising and are ideal for compact plots. 



Maturing in 50–60 days, they’re a smart choice for quick, protein-rich harvests. For those in hotter regions, heat-tolerant crops such as okra and southern peas provide reliable yields and thrive in scorching conditions.



This guide emphasizes more than crop selection—it highlights the importance of timing, soil preparation, and ongoing sowing techniques. 



With thoughtful planning and attention to regional climate needs, even late-summer gardeners can enjoy fresh salads, hearty stews, and the satisfaction of a robust, homegrown harvest well into fall.



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What to plant in your garden in mid-July

https://youtu.be/Fi2OeEwuzRM?si=vTyd2m9FMmtyWkex Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving...

Green,Ecoduct,Over,An,Empty,Highway,During,Sunset.

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https://youtu.be/XYgiPzmNBTU?si=eFYY7gPHU1JznLvU
</div></figure>



A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that wildlife tunnels significantly reduce amphibian road mortality during seasonal migrations. 



Frogs and salamanders often cross roads to reach breeding ponds each spring, but many are killed by vehicles. 



Researchers from the <a href="https://www.uvm.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Vermont</a>, in collaboration with local citizens and the Vermont Agency of Natural Resources, installed two underpass tunnels in 2015. 



Over a 12-year monitoring period, they observed an 80.2% reduction in amphibian deaths, and up to 94% for non-climbing species like salamanders. 



The study used a before-after-control-impact design and documented more than 5,200 amphibians, highlighting the tunnels’ effectiveness even in nearby buffer zones.



Funded at $342,397 - far cheaper than wildlife crossings for large mammals - the project showcased the power of community-led conservation.



Local groups initiated the effort after observing mass amphibian deaths. Wildlife cameras later captured over 2,200 amphibians using a tunnel in just one spring, along with other species like raccoons and bobcats, indicating wider ecosystem benefits.



This marks the first peer-reviewed, long-term data set in the northeastern U.S. confirming amphibian-specific underpasses work. 



The study urges transportation departments to incorporate these designs into road planning and highlights how community action, thoughtful infrastructure, and persistence can make a real difference for biodiversity.



The full study was published in the <a href="https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1617138125000780" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal for Nature Conservation</a>.



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-----

Wildlife tunnels save millions of amphibians

https://youtu.be/XYgiPzmNBTU?si=eFYY7gPHU1JznLvU A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that...

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing it with probiotics and prebiotics, aiming to create a treat that satisfies cravings while supporting gut health. 



The challenge lies in maintaining chocolate's beloved texture and flavor while adding health benefits.



<figure class="wp-block-embed aligncenter is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://youtu.be/Ug657J67iEo?si=w96YjGMsg939LD_3
</div></figure>



Probiotics - beneficial microbes that balance gut bacteria and aid digestion - are typically fragile and can be destroyed by stomach acid or processing. 



Prebiotics act as food for these microbes, helping them thrive. Together, they form "synbiotics," a powerful health combination.



Researchers Smriti Gaur and Shubhi Singh from India's Jaypee Institute of Information Technology took an innovative approach, using natural prebiotics like corn and honey instead of complex processing methods. 



They created five chocolate varieties: a control and four synbiotic versions containing different combinations of prebiotics, probiotics (Lactobacillus strains), and flavor enhancers (cinnamon or orange).



Laboratory simulations of human digestion showed the probiotics remained viable for over five hours, suggesting they could survive long enough to benefit gut health.



Taste tests were positive, with researchers particularly enjoying the orange-flavored variety, describing it as having "vibrant citrus notes" complementing the "rich cocoa" with a "luxurious" texture.



This research represents just the beginning. With further refinement of strains, textures, and flavors, chocolate could evolve beyond mere indulgence to become a functional food that nourishes while it delights.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.4c00741" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ACS Food Science &amp; Technology</a>.

Is chocolate the next nutritional powerhouse?

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

[sendtonews key="0ynNMYkMKa-2340414-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

[sendtonews key="G9bUoxcjr4-2511624-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

[sendtonews key="3upvlAaHgO-2256633-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

[sendtonews key="LvS8v8bp9z-2564889-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How does salt makes things taste better?

[sendtonews key="X0f6OHYoI4-2310561-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="JRaP49ISmm-2357509-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Santiago, Chile in South America

[sendtonews key="JRaP49ISmm-2357509-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

[sendtonews key="e4ZG0Jawp3-2374785-12187" type="single"] Astronomers at Johns Hopkins University have created...

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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.



According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."



Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;



ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. 



Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

[sendtonews key="uV9Lh2fQbV-1760058-12187" type="single"] Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

[sendtonews key="qjvhBOBnY8-2426650-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

[sendtonews key="oL4FnPTGCV-2384527-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

[sendtonews key="0879czfG3k-1785905-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from NASA...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

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Earth,Like,Exoplanet,3d,Render

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

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