Two iconic dinosaurs - Tyrannosaurus rex and Brachylophosaurus canadensis - have yielded a fresh line of evidence that traces of their original biology can survive for tens of millions of years. 



In new work, researchers at <a href="https://www.ncsu.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">North Carolina State University</a> identified hemoglobin - the oxygen-carrying protein in blood - and its iron-bearing heme group in bone extracts from both animals.



The finding strengthens a growing body of data showing that certain biomolecules can persist in exceptional fossils. It also clarifies how they change as fossils form.



Researchers have debated and re-examined soft, stretchy tissues from these same specimens for nearly two decades. 



Teams have used high-resolution imaging, antibodies, and protein sequencing to argue that the materials are genuine remnants of dinosaur biology rather than modern contaminants. The latest study adds another tool - and another confirmation.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-light-unlocks-dinosaur-chemistry">Light unlocks dinosaur chemistry</h2>



The team turned to <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/biochemistry-genetics-and-molecular-biology/resonance-raman-spectroscopy" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Resonance Raman (RR) spectroscopy</a>. In this method, laser light is tuned to a molecule’s electronic transitions. This causes only that molecule to “sing” back with a strong signal.



“Raman spectroscopy essentially uses light waves to identify a molecule’s energetic ‘fingerprint,’” said physicist Hans Hallen, the study’s corresponding author. 



“Resonance Raman, which we use here, takes that process one step further by using light already tuned to the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seeking-the-origins-of-the-molecule-that-made-the-universe/">molecule</a> of interest - so only that type of molecule will resonate.”



That resonance dramatically boosts the signal from specific bonds - crucial when your targets are rare, damaged molecules embedded in a complex fossil matrix.



“This strong signal allows us to find the needle (hemoglobin remnants) in the haystack (messy fossil) to see how this molecule has changed from the functional living state, revealing the chemical changes molecules undergo in deep time,” Hallen added.



RR spectra from T. rex and Brachylophosaurus extracts showed signatures consistent with heme still bound to globin proteins. In addition, they indicated heme bound to goethite, an iron oxide mineral linked to oxidized iron.



The researchers cross-checked those signals against demineralized modern <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/discovery-of-a-cretaceous-ostrich-mexidracon-longimanus-with-extremely-long-arms/">ostrich</a> bone and human blood to anchor their interpretations.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-blood-molecules-traced-to-dinosaurs">Blood molecules traced to dinosaurs</h2>



Because Raman detects bonds rather than whole molecules, skeptics often point out that generic signals could arise from modern microbes or other contaminants. 



That’s where the extra selectivity of RR - and the structural information in the spectra - matters.



“RR identifies both bonds and structure," said paleobiologist Mary Schweitzer, a co-author on the work. 



"We know that heme is there and that it is still bound to hemoglobin protein - contaminants like <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/reusable-water-bottles-are-breeding-ground-for-strep-and-fecal-bacteria/">bacteria</a> don’t have those specific bonds, so we can say that the molecules are from the animal, or in this case, the dinosaur,”



The team also mapped how those spectral fingerprints shift as hemoglobin decays. After death, the protein breaks down, damaging the heme ring and oxidizing the iron inside it. 



RR data show that goethite forms on that iron, and the heme can bind to the mineral surface.



Tellingly, the researchers observed the early stages of the same degradation pathway in modern samples, suggesting that key steps happen relatively quickly and then stabilize.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dinosaur-blood-survived-fossilization">Dinosaur blood survived fossilization</h2>



Beyond confirming what the molecules are, the spectral changes reveal a plausible route for how they survived. 



Goethite is a bio-related mineral - it often forms in association with biological activity - and the new data hint that it doesn’t just grow near proteins; it can latch onto and stabilize fragments. "We didn’t know that it could bind to and stabilize <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-modified-plant-proteins-to-create-delicious-meat-alternatives/">protein</a> fragments,” Hallen said.



That matters because it shows a mechanism that locks delicate organics in place and protects them during fossilization. 



Researchers already know that heme persists in sediments far older than the age of dinosaurs, but the path from fresh blood to ancient rock has remained murky.



Pinning down the chemistry helps explain why hemoglobin, in particular, shows up as a survivor - and why some fossils preserve molecular vestiges while others do not.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-new-view-of-fossil-preservation">A new view of fossil preservation</h2>



The study reinforces a shift in paleontology: under the right conditions, original biochemistry can endure deep time, and modern tools can detect and interpret it. 



Instead of a binary “preserved or not,” researchers are piecing together degradation pathways, mineral partnerships, and microenvironments that favor survival.



For dinosaur biology, that means more than just curiosity. Hemoglobin and heme in blood play key roles in metabolism, oxygen transport, and overall physiology. 



Their presence, and the way they degrade, defines how tissues fossilize and what information we can still extract.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/09/dinosaur-bone_hemoglobin_preserved_NCSU_1m.jpg"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/09/dinosaur-bone_hemoglobin_preserved_NCSU_1s.webp" alt="Vessels isolated from Tyrannosaurus cortical bone by demineralization in EDTA. Credit: NC State University" class="wp-image-1985867"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Vessels isolated from Tyrannosaurus cortical bone by demineralization in EDTA. Click image to enlarge. Credit: NC State University</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-blood-chemistry-spans-eons">Blood chemistry spans eons</h2>



For dinosaur fossil science, mineral–organic interactions like heme–goethite may help preserve blood proteins and molecular fragments throughout Earth’s history.



“Heme has been identified in sediments that are much, much older than dinosaurs, so we know that it persists,” Schweitzer noted. 



“Understanding why <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/secrets-of-human-genetics-could-optimize-medical-care/">hemoglobin</a> preserves, and the role that heme plays in the process, is really important if we want to know how these ancient molecules survive through time.”



The upshot is both practical and provocative. Resonance Raman pinpoints specific ancient molecules within messy fossils, and the chemistry it reveals also serves as a preservation roadmap. 



That’s a powerful combination for anyone trying to read life’s oldest diaries written in stone.



The study is published in the <a href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rspa.2025.0175" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Proceedings of the Royal Society A Mathematical Physical and Engineering Sciences</a>.



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Hemoglobin and other blood molecules found preserved in dinosaur fossils

Two iconic dinosaurs - Tyrannosaurus rex and Brachylophosaurus canadensis - have yielded a fresh line of evidence that traces of their original biology can survive for tens of millions of years. In new work, researchers at North Carolina State University identified hemoglobin - the oxygen-carrying protein in blood - and its iron-bearing heme group in bone extracts from both animals. The finding strengthens a growing body of data showing that certain biomolecules can persist in exceptional fossils. It also clarifies how they change as fossils form. Researchers...

Helping plants and pollinators may be as simple as turning off street lights for a couple of hours a night.

That was the conclusion of a team of researchers from <a href="https://www.ncl.ac.uk/">Newcastle University</a> and <a href="https://www.yorku.ca/">York University</a> who wanted to determine how light affects nocturnal pollinators like moths.

"Artificial light at night is an increasingly important driver of global environmental change and sky brightness is increasing by about 6 percent a year," study co-author Dr. Darren Evans said. "Understanding the ecological impact of this artificial light on the ecosystem is vital.”

The study found that bright street lights at night draw moths upward to flit around the light source rather than pollinate as usual. That has a large effect on the plants that rely on moths for pollination, including pea, soy and rapeseed crops. 

But turning off the street lights – even if only for a couple of hours – sent moths back to the plants they prefer to feed on. 

The researchers found that while constant overnight light badly disrupted pollination, even just a partial “lights out” period had a similar effect on moths’ feeding patterns as full darkness.

"We know that light pollution significantly alters moth activity and this in turn is disrupting their role as pollinators. But what our study showed was that while full-night lighting caused significant ecological disruption, part-night lighting did not appear to have any strong effect on pollination success or quality,” Evans said.

Whether street lights use sodium or LED bulbs had no apparent effect. It wasn’t the type of light, but the amount, that seemed to throw off moth feeding patterns. 

It’s the latest in a number of studies about the effects of light pollution on humans and the world around us. Studies have shown that light pollution can <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/light-pollution-sleep-problems/">disrupt sleep</a>, leading to chronic insomnia and dependence on sleep aids.

Light pollution from street lights doesn’t just affect humans and moths. It can <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/light-pollution-migrating-bats/">endanger migrating bats</a>, harm the various bugs that live in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/light-pollution-streams-wetlands/">wetlands</a> and disrupt the food chain, disorient sea turtles and fool plants into thinking <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/artificial-light-pollution-causes-spring-to-come-early/">spring has come early</a>.

"Often, as conservationists, we have to make difficult trade-offs between development and environmental protection,” lead author Dr. Callum Macgregor said. "However, our study suggests that turning off street lights in the middle of the night is a win-win scenario, saving energy and money for local authorities whilst simultaneously helping our nocturnal wildlife."

--

By <a href="mailto:kcathey@earth.com">Kyla Cathey</a>, <a href="http://earth.com">Earth.com</a> Contributing Writer

Scientists: time to turn off street lights for a few hours a night

Helping plants and pollinators may be as simple as turning...

Mojave rattlesnakes that live in the southwestern United States and central Mexico have a lethal bite thanks to their <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/venom-snakes-dangerous/">venom</a>. However, new research has revealed that the kind of venom differs depending on the region that the snakes are found.

If you’re unlucky enough to be bitten by a Mojave rattlesnake, you might experience paralysis as the toxins shut down your body or the venom may cause tissue damage. The latter had long puzzled researchers because two different types of venom do not line up with the theories of natural selection. 

For a long time, researchers thought that Mojave snakes only had neurotoxic venom (the kind that causes paralysis), but cases continued to pop up showing different symptoms after being bitten such as tissue damage, and blood thinning.  

It took decades for scientists to realize that Mojave rattlesnakes have two distinct types of venom, a neurotoxic and hemorrhagic venom. 

However, the mysteries of the rattlesnake don’t end there, which is why researchers from <a href="http://www.clemson.edu/">Clemson University</a> undertook an impressive study of the rattlesnakes using volunteer citizen scientist to examine the distribution of venoms among the species.  

The study was recently published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-018-35810-9">Scientific Reports</a>. 

“Prior to this paper, the ‘herp’ (herpetologists) community thought that hemorrhagic venom was really rare and was only in one location in Arizona and one location in Mexico, but we show that it's found in several places throughout the snake's distribution,” said Jason Strickland, a researcher for the study. “There were a few instances when individuals in our sample had both types of venom, which our data suggest are hybrids.”

Common logic would dictate that as the Mojave rattlesnake evolved and diversified, one type of venom would reign supreme as the species started favoring the venom type most efficient for hunting and immobilizing prey. 

An earlier <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1055790317304992">2018 study</a> found that there are four genetically distinct lineages of Mojave rattlesnakes in the southwestern US and Mexico. 

These lineages are breeding and mixing together but their genetic diversity isn’t shrinking, and contrary to the ideas of natural selection, one venom is not being favored over the other.  

“From an evolutionary standpoint, this is abnormal. This is not what you'd expect,” said Strickland, an author of the new study. “Gene flow should prevent this much variation. But even with the amount of gene flow we find in these populations, the selection is strong enough to maintain these specific venom types in a very local environment.” 

Researchers across five different labs in the US and Mexico collaborated on the project and enlisted the help of nearly 100 citizen scientists who were snake enthusiast and passionate about snake conservation. 

216 Mojave rattlesnakes were collected and analyzed for the study thanks to the collaborative effort of so many different researchers and volunteers. The results of the analysis showed that venom distribution depended on location. 

“What we've been able to show is that there are local optima,” said Christopher Parkinson, an author of the study. “In Texas, the neurotoxic venom type seems to be the optimum for this species. But if we go south into Mexico or over near Phoenix, something in nature is changing, where the local optimum requires a different venom type.” 

The researchers hope to dig deeper into venom distribution among Mojave rattlesnakes and see what environmental factors drove the species to evolve the way they did. 

--

By <a href="mailto:kayvandette@gmail.com">Kay Vandette</a>,<a href="https://www.earth.com/"> Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 

Image Credit: Travis Fisher

Mojave rattlesnakes different venom types defy expectations

Mojave rattlesnakes that live in the southwestern United States and...

A research team led by the <a href="http://www.whoi.edu/">Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution</a> (WHOI) has monitored the behavior of juvenile <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/emperor-penguins-snack-fasts/">Emperor penguins</a> in the critical months when they leave their birth colony. The experts are sharing previously unknown details about when the penguins first learn how to swim, dive, and find food. 

“This study provides insights into an important, but poorly understood, part of their life cycle, which is essential to being able to better predict the species' response to future climate change,” said study lead author Sara Labrousse, a postdoctoral investigator at WHOI.

After just five months, Emperor penguin chicks are abandoned by their parents and left to fend for themselves in the harsh environment of Antarctica.

The investigation was focused on 15 juvenile penguins who were tagged before they left their colony in Terre Adélie as the weather started to get warmer, breaking up the ice and creating open waters near the nesting site.

The movements of the penguins, including diving and location data, were transmitted via satellite. Overall, more than 62,000 dives were recorded. The data showed that the juvenile penguins initially moved far north to reach warmer, open waters.

“This is when they are essentially learning how to swim,” said Labrousse. “That's not something that their parents teach them. When they first go in the water, they are very awkward and unsure of themselves. They are not the fast and graceful swimmers their parents are.”

The researchers found that once the juvenile Emperor penguins became more experienced divers, they moved south and made deeper dives among the sea ice.

“That was something that surprised us because we didn't previously know how long they were staying within the sea ice,” said Labrousse. “It turns out that they spend most of the winter diving beneath the sea ice.”

The thermocline, which is the layer of the ocean where warmer surface waters meet cooler waters below, begins to deepen in the fall. Labrousse explained that the penguins’ deeper dives were likely related to the depth of the thermocline and the seasonal change in the distribution of their prey.

“Juveniles stay at sea for five or six years before they return to the colony to mate,” said study co-author and WHOI biologist Stephanie Jenouvrier. “We need to better understand the dynamics of what happens during the time the juveniles are away from the colony. Understanding how they will respond to the changing landscape in terms of breeding and other life history stages is key to predict population responses and species persistence to future climate change.”

The study is published  in the journal <a href="https://www.int-res.com/journals/meps/meps-home/">Marine Ecology Progress Series</a>.

--

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Image Credit: Vincent Munier

How young Emperor penguins survive after their parents leave them

A research team led by the Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution...

Most people know <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/humans-colonized-madagascar-later/">Madagascar</a> from the popular series of cartoons, portraying a wild island inhabited by a hard partying, singing, dancing lemur kingdom.  A few more people might have a more realistic view of the island nation from David Attenborough’s <a href="https://www.imdb.com/title/tt1842793/">mini-series</a> on Madagascar.  It’s hard to explain to someone who’s never actually visited Madagascar, the tragic beauty of the place, its people and its wildlife.

According to the <a href="http://www.worldbank.org/en/news/press-release/2017/03/21/poverty-in-madagascar-recent-findings">World Bank</a>, 70.7% of Madagascar’s population was living in poverty in 2012 and little has changed since.  The poverty of Madagascar is stark, too. Even in relatively wealthy parts of the country, young children dressed in rags can be seen collecting pennies from drivers by filling potholes in the road by hand.  If a tourist is eating next to a window at a restaurant, it’s common for local Malagasy people to stand outside and watch sadly until given some small piece of food. 

While I was volunteering coordinating tree planting in Madagascar, I saw men lined up daily vying for day work that paid $5.00 for up to eight hours of manual labor.  <a href="https://www.huffingtonpost.com/entry/madagascar-drought-hunger_us_580dbb32e4b0a03911ed7540">The Huffington Post</a> reported in 2016 that almost 850,000 people in Madagascar were facing ‘alarming’ levels of hunger.  The hunger and poverty in Madagascar is caused by deep political problems, drought, and a history of outside exploitation.  With stark realities like these, it isn’t surprising that wise use of natural resources is low on the list of priorities for many. 

According to <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/">NASA</a>, approximately 94% of Madagascar has been affected by deforestation.  This includes the 90% of forest that Madagascar has lost. Logging for money, especially of valuable hardwoods like rosewood, is part of Madagascar’s deforestation problem, but more forest is lost to slash and burn agriculture.  

Slash and burn ‘tavy’ is a common practice for clearing agricultural land for rice paddies and other crops but it’s a very short lived solution.  Quickly soils are ruined and the tavy farmer must move onto a new piece of land and repeat the slashing and burning of trees, thus pushing a quickened pace of deforestation.  Destruction of forest for short term gain is just one problem for Madagascar.

Madagascar is a unique and special place.  3.2% of the world’s plant species live in Madagascar as well as 2.8% of land vertebrates, which is pretty impressive for such a small place physically.  Most of the world’s chameleon species live only in Madagascar and all the world’s lemurs are native only to the island. Even as the forests have been going up in flames, scientists have discovered amazing, tiny chameleons that fit on the head of a match and other species new to science.  The island is bordered by reef systems already damaged by bleaching caused by a <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/images/7261/coral-reefs-of-southwest-madagascar">rise in temperatures</a>.  Now desperation, greed or simple necessity is driving Madagascar’s government to further threaten their oceans.  

<a href="https://news.mongabay.com/2018/12/madagascar-auctioning-a-large-swath-of-virgin-waters-for-oil-exploration/">Mongabay</a> reported in December 2018 that Madagascar’s government is opening a large area of ocean to oil exploration by the highest bidder.  In September, representatives of Madagascar’s government attended an oil industry event in Houston, to advertise the newly opened area.  <a href="https://madagascarlicensinground2018.com/wp-content/uploads/2018/10/Flyer.pdf">A flier</a> from the Malagasy government proclaims, ‘Explore Madagascar’s Open Acreage…Let the Bidding Commence!’ 

<a href="https://madagascarlicensinground2018.com/available-data/">44 concessions</a> are now open for exploration, none of which have been explored before.  The area now open represents some 24,440 square miles in the Mozambique Channel to the west, between Madagascar and mainland Africa.  

This is exciting news for the hydrocarbon industry, <a href="https://psmag.com/environment/madagascar-opens-its-oceans-to-oil-and-gas">The Pacific Standard</a> reports.  Environmental and social groups are less pleased about the opening for oil exploration.  The environmental and economic impact of such a move hasn’t been thoroughly evaluated they argue.  

<a href="https://www.equaltimes.org/madagascar-fisheries-ravaged-by?lang=en#.XBQ46NtKj3g">Equal Times</a> reports that Madagascar’s local fishermen are already outcompeted and the fish populations devastated by foreign fishing fleets.  In 2008, an estimated 130,000 tons of fish were caught in Madagascar’s waters but illegal fishing from foreign boats threatens the livelihood of approximately 100,000 local Malagasy.  An oil spill could completely destroy a vital industry already on the verge of collapse, to say nothing of the loss of biodiversity. Four different civil society groups, led by the Antananarivo-based Research and Support Center for Development Alternatives–Indian Ocean (CRAAD-OI), drove the point home, writing in a statement last month:

“The offshore exploration and production of oil and gas on this scale goes directly against the objectives of protecting fisheries resources and preserving the marine ecosystems on which the livelihoods and food security of a large part of the Malagasy population depend.”

So far, there have been no major oil discoveries in Madagascar and the only oil development has been onshore drilling operations in the west.  The reason for excitement by the hydrocarbon industry comes from the concessions proximities to Mozambique where large reserves of natural gas were discovered offshore in 2010.

In February, representatives of the Malagasy government will continue to promote the exploration concessions in Houston and London, hoping to bolster more interest.  Any deals reached would probably take the form of profit sharing, with the Malagasy government receiving a percent of profits after a certain threshold is reached. Even if there is nothing found during exploration, conservationists worry that the exploration itself could cause problems.  

<a href="https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2013/oct/15/stranded-whales-sonar-underwater">The Guardian</a> reported in 2008 that 100 melon-headed whales (Peponocephala electra) were mysteriously beached in a shallow lagoon in Northern Madagascar.  75 of the beleaguered whales died. An independent review panel by the International Whaling Commission found that the most likely cause of the whale stranding came from a multi-beam echosounder system.  This system was being used by an Exxon Mobil survey vessel to map the area seafloor. Some of the exploration concessions also overlap with marine protected areas as well as areas managed by local fishing communities.  

The government of Madagascar argues that the exploration concessions won’t negatively impact the marine protected areas or fisheries but this seems like an untenable promise to make.  

--

By <a href="mailto:zachfitzner@yahoo.com">Zach Fitzner</a>,<a href="http://earth.com"> Earth.com</a> Contributing Writer

Madagascar opens up waters to oil exploration, endangering wildlife

Most people know Madagascar from the popular series of cartoons,...

Japan has officially withdrawn from the <a href="https://iwc.int/home">International Whaling Commission</a> (IWC) and plans to resume commercial <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/killer-whales-personality-traits/">whale</a> hunting. The move has raised concerns that other countries, such as South Korea and Russia, may follow suit.

Almost as soon as the whaling ban was established in 1986, Japan launched its scientific whaling program, which was criticized as being nothing more than a tactic to continue commercial whaling.

In 2014, the UN’s International Court of Justice ruled that Japan’s scientific whaling program was “not for purposes of scientific research.” At that time, speculation already began that Japan would leave the International Whaling Commission.  

Last month, the country announced its decision, claiming that the IWC was not committed enough to its goal of supporting sustainable commercial whaling. A statement from Japanese officials accused the IWC of being focused only on conserving numbers.

Kitty Block is the president of <a href="http://www.hsi.org/">Humane Society International</a>. On her <a href="https://blog.humanesociety.org/2019/01/japans-rogue-stance-on-whaling-deserves-worldwide-condemnation.html">blog</a>, she wrote: “'Japan would like to present itself as the wounded party, forced to leave the IWC because its reasonable requests are not being listened to. But the fact is, commercial whaling is completely unnecessary; in fact, there is no pressing economic need for it and there is plummeting demand for whale meat in Japan itself.” 

This July, Japan will resume commercial whaling in the country's own territory and will end annual expeditions in the Antarctic and Pacific Oceans. The governments of New Zealand and Australia expressed relief that the whaling campaign in the Antarctic will end, but urged Japan to remain a member of the IWC.

“We cannot allow one country to step outside of the IWC and recommence commercial whaling,” said Block. “If other countries, following Japan’s example, start to do likewise, then we may see a return to the lawless days of previous centuries and the world’s whales will suffer.”

--

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Japan will resume commercial whaling after more than 30 years

Japan has officially withdrawn from the International Whaling Commission (IWC)...

Engineers at the <a href="https://ucsd.edu/">University of California San Diego</a> are using bird feathers as a model to develop new adhesives and aerospace materials. The scientists are investigating how a <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/2-billion-birds-migrate-gulf-coast/">bird</a> can capture air for lift with the underside of a feather, while using the top  to block air out for descent.

Research co-authored by Tarah Sullivan, who has a Ph.D. in Materials Science, is the first in nearly 20 years to take a detailed look at the general structure of bird feathers. Using 3D-printed structures, the experts imitated the vanes, barbs, and barbules of a feather to better understand these properties.

Sullivan is part of a team led by Marc Meyers, a professor in the Departments of Nanoengineering and Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering at UC San Diego.

“Professor Eduard Arzt, our co-author from Saarland University in Germany, is an amateur pilot and became fascinated by the 'bird wing' problem. Together, we started doing allometric analyses on them and result is fascinating,” said  Professor Meyers. “This shows that the synergy of scientists from different backgrounds can produce wonderful new understanding.”

The study revealed that the small structures that connect feather barbs, which are known as barbules, are spaced within 8 to 16 micrometers of one another in all birds species. This means that the spacing must play an important role in flight.

“The first time I saw feather barbules under the microscope I was in awe of their design: intricate, beautiful and functional,” said Sullivan. “As we studied feathers across many species it was amazing to find that despite the enormous differences in size of birds, barbules spacing was constant."

Sullivan has built prototypes, which she will describe in a follow up paper, to show how various materials designed to mimic a bird feather could be used for aerospace applications as well as adhesives. 

“We believe that these structures could serve as inspiration for an interlocking one-directional adhesive or a material with directionally tailored permeability.”

The study is published in the journal <a href="http://advances.sciencemag.org/">Science Advances</a>.

--

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Image Credit: University of California San Diego

Bird feathers may be the new Velcro, inspiring new adhesives

Engineers at the University of California San Diego are using...

A study led by astrophysicist Adrian Melott at the <a href="https://ku.edu/">University of Kansas</a> may finally solve the mystery of what happened to the giant megalodon, a <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/young-sharks-tougher-skeletons/">shark species</a> that vanished around 2.5 million years ago. 

Roaming the seas for millions of years, Megalodon was the largest shark and one of the most powerful predators in history. The enormous animals grew up to 60 feet in length and weighed as much as 100 tons.

When the famous fossil hunter Vito “Megalodon” Bertucci set out to reassemble a megalodon jaw, the project took him almost 20 years to complete. The result was the largest jaw ever reconstructed, measuring 11 feet across and almost 9 nine feet high. 

Scientists could never explain why the massive species suddenly disappeared, but the new study proposes that an exploding star may be responsible. The researchers explain that energetic particles from an exploding star would have increased the flow of atmospheric particles called muons by several hundred times. 

“We find that the radiation dose from the muons will exceed the total present surface dose from all sources at depths up to 1 km and will persist for at least the lifetime of marine megafauna,” wrote the study authors. “It is reasonable to hypothesize that this increase in radiation load may have contributed to a newly documented marine megafaunal extinction at that time.”

Muons are created when cosmic rays collide with atoms in the Earth’s atmosphere, where they travel at the speed of light and rain down on the planet from every angle. 

“While still preliminary, these results may provide clues as to what may have led to the demise of O. megalodon during the Pliocene,” wrote the researchers.

“Cooling of ocean temperatures during the Pliocene would have constrained the species to lower latitudes where ocean temperatures were warmer, whilst its preferred prey (e.g., whales) evolved traits to adapt to cooler temperatures of the higher latitudes.”

“Therefore, large climatic shifts combined with evolutionary limitations may provide the ‘smoking gun’ for the extinction of the largest shark species to ever roam the planet.”

The study is published in the journal <a href="http://astrobiology.com/">Astrobiology</a>.

--

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

An exploding star may have killed off the shark megalodon

A study led by astrophysicist Adrian Melott at the University...

Pit bulls are often perceived to be an aggressive breed which affects both the animals and their owners through breed-specific legislation, housing restrictions and social disapproval. While dog bite statistics are often used to justify this viewpoint, animal advocates warn that these statistics often do not show the full story.

Pit bulls first came under the spotlight in the 1980s when news stories proliferated about pit bull attacks. These stories inspired the passage of laws to cprohibit and regulate certain breeds of dogs living in a municipality, often called breed-specific legislation.

One <a href="https://www.dogsbite.org/pdf/1979-1988-dog-bite-related-fatalities.pdf">study</a> on dog bite-related fatalities from 1979 to 1988 found that pit bulls were the most common breed involved in fatalities. A subsequent <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10997153">study</a> found that pit bulls and Rottweilers represented over half of dog bite fatalities between 1979 and 1998.

But animal advocates argue that certain factors can affect dog bite statistics. For one thing, pit bull is not a breed of dog. The term “pit bull” describes a category of dogs who have similar characteristics- similar to terrier and shepherd dogs. Breeds such as the American pit bull terrier, American Staffordshire terrier and Staffordshire bull terrier are often lumped into this classification, along with other breeds of dogs that simply resemble pit bulls. Therefore, studies that analyze dog bites may be inflating the numbers of pit bulls by including multiple breeds of dogs.

Victims and witnesses of <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/anxious-people-bitten-dog/">dog bites</a> may also inadvertently misidentify the breed of the animal. A<a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26403955"> study</a> of shelter staff and veterinarians found that the participants over-identified dogs as pit bulls. Only 25 pit bull-type breeds were used in the study, yet participants labeled 62 dogs as pit bulls.

Additionally, victims may be more likely to report dog bites from breeds they deem dangerous over less intimidating breeds. A<a href="https://www.savemarylandpets.org/sites/default/files/files/basic/dogbite.pdf"> report</a> by the Task Force on Canine Aggression and Human-Canine Interactions state, “Dog bite statistics are not really statistics, and they do not give an accurate picture of dogs that bite. Invariably the numbers will show that dogs from popular large breeds are a problem. This should be expected, because big dogs can physically do more damage if they do bite, and any popular breed has more individuals that could bite.”

The breed most associated with pit bulls- the American pit bull terrier- has a<a href="https://atts.org/breed-statistics/statistics-page1/"> temperament score</a> of 87.4%. The breed’s temperament is found by having trained evaluators score individuals for signs of panic, avoidance and aggression. The American pit bull terrier ranks higher than the average overall rate of 83.4% and higher than beloved species such the Golden retriever and Siberian husky. The Staffordshire bull terrier ranks even higher at 90.9%.

PetMD<a href="https://www.petmd.com/dog/breeds/c_dg_american_pit_bull_terrier"> describes</a> the American pit bull terrier as “noted for its playful temperament and friendly nature.. and has a strong desire to please people.” Despite their affectionate nature, pit bulls have struggled to recover from their negative stigma.

Recent studies examining dog bite statistics identify factors that may predict dog attacks more accurately than breed information.<a href="https://avmajournals.avma.org/doi/abs/10.2460/javma.243.12.1726"> Studies</a> show that improperly confined, unsterilized male dogs who have been mismanaged or abused are more likely to attack. A person’s ignorance on interacting with and identifying dog behavior may increase the chances of an attack. Multiple studies have also found that children are at an increased risk of being bitten.

The <a href="https://www.cdc.gov/">Centers for Disease Control and Prevention</a> (CDC) and the <a href="https://www.americanbar.org/">American Bar Association</a> suggest non-breed specific, dangerous dog laws over breed-specific legislation stating that emphasis should be placed on responsible ownership. The <a href="https://www.avma.org/">American Veterinary Medical Association</a> and <a href="https://nacanet.site-ym.com">National Animal Care and Control Association</a> also stand against breed-specific legislation.

Understanding the risk factors associated with dog bites can help identify and prevent dangerous incidents. As the American Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals<a href="https://www.aspca.org/about-us/aspca-policy-and-position-statements/position-statement-pit-bulls"> states</a>, “All dogs, including pit bulls, are individuals. Treating them as such, providing them with the care, training and supervision they require, and judging them by their actions and not by their DNA or their physical appearance is the best way to ensure that dogs and people can continue to share safe and happy lives together.”

--

By <a href="mailto:brianna.grant134@gmail.com">Brianna Lynne</a>, <a href="http://earth.com">Earth.com</a> Contributing Writer

Pit bull bite statistics do not always show the full story

Pit bulls are often perceived to be an aggressive breed...

Under a reciprocal wildlife agreement, the government of the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC) is set to transfer a small population of mountain gorillas to Zimbabwe.  Observers are concerned about this exchange of wildlife, which is supposed to help strengthen gorilla populations. 

The transfer is part of a reciprocal agreement between Zimbabwe and the DRC, with <a href="http://zimparks.org/donation-of-10-white-rhinos-to-the-democratic-republic-of-congo-drc/">Zimbabwe transferring 10 white rhinoceros</a> to the DRC.  The transfer of the rhinos has been criticized as well.  It’s unknown where the rhinos will end up in the DRC, a country with a history of violence and instability that has threatened its own population of rhinos.       

Zimpark, the official park system of Zimbabwe, has previously sold animals, including elephants to China to be put on display in zoos.  The government of Zimbabwe says the same thing won’t happen with the gorillas but outside wildlife advocates are unconvinced. 

<a href="https://www.theguardian.com/global-development/2018/jul/02/outrage-alleged-plan-export-rare-animals-democratic-republic-congo-china-gorillas-endangered-species-zoos">The Guardian</a> reported last year that a letter from the DRC’s environmental minister to a Chinese company referring to a request for endangered species to be put on display in China was leaked.  The letter was posted on Twitter by environmental activists and makes requests for specific animals. The Chinese company asked for 12 mountain gorillas, 16 bonobos, 16 chimpanzees, 8 African manatees and 20 okapi.  The Okapi is an animal related to the giraffe but appearing more zebra like to a casual observer. 

All of these animals are threatened with extinction and Bonobos are found only in the DRC.  The request was apparently made for a zoo in Eastern China. These animals would necessarily be captured in the wild, as the DRC doesn’t have them in captivity already, much less any population bred in captivity.  The DRC government responded to the outcry by environmental advocacy groups stating that no agreement has been finalized with China and the deal is being evaluated under CITES, an international trade agreement restricting the sale and trade of endangered species.  

The fear of these animals being exported for display in China feeds greater fears over the rising power of China in Africa.  I’ve personally seen the quick pace of development that Chinese money can spur in Africa. In places like Equatorial Guinea large modern cities with new high rise buildings can lie within fifty miles of villages made of huts with no electricity or running water just being connected to roads within the last few years.  In Madagascar, I’ve also noticed large amounts of businesses being run by outsiders, including Chinese businesses. 

I recently talked to a paleontologist who works with crocodilian fossils in Kenya, he told me that development of roads by Chinese companies and engineers has made drives that once took 12 to 15 hours into 8 hour trips.  Development and money poured into Africa by China (and others) may sometimes have a local benefit but largely the idea is to take more than is put in. Some observers worry that as China wields a greater influence across Africa, wildlife will pay the cost.  

Adding to these fears, <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2018/10/29/world/asia/china-rhino-tiger-poaching.html">The New York Times</a> reported in October that China has reversed its ban on the use of rhino and tiger parts in traditional ‘medicine’.  This fear is already partially realized in the trade of animals like pangolins for Chinese medicine but putting animals like gorillas on display in China could be just as detrimental.

The greatest fear for many wildlife advocates is that the transfer of gorillas, rhinos and other wildlife between Zimbabwe and the DRC is merely a smoke screen to allow their sale to China.    

<a href="https://conservcongo.wordpress.com/contact/about/">Conserv Congo</a>, the non-profit that leaked the letter between the DRC environmental minister and the Chinese company, seems especially concerned about the gorillas.  Quoting a UN report, they say that by the mid 2020s, gorillas could be gone from large areas of the Congo region. It’s a real possibility that the charismatic great ape could be extinct within our lifetimes, especially when government agencies are so quick to sell out their survival.       

<a href="https://news.mongabay.com/2018/11/plan-to-ship-gorillas-from-drc-to-zimbabwe-raises-alarm/">Mongabay</a> reported that even if the wildlife transferred from the DRC is housed in Zimbabwe, it isn’t clear where exactly the animals will end up.  Nyanga, a high elevation area in Manicaland province, is a possibility but it isn’t suitable for the gorillas or the Okapi. It seems likely that the animals will end up in an outside zoo enclosure, a scenario not so much better than their captive display in China unless the animals bred successfully, supporting the growth or stability of wild populations.

Another great fear of transferring gorillas is the spread of ebola.  Gorillas carry ebola, a disease known from the equatorial region of Africa, including the DRC.  Moving gorillas around Africa could spread ebola with them, causing huge problems for humans and perhaps other wildlife in Zimbabwe.  <a href="http://www.thezimbabwenewslive.com/business-49919-ebola-fears-drc-plans-to-export-gorillas-okapi-to-zimbabwe.html">Zimbabwe News Live</a> cites local concern over ebola:

“Journalist Violet Gonda said Zimbabwe was “entering uncharted territory”. Noting that gorillas in particular were sensitive animals, she wondered: “Can Zimbabwe’s fragile health care system handle Ebola risks?...Sekuru Kurasha, on Twitter, said: “Seriously, there are so many other issues that need to be dealt with in Zimbabwe right now. Gorillas aren’t native to Zimbabwe, so leave them alone. You’re failing to combat cholera and now importing ebola? Bring Investors Not Gorillas!””   

Zimpark responded to fears over ebola by saying the great apes are tested for the disease before being brought to Zimbabwe.  There is one very good question raised though: why bring a wild animal that isn’t native into a country? Whether Africa or China, it seems little good can come to gorillas captured in the wild.  It also seems unlikely that white rhinos would fare well in the DRC, a country that’s lost their own rhinoceros population largely through poaching. 

<a href="https://www.thestandard.co.zw/2018/10/21/rhino-donation-raises-eyebrows/">The Standard</a>, a Zimbabwe news organization, reported in an article I can’t substantiate that one of the ten rhinos destined for the DRC was shot in captivity in October due to aggressive behavior towards a Zimpark employee.  The report comes from the British non-profit Bring Back our Rhinos, an organization also calling for an accounting of the death and the other rhinos set to be introduced into the DRC. Even if the rhinos are introduced successfully into the DRC, it seems unlikely that the government will be able to stop the country’s long term poaching problem.        

--

By <a href="http://mailto:zachfitzner@yahoo.com">Zach Fitzner</a>, <a href="http://earth.com">Earth.com</a> Contributing Writer

The trouble with ‘wildlife exchanges’ between African countries

Under a reciprocal wildlife agreement, the government of the Democratic...

Endangered whale sharks undergo periods of starvation. Researchers at the <a href="https://www.u-tokyo.ac.jp/en/">University of Tokyo</a> are using a simple yet powerful technique to explore the diets, migrations, and conservation needs of endangered <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/whale-sharks-stay-home/">whale sharks</a>, which are the world’s largest fish. The study revealed that these giant creatures experience periods of starvation and eat more plants than previously realized. 

Whale sharks are filter-feeders that prey on microscopic food in tropical waters. They can grow up to 39 feet long and can weigh as much as 46,297 pounds, which is the equivalent of three African elephants.

The researchers closely monitored three whale sharks living in an aquarium and two whale sharks living in ocean net cages to measure their growth, diet, and overall health.

[caption id="attachment_1865275" align="aligncenter" width="700"]<a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/01/whale-shark.jpg"><img class="wp-image-1865275" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/01/whale-shark.jpg" alt="" width="700" height="464" /></a> Image Credit: K. Sato, Okinawa Churashima Foundation Research Center CC-BY-NC-ND.[/caption]

“Whale sharks are one of the most exciting organisms to encounter for tourists and scientists alike, not just due to their sheer size, but also their grace and beauty. It is a privilege to unveil some of the mystery surrounding their lives,” said study lead author Alex Wyatt, who is a project researcher at the <a href="http://www.aori.u-tokyo.ac.jp/english/">Atmosphere and Ocean Research Institute</a>.


In order to accurately interpret tissue isotope levels, the team collected blood samples to compare with tissue tests. 

“Similar to blood tests performed when you visit the doctor, we are able to assess the health of whale sharks based on the contents of their blood,” said Wyatt. “We combine blood tests and tissue isotope analyses to create an accurate health check for the animals.”Endangered whale sharks undergo periods of starvation

This complete health check was given to eight wild whale sharks off the coast of Okinawa, Japan. According to the results of the blood tests, several of the wild whale sharks had not eaten for weeks or months.

“Maybe they didn't encounter any food, or maybe they just do not eat while migrating long distances,” explained Wyatt.

The study also revealed that the whale sharks had eaten large amounts of plants and algae.

“This is a somewhat surprising and controversial finding, since whale sharks are generally assumed to feed strictly on higher levels of the food chain," Wyatt said. "However, some whale sharks have been found with seaweed in their stomachs and eating plants might make sense if feeding opportunities can become as limited as our blood tests suggest.”

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://esajournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/journal/15577015">Ecological Monographs</a>.

--

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="http://earth.com">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Endangered whale sharks undergo periods of starvation

Endangered whale sharks undergo periods of starvation. Researchers at the...

The discovery of a pack of wild dogs containing red wolf DNA is exciting news for biologists and conservationists who now have a rare opportunity to study genes from a long-since extinct species. 

The <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/tampa-zoo-endangered-red-wolf-pups/">red wolf</a> was officially declared extinct in the wild in 1980. But according to a report by the the <a href="https://www.apnews.com/41e2f719d14549f8b5b2d88149385a0e">Associated Press</a>, the pack of hybrids that live near the Texas Gulf Coast shows that even though the red wolf is extinct, its DNA lives on. 

Today, 200 red wolves exist in captivity as part of breeding programs, along with a pack of red wolves released into the wild as part of a population experiment in North Carolina. The experimental wild pack once numbered 130 in 2006, but habitat loss and hunting have driven the pack to all-time lows, and now only 40 wolves remain. 

The fact that so few remain from the experimental program and in captivity makes this latest discovery of the hybrid canines all the more noteworthy.

Biologists from <a href="https://www.princeton.edu/">Princeton</a> are now in the process of studying the hybrid animals, and a recent study detailing their findings was published in the journal Genes.

“Overall, it's incredibly rare to rediscover animals in a region where they were thought to be extinct, and it's even more exciting to show that a piece of an endangered genome has been preserved in the wild,” Elizabeth Heppenheimer, a Princeton University biologist involved in the research, told the Associated Press. 

The researchers analyzed the genetics of the wild dogs found near Galveston, Texas and the results show that animals are a hybrid of coyote and red wolf, but more testing is required to fully understand the animal’s genetic makeup. 

 “We can get excited, but in my mind, we really need to let science do its due diligence to determine what this animal is,” Kim Wheeler, executive director of the <a href="https://redwolves.com/newsite/">Red Wolf Coalition</a>, told the Associated Press. 

Several factors led to the downfall of the red wolf, but hunting played a significant role in their extinction as farmers would often kill red wolves to protect their livestock.

The experimental population released in North Carolina met a similar fate and <a href="https://www.fws.gov/">U.S Fish, and Wildlife</a> was accused of violating the <a href="https://www.fws.gov/endangered/laws-policies/">Endangered Species Act</a> by a federal judge after it was discovered that landowners were given authorization to kill red wolves encroaching on their land, even if the wolves posed no threat. 

The hybrid population will open up a new conservation debate as the rare wild red wolf DNA offers many exciting research opportunities but the Endangered Species Act offers little protection for hybrids. 

--

By <a href="mailto:kayvandette@gmail.com">Kay Vandette</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Extinct red wolf DNA discovered in Texas hybrid pack of wild dogs

The discovery of a pack of wild dogs containing red...

We use <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ai-unlock-satellite-data/">artificial intelligence (AI)</a> in our day to day to lives perhaps more than we even realize, from Alexa to Siri to the wide array of “smart” technology we have in our homes, cars, phones, and businesses.

The amount of computation and training required for artificial intelligence systems is steadily increasing and modeling AI after the human brain is a significant challenge because of the human brain’s complex and vast neural network.

The <a href="https://www.darpa.mil/">Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA)</a>, the Pentagon’s research and development department, has a plan to streamline this process and has recently put out a call for submissions to create a conscious AI robot modeled after insect brains.

The goal of the new project is to find a way to build small, easy to train, energy efficient AI robots. Insects are a great starting place because of even though they have limited processing and problem-solving abilities, they still have high levels of functionality within their environments.

“This AIE opportunity invites proposers to submit innovative basic research concepts aimed at understanding highly-integrated sensory and nervous systems in miniature insects and developing prototype computational models that could be mapped onto suitable hardware in order to emulate their impressive function,” <a href="https://www.fbo.gov/utils/view?id=bb2722b7974765cc9f4e93fea8efbacf">DARPA</a> said in a statement.

If DARPA could create an efficient AI insect model, it would be easy to then incorporate the AI into a conscious robot that thinks and acts like an insect.

Not only would an AI robot bug be more efficient and require less computational training, but it could also help unravel the mysteries of how the brain processes information and stores memory.

“Nature has forced on these small insects drastic miniaturization and energy efficiency, some having only a few hundred neurons in a compact form-factor, while maintaining basic functionality,” the DARPA announcement reads. “This research could lead to capability of inference, prediction, generalization and abstraction of problems in systematic or entirely new ways in order to find solutions to compelling problems.”

A $1 million prize will be issued to the winning proposal if they can successfully prove that they can create an insect AI model.

--

By <a href="mailto:kayvandette@gmail.com">Kay Vandette</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

DARPA looking to build conscious robots modeled after insect brains

We use artificial intelligence (AI) in our day to day...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2E0mn5mTvhQ
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">'Death Star' moon Mimas conceals a 15-million-year-old ocean that scientists never expected.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hidden-waters-beneath-ancient-craters">Hidden waters beneath ancient craters</h2>



Scientists have made a startling discovery that challenges everything we thought we knew about <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/saturn-moon-mimas-has-remarkably-young-ocean/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Saturn's moon Mimas</a>. Beneath the heavily cratered surface that earned it the nickname "Death Star" lies a global ocean that formed just 5 to 15 million years ago—a remarkably young age by cosmic standards.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cassini-data-reveals-orbital-secrets">Cassini data reveals orbital secrets</h2>



The discovery, led by Dr. Valéry Lainey of the <a href="https://observatoiredeparis.psl.eu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Observatoire de Paris</a>, emerged from careful analysis of <a href="https://www.nasa.gov" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NASA</a>'s Cassini spacecraft data. By studying subtle irregularities in Mimas's orbit around Saturn, researchers detected the gravitational signature of liquid water hidden 20 to 30 kilometers beneath the moon's icy shell.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-an-unlikely-ocean-world">An unlikely ocean world</h2>



At only 400 kilometers in diameter, Mimas seemed like the least likely candidate to harbor a subsurface ocean. Unlike other ocean moons such as Europa and Enceladus, which show clear surface signs of internal activity, Mimas displays no obvious hints of the liquid water beneath its ancient, crater-scarred exterior.



"Mimas is a small moon, and its heavily cratered surface gave no hint of the hidden ocean beneath," explained Dr. Nick Cooper from <a href="https://www.qmul.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Queen Mary University of London</a>, a study co-author.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-astrobiology">Implications for astrobiology</h2>



The ocean's recent formation makes Mimas a prime target for studying how oceans develop and potentially support life. This discovery adds another member to the exclusive club of ocean worlds in our solar system, each offering unique insights into the conditions necessary for habitability.



The research, published in <a href="https://www.nature.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature</a> journal, demonstrates how advanced orbital analysis can reveal hidden features of celestial bodies, opening new possibilities for understanding ocean formation throughout the cosmos.



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Scientists discover unexpected young ocean on Saturn's cratered moon Mimas

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2E0mn5mTvhQ 'Death Star' moon Mimas conceals a 15-million-year-old ocean that...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE
</div></figure>



On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop and sunlight barely penetrates through the polar winter. It was here, however, that an international team of scientists found <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/predatory-worms-were-terror-beasts-half-a-billion-years-ago/#google_vignette" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evidence of sea monsters</a> that would change our understanding of ocean life in the past.



This video captures the discovery of Timorebestia fossils that had been hidden for more than 500 million years in the Sirius Passet formation. The "terror beasts," as they are called, are a hidden chapter in the evolutionary history of <a href="https://www.earth.com" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Earth</a>, showing that sophisticated predator-prey interactions occurred much earlier than previously envisioned.



Dr. Jakob Vinther and his research team at the <a href="https://www.bristol.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Bristol</a>, in collaboration with researchers at the <a href="https://eng.kopri.re.kr/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Korean Polar Research Institute</a>, braved extreme weather conditions at 82.5 north latitude to locate these giant creatures. Using sophisticated electron microprobe analysis, they revealed the detailed anatomy of the animals, including their muscle and nerve tissues.



The find upsets the traditional timeline of sea predators. Although we've long appreciated that Cambrian oceans were at one time ruled by <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jWI3-UgA3_o&amp;list=PL1QLQMW9MWDwpkFOnvgAmu7wT6rZmYqdJ&amp;index=19" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">arthropods</a>, these discoveries indicate that relatives of arrow worms were first to dominate the seas. These worms were building sophisticated food webs several million years before other predator groups arose.



Each fossil is a story of ancient hunger, with fossil stomach contents revealing these meter-long beasts dined on heavily armored arthropods regularly, cementing their place as the ocean's first apex predators.



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Worms dominated seas before dinosaurs

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">New York is the site of the world's oldest forest.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-385-million-year-old-trees-discovered">385-million-year-old trees discovered</h2>



Scientists have uncovered something extraordinary just two hours north of New York City. The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/worlds-oldest-forest-discovered-close-to-new-york-city/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">world's oldest forest</a>, dating back 385 million years, offers a window into how Earth's first complex forests shaped our planet's atmosphere.



Located near <a href="https://townofcairo.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cairo, New York</a>, in Greene County, these weren't merely primitive plants struggling to survive. These were sophisticated trees with root systems remarkably similar to modern forests. This ancient woodland predates dinosaurs by 140 million years.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-cairo-forest-discovery">The Cairo forest discovery</h2>



385 million years ago, upstate New York was a tropical paradise near the equator. Thanks to continental drift, this ancient forest has traveled thousands of miles to its current location.



The fossil forest sits in an abandoned quarry, roughly half the size of a football field. This represents just a slice of what was likely a massive forest system stretching from New York into Pennsylvania.



Charles Ver Straeten, curator of sedimentary rocks at the <a href="https://www.nysm.nysed.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">New York State Museum</a>, made the discovery in 2009. While scouting the former highway department property, his trained eye spotted wandering patterns in the stone that looked like marine features.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-revolutionary-age-and-preservation">Revolutionary age and preservation</h2>



The site contains 385-million-year-old rocks with fossilized woody roots forming horizontal patterns up to 18 feet (5.5 meters) wide. As Christopher Berry, a paleobotanist at Cardiff University, explains: "You are walking through the roots of ancient trees."



This discovery pushes back advanced tree evolution by millions of years. The research, published in <a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/home" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Current Biology</a> in December 2019, fundamentally changes our understanding of when complex forests first emerged.



Researchers believe a massive flood buried the forest floor, creating perfect fossilization conditions. Over millions of years, sediment hardened into rock, preserving these root patterns like nature's time capsule.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-meet-archaeopteris-the-first-modern-tree">Meet Archaeopteris: the first modern tree</h2>



The star of this ancient forest is Archaeopteris – not to be confused with the feathered dinosaur Archaeopteryx. This tree was far older and more revolutionary.



William Stein from <a href="https://www.binghamton.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Binghamton University</a> describes the roots as "strikingly modern, essentially what you'd see outside in my yard right now." These weren't simple root systems you'd expect from ancient plants.



Some fossilized roots are six inches (15 centimeters) in diameter, forming 36-foot-wide (11-meter) patterns. These giants grew up to 65 feet (20 meters) tall with five-foot-diameter (1.5-meter) trunks.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-changing-impact">Climate-changing impact</h2>



These trees fundamentally changed Earth's environment. Kevin Boyce, a Stanford University geoscientist, explains how their deep roots triggered "weathering," chemical reactions that pulled carbon dioxide from the atmosphere.



This process dropped atmospheric CO2 levels from 10-15 times higher than today to roughly modern concentrations. These ancient trees helped create atmospheric conditions that made complex life possible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ancient-forest-ecosystem">Ancient forest ecosystem</h2>



The forest was remarkably diverse. Scientists identified Eospermatopteris, palm tree-like plants with short roots that reached 30 feet (9 meters) tall but lacked woody structure. The forest also housed cladoxylopsids and a mysterious third species still being studied.



All reproduced through spores rather than seeds – millions of years before seeds evolved. This tropical environment had no grass, flowers, or flying insects, just towering trees creating Earth's first complex forest canopy.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-scientific-significance">Scientific significance</h2>



Before this finding, the Gilboa forest, located 25 miles (40 kilometers) away, held the "oldest forest" title. Cairo's trees are 2-3 million years older, showing that complex forest ecosystems developed much faster than scientists believed possible.



Patricia Gensel, a <a href="https://www.unc.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of North Carolina</a> paleobotanist, notes: "The size of those root systems is really changing the picture. Even 20 years ago, researchers assumed trees with such complex root systems didn't evolve so early."



The Cairo site presents three unique root systems, suggesting Devonian period forests were diverse ecosystems with different trees occupying different environmental niches, much like today's forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-modern-preservation-efforts">Modern preservation efforts</h2>



In 2022, New York State Senator Michelle Hinchey secured a $170,000 grant for the town of Cairo to construct specialized fencing around the fossil forest site. The town plans to conduct a feasibility study exploring the possibility of creating an educational center and working lab on-site.



Joe Hasenkopf, chair of the Cairo Planning Board, hopes to partner with educational institutions to create a research facility serving scientists, students, and the public.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lessons-for-today-s-climate">Lessons for today's climate</h2>



Why does a 385-million-year-old forest matter today? It shows how dramatically forests can change Earth's climate. These ancient woodlands created the atmospheric conditions supporting complex life.



Understanding how prehistoric forests transformed the planet helps us appreciate modern forests' critical role in addressing climate change. Forests remain Earth's most effective carbon capture systems.



These prehistoric trees changed Earth's atmosphere by pulling massive amounts of carbon dioxide from the air. As we face modern climate challenges, this ancient forest reminds us of trees' incredible power to transform our planet's environment.



The next time you walk through a forest, remember you're experiencing an ecosystem whose blueprint was established 385 million years ago in upstate New York. These ancient pioneers didn't just survive – they thrived and changed the world forever.



The full study was published in the journal Current Biology.



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Earth's oldest forest found in the United States

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ New York is the site of the world's oldest...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Acid rain and a crisis solved.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-don-t-we-ever-hear-about-acid-rain-anymore-the-environmental-crisis-that-was-solved">Why don't we ever hear about "acid rain" anymore? The environmental crisis that was solved</h2>



Remember the 1980s when acid rain dominated headlines? Dire warnings about rain eating buildings, killing fish, and destroying forests filled every news cycle. Then, almost like magic, acid rain vanished from public discourse. What happened? Did we actually solve one of the late 20th century's most pressing environmental challenges?



The answer might surprise you. Unlike many environmental issues that drag on indefinitely, acid rain represents one of modern history's most successful ecological recovery stories. It's a tale of science, politics, and technology working together to tackle what seemed impossible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What was acid rain?</h2>



Acid rain isn't regular rain having a bad day – it's precipitation that became significantly more acidic due to air pollution. When power plants, factories, and vehicles burn fossil fuels, they release sulfur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides (NOx) into the atmosphere.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The science behind it</h2>



Think of acid rain as nature's chemistry experiment gone wrong. These compounds react with water, oxygen, and other chemicals to form sulfuric and nitric acids. When mixed with water vapor in clouds, they create precipitation with dangerously low pH levels.



While clean rain has a pH of about 5.6, acid rain could drop as low as 4.2 to 4.4 – roughly as acidic as tomato juice or coffee. According to US Geological Survey documentation, Scottish chemist Angus Smith first coined "acid rain" in 1872, but it didn't become a household phrase until the 1960s and 1970s when Swedish scientist Svante Odén documented its devastating effects on Scandinavian lakes and European forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The crisis at its peak</h2>



During the height of public concern, environmental damage was both widespread and visible. This wasn't some abstract future threat – people could see destruction happening in real-time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Environmental devastation</h2>



The most dramatic impacts were impossible to ignore. Research documented by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation and the New York State Department of Environmental Conservation shows that in the Adirondack Mountains, more than 200 lakes became so acidic they couldn't support fish life. The Adirondack Council reports that 409 lakes once supported brook trout, but many lost their fish populations due to acid rain.



By 1976, when scientists cataloged all acidified lakes in the Adirondack Park, researchers found that half of the lakes over 2,000 feet above sea level had no fish, according to studies published in environmental journals. The acidification process worked like a slow-motion disaster. As acid rain fell into watersheds, it gradually lowered pH levels. Fish couldn't survive in acidic water, and their food sources died off too.



Trees at high elevations showed stress directly linked to acid rain. It weakened them by leaching nutrients and making them susceptible to disease. Historical records show Germany's Black Forest saw nearly half its trees damaged by the mid-1980s.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Economic impact</h2>



Acid rain wasn't just environmental – it was expensive. Acidic precipitation corroded infrastructure, buildings, and monuments. Historic stone structures deteriorated at accelerated rates. Tourism suffered as lakes became fishless and forests declined. EPA economic analyses from the period documented repair costs mounting into billions annually.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The solution: government action and technology</h2>



Transformation from crisis to success required unprecedented cooperation between governments, industries, and environmental groups.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The Clean Air Act of 1990</h2>



The turning point came with the Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990, signed by President George H.W. Bush. This represented a fundamentally new approach to environmental regulation, as documented in EPA historical records.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Cap-and-trade success</h2>



Instead of mandating specific technologies, the 1990 amendments introduced something revolutionary: a cap-and-trade system for sulfur dioxide emissions. EPA program documentation shows this market-based approach set overall limits but allowed companies to trade emission allowances.



The genius was harnessing market forces to find cost-effective pollution reduction. Companies reducing emissions cheaply could sell excess allowances to those facing higher costs. Research published in environmental economics journals and EPA progress reports shows this resulted in dramatic SO2 reduction at a fraction of projected costs.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Technology advances</h2>



Policy provided the framework, but technology made reductions possible. Studies in atmospheric science journals document the widespread adoption of flue gas desulfurization systems ("scrubbers") that removed sulfur dioxide before it reached the atmosphere. By the 2000s, new installations could remove over 95% of SO2 emissions, according to EPA technical reports.



The push coincided with cleaner energy development. Natural gas produces fewer sulfur compounds than coal. Wind and solar, emerging in the 1990s, captured growing market share, reducing reliance on high-sulfur coal.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-we-don-t-hear-about-it-today">Why we don't hear about it today</h2>



Why did acid rain disappear from headlines? Simple: the problem was largely solved.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Success doesn't make news</h2>



There's an old journalism saying: "If it bleeds, it leads." Environmental success stories don't generate urgency like crisis reporting. Media attention shifted to other challenges: climate change, plastic pollution, and biodiversity loss. There's only so much environmental anxiety the public can absorb, and newer concerns replaced acid rain.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Mission accomplished</h2>



The primary reason is beautifully simple: interventions worked. EPA monitoring data shows sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990. Academic research published in environmental science journals confirms pH levels in formerly affected areas returned closer to normal. This represents one of history's most dramatic environmental recoveries. Studies by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation show fishless lakes now support healthy populations. Forests recovered, and building damage slowed dramatically.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-is-it-really-gone">Is it really gone?</h2>



The crisis is largely resolved, but monitoring data shows the problem isn't completely eliminated – it's managed to acceptable levels. Some areas still experience occasional events during high pollution periods. International environmental research indicates that rapidly industrializing Asian countries face similar problems to what we experienced decades ago, though they're implementing successful strategies.



EPA research shows nitrogen oxide emissions proved more challenging than sulfur dioxide, coming from vehicles and mobile sources. Climate science studies suggest changing weather patterns add complexity to how acid rain forms and falls.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What this teaches us</h2>



The acid rain experience proves that seemingly intractable environmental problems can be solved with scientific understanding, political will, and technological innovation. Environmental monitoring data shows recovery speed was remarkable – within a decade, measurable improvements appeared in air quality and ecosystem health.



Success came from bipartisan support across party lines. Policy analysis studies show the market-based approach appealed to those preferring economic incentives while achieving environmental goals. This support created lasting policy surviving political changes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Conclusion</h2>



Acid rain's disappearance from public consciousness represents environmental science's greatest success stories. Through effective regulation, technological innovation, and international cooperation, we transformed an overwhelming crisis into a manageable challenge.



Today's silence isn't because we forgot – it's because we solved it. The 1990 Clean Air Act, combined with technology and energy market changes, reduced acid rain emissions over 90%, according to comprehensive EPA data analysis.



This success offers hope for current challenges. It proves complex problems can be solved when science, policy, and technology work together. As we face climate change and plastic pollution, acid rain reminds us that dramatic positive change is possible.



Next time someone asks whether environmental regulations work, remember acid rain. It's proof that sometimes, we get it right.



<hr class="wp-block-separator has-alpha-channel-opacity"/>



Sources: This article draws from EPA official documentation and progress reports, peer-reviewed research published in environmental and atmospheric science journals, historical data from the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation, New York State Department of Environmental Conservation records, US Geological Survey publications, policy analysis studies, and environmental monitoring data collected over three decades.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Frequently Asked Questions</h2>



1. Is acid rain completely gone? No, but EPA monitoring shows it's reduced to manageable levels. US sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990, making acid rain much less severe than the 1980s crisis.



2. How long did solving take? Environmental monitoring data shows significant improvements began within 5-10 years of 1990s emission controls. Full ecosystem recovery took longer – some areas need 20-30 years for complete recovery.



3. What made the solution successful? Clear scientific understanding, visible damage motivating action, bipartisan support, available technology, and innovative market-based policies like cap-and-trade.



4. Do other countries have acid rain problems? Yes, particularly rapidly industrializing Asian countries. However, international environmental research shows many implement similar successful control strategies.



5. Could acid rain return? Potentially, if regulations weaken or we return to high-sulfur coal without controls, though effects would take years to become severe according to environmental projections.



6. Can you recommend any teaching tools on the subject of "acid rain"? The United States Environmental Protection Agency produced a wonderful teacher's guide for ages 14 and under that you can find on the EPA website here: <a href="https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf</a>



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The environmental problem we actually solved

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk Acid rain and a crisis solved. Why don't we...

Fresh,Radish,Harvest,On,Soil,In,Garden.

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://youtu.be/Fi2OeEwuzRM?si=vTyd2m9FMmtyWkex
</div></figure>







Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving fall garden, and this guide lays out the best vegetables and herbs to plant now for a fruitful autumn harvest. 



Fast-growing leafy greens such as spinach, lettuce, kale, and arugula perform especially well in the waning summer heat, with harvests beginning as soon as 30 days. 



These cool-season crops relish the transition into fall, offering repeated yields with cut-and-come-again methods.



Root vegetables like radishes, carrots, and beets also excel during this period. Radishes deliver satisfaction in under a month, while carrots and beets mature in about two months. Employing succession planting ensures a continuous stream of produce deep into the cooler months. 



For a boost of fresh flavor, herbs like cilantro, basil, dill, and chervil are excellent picks. These heat-loving varieties flourish in July’s warmth and are harvest-ready in about 30 days, especially when sown continuously.



Gardeners in zones 6 through 9 can benefit from planting bush beans and snap peas, which don’t require trellising and are ideal for compact plots. 



Maturing in 50–60 days, they’re a smart choice for quick, protein-rich harvests. For those in hotter regions, heat-tolerant crops such as okra and southern peas provide reliable yields and thrive in scorching conditions.



This guide emphasizes more than crop selection—it highlights the importance of timing, soil preparation, and ongoing sowing techniques. 



With thoughtful planning and attention to regional climate needs, even late-summer gardeners can enjoy fresh salads, hearty stews, and the satisfaction of a robust, homegrown harvest well into fall.



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What to plant in your garden in mid-July

https://youtu.be/Fi2OeEwuzRM?si=vTyd2m9FMmtyWkex Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving...

Green,Ecoduct,Over,An,Empty,Highway,During,Sunset.

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://youtu.be/XYgiPzmNBTU?si=eFYY7gPHU1JznLvU
</div></figure>



A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that wildlife tunnels significantly reduce amphibian road mortality during seasonal migrations. 



Frogs and salamanders often cross roads to reach breeding ponds each spring, but many are killed by vehicles. 



Researchers from the <a href="https://www.uvm.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Vermont</a>, in collaboration with local citizens and the Vermont Agency of Natural Resources, installed two underpass tunnels in 2015. 



Over a 12-year monitoring period, they observed an 80.2% reduction in amphibian deaths, and up to 94% for non-climbing species like salamanders. 



The study used a before-after-control-impact design and documented more than 5,200 amphibians, highlighting the tunnels’ effectiveness even in nearby buffer zones.



Funded at $342,397 - far cheaper than wildlife crossings for large mammals - the project showcased the power of community-led conservation.



Local groups initiated the effort after observing mass amphibian deaths. Wildlife cameras later captured over 2,200 amphibians using a tunnel in just one spring, along with other species like raccoons and bobcats, indicating wider ecosystem benefits.



This marks the first peer-reviewed, long-term data set in the northeastern U.S. confirming amphibian-specific underpasses work. 



The study urges transportation departments to incorporate these designs into road planning and highlights how community action, thoughtful infrastructure, and persistence can make a real difference for biodiversity.



The full study was published in the <a href="https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1617138125000780" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal for Nature Conservation</a>.



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-----

Wildlife tunnels save millions of amphibians

https://youtu.be/XYgiPzmNBTU?si=eFYY7gPHU1JznLvU A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that...

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing it with probiotics and prebiotics, aiming to create a treat that satisfies cravings while supporting gut health. 



The challenge lies in maintaining chocolate's beloved texture and flavor while adding health benefits.



<figure class="wp-block-embed aligncenter is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://youtu.be/Ug657J67iEo?si=w96YjGMsg939LD_3
</div></figure>



Probiotics - beneficial microbes that balance gut bacteria and aid digestion - are typically fragile and can be destroyed by stomach acid or processing. 



Prebiotics act as food for these microbes, helping them thrive. Together, they form "synbiotics," a powerful health combination.



Researchers Smriti Gaur and Shubhi Singh from India's Jaypee Institute of Information Technology took an innovative approach, using natural prebiotics like corn and honey instead of complex processing methods. 



They created five chocolate varieties: a control and four synbiotic versions containing different combinations of prebiotics, probiotics (Lactobacillus strains), and flavor enhancers (cinnamon or orange).



Laboratory simulations of human digestion showed the probiotics remained viable for over five hours, suggesting they could survive long enough to benefit gut health.



Taste tests were positive, with researchers particularly enjoying the orange-flavored variety, describing it as having "vibrant citrus notes" complementing the "rich cocoa" with a "luxurious" texture.



This research represents just the beginning. With further refinement of strains, textures, and flavors, chocolate could evolve beyond mere indulgence to become a functional food that nourishes while it delights.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.4c00741" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ACS Food Science &amp; Technology</a>.

Is chocolate the next nutritional powerhouse?

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="0ynNMYkMKa-2340414-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

[sendtonews key="0ynNMYkMKa-2340414-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="G9bUoxcjr4-2511624-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

[sendtonews key="G9bUoxcjr4-2511624-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="3upvlAaHgO-2256633-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

[sendtonews key="3upvlAaHgO-2256633-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

[sendtonews key="LvS8v8bp9z-2564889-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="X0f6OHYoI4-2310561-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How does salt makes things taste better?

[sendtonews key="X0f6OHYoI4-2310561-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="JRaP49ISmm-2357509-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Santiago, Chile in South America

[sendtonews key="JRaP49ISmm-2357509-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.



According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."



Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;



ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. 



Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

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Earth,Like,Exoplanet,3d,Render

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

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