If you’re a male gray frog trying to find a mate, you’d better have a fast and steady call. That’s what female treefrogs usually go for. But when the crowd gets loud and chaotic, things change. The males that don’t sound all that great? They suddenly have a shot.



In quiet situations where females only hear two males at once, their preferences are clear. They go for the one with the sharper, more rhythmic call. 



But when four or even eight males are calling at once, things get messy. Female choices become unpredictable. This isn’t just a frog issue - it ties into a broader idea that scientists call “choice overload.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-frogs-face-chaos-in-the-chorus">Frogs face chaos in the chorus</h2>



In nature, frogs gather in large, noisy groups called choruses. Picture a shallow pond in spring, with dozens of males calling out at the same time. It’s the frog equivalent of a dating scene in a packed nightclub.



The researchers found that the crowded conditions of these choruses might be too overwhelming for females to reliably pick the best mate. It’s not that they stop caring - it’s that they can’t tell who’s who.



Professor Jessie Tanner of the <a href="https://www.utk.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Tennessee, Knoxville</a>, led a team studying how choice overload affects evolution.



“Because female mate choice can drive evolution, our results suggest that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/unraveling-the-story-of-early-animal-evolution/">evolution</a> might happen more slowly than we thought before,” she said. 



“Some males that are fairly unattractive could still mate, especially if they take advantage of crowded spaces where females might be less able to discriminate between attractive and unattractive males.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-happens-when-choices-are-too-hard">What happens when choices are too hard?</h2>



The idea of choice overload is pretty common in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/science-behind-predicting-and-changing-human-behavior/">human behavior</a>. You walk into a store to buy toothpaste and face 50 brands. You either freeze, grab something random, or walk away. Same goes for dating apps with endless swiping.



“We wanted to understand how having to make mating decisions in crowded environments, where choice overload could be a problem, might drive the evolution of calls,” Tanner explained. 



“Since males that are chosen by females pass on their genes to the next generation, this mate choice can cause the population to change over time.”



When animals, like people, face too many options, their decision-making can break down. That opens up a chance for less attractive mates to get picked - not because they became more appealing, but because the chooser got overwhelmed.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-choice-overload-in-other-animals">Choice overload in other animals</h2>



This isn’t just about frogs. Scientists are now looking at how this effect shows up in other animals. <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bumblebees-increasingly-stressed-over-the-past-century/">Bumblebees</a>, for instance, are on the list. So are wood roaches.



“Our lab is working to understand how choice overload and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/frogs-have-lungs-that-cancel-out-background-noise/">noise</a> may each contribute to the difficulty female treefrogs face in making mating decisions,” Tanner said. 



“We are also working to understand whether this choice overload is something that occurs generally in many different kinds of animals or is more specific to individual species.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-simultaneous-cricket-songs">Simultaneous cricket songs </h2>



Tanner, who has a background in both psychology and biology, first got into animal behavior while studying mate choice as an undergrad. She later became interested in sound - especially how it plays into animal communication.



That led to earlier work on <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/when-male-crickets-go-silent-how-females-adapt-and-respond/">crickets</a>. Like treefrogs, male crickets use sound to attract mates. A study on cricket mating showed that noisy environments might either block females from hearing calls or make them too confused to pick. It was hard to tell which was causing the problem.



“During that study, it became clear that our work was consistent with both the possibility that many simultaneous cricket songs created noise that made it hard for females to hear, and the possibility that the females were experiencing choice overload,” Tanner said. “Our current work looks to disentangle those ideas.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-when-average-becomes-good-enough">When average becomes good enough</h2>



The research adds a new layer to how scientists think about evolution. Normally, stronger signals - like a faster frog call - are expected to win out and spread through the population over time. 



But if crowded conditions keep females from consistently picking the top performers, evolution slows down. Mediocre traits stick around longer.



That changes the math for survival. In nature, being the best isn’t always enough - and sometimes, being just okay is good enough, especially if the crowd’s loud and the choices are many.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rspb.2025.0585" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Proceedings of the Royal Society B Biological Sciences</a>.



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Frogs settle for average mates when dating gets too noisy

If you’re a male gray frog trying to find a mate, you’d better have a fast and steady call. That’s what female treefrogs usually go for. But when the crowd gets loud and chaotic, things change. The males that don’t sound all that great? They suddenly have a shot. In quiet situations where females only hear two males at once, their preferences are clear. They go for the one with the sharper, more rhythmic call. But when four or even eight males are calling at once, things...

<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/velvet-ants-invincible/">Ants</a> have been feasting on plants for millions of years, but eventually, plants evolved a system of features that allowed them to use foraging ants to their advantage. 

Over time, plants have evolved to produce nectar that attracts ants and hollow thorns that ants can use for shelter. Sometimes, ants will even defend a plant against attack or help spread the plant’s seed. 

It’s a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fungus-farming-ants-work-hard-to-maintain-healthy-gardens/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">mutually beneficial relationship</a> and an example of how complex interactions between two organisms evolve over time. 

Researchers from the <a href="https://www.fieldmuseum.org/">Field Museum </a>conducted a study to understand this evolutionary relationship better and to find out which organism jumpstarted the interaction, the plant features or the ant foraging. 

“It was a chicken-and-egg question, whether things started with ants developing behaviors to take advantage of plants, or plants evolving structures to take advantage of ants,” said Rick Ree, a co-author of the study. 

The study was published in the journal Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences and the researchers reviewed the genetic history of 1,700 species of ants and 10,000 plant genera.

[caption id="attachment_1861843" align="aligncenter" width="700"]<a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2018/11/ants-plants.jpg"><img class="wp-image-1861843" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2018/11/ants-plants-1024x760.jpg" alt="" width="700" height="520" /></a> Image (c) Field Museum, Corrie Moreau[/caption]

Ants and plants go back to the age of the dinosaurs, but studying these ancient interactions is difficult because there exists so little fossil evidence of the relationship between plants and ants. 

“There are very few fossil records of these structures in plants, and they don't extend very far back in time. And there are tons of ant fossils, but they typically don't show these ant behaviors--we don't necessarily see an ant preserved in amber carrying a seed,” said Matt Nelsen, the lead author of the study.

To help remedy the gap in information, the researchers reviewed and analyzed DNA and ecological databases to trace back the genetic history of different plant features. 

Mapping the history of ant-friendly traits in plants, the researchers found that plants evolved these enticing features in response to ant foraging. It turns out that the ants have relied on plants longer than plants relied on ants.

“Some ants don't directly use plants for much, while others rely on them for food, foraging habitat, and nesting,” said Nelson. “We found that to become fully invested in plant-use, ants first began foraging arboreally, then incorporated plants into their diet, and then from there, they started nesting arboreally. While this stepwise shift towards an increased reliance on plants is intuitive, it still surprised us.” 

Plants seem to benefit more from this relationship, as the researchers found that ants that depend on plants are no better off, evolutionarily speaking, than other ant species that don't forage or nest in plants.

“We don't see parts of the ant family tree that includes ants relying on plants for food or habitat diversifying or growing any faster than those parts of the tree that lack these interactions,” said Nelsen. “This study matters because it provides a glimpse into how these widespread and complex interactions evolved.”

--

By <a href="mailto:kayvandette@gmail.com">Kay Vandette</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 

Image Credit: (c) Field Museum, Corrie Moreau

How ants and plants developed a mutually beneficial partnership

Ants have been feasting on plants for millions of years,...

The ability to flee in response to danger is instinctive throughout much of the animal kingdom, and many laboratory studies have shed light on the neural circuits that control the escape response.

However, researchers have been unsure if, under different circumstances, the neural circuits would operate differently because testing escape responses in natural settings is challenging. 

Researchers from the <a href="https://www.ucsc.edu/">University of California, Santa Cruz</a> and the <a href="https://www.fisheries.noaa.gov/">National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration Fisheries</a> conducted a study to test and analyze escape responses of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/warming-waters-fish-behavior/">coral reef fish</a> in the wild. 

The study was published in the journal Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences and the results show that fish are governed by the same set of rules that lab fish are when trying to escape a threat. 

“We took an approach used in laboratory studies into a complex, natural environment and found that the same behavioral mechanisms seem to apply,” said Andrew Hein, the first author of the study. “A set of simple rules are combined in different ways to generate a rich suite of behaviors to accomplish this fundamental goal: to avoid being killed.” 

Coral reef fish are most vulnerable when they feed on algae in shallow reef flats. The researchers needed to find a way to simulate a threat from a predator like a moray eel or reef shark that would trigger the escape response in the wild coral reef fish. 

To do this, the researchers used a waterproof tablet to play a recording of visual stimulus called the looming stimulus, which is a black dot that slowly gets bigger and bigger until it rapidly increases in size. 

The looming stimulus creates the illusion of a looming predator. The researchers set up video cameras to record the coral reef fish response to the looming stimulus as they fed in front of the tablet. 

Next, the team analyzed the video recordings using automated tracking and ray casting, which is a map rendering technique used for computer graphics. 

The researchers were able to reconstruct what each fish observed before deciding whether or not to escape. They found that fleeing depended on the size and growth rate of the looming stimulus, the location of other fish in the vicinity, and the proximity of a safe place to hide. 

“This same behavioral circuit that neuroscientists identified in lab studies seems to be operating in the more complex natural environment,” said Hein. “But we also found something new: the sensitivity to the looming stimulus gets tuned up or down depending on the locations of other fish. If an individual is the closest one to the stimulus, it is much more likely to flee than if there is another fish between it and the threat.”

--

By <a href="mailto:kayvandette@gmail.com">Kay Vandette,</a> <a href="https://www.earth.com/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 

Image Credit: Stella Hein

How coral reef fish decide to flee from danger

The ability to flee in response to danger is instinctive...

Red Titi Portrait LZ 1

Experts from the <a href="https://www.zsl.org/">Zoological Society of London</a>, <a href="http://www.nhm.ac.uk/">London’s Natural History Museum</a>, and the <a href="https://www.amnh.org/">American Museum of Natural History</a>, recently analyzed ancient DNA samples from a now-extinct <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/male-vervet-monkeys-attack-their-group-members-to-break-up-fights/">monkey</a> called Xenothrix in an effort to understand why this monkey’s physicality differed so much from the monkeys of today. What they found was that Xenothrix is most similar to South America's titi monkeys (Callicebinae), and underwent huge evolutionary change throughout its existence.

The Xenothrix’s evolutionary change had much to do with the ecology of the Caribbean islands. The experts’ findings, published in Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, shows that the Xenothrix’s ancestors colonised the Caribbean islands more than once. Its estimated that the species colonised Jamaica from South America about 11 million years ago after having floated to the island on natural vegetation rafts. 

It’s the island environment — one that had no mammal predators — that experts believe contributed to its unusual anatomical development.

"This new understanding of the evolutionary history of Xenothrix shows that evolution can take unexpected paths when animals colonise islands and are exposed to new environments,” said Professor Samuel Turvey from ZSL, a co-author on the paper. “However, the extinction of Xenothrix, which evolved on an island without any native mammal predators, highlights the great vulnerability of unique island biodiversity in the face of human impacts.”

Experts hypothesize that Xenothrix was a slow-moving tree dweller with only a few teeth. It had shortened legs like a rodent and perhaps looked similar to a kinkajou or a night monkey. Their relatives, the titi monkeys, are also small tree-dwellers. However, titis are much more active, incredibly vocal, and have a lifespan of about 12 years in the wild.

"Ancient DNA indicates that the Jamaican monkey is really just a titi monkey with some unusual morphological features, not a wholly distinct branch of New World monkey,” Ross MacPhee of the American Museum of Natural History's Mammalogy Department, a co-author of the study, said. “Evolution can act in unexpected ways in island environments, producing miniature elephants, gigantic birds, and sloth-like primates. Such examples put a very different spin on the old cliché that 'anatomy is destiny.’”

--

By <a href="mailto:oliviagharvey24@gmail.com">Olivia Harvey</a>, <a href="http://earth.com">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Image Credit: ZSL

New DNA analysis outlines the history of mysterious monkey

Experts from the Zoological Society of London, London’s Natural History...

Lowell Burket, a regular contributor to the birdwatching website<a href="https://ebird.org/home"> eBird</a>, was enjoying his usual bird watching past time in his backyard in Pennsylvania when he spotted something highly unusual.  

Burkett noticed that there was a warbler bird near his home that sounded like Chestnut-sided Warbler but had the physical characteristics of a Blue-winged and Golden-winged Warbler. 

After several more spottings, Burket recorded a video of the bird and sent it to the <a href="http://www.birds.cornell.edu/">Cornell Lab of Ornithology</a>. 

A week later, Cornell researcher David Toews went to take samples from the bird to see what exactly the warbler was a hybrid of. 

Genetic analysis revealed that the bird was a hybrid of three different <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/great-reed-warbler-epic-journey/">warbler species</a>.

“We looked at the genes that code for different warbler colors,” Toews told the <a href="http://news.cornell.edu/stories/2018/11/three-species-hybrid-warbler-discovered">Cornell Chronicle</a>. “This way we could re-create what the hybrid’s mother would have looked like – the avian equivalent of a detective’s facial composite, but generated from genes. We confirmed that the mother would have looked like a Brewster’s warbler and the father was a chestnut-sided warbler.” 

Toews published his findings in the study in the journal Biology Letters. 

While hybridization among Golden-Winged Warblers and Blue-Winged Warblers is not uncommon. But what makes the warbler such a novel discovery is that there has never been a hybrid pairing of chestnut-sided warblers and Blue or Golden-Winged Warblers recorded before. 

The bird could have been the result of a small mating pool, and so the hybridization was a matter of necessity. 

“That this hybridization occurred within a population of golden-winged warblers in significant decline suggests that females may be making the best of a bad situation,” said Toews. “It also tells us that wood-warblers in general have remained genetically compatible long after they evolved major differences in appearance.”

Researchers will continue to monitor the new hybrid to see if his genetic mix will hinder potential mates or if the male will go on to reproduce. 

--

By <a href="mailto:kayvandette@gmail.com">Kay Vandette</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 

Image Credit: Lowell Burket, Cornell University

Rare hybrid bird of three different species seen in Pennsylvania

Lowell Burket, a regular contributor to the birdwatching website eBird,...

After decades of poaching, northern white rhinos are on the brink of extinction. When the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/northern-white-rhino-died/">last male of the species</a> died earlier this year, it seemed like a death knell. Only two females remain.

An ambitious new idea may save them.

While studying genetic samples from 232 rhinos, researchers at <a href="https://www.cardiff.ac.uk/">Cardiff University</a> and the <a href="http://www.univen.ac.za/">University of Venda</a> found that populations of northern and southern white rhinos have interbred as recently as 14,000 years ago. Previously, biologists thought the two species – which split more than 1 million years ago – could not breed.

“We've been able to establish that there was contact between northern and southern rhino populations throughout history,” Dr. Isa-Rita Russo of Cardiff University told the <a href="https://www.dailymail.co.uk/home/index.html">Daily Mail</a>. “This is an exciting find – genetic proof of contact between the populations suggests it may be possible to successfully rescue the northern white rhinoceros.”

In the wake of the discovery, the scientists are looking into creating embryos using both northern and southern white rhino DNA for in vitro fertilization.

Because the only two surviving northern white rhinos are not likely to live long enough to see the technique perfected, the embryos would be implanted in southern white rhino females.

Both northern and southern populations of the white rhinoceros have seen historical declines. However, the southern species is now the largest rhinoceros population on Earth; numbers of northern white rhinos have declined rapidly since the 1970s.

“It appears that the white rhinoceros is no stranger to low genetic diversity,” Dr. Yeshan Moodley of the University of Venda said. “Our results show that the species was subjected to several climatically and anthropogenically driven population declines, which would have reduced and compressed genetic diversity in the past.”

The study has been published in the journal <a href="http://rspb.royalsocietypublishing.org/content/285/1890/20181567">Proceedings of the Royal Society B</a>. Scientists are seeking donations through <a href="https://www.gofundme.com/makearhino">GoFundMe</a> to help support their research into white rhinos and IVF.

--

By <a href="mailto:kcathey@earth.com">Kyla Cathey</a>, <a href="http://earth.com">Earth.com</a> Contributing Writer

Scientists have new plan to save northern white rhinos

After decades of poaching, northern white rhinos are on the...

I spotted it sunning itself atop a milkweed next to my grandmother’s vegetable garden. I’d heard tales of the mantises frequenting her rural homestead, but had never seen a specimen in the flesh. And there one was, fearlessly surveying the tomatoes and cucumbers with its glistening compound eyes. 

My biology teacher mother had taught me how to handle insects, so, gingerly, I stalked my way to the edge of the weed patch and made a grab for it. I gently pinched the thorax and triumphantly brought the creature inside to show my family. I will never forget the surprising strength of its raptorial forelegs as they clamped down on my fingers, nor the strange sensation of its plump, silky abdomen pulsing against my hand. It was a gravid female, ready to deposit its ootheca, or egg case. After displaying her to my delighted relatives, I released her and she clambered away into the recesses of a shrub.

I was a boy of perhaps 8 or 9 at the time. And my fascination with these insects has only intensified since. I’m hardly alone. These creatures have held thrall over the human imagination for time immemorial, perhaps matched only by the <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/butterflies-wing-colors/">butterflies</a>, bees, and ants in their significance to human observers. Their evolutionary history far predates our own.

[caption id="attachment_1861770" align="aligncenter" width="700"]<a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2018/11/5916892945_3b7b8c5a90_o.jpg"><img class="wp-image-1861770" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2018/11/5916892945_3b7b8c5a90_o-1024x704.jpg" alt="" width="700" height="481" /></a> Image Credit: Jojo Cruzado[/caption]

One fossil of a possible early form of mantid has been dated to 270 million years ago and what are clearly mantids appear in Jurassic strata beginning 200 million years ago. They began to diversify into the multitude of species we see today some 60 million years ago. The fossil record, however, is somewhat patchy. What is known is that they belong to the Dictyoptera, a group that also includes the roaches and termites, early forms of which <a href="https://guides.library.harvard.edu/c.php?g=310507&amp;p=2072128">emerged some 300 million years ago during the Carboniferous</a>. 

The ancient rock art of the Southern African San people depicts half-human, half-mantis creatures, some of them perhaps representing a trickster god analogous to Anansi. Mantises were depicted in the ancient Egyptian Book of the Dead as deities, Bird-flies, who led souls to the underworld. 

Similarly, they appeared in ancient Sumerian texts as a sort of necromancer figure. They merited mention in the idylls of the Greek Theocritus and in fact mantes is the Greek word for prophet. These beautiful arthropods also graced the surfaces of Roman coins, and fought in arenas like cocks for the amusement of the Chinese. Chinese proverbs are full of references to mantises and their undaunted courage in the face of larger adversaries. Anyone who has seen the remarkable wing displays of threatened mantids can attest to the veracity of this characterization. They certainly don’t go quietly into that good night if you make the mistake of picking them up. 

Their peculiar grace even inspired <a href="https://newspaperarchive.com/las-vegas-sun-jun-03-1976-p-22/">a 1976 ballet</a> and they were <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/00043079.1973.10790751">a major motif in Surrealist art</a>. In contemporary culture, they’ve become symbols of the femme fatale due to the females’ tendency to eat their mates. To whit: Buffy the Vampire Slayer fans will remember one of Xander’s more unfortunate crushes, <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=oIvAVDrjX0U">a mantis demon posing as an attractive substitute teacher</a>. This has in turn made them the subject of feminist critique. Indeed, who can blame the creatures for sating themselves one last time before they lay their now-fertile eggs and expire? Perfectly natural.

[caption id="attachment_1861773" align="aligncenter" width="700"]<a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2018/11/8089224179_004d904a31_o.jpg"><img class="wp-image-1861773" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2018/11/8089224179_004d904a31_o-1024x576.jpg" alt="" width="700" height="394" /></a> Image Credit: Josef Wells[/caption]

The real-life habits of these creatures are no less fascinating than those of their mythological counterparts. With some 8 families comprising more than 400 genera and some 2,300 species, these insects have colonized every continent except for Antarctica. The largest, the giant stick mantis (Ischnomantis gigas) of northern Africa, reaches lengths of over 7 inches while the smallest, the tiny <a href="http://www.ozanimals.com/Insect/Ground-Mantis/Bolbe/pygmaea.html">Bolbe pygmaea</a> of Australia is less than half an inch long. They have adapted to environments ranging from deserts to grasslands to forests. They are most diverse in the tropics, though temperate areas don’t lack for mantises. In the United States, the best known of the approximately 20 species native to the North American continent is the Carolina mantis (Stagniomantis carolina), a modest, brown species. It is somewhat less common than it was <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Robert_Cannings/publication/268226220_The_Ground_Mantis_Litaneutria_minor_Dictuoptera_Mantidae_in_British_Columbia/links/546c11970cf2f5eb1809290d.pdf">following the introduction of the Chinese mantis (Tenodera aridifolia sinensis) and European mantis (Mantis religiosa) c. 1890</a>. These larger species are thought to outcompete the smaller native and the Chinese species is the one most gardeners spy perched atop their plants, especially in eastern regions. Litaneutria minor, a smaller species, ranges all the way into Canada. 

The tropical species can be spectacular. The flower mantises, which mimic blossoms, come in shades of pink and white. Interestingly, <a href="https://watermark.silverchair.com/czoolo60-0090.pdf?token=AQECAHi208BE49Ooan9kkhW_Ercy7Dm3ZL_9Cf3qfKAc485ysgAAAhwwggIYBgkqhkiG9w0BBwagggIJMIICBQIBADCCAf4GCSqGSIb3DQEHATAeBglghkgBZQMEAS4wEQQM2COxk8PvVFhpbUg4AgEQgIIBz55K5vlTlULxXoCSANwqCx3Iu6dBgL5KMMzV-r7XeQJf1AD1SMQ7TapOic33XY6e2gmWMZ3oe0ARVwp3M9VVIUi78eZFSVKplq5XHOjKFzvUMS8BkpWq0sEIt5S8xhvndHFX5DhrckANwJRnGtL20sE5rbswxIP_Jf92Bi6Eq1wBxhnBnbVP3TZJkOeL3qIpfA_dk10DmdUi6Xo0BnxR4i9h6KfwlC5tprnB9aLngLDebK5-KfvhtnuMg1hcihCyJ__Gdqsanho3bURvBiBWPRPCDsucHyzfKBw3-y9wDcLK1Yv-kiDsUHLB2dSOGgcENRWTHljaNDgI3UUKVTY9ridmSzB8kY6hIS4f2i3NYmtj3BljFwpnbM1CI10uQd-0znrYzNlew3-GvTd6sgVFBP-mvhCSWp6mA4-jHWkMLkAwjRbQuDEuwir3KHkp8XjZzSPSkUcHGmNdLzXc_pFEqRPRk2vjHEVeeR8_18a4bzvdinasdrc59Lu7nv6RxlIRl4UHar_5P08JPc8v7LLxza7poUhpqK-93sAOs_wMUN4C5D2O0Se1eg1bbq5wZk01VrLnslCDkU3b8sm8-_Qf0p28j7NDqBJnLX8J-xA9Jec">they were found to be generalist mimics</a>, not aping one particular species of flower or another, but resembling a range of species just closely enough to take advantage of the pollinators visiting them. The bark mantises defy the sedentary habits of their relatives and <a href="https://entomologytoday.org/2014/03/19/nineteen-speedy-new-praying-mantis-species-discovered-from-central-and-south-america/">skitter around the tree trunks that they call home</a> in a manner reminiscent of their relatives the cockroaches. <a href="https://usmantis.com/products/metallyticus-splendidus">Some are even iridescent</a>. <a href="https://academic.oup.com/biolinnean/article/119/1/158/2701663">The young of many species mimic ants</a>, a fascinating instance of Batesian mimicry in which they avail themselves of the aversion of many predators to ants due to their chemical defenses. They themselves are in fact quite edible and retain their ant-like characteristics only until they reach a stage of maturity in which their own formidable forelegs are adequate deterrents.

Their remarkable compound eyes, which each boast some 9,000 ommatidia, allow them to see in three dimensions. These capabilities are bolstered by the presence of three ocelli, or simple, one-lensed eyes, on their foreheads. The ocelli are often larger in males and may be totally absent in females for reasons unknown. Their acute vision supplements a remarkable reflex system, which allows them to extend their forelegs and grasp prey in an astounding 50 thousandths of a second. 

Their strangely humanoid arms are, however, not unique among insects. Raptor-like claws have evolved in at least three others groups of insects, including the mantispids, the assassin bugs, and some flies, testifying to the efficacy of this mode of prey capture. The rapacious predatory tendencies of the mantises have brought them into the news of late due to their tendency to stake out hummingbird feeders and devour the hapless sprites as they go in for a sip of nectar. The phenomenon of invertebrate predation on vertebrates is not new, though. Their tendency to devour <a href="http://www.scielo.br/scielo.php?pid=S1676-06032010000300042&amp;script=sci_arttext&amp;tlng=pt">amphibians</a> and <a href="http://www.podarcis.eu/AS/Bibliografie/BIB_3248.pdf">lizards</a> was remarked as early as 1838. And they’ve been spotted dining on tiny rodents, and even baby turtles as well. One study found that <a href="http://www.bioone.org/doi/abs/10.1676/16-100.1?journalCode=wils">24 species of bird</a> had made their way into mantis gullets worldwide. A recent video even documented the ability of mantises to <a href="http://www.sci-news.com/biology/fishing-praying-mantis-06444.html">fish</a>.

Of course, the most famous dietary tendency of the mantises is cannibalism. Specifically: sexual cannibalism. Females are known to prey on their mates. Once thought to be restricted to laboratory settings in which the male could not escape, this habit has since been observed in the wild. <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0003347205810176">One study</a> found that 31% of male European mantises were eaten by their baby mamas. 

Male mantises have thus evolved specific patterns of approach that reduce their chances of being eaten. It was once proposed that females <a href="https://s3.amazonaws.com/academia.edu.documents/1641804/BES08.pdf">specifically released mating hormones to attract males for consumption</a>, essentially catfishing the unwitting studs. This has, however, been experimentally disproven. Despite their intimidating claws, mantises are themselves prey for many animals, from birds to <a href="https://aquila.usm.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1167&amp;context=goms">alligators</a>. Like their roach relatives, they possess a unique cercal system that allows them to detect air currents and avoid approaching threats. On the wing, they have been seen executing fighter-pilot-worth dives <a href="http://jeb.biologists.org/content/jexbio/209/8/1430.full.pdf">in their attempts to escape bats</a>.

The fragile nymphs dangling from their unique chitinous threads as they emerge from their ootheca hardly presage these fantastical abilities. While they may not mature into trickster gods or underworld guides as the ancients believed, these sui generis insects are sure to maintain their status as one of the marvels of the insect world. 

--

By <a href="mailto:rtpallardy@gmail.com">Richard Pallardy</a>, <a href="http://earth.com">Earth.com</a> Contributing Writer

Image Credit: <a href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/44073224@N04/14973076756/in/photolist-oP7W4N-pNmqAd-X9rREZ-pseSPc-XtSHWh-2bU46Bw-5Bb6F7-qeE2vA-rxp2V-7C1C24-eWeJ8w-ahtCRC-6t7k1K-aqiA5E-8QWykv-av9ot8-2LehQP-8uD944-5qZBrp-cbkSSj-pftSq-5o4xKQ-5Jt74e-54RhEX-db2u9W-aqhEgy-53VonB-5srU57-74kGP2-5vQpnN-5yKYTs-8BRWkS-25opaA-22BoXU-kX3MC-AbqKkQ-f9jaYz-dhdKZX-a1RC8B-72s1Fs-gEPfF-MKCGFF-pcDRHz-arErhC-dgEn8D-7aH1oZ-8F4EsW-DmWbfy-mzevV-528vBi">Bernal Saborio</a>

An appreciation of the praying mantis

I spotted it sunning itself atop a milkweed next to...

Monarch butterfly populations in North Central Florida have been declining since 1985, and have dropped by 80 percent since 2005. 

Study co-author Jaret Daniels, an associate professor in the <a href="http://www.ufl.edu/">University of Florida</a>'s Department of Entomology and Nematology, said that this decrease can also be seen in the dwindling numbers of the <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/monarch-butterflies-rising-co2/">monarchs</a> in their overwintering grounds in Mexico. 

“It's alarming in a number of different ways,” said Professor Daniels. “This study shows the tight connection between monarchs and milkweed and highlights very dramatic losses in abundance in Florida that further confirm the monarch is declining.”

While the drivers of the decline are not clear, the researchers have found that shrinking milkweed populations and a rise in glyphosate use in the Midwest are contributing to the problem. Glyphosate is an herbicide often used to eliminate weeds that is deadly to milkweed - the monarchs' host plant. 

Less milkweed means less habitat for monarchs, said study co-author Ernest Williams, who is a professor emeritus of Biology at Hamilton College in New York.

“A broad pattern is that 95 percent of corn and soybean products grown in the U.S. are Roundup Ready crops that resist glyphosate,” said Professor Williams. “That has a national impact. What's really needed are patches of native vegetation and nectar sources without pesticides. It's not just for monarchs but all pollinators.

In the longest localized study on monarchs to date, a research team examined milkweed plants for caterpillars and captured adult butterflies for 37 years - a time period that spanned more than 140 generations of monarchs. The study took place in an herbicide-free cattle pasture in Cross Creek, about 20 miles southeast of Gainesville.

The experts discovered that the springtime departure of monarchs from Mexico is timed to coincide with optimal growth of milkweed in the southeastern United States. 

If monarchs get to their breeding grounds too early, their host plants may be killed by frost. To maximize their offspring's chances of survival, the butterflies must time their arrival within a three-week window, said Professor Daniels. This is an incredible achievement for insects with life spans between six and eight weeks.

The study is published in the <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/loi/tnah20">Journal of Natural History</a>. 

--

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Monarch butterfly populations drop by 80 percent in Florida

Monarch butterfly populations in North Central Florida have been declining...

It’s no secret that bee populations around the world have been in decline in recent years. It’s a worrying trend, as bees are likely our most important pollinator, and have a significant positive impact on agricultural crop production, as well as the continued survival of most flowering plants on our planet. 

One of the suspected culprits behind this decline is <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/save-native-bees/">neonicotinoid</a> compounds, which are the most widely used type of insecticide. These compounds have been shown to devastate bee populations through reducing colony sizes. This effect has been widely studied, but the mechanism by which neonicotinoid exposure disrupts the behavioral systems of bee colonies remained unknown… until now.

A new study by James Crall and colleagues used an innovative, automated robotic platform to monitor worker behavior within the hives of multiple bumble bee colonies. The researchers exposed the colonies to environmentally realistic amounts of imidacloprid, which is a common type of neonicotinoid. They then used the tiny robotic platform to spy on the bees.

The study was published by the <a href="https://www.aaas.org/">American Association for the Advancement of Science.</a>

Through these observations, the researchers found that exposure to the neurotoxic pesticide caused measurable changes in worker bee behavior. These workers were less active within the nest, less likely to feed and care for larvae, and more likely to be found near the periphery of the colony.

It was also observed that the behavioral effects varied significantly depending on the time of day. The study’s authors found that worker inactivity and reduced nursing behavior was more apparent at night. They also determined through analysis of free-foraging colonies in the field that imidacloprid exposure impaired colony thermoregulation.

With this new research, scientists may now know the reasons behind reduced colony sizes for bumble bees exposed to these insecticides. Hopefully, it will help lead to further research on how the effects can be reduced, as well as how bee populations might be able to bounce back.

--

By <a href="mailto:certz@earth.com">Connor Ertz</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

How harmful pesticides affect the inner workings of bee colonies

It’s no secret that bee populations around the world have...

Ruminate on this: the peculiar process by which many mammalian herbivores digest plant matter has been remarked upon <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=TK_SBAAAQBAJ&amp;printsec=frontcover&amp;dq=rumen+digestion+discovered&amp;hl=en&amp;sa=X&amp;ved=0ahUKEwj8ubWHusHeAhUGTN8KHd3JBI0Q6AEIQzAF#v=onepage&amp;q=rumen%20digestion%20discovered&amp;f=false">since ancient times</a>. Aristotle analyzed the compartments of the ruminant stomach. Even the Christian Bible takes note of cud-chewing, an essential part of ruminant digestion that involves regurgitating and masticating food that has already passed into the digestive system in order to further break it down. 

These animals make use of microbial symbionts, in concert with cud-chewing to extract the most nutrients possible from otherwise indigestible plant matter, notably cellulose and related compounds. <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17747887">Until 1989</a>, the intricate process of fermenting plant matter in the foregut through symbiosis with microorganisms was thought to be restricted to artiodactyls and some marsupials—all of them mammals. 

However, analysis of the unusual digestive processes of a South American bird, the hoatzin (Opisthocomus hoazin), determined that it too digests its diet of leaves by use of foregut fermentation. Though hoatzins don’t regurgitate their food and re-chew it like cows and other ruminant mammals, they do in fact chew their food to a degree, using the unusual serrations of their beaks. Their digestive process is otherwise similar. 

This chewing process increases the surface area of the vegetable matter, which can then be colonized by symbiotic microorganisms and broken down by them. Minus the regurgitation, the hoatzin digestive system closely parallels that of the cow and in fact the timing of its digestive process closely parallels that of the sheep, another ruminant.

The hoatzin is one of the very few obligate folivorous, or vegetation-eating, birds. This means that it subsists almost exclusively on vegetation, occasionally supplementing with flowers and fruit. The rarity of its digestive habits thus explains their obscurity. Most birds don’t require such a system and until the hoatzin digestive tract was intensively studied, it was simply assumed that birds digested their food in other ways.

[caption id="attachment_1861720" align="aligncenter" width="700"]<a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2018/11/hoatzins.jpg"><img class="wp-image-1861720" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2018/11/hoatzins-1024x683.jpg" alt="" width="700" height="467" /></a> Image Credit: Murray Foubister[/caption]

Since the discovery of the hoatzin’s ruminant digestive system, only two other species of bird have been found to share it—the green-rumped parrotlet (Forpus passerinus) and the speckled mousebird (Colius striatus). Most other folivorous birds ferment their leafy diets in the hindgut—the large intestine and cecum, closer to the end of the digestive system. Few of these other folivores feed exclusively on leaves as the hoatzin does.

While the microbial community that aids the hoatzin in processing roughage resembles those of mammalian herbivores, the majority of the species of archaea, bacteria, fungi, and protozoa found in hoatzins are unique. In addition to assisting in the breakdown of cellulose and hemicellulose, this complement of microbes is also thought to help detoxify certain leaves, <a href="http://www.jafs.com.pl/Bacterial-detoxification-of-saponins-in-the-crop-of-nthe-avian-foregut-fermenter-Opisthocomus-hoazin-,74460,0,2.html">neutralizing such compounds as saponins</a>. 

Though it does not regurgitate its cud like cows and other ungulates, its double-chambered crop does feature ridges that aid in grinding vegetation into smaller pieces. The fermenting foliage results in the formation of methane, which, like cows, the birds expel through burping. This has given them the charming colloquial name “stink bird.” 

Most other birds use the crop to store food rather than to digest; digestion occurs in the gizzard, lower in the digestive tract. Because the crop of the hoatzin is so enlarged—it may comprise up to 17% of the bird’s body weight—it is a poor flyer. While it can get airborne for short distances, the hoatzin mainly gets around by climbing and flapping through the branches of the trees it inhabits. Its breast muscles are reduced and a special callus on the breast bone allows the bird to rest its engorged crop on a branch while digesting.

Its strange habits and morphology have provided a challenge to taxonomists looking to situate it in the larger avian family tree. Initially thought to be related to the extinct Archaeopteryx, a plethora of other relations have since been proposed. For some time, the hoatzin was grouped with the Galliformes, the chickens and pheasants. Since then, genetic and morphological studies have variously grouped it with the Cuculiformes (cuckoos and anis), Musophagiformes (turacos), Columbiformes (doves and pigeons), and Carlamiformes (seriemas). <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/nature15697.epdf?referrer_access_token=dYPS_vdiSrZCn0QIpkrrotRgN0jAjWel9jnR3ZoTv0M2DJlqpbYXUSzXrY3ePCj9lli0g-87ASrwV9zCmuRb-yBSwhk2MbGjYN4LSqqo508IuixYv2ArUPwmjVeCUtxJqcH3bn53gAq6_baELEjd8dj8SuLpQ-ryl4wzQpWbHwucgGZzCtaabnQf9Xcb8LM9ZmAgvpl5vaeA-bGP702OuunbFOnFwQc46HkRTtQ_hEY%3D&amp;tracking_referrer=arstechnica.com">The most parsimonious recent analysis</a>, from 2015, places the hoatzin at the base of the avian family tree and suggest that its ancestors evolved as long as 65 million years ago, making it among the most primitive of living birds.

The primitive evolutionary status is further reinforced by the presence of claws on the wings of the juveniles. In light of that feature, it’s no wonder that earlier theories linked it to the Archaeopteryx. Though a few other bird species, notably turacos, also have this feature in the juvenile stage, it is rare among modern birds but much in evidence in the fossil record. The young use these claws as climbing tools. Hoatzins nest on branches overhanging the rivers of Amazon and Orinoco basins. When the young are threatened by predators such as monkeys and snakes, they launch themselves into the water, and, when the threat is gone, climb back up to their nests. 

Interestingly, while currently restricted to South America, the ancestors of hoatzins are believed to have evolved in Europe and Africa. Fossils resembling hoatzins have been discovered in <a href="https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2014/01/140122091738.htm">France</a> and in <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21964974">Namibia</a> and <a href="http://www.bioone.org/doi/pdf/10.1642/AUK-13-134.1">Kenya</a>. Though no extant relatives survive in the eastern hemisphere, the fossil evidence suggests that early relatives of hoatzins must have somehow reached western shores. 

Fossils from Wyoming suggest that these relatives were once relatively widespread in North America and South America. Because the continents had already begun to drift apart by the time hoatzin ancestors emerged, and because hoatzins are weak flyers, it has been hypothesized that they colonized the western world by means of rafting. That is, large chunks of floating soil and vegetation were washed out to sea by rain and floods, and the early hoatzins went along for the ride, all the way across the Atlantic.

Unlike many of the animals of the Amazon rainforest, hoatzins are not particularly threatened and appear to have healthy populations throughout their range. Some have attributed this to the fact that hoatzin flesh is not particularly palatable due to its diet, diminishing the threat posed by hunting. There is some advantage to smelling like cow dung. However, tourist presence does, according to one study, <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0006320703004014">negatively affect breeding</a>. Nonetheless, the hoatzin has persisted for millennia, and like a feathered frat boy, will likely loll about the Amazon, belching and squawking, for years to come. 

--

By <a href="mailto:rtpallardy@gmail.com">Richard Pallardy</a>, <a href="http://earth.com">Earth.com</a> Contributing Writer

Image Credit: <a href="https://www.flickr.com/photos/francesco_veronesi/">Francesco Veronesi</a>

Dirty birdies: The case of the stinking bird

Ruminate on this: the peculiar process by which many mammalian...

Sandpipers are just one group of shorebirds facing steep population declines due to many factors, but <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/arctics-mammal-global-warming/">climate change</a> seems to be the biggest driver of species loss, according to a new study. 

Researchers from the <a href="https://www.bath.ac.uk/research-centres/milner-centre-for-evolution/">Milner Centre for Evolution at the University of Bath</a> found that climate change is causing a chain reaction in the Arctic, historically an area where shorebirds like plovers and sandpipers migrate to because of the decreased risk of predators. 

In the tropics, shorebirds face a higher risk of nest predation, where predators raid nests and steal eggs. To protect their young, many birds migrate to the Arctic to lay their eggs and raise their young. 

However, after analyzing population data from shorebirds over the past 70 years, the researchers discovered that nest predation in the North Temperate Zone has doubled. 

Not only is nest predation leading to fewer hatchlings every season, but fewer adults are also surviving the Arctic as well because of an increase in hunting and habitat degradation. 

To better understand what's driving these declines and changes in the Arctic, the researchers analyzed data from 38,191 nests in 149 locations worldwide. 

111 species were included in the study, which was published in the journal Science. 

The researchers discovered a link between increases in nest predation and climate change in the Arctic and North Temperate Zone. 

Warmer temperatures are reshaping the food web of the Arctic and species that were once abundant are declining which means predators are more likely to raid nests. 

Distribution changes in the Arctic are also introducing new predators to shorebird nesting sites. 

“These findings are alarming,” said Tamás Székely, an author of the study. “The Earth is a fragile planet with complex ecosystems, thus changes in predator-prey interactions can lead to cascading effects through the food web with detrimental consequences for many organisms thousands of kilometres away.”

The researchers say the increase in nest predation may make it impossible for critically endangered species like the Spoonbill Sandpiper to recover. 

“What is particularly striking about these results is that it is clear that nest losses to predators have risen really quickly in the Arctic over the past 20 years,” said Robert Freckleton, a member of the research team. “The precise mechanisms are probably quite complex, but overall it looks like changes in climate are playing a leading role in driving such changes both in the Arctic and at a global scale as well.”

--

By<a href="mailto:kayvandette@gmail.com"> Kay Vandette</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 

Paid for by <a href="http://earth.com">Earth.com</a>

Image Credit: Pavel Tomkovich

Shorebird populations are declining due to climate change

Sandpipers are just one group of shorebirds facing steep population...

Rapid warming across two connected marine ecosystems, the Eastern English Channel and Southern North Sea, has caused small fish to abruptly move northward and jump from one region to the other. These major shifts in the structure and function of an ecosystem can alter the rate of <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/fans-suck-carbon-dioxide/">carbon</a> uptake, as well as the rate at which organic materials are broken down.


According to the study authors, the findings suggest that the expected increase in the frequency and severity of climate oscillations and extreme warming events could trigger shifts in the distribution and abundance of species. 

“This warming caused an abrupt change in fish communities as small, rapidly maturing fishes, particularly pelagic fishes, simultaneously decreased in the English Channel and increased in the North Sea,” said study co-author Matthew McLean. “This suggests both that fishes shifted northward between the ecosystems and that the English Channel became an unfavorable environment for certain fishes while the North Sea became a more favorable environment.”

In the mid-1990s, the “Atlantic Multidecadal Oscillation” produced warmer sea surfaces throughout the Atlantic Ocean. The researchers realized that the majority of the research on the impact of this warming was focused on changes in particular species. 

In the new study, the researchers took a different approach to factor in the characteristics of certain species. 

“Surprisingly few studies have used this approach to understand how rapid warming can affect marine ecosystems and how shifts in fish abundances and distributions can impact ecosystem functioning,” said McLean. 

Analyzing over three decades of fish monitoring data and an extensive compilation of ecological traits, the experts characterized the functional structure using ten traits related to life history, habitat use, and feeding ecology for 73 fish species in the English Channel and 110 fish species in the North Sea.

The researchers were not surprised to find changes in the abundance and distribution across species in response to human-induced global warming. However, they were surprised to find an inverse shift in entire fish communities within connected ecosystems. 

The team was also surprised to find that the response to warmer conditions occurred only one or two years after a major temperature rise. The findings suggest that the influence of fishing was minor in comparison to the effects of warming.

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/home">Current Biology</a>. 

--

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 

Paid for by <a href="http://earth.com">Earth.com</a>

Warming waters are prompting major changes in marine ecosystems

Rapid warming across two connected marine ecosystems, the Eastern English...

The animal kingdom is filled with animals that use and fashion tools to make their lives easier, usually as a means to get food. 

For example, otters use rocks to crack open shells to access the fleshy meat inside. Crows are not only intelligent but also extremely resourceful, and can use twigs, leaves, and even their own feathers to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/crows-build-tools-memory/">accomplish a task.</a>

Goffin's cockatoo, a kind of parrot, is also a capable tool maker even though they are not as well known for their tool-making ability compared to crows and otters. 

Researchers from the <a href="https://www.meduniwien.ac.at/web/en/">Medical University of Vienna, Austria</a> recently conducted a study examining tool making in Goffin’s cockatoos to see if the birds know how to adjust a tool’s dimensions in order to better accomplish a specific task. 

The study was published in the journal <a href="http://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0205429">PLOS ONE. </a>

Six adult cockatoos were given large cardboard rectangular sheets for the study. The cockatoos used their beaks to tear the sheets into strips and used the strips to access food sitting on a platform in a box that had a small opening. 

The researchers placed the food platform at different distances within the box to test the cockatoo's ability to factor in distance and length into its tool making. 

While the Goffin’s were excellent at adjusting for length when making their strips, only one of the birds was able to access food through the narrowest opening and adjust the width of the strip. 

If a cockatoo first made a strip too short, the researchers noted that the following strips were longer and longer to compensate for the earlier mistake.

[caption id="attachment_1861700" align="aligncenter" width="700"]<a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2018/11/cockatoos.jpg"><img class="wp-image-1861700" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2018/11/cockatoos-1024x789.jpg" alt="" width="700" height="539" /></a> Image Credit: Goffin Lab, University of Veterinary Medicine Vienna[/caption]

The researchers suggest that the bird’s beak and tearing technique limits its ability to adjust the width of the strips but that Goffin’s cockatoos still excel at problem-solving. 

“The way they inserted and discarded manufactured pieces of specific lengths differently depending on condition suggests that the cockatoos could indeed adjust their tool-making behavior in the predicted direction but with some limits in accuracy,” said Alice Auersperg, the lead author of the study. 
--

By <a href="mailto:kayvandette@gmail.com">Kay Vandette</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/">Earth.com </a>Staff Writer 

Image Credit: Goffin Lab, University of Veterinary Medicine Vienna

Cockatoos can fashion tools to help them access food

The animal kingdom is filled with animals that use and...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2E0mn5mTvhQ
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">'Death Star' moon Mimas conceals a 15-million-year-old ocean that scientists never expected.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hidden-waters-beneath-ancient-craters">Hidden waters beneath ancient craters</h2>



Scientists have made a startling discovery that challenges everything we thought we knew about <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/saturn-moon-mimas-has-remarkably-young-ocean/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Saturn's moon Mimas</a>. Beneath the heavily cratered surface that earned it the nickname "Death Star" lies a global ocean that formed just 5 to 15 million years ago—a remarkably young age by cosmic standards.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cassini-data-reveals-orbital-secrets">Cassini data reveals orbital secrets</h2>



The discovery, led by Dr. Valéry Lainey of the <a href="https://observatoiredeparis.psl.eu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Observatoire de Paris</a>, emerged from careful analysis of <a href="https://www.nasa.gov" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NASA</a>'s Cassini spacecraft data. By studying subtle irregularities in Mimas's orbit around Saturn, researchers detected the gravitational signature of liquid water hidden 20 to 30 kilometers beneath the moon's icy shell.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-an-unlikely-ocean-world">An unlikely ocean world</h2>



At only 400 kilometers in diameter, Mimas seemed like the least likely candidate to harbor a subsurface ocean. Unlike other ocean moons such as Europa and Enceladus, which show clear surface signs of internal activity, Mimas displays no obvious hints of the liquid water beneath its ancient, crater-scarred exterior.



"Mimas is a small moon, and its heavily cratered surface gave no hint of the hidden ocean beneath," explained Dr. Nick Cooper from <a href="https://www.qmul.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Queen Mary University of London</a>, a study co-author.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-astrobiology">Implications for astrobiology</h2>



The ocean's recent formation makes Mimas a prime target for studying how oceans develop and potentially support life. This discovery adds another member to the exclusive club of ocean worlds in our solar system, each offering unique insights into the conditions necessary for habitability.



The research, published in <a href="https://www.nature.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature</a> journal, demonstrates how advanced orbital analysis can reveal hidden features of celestial bodies, opening new possibilities for understanding ocean formation throughout the cosmos.



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Scientists discover unexpected young ocean on Saturn's cratered moon Mimas

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2E0mn5mTvhQ 'Death Star' moon Mimas conceals a 15-million-year-old ocean that...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE
</div></figure>



On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop and sunlight barely penetrates through the polar winter. It was here, however, that an international team of scientists found <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/predatory-worms-were-terror-beasts-half-a-billion-years-ago/#google_vignette" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evidence of sea monsters</a> that would change our understanding of ocean life in the past.



This video captures the discovery of Timorebestia fossils that had been hidden for more than 500 million years in the Sirius Passet formation. The "terror beasts," as they are called, are a hidden chapter in the evolutionary history of <a href="https://www.earth.com" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Earth</a>, showing that sophisticated predator-prey interactions occurred much earlier than previously envisioned.



Dr. Jakob Vinther and his research team at the <a href="https://www.bristol.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Bristol</a>, in collaboration with researchers at the <a href="https://eng.kopri.re.kr/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Korean Polar Research Institute</a>, braved extreme weather conditions at 82.5 north latitude to locate these giant creatures. Using sophisticated electron microprobe analysis, they revealed the detailed anatomy of the animals, including their muscle and nerve tissues.



The find upsets the traditional timeline of sea predators. Although we've long appreciated that Cambrian oceans were at one time ruled by <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jWI3-UgA3_o&amp;list=PL1QLQMW9MWDwpkFOnvgAmu7wT6rZmYqdJ&amp;index=19" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">arthropods</a>, these discoveries indicate that relatives of arrow worms were first to dominate the seas. These worms were building sophisticated food webs several million years before other predator groups arose.



Each fossil is a story of ancient hunger, with fossil stomach contents revealing these meter-long beasts dined on heavily armored arthropods regularly, cementing their place as the ocean's first apex predators.



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Worms dominated seas before dinosaurs

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">New York is the site of the world's oldest forest.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-385-million-year-old-trees-discovered">385-million-year-old trees discovered</h2>



Scientists have uncovered something extraordinary just two hours north of New York City. The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/worlds-oldest-forest-discovered-close-to-new-york-city/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">world's oldest forest</a>, dating back 385 million years, offers a window into how Earth's first complex forests shaped our planet's atmosphere.



Located near <a href="https://townofcairo.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cairo, New York</a>, in Greene County, these weren't merely primitive plants struggling to survive. These were sophisticated trees with root systems remarkably similar to modern forests. This ancient woodland predates dinosaurs by 140 million years.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-cairo-forest-discovery">The Cairo forest discovery</h2>



385 million years ago, upstate New York was a tropical paradise near the equator. Thanks to continental drift, this ancient forest has traveled thousands of miles to its current location.



The fossil forest sits in an abandoned quarry, roughly half the size of a football field. This represents just a slice of what was likely a massive forest system stretching from New York into Pennsylvania.



Charles Ver Straeten, curator of sedimentary rocks at the <a href="https://www.nysm.nysed.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">New York State Museum</a>, made the discovery in 2009. While scouting the former highway department property, his trained eye spotted wandering patterns in the stone that looked like marine features.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-revolutionary-age-and-preservation">Revolutionary age and preservation</h2>



The site contains 385-million-year-old rocks with fossilized woody roots forming horizontal patterns up to 18 feet (5.5 meters) wide. As Christopher Berry, a paleobotanist at Cardiff University, explains: "You are walking through the roots of ancient trees."



This discovery pushes back advanced tree evolution by millions of years. The research, published in <a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/home" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Current Biology</a> in December 2019, fundamentally changes our understanding of when complex forests first emerged.



Researchers believe a massive flood buried the forest floor, creating perfect fossilization conditions. Over millions of years, sediment hardened into rock, preserving these root patterns like nature's time capsule.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-meet-archaeopteris-the-first-modern-tree">Meet Archaeopteris: the first modern tree</h2>



The star of this ancient forest is Archaeopteris – not to be confused with the feathered dinosaur Archaeopteryx. This tree was far older and more revolutionary.



William Stein from <a href="https://www.binghamton.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Binghamton University</a> describes the roots as "strikingly modern, essentially what you'd see outside in my yard right now." These weren't simple root systems you'd expect from ancient plants.



Some fossilized roots are six inches (15 centimeters) in diameter, forming 36-foot-wide (11-meter) patterns. These giants grew up to 65 feet (20 meters) tall with five-foot-diameter (1.5-meter) trunks.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-changing-impact">Climate-changing impact</h2>



These trees fundamentally changed Earth's environment. Kevin Boyce, a Stanford University geoscientist, explains how their deep roots triggered "weathering," chemical reactions that pulled carbon dioxide from the atmosphere.



This process dropped atmospheric CO2 levels from 10-15 times higher than today to roughly modern concentrations. These ancient trees helped create atmospheric conditions that made complex life possible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ancient-forest-ecosystem">Ancient forest ecosystem</h2>



The forest was remarkably diverse. Scientists identified Eospermatopteris, palm tree-like plants with short roots that reached 30 feet (9 meters) tall but lacked woody structure. The forest also housed cladoxylopsids and a mysterious third species still being studied.



All reproduced through spores rather than seeds – millions of years before seeds evolved. This tropical environment had no grass, flowers, or flying insects, just towering trees creating Earth's first complex forest canopy.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-scientific-significance">Scientific significance</h2>



Before this finding, the Gilboa forest, located 25 miles (40 kilometers) away, held the "oldest forest" title. Cairo's trees are 2-3 million years older, showing that complex forest ecosystems developed much faster than scientists believed possible.



Patricia Gensel, a <a href="https://www.unc.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of North Carolina</a> paleobotanist, notes: "The size of those root systems is really changing the picture. Even 20 years ago, researchers assumed trees with such complex root systems didn't evolve so early."



The Cairo site presents three unique root systems, suggesting Devonian period forests were diverse ecosystems with different trees occupying different environmental niches, much like today's forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-modern-preservation-efforts">Modern preservation efforts</h2>



In 2022, New York State Senator Michelle Hinchey secured a $170,000 grant for the town of Cairo to construct specialized fencing around the fossil forest site. The town plans to conduct a feasibility study exploring the possibility of creating an educational center and working lab on-site.



Joe Hasenkopf, chair of the Cairo Planning Board, hopes to partner with educational institutions to create a research facility serving scientists, students, and the public.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lessons-for-today-s-climate">Lessons for today's climate</h2>



Why does a 385-million-year-old forest matter today? It shows how dramatically forests can change Earth's climate. These ancient woodlands created the atmospheric conditions supporting complex life.



Understanding how prehistoric forests transformed the planet helps us appreciate modern forests' critical role in addressing climate change. Forests remain Earth's most effective carbon capture systems.



These prehistoric trees changed Earth's atmosphere by pulling massive amounts of carbon dioxide from the air. As we face modern climate challenges, this ancient forest reminds us of trees' incredible power to transform our planet's environment.



The next time you walk through a forest, remember you're experiencing an ecosystem whose blueprint was established 385 million years ago in upstate New York. These ancient pioneers didn't just survive – they thrived and changed the world forever.



The full study was published in the journal Current Biology.



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Earth's oldest forest found in the United States

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ New York is the site of the world's oldest...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Acid rain and a crisis solved.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-don-t-we-ever-hear-about-acid-rain-anymore-the-environmental-crisis-that-was-solved">Why don't we ever hear about "acid rain" anymore? The environmental crisis that was solved</h2>



Remember the 1980s when acid rain dominated headlines? Dire warnings about rain eating buildings, killing fish, and destroying forests filled every news cycle. Then, almost like magic, acid rain vanished from public discourse. What happened? Did we actually solve one of the late 20th century's most pressing environmental challenges?



The answer might surprise you. Unlike many environmental issues that drag on indefinitely, acid rain represents one of modern history's most successful ecological recovery stories. It's a tale of science, politics, and technology working together to tackle what seemed impossible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What was acid rain?</h2>



Acid rain isn't regular rain having a bad day – it's precipitation that became significantly more acidic due to air pollution. When power plants, factories, and vehicles burn fossil fuels, they release sulfur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides (NOx) into the atmosphere.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The science behind it</h2>



Think of acid rain as nature's chemistry experiment gone wrong. These compounds react with water, oxygen, and other chemicals to form sulfuric and nitric acids. When mixed with water vapor in clouds, they create precipitation with dangerously low pH levels.



While clean rain has a pH of about 5.6, acid rain could drop as low as 4.2 to 4.4 – roughly as acidic as tomato juice or coffee. According to US Geological Survey documentation, Scottish chemist Angus Smith first coined "acid rain" in 1872, but it didn't become a household phrase until the 1960s and 1970s when Swedish scientist Svante Odén documented its devastating effects on Scandinavian lakes and European forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The crisis at its peak</h2>



During the height of public concern, environmental damage was both widespread and visible. This wasn't some abstract future threat – people could see destruction happening in real-time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Environmental devastation</h2>



The most dramatic impacts were impossible to ignore. Research documented by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation and the New York State Department of Environmental Conservation shows that in the Adirondack Mountains, more than 200 lakes became so acidic they couldn't support fish life. The Adirondack Council reports that 409 lakes once supported brook trout, but many lost their fish populations due to acid rain.



By 1976, when scientists cataloged all acidified lakes in the Adirondack Park, researchers found that half of the lakes over 2,000 feet above sea level had no fish, according to studies published in environmental journals. The acidification process worked like a slow-motion disaster. As acid rain fell into watersheds, it gradually lowered pH levels. Fish couldn't survive in acidic water, and their food sources died off too.



Trees at high elevations showed stress directly linked to acid rain. It weakened them by leaching nutrients and making them susceptible to disease. Historical records show Germany's Black Forest saw nearly half its trees damaged by the mid-1980s.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Economic impact</h2>



Acid rain wasn't just environmental – it was expensive. Acidic precipitation corroded infrastructure, buildings, and monuments. Historic stone structures deteriorated at accelerated rates. Tourism suffered as lakes became fishless and forests declined. EPA economic analyses from the period documented repair costs mounting into billions annually.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The solution: government action and technology</h2>



Transformation from crisis to success required unprecedented cooperation between governments, industries, and environmental groups.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The Clean Air Act of 1990</h2>



The turning point came with the Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990, signed by President George H.W. Bush. This represented a fundamentally new approach to environmental regulation, as documented in EPA historical records.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Cap-and-trade success</h2>



Instead of mandating specific technologies, the 1990 amendments introduced something revolutionary: a cap-and-trade system for sulfur dioxide emissions. EPA program documentation shows this market-based approach set overall limits but allowed companies to trade emission allowances.



The genius was harnessing market forces to find cost-effective pollution reduction. Companies reducing emissions cheaply could sell excess allowances to those facing higher costs. Research published in environmental economics journals and EPA progress reports shows this resulted in dramatic SO2 reduction at a fraction of projected costs.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Technology advances</h2>



Policy provided the framework, but technology made reductions possible. Studies in atmospheric science journals document the widespread adoption of flue gas desulfurization systems ("scrubbers") that removed sulfur dioxide before it reached the atmosphere. By the 2000s, new installations could remove over 95% of SO2 emissions, according to EPA technical reports.



The push coincided with cleaner energy development. Natural gas produces fewer sulfur compounds than coal. Wind and solar, emerging in the 1990s, captured growing market share, reducing reliance on high-sulfur coal.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-we-don-t-hear-about-it-today">Why we don't hear about it today</h2>



Why did acid rain disappear from headlines? Simple: the problem was largely solved.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Success doesn't make news</h2>



There's an old journalism saying: "If it bleeds, it leads." Environmental success stories don't generate urgency like crisis reporting. Media attention shifted to other challenges: climate change, plastic pollution, and biodiversity loss. There's only so much environmental anxiety the public can absorb, and newer concerns replaced acid rain.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Mission accomplished</h2>



The primary reason is beautifully simple: interventions worked. EPA monitoring data shows sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990. Academic research published in environmental science journals confirms pH levels in formerly affected areas returned closer to normal. This represents one of history's most dramatic environmental recoveries. Studies by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation show fishless lakes now support healthy populations. Forests recovered, and building damage slowed dramatically.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-is-it-really-gone">Is it really gone?</h2>



The crisis is largely resolved, but monitoring data shows the problem isn't completely eliminated – it's managed to acceptable levels. Some areas still experience occasional events during high pollution periods. International environmental research indicates that rapidly industrializing Asian countries face similar problems to what we experienced decades ago, though they're implementing successful strategies.



EPA research shows nitrogen oxide emissions proved more challenging than sulfur dioxide, coming from vehicles and mobile sources. Climate science studies suggest changing weather patterns add complexity to how acid rain forms and falls.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What this teaches us</h2>



The acid rain experience proves that seemingly intractable environmental problems can be solved with scientific understanding, political will, and technological innovation. Environmental monitoring data shows recovery speed was remarkable – within a decade, measurable improvements appeared in air quality and ecosystem health.



Success came from bipartisan support across party lines. Policy analysis studies show the market-based approach appealed to those preferring economic incentives while achieving environmental goals. This support created lasting policy surviving political changes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Conclusion</h2>



Acid rain's disappearance from public consciousness represents environmental science's greatest success stories. Through effective regulation, technological innovation, and international cooperation, we transformed an overwhelming crisis into a manageable challenge.



Today's silence isn't because we forgot – it's because we solved it. The 1990 Clean Air Act, combined with technology and energy market changes, reduced acid rain emissions over 90%, according to comprehensive EPA data analysis.



This success offers hope for current challenges. It proves complex problems can be solved when science, policy, and technology work together. As we face climate change and plastic pollution, acid rain reminds us that dramatic positive change is possible.



Next time someone asks whether environmental regulations work, remember acid rain. It's proof that sometimes, we get it right.



<hr class="wp-block-separator has-alpha-channel-opacity"/>



Sources: This article draws from EPA official documentation and progress reports, peer-reviewed research published in environmental and atmospheric science journals, historical data from the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation, New York State Department of Environmental Conservation records, US Geological Survey publications, policy analysis studies, and environmental monitoring data collected over three decades.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Frequently Asked Questions</h2>



1. Is acid rain completely gone? No, but EPA monitoring shows it's reduced to manageable levels. US sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990, making acid rain much less severe than the 1980s crisis.



2. How long did solving take? Environmental monitoring data shows significant improvements began within 5-10 years of 1990s emission controls. Full ecosystem recovery took longer – some areas need 20-30 years for complete recovery.



3. What made the solution successful? Clear scientific understanding, visible damage motivating action, bipartisan support, available technology, and innovative market-based policies like cap-and-trade.



4. Do other countries have acid rain problems? Yes, particularly rapidly industrializing Asian countries. However, international environmental research shows many implement similar successful control strategies.



5. Could acid rain return? Potentially, if regulations weaken or we return to high-sulfur coal without controls, though effects would take years to become severe according to environmental projections.



6. Can you recommend any teaching tools on the subject of "acid rain"? The United States Environmental Protection Agency produced a wonderful teacher's guide for ages 14 and under that you can find on the EPA website here: <a href="https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf</a>



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The environmental problem we actually solved

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk Acid rain and a crisis solved. Why don't we...

Fresh,Radish,Harvest,On,Soil,In,Garden.

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://youtu.be/Fi2OeEwuzRM?si=vTyd2m9FMmtyWkex
</div></figure>







Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving fall garden, and this guide lays out the best vegetables and herbs to plant now for a fruitful autumn harvest. 



Fast-growing leafy greens such as spinach, lettuce, kale, and arugula perform especially well in the waning summer heat, with harvests beginning as soon as 30 days. 



These cool-season crops relish the transition into fall, offering repeated yields with cut-and-come-again methods.



Root vegetables like radishes, carrots, and beets also excel during this period. Radishes deliver satisfaction in under a month, while carrots and beets mature in about two months. Employing succession planting ensures a continuous stream of produce deep into the cooler months. 



For a boost of fresh flavor, herbs like cilantro, basil, dill, and chervil are excellent picks. These heat-loving varieties flourish in July’s warmth and are harvest-ready in about 30 days, especially when sown continuously.



Gardeners in zones 6 through 9 can benefit from planting bush beans and snap peas, which don’t require trellising and are ideal for compact plots. 



Maturing in 50–60 days, they’re a smart choice for quick, protein-rich harvests. For those in hotter regions, heat-tolerant crops such as okra and southern peas provide reliable yields and thrive in scorching conditions.



This guide emphasizes more than crop selection—it highlights the importance of timing, soil preparation, and ongoing sowing techniques. 



With thoughtful planning and attention to regional climate needs, even late-summer gardeners can enjoy fresh salads, hearty stews, and the satisfaction of a robust, homegrown harvest well into fall.



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What to plant in your garden in mid-July

https://youtu.be/Fi2OeEwuzRM?si=vTyd2m9FMmtyWkex Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving...

Green,Ecoduct,Over,An,Empty,Highway,During,Sunset.

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://youtu.be/XYgiPzmNBTU?si=eFYY7gPHU1JznLvU
</div></figure>



A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that wildlife tunnels significantly reduce amphibian road mortality during seasonal migrations. 



Frogs and salamanders often cross roads to reach breeding ponds each spring, but many are killed by vehicles. 



Researchers from the <a href="https://www.uvm.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Vermont</a>, in collaboration with local citizens and the Vermont Agency of Natural Resources, installed two underpass tunnels in 2015. 



Over a 12-year monitoring period, they observed an 80.2% reduction in amphibian deaths, and up to 94% for non-climbing species like salamanders. 



The study used a before-after-control-impact design and documented more than 5,200 amphibians, highlighting the tunnels’ effectiveness even in nearby buffer zones.



Funded at $342,397 - far cheaper than wildlife crossings for large mammals - the project showcased the power of community-led conservation.



Local groups initiated the effort after observing mass amphibian deaths. Wildlife cameras later captured over 2,200 amphibians using a tunnel in just one spring, along with other species like raccoons and bobcats, indicating wider ecosystem benefits.



This marks the first peer-reviewed, long-term data set in the northeastern U.S. confirming amphibian-specific underpasses work. 



The study urges transportation departments to incorporate these designs into road planning and highlights how community action, thoughtful infrastructure, and persistence can make a real difference for biodiversity.



The full study was published in the <a href="https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1617138125000780" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal for Nature Conservation</a>.



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Wildlife tunnels save millions of amphibians

https://youtu.be/XYgiPzmNBTU?si=eFYY7gPHU1JznLvU A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that...

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing it with probiotics and prebiotics, aiming to create a treat that satisfies cravings while supporting gut health. 



The challenge lies in maintaining chocolate's beloved texture and flavor while adding health benefits.



<figure class="wp-block-embed aligncenter is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://youtu.be/Ug657J67iEo?si=w96YjGMsg939LD_3
</div></figure>



Probiotics - beneficial microbes that balance gut bacteria and aid digestion - are typically fragile and can be destroyed by stomach acid or processing. 



Prebiotics act as food for these microbes, helping them thrive. Together, they form "synbiotics," a powerful health combination.



Researchers Smriti Gaur and Shubhi Singh from India's Jaypee Institute of Information Technology took an innovative approach, using natural prebiotics like corn and honey instead of complex processing methods. 



They created five chocolate varieties: a control and four synbiotic versions containing different combinations of prebiotics, probiotics (Lactobacillus strains), and flavor enhancers (cinnamon or orange).



Laboratory simulations of human digestion showed the probiotics remained viable for over five hours, suggesting they could survive long enough to benefit gut health.



Taste tests were positive, with researchers particularly enjoying the orange-flavored variety, describing it as having "vibrant citrus notes" complementing the "rich cocoa" with a "luxurious" texture.



This research represents just the beginning. With further refinement of strains, textures, and flavors, chocolate could evolve beyond mere indulgence to become a functional food that nourishes while it delights.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.4c00741" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ACS Food Science &amp; Technology</a>.

Is chocolate the next nutritional powerhouse?

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

[sendtonews key="0ynNMYkMKa-2340414-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

[sendtonews key="G9bUoxcjr4-2511624-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How does salt makes things taste better?

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Santiago, Chile in South America

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Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.



According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."



Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;



ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. 



Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

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Earth,Like,Exoplanet,3d,Render

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

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