Dragonflies outlasted the dinosaurs and even endured asteroid strikes. But now they face a survival threat unlike any before. Rising heat and wildfires are reshaping the very traits they depend on to attract mates.



A study from the <a href="https://www.ucdenver.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Colorado Denver</a> shows how this shift could push some species toward local extinction. Traits that once drew partners are now putting dragonflies at risk.



“Dragonflies have survived asteroids, but now climate change and wildfires are threatening them in ways evolution can’t keep up with,” said lead author Sarah Nalley, a PhD student in CU Denver’s Integrative Biology program. 



“Our findings suggest that adaptation alone may not be fast enough to protect <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dragonfly-larvae-expose-climates-hidden-influence-on-biology/">species</a> in a rapidly changing climate.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-when-ornaments-backfire">When ornaments backfire</h2>



Many dragonflies have dark spots on their wings. These patterns attract <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dragonflies-hunt-perfectly-even-in-extreme-temperatures/">mates</a>. They also absorb heat. In hotter regions and burned habitats, that heat builds too quickly. Males tire, rest, and lose chances to compete for females.



Thermal imaging confirmed the problem. Dark spots made wings hotter, faster. Unlike the peppered moth, where wing color affected survival through camouflage, dragonflies face a different pressure. Here, color weakens reproductive success. Survival is not enough if mating fails.



This twist highlights a blind spot in conservation. Scientists usually check if species survive hotter, drier habitats. But if mating collapses, the population vanishes regardless of survival, leaving ecosystems weaker and biodiversity loss far greater.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dragonfly-survival-amid-wildfires">Dragonfly survival amid wildfires</h2>



“This changes how we think about vulnerability,” said Professor Michael Moore. “It’s not just about whether animals can survive after wildfire - it’s about whether they can reproduce in those modified environments. That’s the key to long-term survival.”



If reproduction falters, decline accelerates. And dragonflies matter. They eat mosquitoes, keeping insect numbers in check. They also feed birds, fish, and amphibians. Lose them, and entire food webs shift, unraveling in unpredictable ways.



Dragonflies have always seemed resilient. But this study suggests they may not keep pace with today’s rapid <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dragonflies-developed-dark-wing-spots-for-survival/">changes</a>, showing how climate and fire pressures can overwhelm even long-lasting species once thought secure.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-wildfire-data-reveal-worrying-trends">Wildfire data reveal worrying trends</h2>



The project began as a class assignment in Professor Moore’s course. Students worked with open datasets: wildfire maps from the U.S. Geological Survey, climate records, and citizen science observations spanning 40 years. No external funding backed the research.



Despite the simple beginnings, the analysis uncovered a serious trend. Dragonflies with ornamental wings are disappearing from fire-damaged and hotter regions. The data gave a broad view of how climate and wildfires interact with reproductive traits.



Nalley brought personal motivation. She lost her home in Superior, Colorado, during the 2021 Marshall Fire. That experience shaped her focus.



“I knew I wanted to study animals - and after the fire, I knew I wanted to study wildfires too,” said Nalley. “That experience pushed me to ask how animals are affected not just by surviving a fire, but by whether they can still reproduce and carry on the species afterward.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lessons-for-conservation">Lessons for conservation</h2>



The findings stretch beyond dragonflies. If ancient predators that once ruled the skies falter, what about other species? The research shows conservationists must look past survival rates. Reproduction matters just as much.



“Working with Sarah pushed me to think about my own research in a new way,” said Moore. “She came in with great questions about wildfires and reproduction that made me reconsider how I approach these big ecological issues.”



The study’s message is clear: ecosystems don’t just need species to live, they need them to breed. Dragonflies warn us of what happens when natural signals of attraction turn into liabilities, threatening stability, biodiversity, and long-term ecological resilience everywhere.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dragonfly-decline-from-wildfires">Dragonfly decline from wildfires</h2>



Dragonflies have been here for hundreds of millions of years. Their decline would mark a profound loss. More than that, it would unsettle the balance of ecosystems that depend on them.



The CU Denver research shows how quickly environmental pressures reach into the smallest details of life - courtship displays, wing patterns, mating chances. Those details decide whether a species thrives or disappears, shaping both present ecosystems and future biodiversity.



Dragonflies are not just survivors from deep time. They are indicators of how even the most resilient animals can stumble in a warming, fire-prone world.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41558-025-02417-8" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Climate Change</a>.



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Dragonflies lived with dinosaurs, now they face their toughest fight for survival

Dragonflies outlasted the dinosaurs and even endured asteroid strikes. But now they face a survival threat unlike any before. Rising heat and wildfires are reshaping the very traits they depend on to attract mates. A study from the University of Colorado Denver shows how this shift could push some species toward local extinction. Traits that once drew partners are now putting dragonflies at risk. “Dragonflies have survived asteroids, but now climate change and wildfires are threatening them in ways evolution can’t keep up with,” said lead author...

Insects are an eco-friendly source of protein - would you try one?. Would you be open to trying a snack made with insects? 

For people in western countries, <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/freshwater-insects-eaten-microplastics/">insects</a> are rarely consumed as food, and if they are it’s usually as a novelty, but in many countries insects are a welcome source of protein. 

According to a recent report in <a href="https://theconversation.com/eating-insects-has-long-made-sense-in-africa-the-world-must-catch-up-70419">The Conversation</a>, roughly 2 billion people around the world eat insects, and in Africa it is especially common. 

In a future where food insecurity is slated to become a widespread challenge due to climate change, finding ways to sustainably meet food demand and still reduce greenhouse gas emissions is key, and one way to do this is to cut back on livestock farming and meat production. 

Insects could be a viable alternative protein source, but how do you get countries that don’t typically eat insects to warm up to entomophagy (the practice of eating insects). 

But now, a new study may have found the answer and it has to do with clever marketing. 

Researchers from the <a href="http://www.unibe.ch/index_eng.html">University of Bern</a> conducted a study examining strategies that could be employed to help people be more comfortable with eating insects. 

The study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fnut.2018.00088/full">Frontiers in Nutrition</a> and the results suggest that promoting insects as a luxury or tasty delicacy could help improve the appeal in countries where insects are not regularly eaten. 

“Insects have numerous health benefits as a source of protein and dramatically outperform conventional meats in terms of greenhouse gas emissions,” Sebastian Berger, the lead author of the study. “Therefore, insect-based food might help in the fight against climate change.”

The researchers asked members of the public in Cologne, Germany to view advertisements for an insect-based food. Some of the advertisements promoted insects as an environmentally friendly and healthy food, but other adverts highlighted the pleasurable and tasty aspects of the food. 

Participants were then given a mealworm chocolate truffle and a questionnaire about the treat, if they were willing to try it, what they thought it would taste like, it’s quality, and if it was eaten, how it tasted. 

It was the advertisements that promoted the insect truffle as luxurious and high-quality that peeked the most interest and appeal among consumers. The advertisements that showcased the insect as eco-friendly were not as effective. 

The researchers say that for people who don’t eat insects, marketing is crucial for overcoming the “disgust” factor that consumers might have about eating insects. Promoting the eco-friendly benefits just isn’t enough to make the insect itself appealing. 

Instead, the study shows that appealing to people’s emotions is the more strategic way to go and giving insects luxury status could help sway strong feelings of disgust. 

--

By <a href="mailto:kayvandette@gmail.com">Kay Vandette</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/">Earth.com </a>Staff Writer

Insects are an eco-friendly source of protein - would you try one?

Insects are an eco-friendly source of protein - would you...

Driving past a wild animal carcass is a sad yet inevitable part of many drives throughout the United States. As human expansion continues, we are increasingly encroaching on animal habitats resulting in human-wildlife conflicts and casualties. But wildlife corridors use an innovative approach to help mitigate the effects of <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/habitat-fragmentation-extinction/">habitat fragmentation</a> and protect wild animals.

Wildlife corridors are structures which link two or more wildlife habitats. The corridors help animals cross over roads and other obstacles, which have historically caused high rates of mortality. According to the non-profit <a href="http://www.culturechange.org/issue8/roadkill.htm">Culture Change</a>, 1 million animals are hit by motor vehicles every day in the U.S.

Habitat loss poses the greatest threat to wildlife today and range size is seen as the most important predictor of extinction risk. Habitat loss adversely affects wildlife in many ways, such as reducing their access to resources, making them easier targets for poaching, decreasing genetic fitness and pushing them closer to humans. Exacerbating the effects of habitat loss is the issue of<a href="http://www.pnas.org/content/114/29/7635.full"> habitat fragmentation</a>. Not only are animals’ habitats becoming smaller, but the animals are also more likely to live in patches of land, isolated from others by roads, cities and farmland.

To help address the issue of habitat fragmentation, wildlife corridors are increasingly being built across the world. Wildlife corridors can be found in countries such as<a href="https://www.mnn.com/earth-matters/wilderness-resources/stories/10-important-wildlife-corridors"> India, Nepal, Canada and Germany</a>. The United States is home to multiple wildlife corridors including over 40 structures, both overpasses and underpasses, along Highway 93 in Montana. Just this week, a section of a wildlife corridor in Seattle opened up and deer have already been <a href="https://q13fox.com/2018/09/26/critters-begin-crossing-animals-only-bridge-over-i-90/">seen</a> using it despite the fact that the crossing isn’t even fully constructed yet.

U.S Representative Don Beyer hopes to see more wildlife corridors across the United States. He introduced the Wildlife Corridors Conservation Act in 2016, which would establish a national system of corridors to help diminish the effects of habitat loss and fragmentation. While the bill is not currently being considered this session,<a href="https://wildlandsnetwork.org/policy/wildlife-corridors-conservation-act/"> The Wildlands Network</a> states that they anticipate the bill will be reintroduced this year.

A system of wildlife corridors could be hugely beneficial for wildlife, especially for species with a large range such as bears, mountain lions and panthers. Stories about mountain lions getting hit by cars in California routinely make the news. Even the cougar known as P-32 who<a href="https://news.nationalgeographic.com/2015/08/150814-mountain-lions-animals-science-california-death/"> become famous</a> for navigating Los Angeles’ busy freeway system eventually was struck and killed by a car.

Wildlife corridors have already proven successful in the U.S.<a href="http://www.peopleswaywildlifecrossings.org/"> People’s Way Partnership</a>, an organization who builds awareness and support for wildlife corridors along U.S. Highway 93 in Montana, has been researching the corridors for 14 years. The organization states on their website, “We can definitively state that US 93 North crossing measures have reduced wildlife-vehicle collisions and maintained or improved habitat connectivity for deer and black bear.”

Additionally, a<a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/j.1523-1739.2010.01450.x"> meta-analysis</a> on the effectiveness of wildlife corridors analyzed 78 experiments and found that 60 experiments showed positive results and overall, the corridors increased movement between patches of habitat by 50 percent.

Despite their ability to allow wild animals to move safely, a 2012<a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosbiology/article?id=10.1371/journal.pbio.1001253#pbio.1001253-Wildlife1"> article</a> published in PLOS One questions the overall effectiveness of the corridors. The authors point out that there is little evidence that corridors promote gene flow and studies on corridors have focused on environments that are different from landscapes the corridors are designed for. The authors do not discount the potential of wildlife corridors and continue to study the effectiveness of corridors.

Wildlife corridors alone will not prevent continued population declines. While we work to creatively mitigate the effects of our expanding world, we also need to protect pristine habitat areas for wildlife.

--

By <a href="mailto:brianna.grant134@gmail.com">Brianna Lynne</a>, <a href="http://earth.com">Earth.com</a> Contributing Writer

Wildlife corridors help reduce deaths from habitat fragmentation

Driving past a wild animal carcass is a sad yet...

You may notice as you grow older that you share certain characteristics with your mother (physical characteristics, we’re definitely not saying you act at all alike). You might have your mom’s nose, or her eye color, or penchant for getting sunburnt way too easily – it’s all part of the traits she passed down to you. And while it may be somewhat frustrating to know she bears responsibility for a few of your physical flaws, at least you can sleep easy knowing <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/giraffes-long-necks/">giraffes</a> have the same problem.

A new study published in <a href="https://peerj.com/">PeerJ</a> has confirmed a 49-year-old hypothesis about how baby giraffes inherit their characteristic spots. The report, published by researchers at Penn State, finds that a giraffe’s spot pattern is passed down from mother to baby, and that the survival of young giraffes is directly related to their spot pattern – which helps provide camouflage from predators.

“Giraffe spot patterns are complex and can be quite different among individuals, but we don’t really know their purpose in the wild,” explains first author Derek E. Lee, an associate research professor at <a href="https://www.psu.edu/">Penn State</a>. “Complex markings can help animals evade predators, regulate their temperature, or recognize family or individuals, all of which can affect their ability to survive and reproduce. In this study, we analyzed survival records and photos of spots of Masai giraffes, and show that spot patterns do affect juvenile survival and are heritable – they are passed from mom to baby.”

Dr. Anne Innis Dagg was the first giraffe field researcher in Africa, and presented evidence back in 1968 that the shape, number, area, and color of spots in a giraffe’s coat may be heritable. However, her hypothesis came from studying a small zoo population. In this study, the researchers observed wild giraffes and used modern imaging and analysis techniques to confirm this nearly five-decade old hypothesis.

The study also determined that newborn giraffes with larger spots and irregularly shaped spots had better survival rates during their first few months of life. This is likely due to the spots providing better camouflage, but it could also be a result of other survival factors such as temperature regulation or visual communication.

“My hope is that other scientists will use the same tools to measure mammal coat patterns to advance our understanding of what these patterns mean,” says Lee. “Quantifying heritability and fitness consequences of variation in coat patterns could help us understand how and why complex coat patterns evolve in wild animals.”

--

By <a href="mailto:certz@earth.com">Connor Ertz</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Image Credit: Derek Lee, Wild Nature Institute/Penn State

Baby giraffes inherit their spots from their mothers

You may notice as you grow older that you share...

Along with its enormous size and long, ivory tusks, the African bush elephant is known for its characteristic wrinkly, gray skin. While its wrinkled epidermis may seem undesirable to us humans – who often pay hundreds of dollars a year to stay wrinkle-free – its unappealing appearance serves an important purpose.

Researchers from the <a href="https://www.unige.ch/en/university/presentation/">University of Geneva (UNIGE)</a>, Switzerland, and the <a href="https://www.sib.swiss/">SIB Swiss Institute of Bioinformatics</a> have reported in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/ncomms/">Nature Communications</a> that the many crevices that make up an elephant’s skin are designed to help these mammals regulate their body temperature. The extensive network of tiny crevices on the elephant’s surface retains water and mud, protecting their skin from parasites and intense solar radiation. 

It’s known that <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/artificial-intelligence-protect-elephants/">African elephants</a> lack sweat and sebum glands, which help other mammals keep their skin moist and flexible. So to avoid overheating and get rid of parasites, African elephants are constantly wallowing in mud. 

After receiving skin samples from scientists and museums in Switzerland, France, and South Africa, the multidisciplinary team of researchers assessed the samples and used a custom computer model to determine the functions of an elephant’s skin. Close inspection revealed that their skin is deeply sculptured by an intricate network of extraordinarily small crevices, all interconnected. The minuscule pattern of millions of channels prevents the shedding of mud, and allows spreading and retention of 5 to 10 times more water than on a flat surface.

The researchers used a computer model to show that the combination of the skin’s hyper-keratinization, shedding-deficiency, and lattice of millimetric elevations is able to cause mechanical bending stress to accumulate in between the skin elevations during the progressive thickening of the skin, ultimately forming cracks.

One area of focus in developmental biology is to discover how forms and shapes are created by heterogeneous tissue differentiation and growth as a result of differential gene expression throughout the body. But complex phenotypes can also be a result of mechanical instabilities – such as the folds and wrinkles of an elephant’s skin – caused by mismatched growth between adjacent tissue layers. Examples of this in our own body include the looping of our gut and the folding of our brain’s cerebral cortex.

This study is the first to show that African elephant skin is characterized by a network of channels that not only look like cracks, but are true physical cracks in the animal’s keratinized epidermis. They surmise that thickening of the African elephant keratinized epidermis is a result of imbalance between its formation at the base and its shedding at the skin surface. This actually brings about an interesting parallel to the skin morphology of these elephants and that of humans with the condition ichthyosis vulgaris, a common genetic disorder that is known to cause dry, scaly skin.

If these findings are confirmed by molecular and cell biology analyses, their equivalence could be a notable link between a human pathological condition and the skin of another mammal species.

“This correspondence would also demonstrate that similar mutations that occurred independently in the evolutionary lineages of humans and elephants turned out to be unfavorable in the former and adaptive in the latter,” says lead author Michel Milinkovitch, a professor at the Department of Genetics and Evolution of the UNIGE Faculty of Science and Group Leader at the SIB Swiss Institute of Bioinformatics.

--

By <a href="mailto:certz@earth.com">Connor Ertz</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Image Credit: Michel Milinkovitch

African elephants evolved wrinkled skin to help them cool off

Along with its enormous size and long, ivory tusks, the...

Fish and marine wildlife are not the only animals at risk of ingesting <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/microplastics-spread-insects/">microplastics</a>, according to a new study. 

Plastic pollution research has been typically focused on the oceans and finding ways to track plastic pollution to its source, stop fish and wildlife from ingesting plastic, and measure how much plastic enters the oceans every year. 

Far less attention is paid to freshwater sources like rivers and streams, environments where many insects, like mayflies, lay their eggs. 

When the eggs hatch, the larva spends the first part of its life swimming in streams and lakes eating algae, and unfortunately is not able to tell the difference between microplastics and food. 

Researchers from <a href="https://www.cardiff.ac.uk/business-school">Cardiff University’s School of Business</a> recently conducted a study examining three different kinds of mayfly and caddis larvae. 

The study, published in the journal Science of the Total Environment, is the first of its kind to investigate the risks of microplastic ingestion for insects near freshwater environments. 

Microplastics measuring less than 5 millimeters were found in as many as one in two  insects at every site the researchers collected samples from. 

“Every year, between eight and twelve million tonnes of plastics are thought to be entering the World's oceans, but around four million tonnes of it passes along rivers,” Fred Windsor, the lead author of the study, told <a href="https://www.dailymail.co.uk/sciencetech/article-6216115/Microplastics-50-freshwater-insects-as.html">the Daily Mail</a>. “In some cases, there can be over half a million plastic fragments per square meter of river bed, so that ingestion by insects is very likely.” 

The research shows how widespread plastic pollution is outside of the ocean and that microplastics are entering watersheds from sewage treatment plants and wastewater flows. 

Insects are lower on the food chain and so any microplastic they ingest is then in turn ingested unknowingly by animals that feed on insects like birds and reptiles, making plastic pollution even more widespread. 

“Although people are more and more aware of the damage caused to ocean wildlife from ingesting plastics, the potential problem of plastics in river ecosystems has been seriously overlooked,” Isabelle Durance, Director of the Water Research Institute at Cardiff University, told the Daily Mail.

--

By <a href="mailto:kayvandette@gmail.com">Kay Vandette</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

1 in 2 freshwater insects found to have eaten microplastics

Fish and marine wildlife are not the only animals at...

Recently, I wrote about the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/loss-bears-american-landscape/">decline of bears</a> throughout the United States, all bears but most importantly Brown (or grizzly) bears.  The story I wrote was connected directly to Yellowstone area brown bears being removed from protection under the Endangered Species Act. But <a href="https://www.usatoday.com/story/news/2018/09/24/judge-grizzly-bear-protection-wyoming-idaho-hunt/1417295002/">USA Today</a> reported on Monday that the decision by the <a href="https://www.fws.gov/">U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service</a> to remove protections of Yellowstone area bears has been overturned.

Chief District Judge Dana L. Christensen of Montana ruled that the decision to remove protection from the bears was “arbitrary and capricious”.  Much of the judgment is based on genetic science. The judge said that the change in status of Yellowstone Grizzly bears fails to take into account the effect on other bear populations in the area.  

Indeed, bears from the Yellowstone area and the area of Glacier National Park have been ranging far and may possibly soon come into contact with each other, the <a href="https://www.independent.co.uk/news/science/yellowstone-grizzlies-may-soon-commingle-with-northern-cousins-a8041906.html">Independent</a> reported last year.  Furthermore, there is a greater hope by <a href="https://y2y.net/vision/our-progress/grizzly-response">some organizations</a> that bears from Yellowstone may be again connected with their kin as far north as the Yukon at least genetically.  Different bear populations interbreeding increases the genetic resilience of both populations and of the Grizzly Bear as a species overall.  The judge’s decision on this case is a nod towards the great hope of truly restoring the Grizzly Bear to western North America. 

This decision comes in as a victory for environmentalists trying their best to push back against agencies and an administration intent on dismantling wildlife protections.  The fight over protection of bears in Yellowstone is part of a larger fight for the protection of wild animals throughout the U.S., especially predator species like grizzly bears and wolves.    

The <a href="https://www.biologicaldiversity.org/news/press_releases/2017/alaska-wildlife-03-21-2017.php">Center for Biological Diversity</a> reported in March of last year in a press release on the removal of protection on bears and wolves in Alaskan National Wildlife Refuges.  The protections had been put into place by the Obama administration to override predator control techniques approved of by the state government of Alaska.  Techniques now allowed include shooting bears from aircraft, poisoning and trapping as well as killing during denning season. 

The change in protection rules in Alaskan National Wildlife Refuges came down to a vote of the senate under the Congressional Review Act.  This action combined with the attack on bears in the greater Yellowstone area shows a disdain by the ruling party for wildlife, especially potentially dangerous wildlife.

In places like Alaska and the western US where many of the residents and voters are hunters and ranchers, there’s a lot of political pressure behind predator control ideology.  Alaska seems to prioritize hunting in their public lands over wildlife itself, especially predatory wildlife. Not only does allowing predator control increase the hunting of bears, it allows prey animals such as caribou to expand beyond normal measures and thus increase hunting of them as well.  

What matters for now is that the bears are protected in Greater Yellowstone, even if they face more predator control in Alaska where state laws protect them in various ways but not as vigorously as the rolled back federal protections.  

The idea of controlling predators isn’t very sound scientifically speaking in the first place.  Predator populations have been shown to increase and decrease proportional to the populations of their prey base.  Removing predation can also problems in prey populations, allowing unchecked growth and population crashes. The US Fish and Game were claiming that the population of Grizzly Bears in the greater Yellowstone ecosystem had reached Its carrying capacity and needed to be culled but this claim is bogus.  

Treating greater Yellowstone like a closed system while it is actually a tiny piece of the grizzly bear’s former range is ludicrous.  For many environmentalists, myself included, the idea of bears spreading out from Yellowstone and inhabiting the mountains, hills, prairies and forests of the western US is wonderful.  There is no scientifically sound basis for treating the Yellowstone area as a bear habitat and the surrounding areas as something else. Historically Grizzly Bear range covered most of western North America.                 

Early in the history of US wildlife management culling predators was part of normal procedure and rarely criticized.  Among hunter conservationists like Teddy Roosevelt, there was even a distinction made between sportsman-like hunting practices and predator control, where all means were employed.  With hunting, Roosevelt and other conservationists of his day stressed a certain unwritten code of conduct, with principles of sportsmanship involved. When it came to controlling predators, the former president was much more ruthless.  Roosevelt spent time killing many predators himself but throughout his life his views changed. In <a href="https://www.nps.gov/parkhistory/hisnps/NPShistory/beasts.pdf">an article</a> about predator control in Yellowstone, the National Park Service sums up his evolving viewpoint:

“Roosevelt referred to wolves as “the beasts of waste and desolation.” In this same book, Roosevelt depicted cougars as “bloodthirsty” and “cowardly” predators with a “desire for bloodshed which they lack the courage to realize.” Yet despite his depiction of predators as destroyers of cattle and wildlife, Roosevelt was a careful student of predators and their natural behavior. As he spent more time studying predators in their natural setting, his attitudes toward their role in nature began to change, so much so that by 1908 he ordered predator control of Yellowstone’s cougars be stopped in order to allow these predator populations to curtail growing elk populations. This change in Roosevelt’s perspective toward Yellowstone’s predator population was influenced by several factors, including his goal of establishing a wildlife reserve in Yellowstone, his personal interest in hunting, and his increased understanding of the role of predators in an ecosystem.”

This change in heart about predator control was also mirrored in Aldo Leopold, one of the fathers of the modern science of wildlife management.  Leopold spent some of his younger years actively involved in killing predators like wolves involved with the same agencies that were actively trying to eradicate bears from much of the American west.  In one of the more famous tales of wildlife conservation, Leopold watched a wolf die and saw in the wolf’s green eyes an epiphany. 

The shift in opinion on predator control is clearly not unanimous among even wildlife professionals but it seems that the overall consensus has shifted.  A federal judge recognizing that the evidence as presented favors those with no interest in curtailing bear populations or ‘controlling’ predator populations is a step in the right direction.  Still, states like Alaska, Wyoming, Idaho and much of the west have views antithetical to allowing predators and prey to reach a natural balance. Hunting is often prioritized over healthy wildlife populations and the wildness of natural systems.  

If we want this legal victory to be a long term one, views but also laws will need to change to formally recognize the rights and standings of other animals.  Recognizing formally that we share this planet, not rule would be a step in the right direction. For now we should celebrate that bears in Greater Yellowstone are protected which makes all Grizzly Bears just a little bit safer.   

--

By <a href="mailto:zachfitzner@yahoo.com">Zach Fitzner</a>, <a href="http://earth.com">Earth.com</a> Contributing Writer

Protection of Yellowstone Grizzly Bears has been upheld by the court

Recently, I wrote about the decline of bears throughout the...

At The Maryland Zoo, a turtle is rolling around on a wheelchair made out of Legos while recovering from surgery. The wild Eastern box turtle was found in July with injuries and was taken to the zoo’s hospital.

Dr. Ellen Bronson is the senior director of Animal Health, Conservation, and Research at The Maryland Zoo. 

She explained in a <a href="https://www.marylandzoo.org/news-and-updates/2018/09/injured-turtle-at-the-maryland-zoo-fitted-with-customized-lego-wheelchair/">news release</a>: “He had multiple fractures on his plastron, the bottom part of his shell. Because of the unique placement of the fractures, we faced a difficult challenge with maintaining the turtle’s mobility while allowing him to heal properly.”

The veterinary team performed surgery to save the turtle’s fractured shell, which is now held together with metal bone plates, sewing clasps, and surgical wire. 

Garrett Fraess is a fourth year veterinary student who works at The Maryland Zoo. 

“It was important to keep the bottom of the shell off the ground so it could heal properly,” said Fraess. “They don’t make turtle-sized wheelchairs. So, we drew some sketches of a customized wheelchair and I sent them to a friend who is a LEGO® enthusiast.”


A few weeks after the surgery, the turtle received his custom-made wheelchair. The frame built out of Legos surrounds the turtle's shell and rests on four Lego wheels. 

The device was attached to the upper shell with plumbers putty, which lifts the turtle up enough to free his legs for movement. According to Fraess, the <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/turtles-shell-toothless-beak/">turtle</a> took to his new wheelchair right away. 

“He never even hesitated,” said Fraess. “He took off and has been doing great. Turtles are really good at healing as long as the shell remains stable.”

The turtle uses his front legs to wheel around, and the wheelchair design allows for natural movement. The turtle can even fully close his shell if he feels threatened. 

“Turtles heal much slower than mammals and birds, since their metabolism is slower,” said Dr. Bronson. “So, this turtle will likely use his LEGO® wheelchair through the winter and into the spring until all of the fragments have fused together and the shell has completely healed.”


The Maryland Zoo has conducted the Druid Hill Park Eastern box turtle monitoring project since 1996, tagging and releasing 132 wild turtles so far. 

“This particular turtle was originally tagged in 2000, making him at least 18-years-old,” said Dr. Bronson. “We are very happy that he is recovering well from his injuries and we plan to return him to the wild once he is fully healed.”

--

By <a href="http://csexton@earth">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 

Image Credit: Maryland Zoo

Zoo builds wheelchair to help turtle recovering from a broken shell

At The Maryland Zoo, a turtle is rolling around on...

Sharks are feared by many for their perceived man-eating and ferocious nature. Although shark attacks occur in small numbers throughout the world every year, in reality, humans are the true predator.

A new<a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0308597X18303038?via%3Dihub"> study</a> published in Marine Policy examined shark finning, the act of cutting a shark’s fin off and discarding the rest of its body, as a case study on the difficulties of managing threatened species in the international trade. The authors found that shark finning is currently unsustainable and is leading species of sharks towards extinction.

<a href="http://www.earth.com/news/sharks-sense-focused-hunters/">Sharks</a> are finned to fill demand for shark fin soup, a luxury dish that can cost up to $100 a bowl. Because shark meat has a low commercial value, many sharks are simply thrown back into the ocean where they can bleed to death or become preyed upon.

A 2013 <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0308597X13000055">study</a> also published in Marine Policy estimated that humans kill 100 million sharks every year. Although not all these sharks are killed for their fins, some are killed as bycatch and for other body parts, shark finning is a major driver of population declines.

[caption id="attachment_1801747" align="aligncenter" width="700"]<a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2018/09/shutterstock_101559460.jpg"><img class="wp-image-1801747" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2018/09/shutterstock_101559460-1024x704.jpg" alt="" width="700" height="481" /></a> Image Credit: Eliro/Shutterstock[/caption]

Sharks have been particularly affected by overharvesting. Many shark species are currently threatened or endangered yet are still being killed for shark fin soup. A<a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/epdf/10.1111/cobi.13043"> study</a> which analyzed species composition of shark fins for sale in Hong Kong found that one-third of the species were threatened with extinction. In addition, sharks have naturally low reproductive rates making it difficult for the animals to come back from population declines.

Sharks currently face a similar trajectory as other wild animals who are exploited for their parts such as elephants and rhinos. As the authors note, a legal market for a wildlife part can undermine enforcement efforts and help poachers launder their products. Additionally, many governments lack the resources or desire to address the illegal wildlife trade. Shark finning can be especially difficult to enforce since the finning often occurs on the high seas and enforcement officers may only have the sharks fin available to determine whether the animal is a protected species.

Without proper regulation and enforcement, the future of many shark species is bleak. The world would have a lot to lose without sharks. Not only would movies such as Jaws and Sharknado be stuck in the past, but whole ecosystems could suffer without an apex predator controlling population dynamics.

The authors hope shark finning will illustrate the problems with having a large, luxury market for imperiled species, especially species for which demand is higher than the natural supply.

The study concludes, “Until institutional systems can effectively control the exploitation

and trade of wildlife destined for luxury markets, international trade in vulnerable and threatened species, or their parts, should cease before populations are extirpated, or species driven further towards extinction; the situation is urgent, and the message clear.”

--

By <a href="mailto:brianna.grant134@gmail.com">Brianna Lynne</a>, <a href="http://earth.com">Earth.com</a> Contributing Writer

Study finds shark finning is unsustainable, calls for market halt

Sharks are feared by many for their perceived man-eating and...

A new study has found that many vampire bats are carriers of Bartonella bacteria, and Bartonella infections are extremely prevalent among bat populations in Peru and Belize. 

Bartonella bacteria can cause life-threatening diseases in humans and animals such as endocarditis, which is an infection of the lining of the <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/genetics-heart-responds-exercise/">heart</a>. 

Vampire bats are common carriers and because Bartonella bacteria is zoonotic, meaning it can be transmitted from animals to humans, and this increases the risk of transmission and disease for humans and livestock. 

Researchers from the <a href="http://www.montana.edu/">Montana State University</a> set out to examine how much vampire bats themselves were at risk of infection, rather than focusing on their role as carriers as many other studies have. 

Although vampire bats are considered an abundant zoonotic reservoir of Bartonella infections in humans, how bats contract and spread the disease amongst themselves is not well known. 

The results of the study were published in the journal <a href="http://journals.plos.org/plosntds/article?id=10.1371/journal.pntd.0006786">PLOS Neglected Tropical Diseases</a>. 

Over a period of two years, the researchers collected blood, saliva, and fecal samples from vampire bats in both Belize and Peru. 

The different samples were analyzed and the researchers were able to identify which bats were infected with Bartonella bacteria. 

To determine the individual risk factors for Vampire bats, the researchers studied the relationship between age, sex, forearm size, and the reproductive status of the bats. 

If a sample did test positive for Bartonella, the researchers conducted genome sequencing and phylogenetic analysis to better understand how and where the disease spread from bat to bat. 

Male vampire bats carried the highest risk of infection and 67 percent of the samples tested positive for the bacteria. 

The genotypes of the bacteria showed a wide distribution across Central and South America. 

Bats, like humans and animals, can become infected with Bartonella through arthropod bites like ticks or mites that use hosts for a blood meal. However, the researchers also found that vampire bats could spread the disease to other bats through saliva or environmental contamination. 

Having a better understanding of how vampire bats contract Bartonella could help with creating better strategies to prevent disease transmission. 

“Given the high rates of vampire bat bites and proximity to humans, and domestic animals, such efforts to verify the possibility and frequency of oral and environmental exposures would elucidate Bartonella transmission dynamics in this common host species and the risks of cross-species transmission,” the study authors wrote.

--

By <a href="mailto:kayvandette@gmail.com">Kay Vandette</a>,<a href="https://www.earth.com/"> Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Vampire bats carry bacteria that cause deadly infections in humans

A new study has found that many vampire bats are...

A new species of dinosaur, described from fossils found in South Africa, sheds light on the earliest dinosaurs from the Jurassic period during the Mesozoic era. 

Researchers from the <a href="http://www.wits.ac.za/">University of Witwatersrand</a> in Johannesburg, South Africa discuss the new species in a study published in the journal Current Biology. 

First discovered in 2012, the <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/fossils-modern-birds-dinosaurs/">dinosaur</a> was described as belonging to a new species of sauropodomorphs named Ledumahadi mafube, and it’s a close relative of the famous long-necked sauropod Brontosaurus. 

What’s notable about the Ledumahadi mafube is that it provides paleontology with a rare glimpse of dinosaur evolution and how the early ancestors of sauropods developed the ability to walk on all fours. 

After years of excavating the skeleton, the researchers realized that the specimen was a full grown adult around 14 years of age and estimated that it weighed around 12,000 kilograms. 

“It shows us that even as far back as 200 million years ago, these animals had already become the largest vertebrates to ever walk the Earth,” said  Jonah Choiniere, one of the researchers involved in the excavation of the specimen. 

The researchers weren’t sure if the dinosaur they uncovered walked on two legs like earlier dinosaurs or was a quadruped like the brontosaur. To find out, the researchers measured the thickness of the Ledumahadi's limbs and used that to estimate how much weight the dinosaur carried and how that weight was dispersed when walking. 

It turns out that the dinosaur likely waked on all fours. The researchers also discovered that other sauropodomorph dinosaurs were probably “experimenting” with walking on all fours, eventually leading to the complex evolution of quadruped sauropods.

“The evolution of sauropods isn't quite as straightforward as we once thought,” said Choiniere. “In fact, it appears that sauropodomorphs evolved four-legged postures at least twice before they gained the ability to walk with upright limbs, which undoubtedly helped make them so successful in an evolutionary sense.”

The findings also point to an abundant and diverse dinosaur ecosystem in South Africa with many huge carnivores. 

“There was a thriving dinosaur ecosystem here in South Africa, at the bottom of the world, featuring 12-ton giants like Ledumahadi, tiny carnivores like Megapnosaurus, the earliest mammals, some of the earliest turtles, and many, many others,” said Choiniere. “Africa, and particularly South Africa, is known for its big game. I think we should be just as famous for our big game of the early Mesozoic, 200 million years ago.”

--

By <a href="mailto:kayvandette@gmail.com">Kay Vandette</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 

Image Credit: Viktor Radermacher, University of the Witwatersrand

Brontosaurus relative shows how early dinosaurs walked on 4 legs

A new species of dinosaur, described from fossils found in...

Over forty years ago, the first initiatives were put in place to ban the use of polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), which are chemical pollutants that can be passed through the food chain and are deadly to animals in certain concentrations. A new study published in the journal <a href="https://www.sciencemag.org/">Science</a> shows that – despite these bans – the current concentrations of PCBs may lead to the disappearance of half the world’s populations of <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/save-endangered-killer-whale/">killer whales</a> in a period of just 30 to 50 years. 

Killer whales – also known as orcas – are the last link in a long oceanic food chain. Because of this, they are among the mammals with the highest level of PCBs in their tissue, as the chemical increases in concentration as the food chain goes up. Many studies have shown that PCB levels as low as 50 milligrams per kilogram of tissue are enough to cause infertility and impact the immune system in some animals. Shockingly, researchers have measured PCB concentrations as high as 1300 milligrams per kilo in the fatty tissue of orcas.

For this study, an international team of researchers reviewed all existing literature and assessed all data compared to their own most recent results on PCB levels in these whales. In total, they accrued data on more than 350 individual killer whales from around the world, which makes this the largest number of whales ever studied. They then used models to predict the effects of PCBs on the number of offspring – as well as the immune system and mortality of killer whale populations over a period of 100 years. The result was that more than 50 percent of orca populations are under threat.

Of the 19 killer whale populations they investigated, 10 of these populations may disappear entirely in the next few decades. The most threatened populations were in heavily contaminated areas such as the waters near Brazil, the Strait of Gibraltar, and near the United Kingdom. Although the killer whale is one of the most widespread mammals on Earth – found in all of the world’s oceans – only the populations living in the least polluted areas contain a large number of individuals.

Orcas typically eat seals, large fish such as tuna, and sharks – which all accumulate high concentrations of PCBs themselves, along with other pollutants. However, orca populations that primarily feed on smaller fish, like herring and mackerel, tend to have significantly lower levels of PCBs. 

While international efforts to phase out PCBs began over four decades ago during the Stockholm Convention, it clearly has not been enough to reduce the health effects of animals at the top of the food chain. 

“This suggests that the efforts have not been effective enough to avoid the accumulation of PCBs in high trophic level species that live as long as the killer whale does. There is therefore an urgent need for further initiatives than those under the Stockholm Convention,” says co-author Paul D. Jepson, of the <a href="https://www.zsl.org/science">Institute of Zoology, Zoological Society</a> of London, England.

--

By <a href="mailto:certz@earth.com">Connor Ertz</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Killer whales are at risk of disappearing due to PCB pollution

Over forty years ago, the first initiatives were put in...

Scientists at the <a href="https://www.zsl.org/">Zoological Society of London</a> (ZSL) may have finally ended a long debate over the “world's largest bird." The title has now been given to Vorombe titan, a Madagascan creature that weighed more than 1,700 pounds and reached heights of nearly 10 feet.

Elephant birds are an extinct group of large, flightless <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/fossils-modern-birds-dinosaurs/">birds</a> that roamed Madagascar during the Late Quaternary. 

Prior to the study, it was suggested that up to 15 different species of elephant birds fell under two genera. Out of these two genera previously recognized by scientists, Aepyornis maximus has often been considered to be the world's largest bird.

In 1894, British scientist C.W. Andrews described an even larger species, Aepyornis titan, which was initially dismissed as an unusually large specimen of A. maximus. However, the new research from the ZSL reveals that this “titan” bird was actually a distinct species.

[caption id="attachment_1801811" align="aligncenter" width="613"]<a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2018/09/4553212-6209309-Researchers_believe_the_world_s_largest_ever_bird_was_Vorombe_ti-m-23_1537956680354.jpg"><img class="size-full wp-image-1801811" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2018/09/4553212-6209309-Researchers_believe_the_world_s_largest_ever_bird_was_Vorombe_ti-m-23_1537956680354.jpg" alt="" width="613" height="645" /></a> Image Credit: Jaime Chirinos[/caption]

The ZSL team, led by Dr. James Hansford, found that the shape and size of A. titan's bones are so different from other elephant birds that it has now been given the new genus name Vorombe. The name of the new species, Vorombe titan, translates to “big bird" in Malagasy and Greek.

“Elephant birds were the biggest of Madagascar's megafauna and arguably one of the most important in the islands evolutionary history - even more so than lemurs,” explained Dr. Hansford. 

“This is because large-bodied animals have an enormous impact on the wider ecosystem they live in via controlling vegetation through eating plants, spreading biomass and dispersing seeds through defecation. Madagascar is still suffering the effects of the extinction of these birds today.”

Study co-author Professor Samuel Turvey added, “Without an accurate understanding of past species diversity, we can't properly understand evolution or ecology in unique island systems such as Madagascar or reconstruct exactly what's been lost since human arrival on these islands. Knowing the history of biodiversity loss is essential to determine how to conserve today's threatened species.”

The study is published in the journal <a href="http://rsos.royalsocietypublishing.org/">Royal Society Open Science</a>.

--

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 
Image Credit: Jaime Chirinos

The world’s largest bird ever lived in Madagascar 1,000 years ago

Scientists at the Zoological Society of London (ZSL) may have...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2E0mn5mTvhQ
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">'Death Star' moon Mimas conceals a 15-million-year-old ocean that scientists never expected.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hidden-waters-beneath-ancient-craters">Hidden waters beneath ancient craters</h2>



Scientists have made a startling discovery that challenges everything we thought we knew about <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/saturn-moon-mimas-has-remarkably-young-ocean/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Saturn's moon Mimas</a>. Beneath the heavily cratered surface that earned it the nickname "Death Star" lies a global ocean that formed just 5 to 15 million years ago—a remarkably young age by cosmic standards.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cassini-data-reveals-orbital-secrets">Cassini data reveals orbital secrets</h2>



The discovery, led by Dr. Valéry Lainey of the <a href="https://observatoiredeparis.psl.eu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Observatoire de Paris</a>, emerged from careful analysis of <a href="https://www.nasa.gov" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NASA</a>'s Cassini spacecraft data. By studying subtle irregularities in Mimas's orbit around Saturn, researchers detected the gravitational signature of liquid water hidden 20 to 30 kilometers beneath the moon's icy shell.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-an-unlikely-ocean-world">An unlikely ocean world</h2>



At only 400 kilometers in diameter, Mimas seemed like the least likely candidate to harbor a subsurface ocean. Unlike other ocean moons such as Europa and Enceladus, which show clear surface signs of internal activity, Mimas displays no obvious hints of the liquid water beneath its ancient, crater-scarred exterior.



"Mimas is a small moon, and its heavily cratered surface gave no hint of the hidden ocean beneath," explained Dr. Nick Cooper from <a href="https://www.qmul.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Queen Mary University of London</a>, a study co-author.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-astrobiology">Implications for astrobiology</h2>



The ocean's recent formation makes Mimas a prime target for studying how oceans develop and potentially support life. This discovery adds another member to the exclusive club of ocean worlds in our solar system, each offering unique insights into the conditions necessary for habitability.



The research, published in <a href="https://www.nature.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature</a> journal, demonstrates how advanced orbital analysis can reveal hidden features of celestial bodies, opening new possibilities for understanding ocean formation throughout the cosmos.



—–



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Scientists discover unexpected young ocean on Saturn's cratered moon Mimas

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2E0mn5mTvhQ 'Death Star' moon Mimas conceals a 15-million-year-old ocean that...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE
</div></figure>



On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop and sunlight barely penetrates through the polar winter. It was here, however, that an international team of scientists found <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/predatory-worms-were-terror-beasts-half-a-billion-years-ago/#google_vignette" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evidence of sea monsters</a> that would change our understanding of ocean life in the past.



This video captures the discovery of Timorebestia fossils that had been hidden for more than 500 million years in the Sirius Passet formation. The "terror beasts," as they are called, are a hidden chapter in the evolutionary history of <a href="https://www.earth.com" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Earth</a>, showing that sophisticated predator-prey interactions occurred much earlier than previously envisioned.



Dr. Jakob Vinther and his research team at the <a href="https://www.bristol.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Bristol</a>, in collaboration with researchers at the <a href="https://eng.kopri.re.kr/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Korean Polar Research Institute</a>, braved extreme weather conditions at 82.5 north latitude to locate these giant creatures. Using sophisticated electron microprobe analysis, they revealed the detailed anatomy of the animals, including their muscle and nerve tissues.



The find upsets the traditional timeline of sea predators. Although we've long appreciated that Cambrian oceans were at one time ruled by <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jWI3-UgA3_o&amp;list=PL1QLQMW9MWDwpkFOnvgAmu7wT6rZmYqdJ&amp;index=19" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">arthropods</a>, these discoveries indicate that relatives of arrow worms were first to dominate the seas. These worms were building sophisticated food webs several million years before other predator groups arose.



Each fossil is a story of ancient hunger, with fossil stomach contents revealing these meter-long beasts dined on heavily armored arthropods regularly, cementing their place as the ocean's first apex predators.



-----



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Worms dominated seas before dinosaurs

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">New York is the site of the world's oldest forest.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-385-million-year-old-trees-discovered">385-million-year-old trees discovered</h2>



Scientists have uncovered something extraordinary just two hours north of New York City. The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/worlds-oldest-forest-discovered-close-to-new-york-city/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">world's oldest forest</a>, dating back 385 million years, offers a window into how Earth's first complex forests shaped our planet's atmosphere.



Located near <a href="https://townofcairo.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cairo, New York</a>, in Greene County, these weren't merely primitive plants struggling to survive. These were sophisticated trees with root systems remarkably similar to modern forests. This ancient woodland predates dinosaurs by 140 million years.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-cairo-forest-discovery">The Cairo forest discovery</h2>



385 million years ago, upstate New York was a tropical paradise near the equator. Thanks to continental drift, this ancient forest has traveled thousands of miles to its current location.



The fossil forest sits in an abandoned quarry, roughly half the size of a football field. This represents just a slice of what was likely a massive forest system stretching from New York into Pennsylvania.



Charles Ver Straeten, curator of sedimentary rocks at the <a href="https://www.nysm.nysed.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">New York State Museum</a>, made the discovery in 2009. While scouting the former highway department property, his trained eye spotted wandering patterns in the stone that looked like marine features.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-revolutionary-age-and-preservation">Revolutionary age and preservation</h2>



The site contains 385-million-year-old rocks with fossilized woody roots forming horizontal patterns up to 18 feet (5.5 meters) wide. As Christopher Berry, a paleobotanist at Cardiff University, explains: "You are walking through the roots of ancient trees."



This discovery pushes back advanced tree evolution by millions of years. The research, published in <a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/home" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Current Biology</a> in December 2019, fundamentally changes our understanding of when complex forests first emerged.



Researchers believe a massive flood buried the forest floor, creating perfect fossilization conditions. Over millions of years, sediment hardened into rock, preserving these root patterns like nature's time capsule.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-meet-archaeopteris-the-first-modern-tree">Meet Archaeopteris: the first modern tree</h2>



The star of this ancient forest is Archaeopteris – not to be confused with the feathered dinosaur Archaeopteryx. This tree was far older and more revolutionary.



William Stein from <a href="https://www.binghamton.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Binghamton University</a> describes the roots as "strikingly modern, essentially what you'd see outside in my yard right now." These weren't simple root systems you'd expect from ancient plants.



Some fossilized roots are six inches (15 centimeters) in diameter, forming 36-foot-wide (11-meter) patterns. These giants grew up to 65 feet (20 meters) tall with five-foot-diameter (1.5-meter) trunks.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-changing-impact">Climate-changing impact</h2>



These trees fundamentally changed Earth's environment. Kevin Boyce, a Stanford University geoscientist, explains how their deep roots triggered "weathering," chemical reactions that pulled carbon dioxide from the atmosphere.



This process dropped atmospheric CO2 levels from 10-15 times higher than today to roughly modern concentrations. These ancient trees helped create atmospheric conditions that made complex life possible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ancient-forest-ecosystem">Ancient forest ecosystem</h2>



The forest was remarkably diverse. Scientists identified Eospermatopteris, palm tree-like plants with short roots that reached 30 feet (9 meters) tall but lacked woody structure. The forest also housed cladoxylopsids and a mysterious third species still being studied.



All reproduced through spores rather than seeds – millions of years before seeds evolved. This tropical environment had no grass, flowers, or flying insects, just towering trees creating Earth's first complex forest canopy.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-scientific-significance">Scientific significance</h2>



Before this finding, the Gilboa forest, located 25 miles (40 kilometers) away, held the "oldest forest" title. Cairo's trees are 2-3 million years older, showing that complex forest ecosystems developed much faster than scientists believed possible.



Patricia Gensel, a <a href="https://www.unc.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of North Carolina</a> paleobotanist, notes: "The size of those root systems is really changing the picture. Even 20 years ago, researchers assumed trees with such complex root systems didn't evolve so early."



The Cairo site presents three unique root systems, suggesting Devonian period forests were diverse ecosystems with different trees occupying different environmental niches, much like today's forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-modern-preservation-efforts">Modern preservation efforts</h2>



In 2022, New York State Senator Michelle Hinchey secured a $170,000 grant for the town of Cairo to construct specialized fencing around the fossil forest site. The town plans to conduct a feasibility study exploring the possibility of creating an educational center and working lab on-site.



Joe Hasenkopf, chair of the Cairo Planning Board, hopes to partner with educational institutions to create a research facility serving scientists, students, and the public.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lessons-for-today-s-climate">Lessons for today's climate</h2>



Why does a 385-million-year-old forest matter today? It shows how dramatically forests can change Earth's climate. These ancient woodlands created the atmospheric conditions supporting complex life.



Understanding how prehistoric forests transformed the planet helps us appreciate modern forests' critical role in addressing climate change. Forests remain Earth's most effective carbon capture systems.



These prehistoric trees changed Earth's atmosphere by pulling massive amounts of carbon dioxide from the air. As we face modern climate challenges, this ancient forest reminds us of trees' incredible power to transform our planet's environment.



The next time you walk through a forest, remember you're experiencing an ecosystem whose blueprint was established 385 million years ago in upstate New York. These ancient pioneers didn't just survive – they thrived and changed the world forever.



The full study was published in the journal Current Biology.



-----



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Earth's oldest forest found in the United States

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ New York is the site of the world's oldest...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Acid rain and a crisis solved.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-don-t-we-ever-hear-about-acid-rain-anymore-the-environmental-crisis-that-was-solved">Why don't we ever hear about "acid rain" anymore? The environmental crisis that was solved</h2>



Remember the 1980s when acid rain dominated headlines? Dire warnings about rain eating buildings, killing fish, and destroying forests filled every news cycle. Then, almost like magic, acid rain vanished from public discourse. What happened? Did we actually solve one of the late 20th century's most pressing environmental challenges?



The answer might surprise you. Unlike many environmental issues that drag on indefinitely, acid rain represents one of modern history's most successful ecological recovery stories. It's a tale of science, politics, and technology working together to tackle what seemed impossible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What was acid rain?</h2>



Acid rain isn't regular rain having a bad day – it's precipitation that became significantly more acidic due to air pollution. When power plants, factories, and vehicles burn fossil fuels, they release sulfur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides (NOx) into the atmosphere.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The science behind it</h2>



Think of acid rain as nature's chemistry experiment gone wrong. These compounds react with water, oxygen, and other chemicals to form sulfuric and nitric acids. When mixed with water vapor in clouds, they create precipitation with dangerously low pH levels.



While clean rain has a pH of about 5.6, acid rain could drop as low as 4.2 to 4.4 – roughly as acidic as tomato juice or coffee. According to US Geological Survey documentation, Scottish chemist Angus Smith first coined "acid rain" in 1872, but it didn't become a household phrase until the 1960s and 1970s when Swedish scientist Svante Odén documented its devastating effects on Scandinavian lakes and European forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The crisis at its peak</h2>



During the height of public concern, environmental damage was both widespread and visible. This wasn't some abstract future threat – people could see destruction happening in real-time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Environmental devastation</h2>



The most dramatic impacts were impossible to ignore. Research documented by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation and the New York State Department of Environmental Conservation shows that in the Adirondack Mountains, more than 200 lakes became so acidic they couldn't support fish life. The Adirondack Council reports that 409 lakes once supported brook trout, but many lost their fish populations due to acid rain.



By 1976, when scientists cataloged all acidified lakes in the Adirondack Park, researchers found that half of the lakes over 2,000 feet above sea level had no fish, according to studies published in environmental journals. The acidification process worked like a slow-motion disaster. As acid rain fell into watersheds, it gradually lowered pH levels. Fish couldn't survive in acidic water, and their food sources died off too.



Trees at high elevations showed stress directly linked to acid rain. It weakened them by leaching nutrients and making them susceptible to disease. Historical records show Germany's Black Forest saw nearly half its trees damaged by the mid-1980s.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Economic impact</h2>



Acid rain wasn't just environmental – it was expensive. Acidic precipitation corroded infrastructure, buildings, and monuments. Historic stone structures deteriorated at accelerated rates. Tourism suffered as lakes became fishless and forests declined. EPA economic analyses from the period documented repair costs mounting into billions annually.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The solution: government action and technology</h2>



Transformation from crisis to success required unprecedented cooperation between governments, industries, and environmental groups.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The Clean Air Act of 1990</h2>



The turning point came with the Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990, signed by President George H.W. Bush. This represented a fundamentally new approach to environmental regulation, as documented in EPA historical records.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Cap-and-trade success</h2>



Instead of mandating specific technologies, the 1990 amendments introduced something revolutionary: a cap-and-trade system for sulfur dioxide emissions. EPA program documentation shows this market-based approach set overall limits but allowed companies to trade emission allowances.



The genius was harnessing market forces to find cost-effective pollution reduction. Companies reducing emissions cheaply could sell excess allowances to those facing higher costs. Research published in environmental economics journals and EPA progress reports shows this resulted in dramatic SO2 reduction at a fraction of projected costs.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Technology advances</h2>



Policy provided the framework, but technology made reductions possible. Studies in atmospheric science journals document the widespread adoption of flue gas desulfurization systems ("scrubbers") that removed sulfur dioxide before it reached the atmosphere. By the 2000s, new installations could remove over 95% of SO2 emissions, according to EPA technical reports.



The push coincided with cleaner energy development. Natural gas produces fewer sulfur compounds than coal. Wind and solar, emerging in the 1990s, captured growing market share, reducing reliance on high-sulfur coal.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-we-don-t-hear-about-it-today">Why we don't hear about it today</h2>



Why did acid rain disappear from headlines? Simple: the problem was largely solved.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Success doesn't make news</h2>



There's an old journalism saying: "If it bleeds, it leads." Environmental success stories don't generate urgency like crisis reporting. Media attention shifted to other challenges: climate change, plastic pollution, and biodiversity loss. There's only so much environmental anxiety the public can absorb, and newer concerns replaced acid rain.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Mission accomplished</h2>



The primary reason is beautifully simple: interventions worked. EPA monitoring data shows sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990. Academic research published in environmental science journals confirms pH levels in formerly affected areas returned closer to normal. This represents one of history's most dramatic environmental recoveries. Studies by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation show fishless lakes now support healthy populations. Forests recovered, and building damage slowed dramatically.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-is-it-really-gone">Is it really gone?</h2>



The crisis is largely resolved, but monitoring data shows the problem isn't completely eliminated – it's managed to acceptable levels. Some areas still experience occasional events during high pollution periods. International environmental research indicates that rapidly industrializing Asian countries face similar problems to what we experienced decades ago, though they're implementing successful strategies.



EPA research shows nitrogen oxide emissions proved more challenging than sulfur dioxide, coming from vehicles and mobile sources. Climate science studies suggest changing weather patterns add complexity to how acid rain forms and falls.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What this teaches us</h2>



The acid rain experience proves that seemingly intractable environmental problems can be solved with scientific understanding, political will, and technological innovation. Environmental monitoring data shows recovery speed was remarkable – within a decade, measurable improvements appeared in air quality and ecosystem health.



Success came from bipartisan support across party lines. Policy analysis studies show the market-based approach appealed to those preferring economic incentives while achieving environmental goals. This support created lasting policy surviving political changes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Conclusion</h2>



Acid rain's disappearance from public consciousness represents environmental science's greatest success stories. Through effective regulation, technological innovation, and international cooperation, we transformed an overwhelming crisis into a manageable challenge.



Today's silence isn't because we forgot – it's because we solved it. The 1990 Clean Air Act, combined with technology and energy market changes, reduced acid rain emissions over 90%, according to comprehensive EPA data analysis.



This success offers hope for current challenges. It proves complex problems can be solved when science, policy, and technology work together. As we face climate change and plastic pollution, acid rain reminds us that dramatic positive change is possible.



Next time someone asks whether environmental regulations work, remember acid rain. It's proof that sometimes, we get it right.



<hr class="wp-block-separator has-alpha-channel-opacity"/>



Sources: This article draws from EPA official documentation and progress reports, peer-reviewed research published in environmental and atmospheric science journals, historical data from the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation, New York State Department of Environmental Conservation records, US Geological Survey publications, policy analysis studies, and environmental monitoring data collected over three decades.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Frequently Asked Questions</h2>



1. Is acid rain completely gone? No, but EPA monitoring shows it's reduced to manageable levels. US sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990, making acid rain much less severe than the 1980s crisis.



2. How long did solving take? Environmental monitoring data shows significant improvements began within 5-10 years of 1990s emission controls. Full ecosystem recovery took longer – some areas need 20-30 years for complete recovery.



3. What made the solution successful? Clear scientific understanding, visible damage motivating action, bipartisan support, available technology, and innovative market-based policies like cap-and-trade.



4. Do other countries have acid rain problems? Yes, particularly rapidly industrializing Asian countries. However, international environmental research shows many implement similar successful control strategies.



5. Could acid rain return? Potentially, if regulations weaken or we return to high-sulfur coal without controls, though effects would take years to become severe according to environmental projections.



6. Can you recommend any teaching tools on the subject of "acid rain"? The United States Environmental Protection Agency produced a wonderful teacher's guide for ages 14 and under that you can find on the EPA website here: <a href="https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf</a>



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The environmental problem we actually solved

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk Acid rain and a crisis solved. Why don't we...

Fresh,Radish,Harvest,On,Soil,In,Garden.

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Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving fall garden, and this guide lays out the best vegetables and herbs to plant now for a fruitful autumn harvest. 



Fast-growing leafy greens such as spinach, lettuce, kale, and arugula perform especially well in the waning summer heat, with harvests beginning as soon as 30 days. 



These cool-season crops relish the transition into fall, offering repeated yields with cut-and-come-again methods.



Root vegetables like radishes, carrots, and beets also excel during this period. Radishes deliver satisfaction in under a month, while carrots and beets mature in about two months. Employing succession planting ensures a continuous stream of produce deep into the cooler months. 



For a boost of fresh flavor, herbs like cilantro, basil, dill, and chervil are excellent picks. These heat-loving varieties flourish in July’s warmth and are harvest-ready in about 30 days, especially when sown continuously.



Gardeners in zones 6 through 9 can benefit from planting bush beans and snap peas, which don’t require trellising and are ideal for compact plots. 



Maturing in 50–60 days, they’re a smart choice for quick, protein-rich harvests. For those in hotter regions, heat-tolerant crops such as okra and southern peas provide reliable yields and thrive in scorching conditions.



This guide emphasizes more than crop selection—it highlights the importance of timing, soil preparation, and ongoing sowing techniques. 



With thoughtful planning and attention to regional climate needs, even late-summer gardeners can enjoy fresh salads, hearty stews, and the satisfaction of a robust, homegrown harvest well into fall.



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What to plant in your garden in mid-July

https://youtu.be/Fi2OeEwuzRM?si=vTyd2m9FMmtyWkex Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving...

Green,Ecoduct,Over,An,Empty,Highway,During,Sunset.

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https://youtu.be/XYgiPzmNBTU?si=eFYY7gPHU1JznLvU
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A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that wildlife tunnels significantly reduce amphibian road mortality during seasonal migrations. 



Frogs and salamanders often cross roads to reach breeding ponds each spring, but many are killed by vehicles. 



Researchers from the <a href="https://www.uvm.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Vermont</a>, in collaboration with local citizens and the Vermont Agency of Natural Resources, installed two underpass tunnels in 2015. 



Over a 12-year monitoring period, they observed an 80.2% reduction in amphibian deaths, and up to 94% for non-climbing species like salamanders. 



The study used a before-after-control-impact design and documented more than 5,200 amphibians, highlighting the tunnels’ effectiveness even in nearby buffer zones.



Funded at $342,397 - far cheaper than wildlife crossings for large mammals - the project showcased the power of community-led conservation.



Local groups initiated the effort after observing mass amphibian deaths. Wildlife cameras later captured over 2,200 amphibians using a tunnel in just one spring, along with other species like raccoons and bobcats, indicating wider ecosystem benefits.



This marks the first peer-reviewed, long-term data set in the northeastern U.S. confirming amphibian-specific underpasses work. 



The study urges transportation departments to incorporate these designs into road planning and highlights how community action, thoughtful infrastructure, and persistence can make a real difference for biodiversity.



The full study was published in the <a href="https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1617138125000780" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal for Nature Conservation</a>.



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-----

Wildlife tunnels save millions of amphibians

https://youtu.be/XYgiPzmNBTU?si=eFYY7gPHU1JznLvU A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that...

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing it with probiotics and prebiotics, aiming to create a treat that satisfies cravings while supporting gut health. 



The challenge lies in maintaining chocolate's beloved texture and flavor while adding health benefits.



<figure class="wp-block-embed aligncenter is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://youtu.be/Ug657J67iEo?si=w96YjGMsg939LD_3
</div></figure>



Probiotics - beneficial microbes that balance gut bacteria and aid digestion - are typically fragile and can be destroyed by stomach acid or processing. 



Prebiotics act as food for these microbes, helping them thrive. Together, they form "synbiotics," a powerful health combination.



Researchers Smriti Gaur and Shubhi Singh from India's Jaypee Institute of Information Technology took an innovative approach, using natural prebiotics like corn and honey instead of complex processing methods. 



They created five chocolate varieties: a control and four synbiotic versions containing different combinations of prebiotics, probiotics (Lactobacillus strains), and flavor enhancers (cinnamon or orange).



Laboratory simulations of human digestion showed the probiotics remained viable for over five hours, suggesting they could survive long enough to benefit gut health.



Taste tests were positive, with researchers particularly enjoying the orange-flavored variety, describing it as having "vibrant citrus notes" complementing the "rich cocoa" with a "luxurious" texture.



This research represents just the beginning. With further refinement of strains, textures, and flavors, chocolate could evolve beyond mere indulgence to become a functional food that nourishes while it delights.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.4c00741" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ACS Food Science &amp; Technology</a>.

Is chocolate the next nutritional powerhouse?

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

[sendtonews key="0ynNMYkMKa-2340414-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

[sendtonews key="G9bUoxcjr4-2511624-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

[sendtonews key="3upvlAaHgO-2256633-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

[sendtonews key="LvS8v8bp9z-2564889-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How does salt makes things taste better?

[sendtonews key="X0f6OHYoI4-2310561-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Santiago, Chile in South America

[sendtonews key="JRaP49ISmm-2357509-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

[sendtonews key="e4ZG0Jawp3-2374785-12187" type="single"] Astronomers at Johns Hopkins University have created...

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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.



According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."



Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;



ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. 



Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

[sendtonews key="uV9Lh2fQbV-1760058-12187" type="single"] Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

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Earth,Like,Exoplanet,3d,Render

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

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