In nature, flashy displays usually scream courtship. Peacocks fan iridescent trains, peacock spiders dance in sequined shorts, and all the glitter serves one end: to impress a mate. So when Panama’s matador bugs - Anisoscelis alipes - waggle bright, banner-like hind legs, the obvious guess has been sexual selection. 



But a new <a href="https://stri.si.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Smithsonian Tropical Research Institute</a> (STRI) study says the leg-waving isn’t a love signal at all.



“The very nature of discovery is that we can’t anticipate where our questions lead,” said STRI postdoctoral fellow Ummat Somjee, whose work on sexual selection and insect weaponry has been widely covered. 



“By following our curiosity we sometimes arrive at unexpected realities, leading us to reevaluate the very questions we asked in the first place.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-matador-bugs-put-to-the-test">Matador bugs put to the test</h2>



Sexual selection leaves a telltale pattern. In species with showy male ornaments, males tend to carry bigger, brighter structures than females, and they show them off more often - especially at close range to suitors or rivals.



The STRI-led team, with collaborators in the UK, Panama, the United States, Switzerland, and Germany, set out to test whether matador bugs fit that script.



They first gave each wild-caught bug a tiny dot of nontoxic paint so individuals could be tracked. Then, in a screened enclosure, they released the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/insects-are-still-disappearing-and-there-are-hundreds-of-reasons-why/">insects</a> in groups of three, stepped out, and let the cameras roll.



Over repeated trials, they recorded positions every couple of minutes, later combing through full-session video to measure how often and how long the bugs waved and how far apart they were when they did. By the end, they had logged more than 745 flag-waving bouts.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-showy-legs-aren-t-about-mating">Showy legs aren’t about mating</h2>



The pattern was striking for how unsexy it was. Flag size scaled with body size in both sexes, but females - though generally larger - did not carry disproportionately bigger flags than males of the same size. Males and females waved about as often and at similar rates.



Most telling, waving tended to happen when other bugs were farther away, not at close quarters where courtship and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-clues-about-the-feeding-habits-of-grasshoppers/">rivalry</a> typically unfold. Whether the trio was all male, all female, or mixed didn’t change the behavior.



Taken together, the evidence points away from signaling to mates or rivals. For matador bugs, flamboyant feet are probably not about impressing anyone.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-bugs-wave-to-stay-alive">Bugs wave to stay alive</h2>



If sex isn’t the driver, another explanation rises to the top: <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/worms-activate-an-ancient-sleep-circuit-when-trapped-by-predators/">predator</a> distraction. In the wild, nearly one in six matador bugs is missing a hind leg. That’s a lot of lost limbs in exactly the spot where those flashy flags are.



The team suspects the bright, mobile banners operate like a bullfighter’s cape - drawing attacks away from vital body parts. Sacrificing a leg is bad, but it’s better than being eaten.



Future experiments will directly test this idea, for instance by observing predator strikes with and without flags or by manipulating color and motion to see what attackers target.



The researchers aren’t ruling out other functions either; flags could startle predators, misdirect their aim, or even act as a general “back off” signal to larger animals without being a specialized sexual signal.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-flashy-bugs-spark-new-solutions">Flashy bugs spark new solutions</h2>



Matador bugs aren’t just jungle curiosities. In Panama and neighboring Costa Rica, they’re common pests on passion fruit (Passiflora edulis) farms. If the flags are indeed decoys for predators, that insight could inform <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/pests-are-moving-to-cooler-regions-due-to-climate-change/">pest</a> management.



Encouraging natural enemies - or even designing low-toxicity lures that exploit the bugs’ own signaling - might offer alternatives to broad-spectrum insecticides that harm beneficial insects as well.



Good ideas start with careful natural history. Until now, the matador bug’s signature behavior was famous mostly as a striking photograph on guidebook covers. This study turns the image into data.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fieldwork-beats-the-feed"><a></a>Fieldwork beats the feed</h2>



Much of the project’s grunt work fell to early-career researchers tracking painted bugs under tropical heat. For first author and <a href="https://www.manchester.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Manchester</a> undergraduate intern Cameron Longbottom, the field season was transformational.



“Being in the field in Panama is so different from watching Avatar on the internet," he said. "To see animals in their own habitats - you don’t get that in many places. there is still so much to learn.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-showiness-can-also-mean-survival">Showiness can also mean survival</h2>



Charles Darwin wrestled with the strange logic of ornamentation and ultimately proposed <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/temperature-tolerance-has-co-evolved-with-sexual-selection/">sexual selection</a> to explain it. That theory remains a powerful lens, but it isn’t a one-size-fits-all answer to every bright color or exaggerated appendage.



The matador bug’s neon leg flags remind us that conspicuous traits can evolve for reasons other than romance - especially if they help animals survive long enough to reproduce.



For now, the verdict is clear: the leg-waving that made these insects famous doesn’t help them flirt. It likely helps them live.



The study is&nbsp;published&nbsp;in the journal <a href="https://academic.oup.com/cz/advance-article/doi/10.1093/cz/zoaf047/8220672?login=false" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Current Zoology</a>. 



Image Credit: Steven Paton



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Matador bugs wave their flashy neon legs to distract predators

In nature, flashy displays usually scream courtship. Peacocks fan iridescent trains, peacock spiders dance in sequined shorts, and all the glitter serves one end: to impress a mate. So when Panama’s matador bugs - Anisoscelis alipes - waggle bright, banner-like hind legs, the obvious guess has been sexual selection. But a new Smithsonian Tropical Research Institute (STRI) study says the leg-waving isn’t a love signal at all. “The very nature of discovery is that we can’t anticipate where our questions lead,” said STRI postdoctoral fellow Ummat Somjee,...

About a week ago, I was walking my dog through a neighborhood in western Colorado.  In the street I saw a juvenile male robin. The bird moved away from me and the dog, flapping rather ineffectually.  I watched the robin for a bit and tried to shoo the bird off the road so at least he wouldn’t be hit by a car. The bird’s condition was a familiar one to me.  As an intern for the <a href="https://www.usgs.gov/">United States Geological Survey</a> (USGS) working on seabird research in Alaska, I’ve seen plenty of young birds in an awkward stage of almost fledging.  I’ve also seen plenty of chicks die young. 

As I was watching the robin in the street, I noticed a few things.  First, the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/baby-birds-hatch-late/">bird</a> had plenty of adult feathers but wasn’t completely mature yet.  Second, the bird’s behavior seemed the normal behavior of a fledgling just started on learning to fly.  Lastly I saw that the robin had no signs of injury or sickness, just a frustration from trying to learn to fly.  I decided to leave the bird as he was and hope for the best; the robin was after all just going through the normal process of growing up.  As I determined to leave the bird alone, a woman from a nearby yard started talking to me. The woman said she’d just asked her brother in law to catch the bird for her, so she could help it.  The woman said she thought the bird had a broken wing. I corrected the impression of injury, telling her I’d worked with birds before and this one was just fledging. The woman was well intentioned but it was clear she was determined to intervene on behalf of the fledgling robin. 

I thought back to a couple of times when I had naively thought to help wildlife and how poorly it had gone.  When I was still quite young, 10 years old at most, I was playing outside in a tract of prairie near my home in Wyoming.  I often played in the bluffs of the area, catching toads, collecting bones and rocks. On the day in question I came upon a just born Pronghorn fawn.  The fawn looked helpless next to its amniotic sac. As an unwitting but concerned child, I picked up the infant Pronghorn and awkwardly carried her home to elicit my parents help.  

My parents are not wildlife veterinarians.  A call to the Department of Wildlife, Animal Control or some other government agency quickly confirmed my mistake.  It was probably that the pronghorn mother was nearby, watching the fawn, perhaps only scared away by my approach. I don’t remember all of the details of my encounter with the Pronghorn; I’m not sure what the fate of the baby was.  I did learn a valuable lesson though: not every intervention is good. Often nature is best left to its own devices. 

In 2016, <a href="https://yellowstoneinsider.com/2016/05/17/man-who-picked-up-bison-calf-in-yellowstone-identified/">Yellowstone Insider</a> and many others reported an instance of a man driving through Yellowstone National Park picked up an abandoned Bison calf.  It seems the calf was truly abandoned by its mother and was certain to die of starvation, predation or exposure. In the end the bison calf was brought to rangers for help but was euthanized when it was obvious the calf wouldn’t reintegrate into the herd.  Many were outraged at the naivety of the man who picked up a cold bison calf to help, blaming him for the calf’s eventual death. The sad truth of the matter is that there was nothing to be done to save the Bison calf in Yellowstone that wouldn’t have made the animal captive, an option the Park Service wouldn’t consider.  The Bison like my own Pronghorn illustrates a truth: no matter how well intentioned we can’t always save a life, especially the life of a wild animal. 

Keeping in mind the presence of real limitations, there are many cases of wildlife rescued from bad situations, including orphaned infants.  This year, <a href="https://www.denverpost.com/2018/06/29/bear-cub-rescued-colorado-wildfire/">The Denver Post</a> reported that a bear cub was rescued from a wildfire in Colorado.  The cub’s paws were badly burned but the bear is expected to be released by winter.  Of course in the case of bear cubs, a professional is required to keep the cub safe as well as keep the bear from associating too closely with humans, endangering her life in the future. 

Struggling birds, like the one I found while walking my dog, are common.  According to <a href="https://www.massaudubon.org/learn/nature-wildlife/birds/baby-birds-out-of-the-nest">Massaudubon.org</a>, only 30% of young songbirds survive their first year of life.  The website goes on to say that most of the time, birds should be left alone pointing out it’s illegal to take care of native birds in your home.  

I’m reminded of another incident.  A non-native House Sparrow (Passer domesticus) near where I lived was injured by a cat.  My then-girlfriend Erin and I took the sparrow in while deciding what to do to help the little bird or if indeed there was anything to do at all.  Against Erin’s advice, I fed the small bird bits of cracker crumbs. A few hours later, the House Sparrow was dead. It turns out that the high salt content of processed foods is deadly to non-domesticated birds.  I learned that despite volunteering on bird research projects in three countries, despite an education in biology, I knew nothing about caring for a bird.  

A simple Google search reveals that there are many individuals and organizations that are more educated and experienced than I at caring for birds and other injured wild animals.  The <a href="http://www.avianhaven.org/">Wild Bird Rehabilitation Center</a> of New England is an example plucked straight from a search.  According to the center’s website, they have a caseload of about 2,000 birds annually.  The organization is the largest in the area but not the only, and there are many different wildlife rehab organizations in the US (and elsewhere), it just takes a bit of searching to find them.  You can also call your local animal control branch or division of wildlife can help. 

When I was living in South Dakota, I visited a raptor center that cared for raptors injured, often by human activity.  I was able to hold a small owl in my hand, the little bird peering at me with nocturnal eyes through the deepening evening.  The raptors were unable to return to the wild, too hurt, too accustomed to humans. In many areas, raptors (including owls) are taken care of and become part of wildlife education programs in an attempt to increase the public’s understanding of wildlife.  Years ago, in Tasmania, I saw such a program with a Peregrine Falcon (Falco peregrinus) that had lost a wing when striking a powerline diving for prey.  It was there that I learned that the peregrine was indeed a wanderer of almost the whole earth.        

For young animals, especially birds, it’s best to keep in mind that appearances can be deceiving.  An article from <a href="https://www.peta.org/action/how-to-save-baby-birds/">PETA</a> says that most fledglings don’t need help.  This is somewhat contradictory with the idea of only 30% of songbirds surviving their first year but it’s more a matter of birds not needing help most people are capable of giving.  

The next piece of advice PETA gives, after assessing the good health of the bird in question, is to try and return the fledgling to the nest.  It’s important here to confront a common misconception. Most people have heard somewhere or other that birds will smell human touch on their young and abandon a fledgling touched by a person.  The fact is, most birds have a poor sense of smell and there’s no evidence that handling a bird will cause her parents to abandon her. I’ve handled many baby birds in Alaska and a few in the Bahamas as part of conservation research and none of them were rejected by their parents.  If you can get a fledgling back into the nest, it’s the best thing you can do. I helped several young Blue Jays (Cyanocitta cristata) by putting them back in their nest once.  It’s important to remember though, the birds are leaving the nest because they’re almost ready to fly; they certainly will leave the nest again.  

The next best thing to returning a bird to a nest is to create a surrogate nest.  A well-padded and well drained container that can be put out of reach of cats and other predators is best.  A fledgling’s parents usually continue to feed their young as long as they’re close to the nest. 

If you find an injured animal or one that is truly abandoned, it’s best to contact a rehab facility or government authority such as animal control before you do anything else.  Most wildlife are managed under federal law and even an attempt to help them may be illegal. Besides the law, most of us don’t really understand how to care for our wild neighbors.  

In the end, what did I do with the robin I found in the street?  When confronted by a woman wanting to help, I quickly ascertained that there was little I could do to convey the situation to her and how little she could do to help.  I quietly caught the fledgling robin in my hand. I told the woman and her brother in law when he arrived on the scene that I’d take the bird. I told them that I had worked with birds before, perhaps slightly deceptively.  After I walked away, I returned to the area and released the robin to a small tree in a nearby empty piece of land. I hoped for the best for the robin. The stats were against the small fledgling but then again, robins are everywhere.  One thing I hoped I had achieved at least, by returning the robin, I hoped more than anything he wouldn’t die in a cage. 

--

By <a href="mailto:zachfitzner@yahoo.com">Zach Fitzner</a>, <a href="http://earth.com">Earth.com</a> Contributing Writer

How to take care of injured animals

About a week ago, I was walking my dog through...

Scientists have been investigating how different populations of the same species of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dolphins-are-being-killed-for-use-as-bait-in-fisheries/">dolphin</a> have a wide range of diving abilities. The experts have developed a new theory that lung architecture and the management of blood flow play a major role in the hunting depths of dolphins.

Bottlenose dolphin populations are typically close to land in shallow coastal environments and dive of less than 10 meters for their prey. However, other groups such as the Bermudian population dive to depths of around 400 meters, and even 1000 meters on some occasions.

Dr. Andreas Fahlman of the <a href="https://www.oceanografic.org/fundacion/">Fundación Oceanográfic</a> in Spain led two separate studies to gain a better understanding of how dolphins of a single species could dive so differently.

“We wanted to measure what kind of differences are responsible for these huge variations,” said Dr. Fahlman. “This allows us to determine how far the physiology can change within a single species and understand the threat that stressors may have on these deep diving dolphins.”

In the first study, deep diving dolphins were found to have a greater oxygen storage capacity compared to bottlenose dolphins in Florida that dive in shallow water. While this capacity would enable them to dive for longer durations, there were no differences in the lung mechanics or metabolic rates between the two populations.

“This was unexpected, as past studies have suggested that compression of the lungs was the main adaptation to avoid taking up excessive nitrogen at depth and getting the bends,” said Dr. Fahlman. “The lack of differences in the lungs between the shallow and deep divers suggest that the dolphins may use other means to avoid diving related problems.”


In a second study, the team estimated how different populations may manage gas exchange according to their diving lifestyles. A model developed by the experts indicated that, when comparing known parameters of how much oxygen storage would be required, the deep diving dolphins would exceed their calculated dive limits.

“The results indicated that the deep diving population would need to keep an elevated heart rate, not only during surface intervals, but also during shallow dives in-between deep dives to allow sufficient restoration of oxygen stores,” said Dr.Fahlman. 

“Keeping the blood flow elevated between deep foraging dives helps reduce time spent at the surface and enhances recovery time. On the other hand, during deep dives, the dolphins would need to direct blood flow through collapsed regions of the lung, allowing some exchange of oxygen and carbon, while preventing the exchange of nitrogen. Thus, the dolphins may have a way to manage the level of nitrogen they absorb and thereby preventing the bends.”

“This hypothesis provides new and exciting research opportunities to understand how mammals can dive to extreme breaths on a lung full of air without any of the related problems that humans experience. However, our dataset is limited, and further studies should be done on other deep diving dolphin populations to determine if there are similar physiological requirements for deep diving.”

The research is published in the journal <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/physiology">Frontiers in Physiology</a>.

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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

How do some dolphins dive deeper than others?

Scientists have been investigating how different populations of the same...

Researchers have investigated how social isolation in the short term may benefit an animal’s long-term development. For some animals, such as <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/velvet-ants-invincible/">ants</a>, toads, and primates, isolation may be vital to natural selection and evolution.

Nathan Bailey of the <a href="https://www.st-andrews.ac.uk/">University of St Andrews</a> in Scotland and Allen Moore of the <a href="http://www.uga.edu/">University of Georgia</a> have identified the critical role that isolation plays among some animal populations.

“The environment an animal experiences can influence which genes it expresses, when, and how much, so conditions of social isolation might cause expression of different traits,” said Bailey. “This in turn could affect responses to natural selection in terms of survival and reproduction, which has evolutionary consequences. For some species, it might even mean that temporary social isolation is favorable.”

For example, the invasive cane toad Rhinella marina of Australia expands into new territory on its own. As a result, members of the opposite sex are extremely attracted to the toad upon its return, boosting the likelihood of both communication and successful mating. In this case, social isolation itself promotes the conditions for natural selection.

“Traits expressed during social interactions might exist because they've been shaped by selection, but at the same time, social interactions themselves represent a type of environment that can select and shape how individuals behave,” explained Bailey.


The team has proposed the development of an “index of social isolation,” which would enable experts to measure the ideal amount of isolation that would help specific animals to thrive.

“To understand how short-term social isolation experienced by individual animals translates into trans-generational evolutionary impacts for a larger population, we need a number, something measurable that we can compare across different species and contexts,” said Bailey. “After all, isolation that has negative effects for one species could in fact be beneficial for another.”

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.cell.com/trends/ecology-evolution/home">Trends in Ecology &amp; Evolution</a>.

--

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Image Credit: Nathan W. Bailey

A little alone time: Social isolation can benefit some animals

Researchers have investigated how social isolation in the short term...

A new study has found that older children who abuse animals are much more likely to have been abused in early childhood. The researchers determined that this behavior is far less common among girls, and is a stronger indicator of child abuse compared to boys.

“Reports of girls abusing animals are less prevalent than boys, and there is some suggestion that girls who do report that they abuse animals are more likely to be part of a wider abuse,” wrote the researchers.

As many as 44 percent of children abuse animals at some point during their childhood, and the study authors explained that this may be a low estimate considering a lot of this abuse is not acknowledged or reported.

Animal abuse among younger children can often be a way of exploring their surroundings, but abuse by children over the age of ten is much more concerning because it may be the result of abuse within the family.

Previous studies have found that children are three times as likely to have been physically abused themselves when they are physically aggressive at five years old, while abusive behavior among 12-year-olds is linked to five times the likelihood of a history of abuse.

According to the study, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/kids-behavioral-issues-parents/">children</a> who witness violence between their parents are around three times as likely to abuse animals.

The study authors pointed out that the term “animal abuse” is associated with a wide variety of motivations and behaviors.

“Differences of opinion exist on what constitutes abuse to an animal, and which animals should be included inside the definition,” they wrote. “For example, should it be restricted to just large vertebrate companion animals, such as dogs and cats, or include smaller animals, such as rodents or birds, or even insects.”

The experts concluded that additional research is needed to identify which types of animal abuse are more indicative of abuse within the family.

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://adc.bmj.com/pages/">Archives of Disease in Childhood</a>.

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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Kids who abuse animals are likely to have been abused themselves

A new study has found that older children who abuse...

“Just keep swimming,” pipes Dory, the spritely blue tang in the film Finding Nemo—over and over again. Her mantra amusingly invokes the longstanding perception of fish as dimwitted automatons, with little motivation beyond keeping themselves afloat, locating food and mates, and avoiding predators. 

Because they have more primitive brains than higher vertebrates such as mammals and birds, the reactions of fish to their environments were long viewed as mere “fixed action patterns.” That is: their actions and reactions were thought to be simple, coded responses without any real basis in cognition. There was no “thought” behind their actions, just hard-wired instinct. 

Though decades of research have slowly chipped away at this notion, most people still probably view fish as unintelligent and even incapable of feeling pain. The Nirvana song “Something in the Way” makes this explicit: “It’s okay to eat fish/’Cause they don’t have any feelings.” While this article will not concern itself with the ethics of fish consumption, it will delve into the evidence contradicting the latter point. 

The fact is, recent research has demonstrated that in all likelihood, fish do feel pain. Studies have shown that <a href="http://jeb.biologists.org/content/218/7/967">mid and forebrain regions display different reactions</a> to painful stimuli than to non-painful stimuli. And fish have been proven to possess nociceptors—the nerves necessary for perceiving pain. A <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0168159117300072#!">2017 University of Liverpool study</a> showed that when pain-relieving drugs were administered to larval zebrafish, they stopped reacting to painful stimuli, and when the drugs were removed, avoidant behavior resumed, suggesting that their pain pathways are in some respects similar to those of higher animals. 

Goldfish were demonstrated to avoid areas in their tanks where electric shocks were previously administered in a <a href="https://www.appliedanimalbehaviour.com/article/S0168-1591(05)00180-2/abstract">2006 study at Queen’s University of Belfast</a>, supporting the notion that they are capable of learning to avoid pain. And <a href="https://www.appliedanimalbehaviour.com/article/S0168-1591(07)00364-4/abstract">goldfish even learned to avoid such areas when food was present</a> per a 2008 study, indicating an ability to weigh the costs and benefits of two powerful stimuli. 

Fish have also demonstrated incredibly sophisticated cognitive processes once thought to be the exclusive province of mammals and perhaps birds. Investigations have shown that the spectrum of animal intelligence is far broader and more complex than previously thought. While fish do not form highly complex societies and alter their environments in the exact manner of humans, they do in fact display the key signifiers of cognitive ability—memory formation, learning, the ability to solve problems.

Fish inarguably possess more primitive brains than mammals, lacking a neocortex. But then again, so do birds. And their sentience is far less controversial. Some scientists have even argued that the primitive brains of fish possess structures similar to those responsible for cognition in higher vertebrates. 

Behavioral studies are perhaps more compelling in demonstrating this, though. Fish have clearly discriminated quantities in the lab. <a href="http://psycnet.apa.org/record/2017-55920-001">Guppies</a> (2018; University of Padova) and <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10071-017-1143-1">cleaner wrasses</a> (2017; University of Neuchâtel) have both been shown to be able to select a screen with a larger number of dots if a reward is offered. In a <a href="http://eprints-phd.biblio.unitn.it/2833/">2018 study</a> at the <a href="http://eprints-phd.biblio.unitn.it/2833/">University of Trento</a>, zebrafish preferred shoals with larger numbers of fish, suggesting a level of discernment by choosing safety in numbers. 

Fish can even learn by observation. Archerfish learned how to hit a target by watching other archerfish in a <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S096098220601013X#!">2006 study</a> by the <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S096098220601013X#!">University Erlangen-Nürnberg</a>, and in a <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/nature05511#author-information">2007 study at Stanford</a>, cichlids were shown to avoid conflicts with stronger males by watching them compete for mates. They can even recognize other fish. Shoaling behavior is known to be more efficient among fish that know each other. Cleaner wrasses, which pick parasites off of other reef fish, have been <a href="https://books.google.com/books?hl=en&amp;lr=&amp;id=gNNB2_y5z8EC&amp;oi=fnd&amp;pg=PA146&amp;dq=info:CiE9brEdSn4J:scholar.google.com&amp;ots=f1REoUPCxL&amp;sig=V82pN-2_85jPjfqP74wInviYzgc#v=onepage&amp;q=cleaner%20fish&amp;f=false">observed prioritizing fish that they have serviced before</a>. They have demonstrated a capacity for memory as well. Goldfish fed from different colored tubes remembered the color of the tube that dispensed their food a year after the initial experiment. 

One compelling study conducted at the <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10164-016-0462-z">University of South Florida</a> in 2016 claims that manta rays, which have what are considered to be the most complex brains of any fish, were able to pass the so-called mirror test, in which an organism is able to recognize itself in a mirror. The great apes, elephants, dolphins, and a few species of birds have also passed the test. Some are skeptical that the behavior demonstrated by the manta rays as they viewed their reflections actually indicates self-recognition, suggesting that it may have instead been simple curiosity. Such debates underscore the reality: there is no true objective measure of sentience and consciousness.

Researchers have noted that the resistance to the idea that fish are sentient is rooted in the anthropocentric principle. That is: due to cultural factors, notably Christian religion, which gives man “dominion” over the beasts and birds and fishes, we humans view ourselves as inherently superior to our fellow residents of Earth. Add to that the misconception that evolution is a progressive process—moving inexorably toward higher intelligence—and we have a recipe for a view of our fellow creatures that places us at the pinnacle of intelligence and sophistication. In this schema, all other animals reside on lower tiers of the pyramid. 

This hierarchy serves the additional purpose of justifying the actions of industry and science—if fish are in fact sentient, the way they are treated in harvesting and in experiments would have to be adjusted. Some scientists advocate the use of the precautionary principle—making these changes even in the absence of definitive proof of sentience with the assumption that that proof is forthcoming. A 2010 EU directive has already employed that to some extent in regard to the treatment of fish in lab settings. 

While a consensus on the sentience of fish is a ways off, it is fair to say that they aren’t just filets with fins, bobbing around in the depths without a care in the world.

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By <a href="mailto:rtpallardy@gmail.com">Richard Pallardy</a>, <a href="http://earth.com">Earth.com</a> Contributing Writer

Fish cognition: Why Dory isn’t as dumb as she seems

“Just keep swimming,” pipes Dory, the spritely blue tang in...

According to a new study from the <a href="http://illinois.edu/">University of Illinois</a>, fish that are friendlier are more likely to end up caught on a fishing hook. The researchers also found that removing the most sociable fish from the lake could result in drastic changes for the fish left behind.

“There's a reason everyone's first fish is bluegill,” said study lead author Michael Louison. “They are social fish, forming big groups around structures close to shore. It seemed like their social behavior and their aggression would be super important in terms of angling vulnerability.”


The experts stocked up an experimental pond with bluegill from a hatchery and tagged the fish for identification. 

“They had been living in a natural lake environment,” said Louison. “They had to find food and avoid predators in that environment. So they were 'real fish.'”


Louison and a colleague fished the pond with typical methods used for catching bluegill over the course of five days. When a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/inland-fishery-harvests-underreported/">fish</a> was caught, its identification number was documented.


At the end of the week, the pond was drained and 38 of the fish were assigned to a test group. Half of the fish had been caught at least once, while the others had never been caught.

To investigate the sociability of the fish, the team split a fish tank in half with a glass divider. A test fish was placed on one side and six random bluegills from the pond were placed on the other.

“We were looking at how much time this fish spent hanging out right next to the divider trying to associate with the fish on the other side,” said Louison. "You'd expect a social fish to be hanging out close to the glass a lot, whereas you'd expect a non-social fish to be further back."

The experiment revealed that fish who had been caught spent significantly more time near the divider than fish who had never been caught, and multiple trials confirmed these findings.

The teem tested to see if aggression was also a factor that drove fish to take the bait more often, but no link was found.

The researchers speculated that removing the most sociable fish from a population could change the structure, at least on a temporary basis.

Study co-author Cory Suski is an associate professor in the Department of Natural Resources and Environmental Sciences.


“Broadly speaking, for animals living in groups, social individuals are really important. They help spot predators, find prey, and transmit information about these things to the rest of the group,” said Professor Suski.


Study co-author Jeffrey Stein is a fish ecologist at the Illinois Natural History Survey.

“Our previous research has shown that removing fish with certain characteristics - like parental quality or even overall vulnerability to angling - has potential to change the character of a population," said Stein.

“Understanding how characteristics like sociability affect vulnerability to angling can lead to more effective management of high-quality recreational fisheries.”

The research is published in the journal <a href="https://www.journals.elsevier.com/animal-behaviour">Animal Behaviour</a>.

--

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Friendly fish are more likely to get caught

According to a new study from the University of Illinois,...

It’s that time of year to watch one of nature’s most fascinating light shows - not the Northern Lights - this show is courtesy of fireflies. For those of you lucky enough to have encountered fireflies on a summer evening, you know it is nothing short of magical. Whether as a child or adult, these small creatures induce wonder and delight. What makes these bugs so captivating? At first glance, they almost appear as a reflection or trick of the eye, and then, almost as if orchestrated by a ballet company, a handful to thousands of the fireflies rise from the surrounding shrubs and begin a whimsical dance. 

This spectacular sight is the result of flight and bioluminescence combined. Want to learn more about fireflies and what makes them so special? Read on for fun facts and how to help attract these beautiful fairy-like insects: 
<ul>
 	<li style="font-weight: 400;">The firefly, or sometimes known as lightning bug, is actually not a special fly but rather belongs to the beetle family Lampyridae. Lampyridae in Latin appropriately means “shining fire”. </li>
 	<li style="font-weight: 400;">Fireflies use light to communicate. A very unique characteristic in comparison to most animals which use sound. </li>
 	<li style="font-weight: 400;">Primarily the light signals are to attract a mate. Male fireflies light up quickly and continuously flash in hopes of attracting a female firefly. The females generally stay lower to the ground in the safety of plants and signal back to the male whose lightshow they find favorable. She also uses light to signal to the male and the brightness of her flash corresponds with her level of interest in the male. </li>
 	<li style="font-weight: 400;">Photocytes in the fireflies abdomen produce the light through a 100% efficient chemical reaction of luciferin and luciferase when exposed to oxygen. The firefly controls this reaction by managing the flow of oxygen to its abdomen- this turns the light on and off. Hues of yellow, green, and blue are possible amongst different species. </li>
 	<li style="font-weight: 400;">There are 2,000 species of fireflies around the world (except Antarctica) and each has its own unique light qualities that vary depending on sex.</li>
 	<li style="font-weight: 400;">The flashing can also be used as a warning signal to ward off predators. The bugs actually have a very bitter taste to most predators which is another deterrent that helps protect them. </li>
</ul>
Enamored with these shining bugs? You can help attract fireflies to your backyard by planting low trees and shrubs. Fireflies appreciate the shade for daytime shelter. They also like tall grassy meadows, extra long blades of grass are a good perch for them. The bugs also need a good water source so adding a small bird bath to your garden could increase the occurrence of seeing them. 

When looking for fireflies it’s easy to remember that they enjoy conditions similar to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/engineered-mosquitoes-eradicate-malaria/">mosquitos</a> - damp, dim, and moderate weather are all important conditions to consider! Fireflies also prefer to be the strongest light source around, they are most commonly found away from cities and light pollution and in yards without much lighting around the home or streets. Right after the sun sets May through July is the best time to search for fireflies. 

Hopefully these facts and tips help encourage you to seek out your next natural lightshow. It won’t be anything short of stunning! 

--

By <a href="mailto:bianca@earth.com">Bianca Vierra</a>, <a href="http://earth.com">Earth.com</a> Contributing Writer

Your summertime guide to enjoying the magic of fireflies

It’s that time of year to watch one of nature’s...

A team of experts led by <a href="http://www.lancaster.ac.uk/">Lancaster University</a> has been investigating whether protecting the carbon storage of tropical forests will also protect biodiversity. The researchers have found that investments designed to prevent carbon losses will be the least effective in safeguarding wildlife across the most ecologically valuable <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/carbon-north-american-forests/">forests</a>.

In these particular regions, up to 77 percent of species remain vulnerable when conservation efforts are focused solely on protecting carbon stocks. 

“Securing tropical forest carbon should remain a central conservation objective,” said study co-lead author Dr. Gareth Lennox.

“Not only will this slow climate change but it also has the potential to safeguard the unique and irreplaceable wildlife that inhabits these ecosystems. However, to ensure that those species survive, biodiversity needs to be treated as a priority - alongside carbon - of conservation efforts.”

More than a third of the the world's terrestrial carbon is stored in tropical forests, which is why these regions have become an important target of international efforts to mitigate climate change and have attracted billions of dollars in funding.

Tropical forests are also the world's most biodiverse ecosystems, harboring more than two-thirds of Earth's land species. 

The researchers wanted to understand how projects focused on protecting carbon stocks may affect biodiversity. The international team spent 18 months measuring the carbon content and species richness of plants, birds, and dung beetles in 234 tropical forests across the Brazilian Amazon.

For the first time, carbon and biodiversity levels were assessed in forests that ranged from minimally-disturbed by human activities to those recovering after vegetation had been completely cleared.


The analysis of this data confirmed that more carbon would mean more biodiversity in severely damaged forests. The study also revealed that, where human impacts were less intense, more carbon would not lead to more species.

*The changing relationship between carbon and biodiversity across forests that have suffered different kinds of human disturbances explain our findings,” said co-lead author Dr. Joice Ferreira. 

“As cleared and highly disturbed sites recover from the effects of agricultural use and severe wildfires, biodiversity also recovers. However, this linkage between carbon and biodiversity breaks down mid-recovery.” 

“The result: Forests with the greatest carbon content do not necessarily house the most species, meaning carbon-focused conservation can miss large swathes of tropical forest biodiversity.”

According to study co-author Dr. Toby Gardner, carbon and biodiversity conservation efforts must be combined for the best results.

“Although trade-offs are inevitable, conflicts between carbon and biodiversity can be reduced by more integrated planning,” said Dr. Gardner.

“By considering carbon and biodiversity together, we found, for example, that the number of large tree species that can be protected can be increased by up to 15% relative to a carbon-only approach for just a 1% reduction in carbon coverage.”

Study co-author Professor Jos Barlow explained why climate change mitigation requires the protection of biodiversity. 

“Biodiversity and climate change are inextricably linked in tropical forests. A warming climate and changing rainfall patterns will lead to the extinction of many tropical species, while it is within tropical biodiversity itself that forest carbon resides,” said Professor Barlow.

“Species-poor forests will eventually become carbon-poor. Therefore, tackling the climate crisis requires that both tropical forest carbon and tropical forest species are protected together.”

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/nclimate/">Nature Climate Change</a>.

--

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Image Credit: A. Lees

Saving tropical forest carbon stocks won’t protect biodiversity

A team of experts led by Lancaster University has been...

Images of two small polar bear cubs playing with a large piece of black plastic were captured along the coast of the Norwegian archipelago Svalbard, which is located about halfway between the North Pole and and Norway.

A group of scientists, artists, photographers,  and filmmakers recently completed a sailing expedition and campaign called <a href="https://twitter.com/sail4seas?lang=en">Sail Against Plastic</a>. The team set out to investigate and document <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plastic-pollution-crisis-antarctic/">plastic pollution</a> in the Arctic Ocean.

The black plastic waste appearing in the pictures sticks out like a sore thumb among the pristine landscape of Svalbard, an island located hundreds of miles from Europe. Svalbard is so remote that humans are outnumbered by polar bears.

The images may not come as a surprise to many activists and environmentalists who have been warning about the alarming extent of plastic pollution across our planet's oceans.

Claire Wallerstein was part of the Sail Against Plastic team, which spent 10 days investigating the water and air quality on the isolated beaches of Svalbard.

“We were very lucky to be invited to take part in this unique expedition, and had an amazing time seeing Arctic wildlife, stunning glaciers and experiencing 24-hour sunlight,” said Wallerstein.


“However, it was also a very sobering experience to see just how much plastic is making its way to this incredibly remote and apparently pristine environment.”

Wallerstein explained that the beaches were not so different from those in more populated regions.

“What we found on the beaches was sadly not so very different from what we find back home,” she said. “There was plenty of fishing waste, but the saddest thing was just how much of the waste blighting the Arctic is the same old disposable detritus of our daily lives – plastic bottles, cotton bud sticks, cigarette ends, wet wipes, polystyrene and food packaging.”

The team searched for both large plastics and microplastics in the water. They also tested the air for microplastic fibers and cleaned up beaches. Plastics were found on every beach that the group surveyed, and some of the waste had traveled over long distances. 

Flora Rendell-Bhatti is a researcher from the <a href="http://www.exeter.ac.uk/">University of Exeter</a>.

“As plastic pollution breaks down it is harder to identify the sources of the fragments and fibers by eye,” said Rendell-Bhatti. “Our microplastic net sampled the surface waters in areas where there is currently little research.”

“Once the samples are analyzed back in the UK, this data will indicate the levels of microplastic pollution in Arctic waters around Svalbard.”

--

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Image Credit: Kevin Morgans/<a href="https://swns.com/">SWNS.com</a>

Polar bear cubs seen playing with big piece of plastic pollution

Images of two small polar bear cubs playing with a...

The Louisiana black bear has qualified as an endangered species in recent years, only coming off the <a href="https://www.fws.gov/">U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service’s</a> list briefly back in 2016. The bears’ population is closely monitored, with many individuals fitted with radio collars. Through the use of these radio collars, the Louisiana state Department of Wildlife and Fisheries were able to determine that a bear had been shot and killed by a hunter last fall. Needless to say, there is no hunting season for black bears in Louisiana.

According to a report by <a href="https://www.usatoday.com/story/news/nation-now/2018/07/11/hunter-fined-10-000-killing-black-bear-louisiana/775467002/">USA Today</a>, Ronald J. Kimble, a 30-year-old from Lettsworth, Louisiana, was hunting on the grounds of the Richard K. Yancey Wildlife Management Area last November, when he fatally shot a four-year-old Louisiana black bear. A “mortality signal” was sent out by the radio collar the bear was wearing, alerting a biologist within the state’s Department of Wildlife and Fisheries. Agents were able to trace the signal, which led them to the deceased bear. They determined that it had been shot twice with a large caliber weapon.

Two months later, agents found Kimble hunting within an area the bear frequented, <a href="https://www.usatoday.com/story/news/nation-now/2018/07/11/hunter-fined-10-000-killing-black-bear-louisiana/775467002/">USA Today</a> reported.. When he was questioned, Kimble admitted to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/trump-hunting-bears-wolves/">killing</a> the bear with a .270 rifle. He told investigators that he thought the black bear was a wild hog, which is why he shot and killed the bear. Kimble was arrested for taking the bear during a closed season, as well as charged with possession of a firearm by a convicted felon. He was ordered by the court to pay $10,000 in assessed restitution, as well as $250 in attorney fees – his hunting and fishing licenses were also revoked until he pays the full amount. 

Whether or not Kimble truly thought he was shooting a wild hog, it’s an important lesson that hunting should be done with extreme caution. If you’re going to shoot something, make sure you know exactly what you’re shooting before pulling the trigger. And most obvious of all, don’t hunt animals out of season – especially those that were recently endangered.

--

By <a href="mailto:certz@earth.com">Connor Ertz</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Louisiana hunter fined $10,000 for killing endangered black bear

The Louisiana black bear has qualified as an endangered species...

The soldiers in an army ant colony may be bigger than other ants in the group, but it turns out their brains are relatively small for their size because of the limited number of tasks they need to perform. 

Researchers led by <a href="http://drexel.edu/">Drexel University</a> examined different army ant colonies to see if the ants with more demanding jobs had larger brains despite their size. 

Army ant soldiers are massive compared to other worker ants in the nest but their size is necessary for defending the colony and fighting. 

Because of their limited tasks compared to workers who attend to the colony, transport food, and care for the queen and her babies, the researchers hypothesized that brain development is also limited for soldiers. 

The team compared total brain size and body size for 109 workers and 39 soldiers from eight different species and subspecies of army ants. 

“To compare different types of ant castes - soldiers and other workers - we took advantage of the dramatically distinct soldier class of workers in Eciton army ant colonies,” said Sean O'Donnell, the lead author of the study. “Soldiers are morphologically distinct - they are bigger than their nest mates - but also behaviorally distinct: they have a simpler behavioral repertoire. Our findings support the idea that the simple behaviors of soldiers allow for reduced investment in brain development.”

For soldiers, the antennal lobes and mushroom bodies were smaller than worker ants but their brain size was not much different.

The antennal lobes receive and process olfactory information, which is crucial for finding food and survival and it makes sense that worker ants who gather food for the colony would have larger lobes. 

Ants and many <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/queen-bee-dies-successor/">other insects are eusocial </a>which means that within the hive, nest or colony there is a specific caste system and every insect has a role that benefits the group as a whole. 

With army ants, the study shows that brain development that doesn’t serve the colony is unnecessary and deemed too great a cost. 

“We believe this is the first study to explore the possibility of reduced brain investment in social group members, with the evolutionary advantages accruing at the colony level, despite potential cognitive costs to the individuals,” said O’Donnell. “Most previous studies of this kind compared different species or explored which factors could favor increased brain investment at the individual level. Our study explores how a reduction in behavioral capacity, and an associated reduction in brain investment in individuals, could benefit social groups as a whole.”

--

By <a href="mailto:kayvandette@gmail.com">Kay Vandette</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/">Earth.com </a>Staff Writer

Army ant soldiers have massive bodies but small brains

The soldiers in an army ant colony may be bigger...

Spicy food connoisseurs know that when it comes to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/spicy-food-less-salt/">spicy peppers</a>, the sometimes painful burning sensation is part of the draw. 

Humans are one of the few species on Earth that actively seek out spicy foods as most mammals avoid eating hot peppers and plants because of the pain that comes with them.

Chili peppers and other spicy plants get their heat from a chemical called capsaicin, which is designed to deter animals from eating them. However, a new study found that Chinese tree shrews (Tupaia belangeri chinensis) have evolved to thrive on spicy peppers full of capsaicinoids. 

Researchers from <a href="http://english.kiz.cas.cn/">Kunming Institute of Zoology</a> in China in a new study unlocked the secrets behind the shrew’s tolerance to capsaicin and it has to do with a mutation in the animal’s cell receptors. 

The study was published in the journal<a href="http://journals.plos.org/plosbiology/article?id=10.1371/%20journal.pbio.2004921"> PLOS BIOLOGY. </a>

Capsaicinoids trigger a burning sensation by activating an ion channel found on the surface of pain-sensitive cells called TRPV1.

The chemical is meant to act as a defense mechanism by alerting whatever consumes it that the food is dangerous. 

The researchers fed both mice and tree shrews chili peppers which contain capsaicin. The mice reduced the amount of pepper they ate as they realized how hot the food was whereas the shrews were not deterred. 

Even though the mice and shrews had similar levels of TRPV1, the ion channels in shrews were less responsive to the chemical because shrews lacked a single amino acid that was found in the mice. 

This is why tree shrews are unaffected by capsaicin and can feed on foods that other species would find painful. 

The researchers theorize that this mutation developed to allow tree shrews to eat Piper boehmeriaefolium, a plant in their environment that produces heavy amounts of capsaicin. 

“We propose that this mutation is an evolutionary adaptation that enabled the tree shrew to acquire a tolerance for capsaicinoids, thus widening the range of its diet for better survival,” said Yalan Han, the lead author of the study. 

--

By <a href="mailto:kayvandette@gmail.com">Kay Vandette</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 

Image Credit: Thomas Foley, Unsplash

Chinese tree shrews can eat spicy peppers thanks to a mutation

Spicy food connoisseurs know that when it comes to spicy...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2E0mn5mTvhQ
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">'Death Star' moon Mimas conceals a 15-million-year-old ocean that scientists never expected.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hidden-waters-beneath-ancient-craters">Hidden waters beneath ancient craters</h2>



Scientists have made a startling discovery that challenges everything we thought we knew about <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/saturn-moon-mimas-has-remarkably-young-ocean/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Saturn's moon Mimas</a>. Beneath the heavily cratered surface that earned it the nickname "Death Star" lies a global ocean that formed just 5 to 15 million years ago—a remarkably young age by cosmic standards.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cassini-data-reveals-orbital-secrets">Cassini data reveals orbital secrets</h2>



The discovery, led by Dr. Valéry Lainey of the <a href="https://observatoiredeparis.psl.eu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Observatoire de Paris</a>, emerged from careful analysis of <a href="https://www.nasa.gov" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NASA</a>'s Cassini spacecraft data. By studying subtle irregularities in Mimas's orbit around Saturn, researchers detected the gravitational signature of liquid water hidden 20 to 30 kilometers beneath the moon's icy shell.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-an-unlikely-ocean-world">An unlikely ocean world</h2>



At only 400 kilometers in diameter, Mimas seemed like the least likely candidate to harbor a subsurface ocean. Unlike other ocean moons such as Europa and Enceladus, which show clear surface signs of internal activity, Mimas displays no obvious hints of the liquid water beneath its ancient, crater-scarred exterior.



"Mimas is a small moon, and its heavily cratered surface gave no hint of the hidden ocean beneath," explained Dr. Nick Cooper from <a href="https://www.qmul.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Queen Mary University of London</a>, a study co-author.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-astrobiology">Implications for astrobiology</h2>



The ocean's recent formation makes Mimas a prime target for studying how oceans develop and potentially support life. This discovery adds another member to the exclusive club of ocean worlds in our solar system, each offering unique insights into the conditions necessary for habitability.



The research, published in <a href="https://www.nature.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature</a> journal, demonstrates how advanced orbital analysis can reveal hidden features of celestial bodies, opening new possibilities for understanding ocean formation throughout the cosmos.



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Scientists discover unexpected young ocean on Saturn's cratered moon Mimas

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2E0mn5mTvhQ 'Death Star' moon Mimas conceals a 15-million-year-old ocean that...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE
</div></figure>



On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop and sunlight barely penetrates through the polar winter. It was here, however, that an international team of scientists found <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/predatory-worms-were-terror-beasts-half-a-billion-years-ago/#google_vignette" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evidence of sea monsters</a> that would change our understanding of ocean life in the past.



This video captures the discovery of Timorebestia fossils that had been hidden for more than 500 million years in the Sirius Passet formation. The "terror beasts," as they are called, are a hidden chapter in the evolutionary history of <a href="https://www.earth.com" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Earth</a>, showing that sophisticated predator-prey interactions occurred much earlier than previously envisioned.



Dr. Jakob Vinther and his research team at the <a href="https://www.bristol.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Bristol</a>, in collaboration with researchers at the <a href="https://eng.kopri.re.kr/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Korean Polar Research Institute</a>, braved extreme weather conditions at 82.5 north latitude to locate these giant creatures. Using sophisticated electron microprobe analysis, they revealed the detailed anatomy of the animals, including their muscle and nerve tissues.



The find upsets the traditional timeline of sea predators. Although we've long appreciated that Cambrian oceans were at one time ruled by <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jWI3-UgA3_o&amp;list=PL1QLQMW9MWDwpkFOnvgAmu7wT6rZmYqdJ&amp;index=19" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">arthropods</a>, these discoveries indicate that relatives of arrow worms were first to dominate the seas. These worms were building sophisticated food webs several million years before other predator groups arose.



Each fossil is a story of ancient hunger, with fossil stomach contents revealing these meter-long beasts dined on heavily armored arthropods regularly, cementing their place as the ocean's first apex predators.



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Worms dominated seas before dinosaurs

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">New York is the site of the world's oldest forest.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-385-million-year-old-trees-discovered">385-million-year-old trees discovered</h2>



Scientists have uncovered something extraordinary just two hours north of New York City. The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/worlds-oldest-forest-discovered-close-to-new-york-city/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">world's oldest forest</a>, dating back 385 million years, offers a window into how Earth's first complex forests shaped our planet's atmosphere.



Located near <a href="https://townofcairo.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cairo, New York</a>, in Greene County, these weren't merely primitive plants struggling to survive. These were sophisticated trees with root systems remarkably similar to modern forests. This ancient woodland predates dinosaurs by 140 million years.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-cairo-forest-discovery">The Cairo forest discovery</h2>



385 million years ago, upstate New York was a tropical paradise near the equator. Thanks to continental drift, this ancient forest has traveled thousands of miles to its current location.



The fossil forest sits in an abandoned quarry, roughly half the size of a football field. This represents just a slice of what was likely a massive forest system stretching from New York into Pennsylvania.



Charles Ver Straeten, curator of sedimentary rocks at the <a href="https://www.nysm.nysed.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">New York State Museum</a>, made the discovery in 2009. While scouting the former highway department property, his trained eye spotted wandering patterns in the stone that looked like marine features.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-revolutionary-age-and-preservation">Revolutionary age and preservation</h2>



The site contains 385-million-year-old rocks with fossilized woody roots forming horizontal patterns up to 18 feet (5.5 meters) wide. As Christopher Berry, a paleobotanist at Cardiff University, explains: "You are walking through the roots of ancient trees."



This discovery pushes back advanced tree evolution by millions of years. The research, published in <a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/home" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Current Biology</a> in December 2019, fundamentally changes our understanding of when complex forests first emerged.



Researchers believe a massive flood buried the forest floor, creating perfect fossilization conditions. Over millions of years, sediment hardened into rock, preserving these root patterns like nature's time capsule.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-meet-archaeopteris-the-first-modern-tree">Meet Archaeopteris: the first modern tree</h2>



The star of this ancient forest is Archaeopteris – not to be confused with the feathered dinosaur Archaeopteryx. This tree was far older and more revolutionary.



William Stein from <a href="https://www.binghamton.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Binghamton University</a> describes the roots as "strikingly modern, essentially what you'd see outside in my yard right now." These weren't simple root systems you'd expect from ancient plants.



Some fossilized roots are six inches (15 centimeters) in diameter, forming 36-foot-wide (11-meter) patterns. These giants grew up to 65 feet (20 meters) tall with five-foot-diameter (1.5-meter) trunks.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-changing-impact">Climate-changing impact</h2>



These trees fundamentally changed Earth's environment. Kevin Boyce, a Stanford University geoscientist, explains how their deep roots triggered "weathering," chemical reactions that pulled carbon dioxide from the atmosphere.



This process dropped atmospheric CO2 levels from 10-15 times higher than today to roughly modern concentrations. These ancient trees helped create atmospheric conditions that made complex life possible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ancient-forest-ecosystem">Ancient forest ecosystem</h2>



The forest was remarkably diverse. Scientists identified Eospermatopteris, palm tree-like plants with short roots that reached 30 feet (9 meters) tall but lacked woody structure. The forest also housed cladoxylopsids and a mysterious third species still being studied.



All reproduced through spores rather than seeds – millions of years before seeds evolved. This tropical environment had no grass, flowers, or flying insects, just towering trees creating Earth's first complex forest canopy.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-scientific-significance">Scientific significance</h2>



Before this finding, the Gilboa forest, located 25 miles (40 kilometers) away, held the "oldest forest" title. Cairo's trees are 2-3 million years older, showing that complex forest ecosystems developed much faster than scientists believed possible.



Patricia Gensel, a <a href="https://www.unc.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of North Carolina</a> paleobotanist, notes: "The size of those root systems is really changing the picture. Even 20 years ago, researchers assumed trees with such complex root systems didn't evolve so early."



The Cairo site presents three unique root systems, suggesting Devonian period forests were diverse ecosystems with different trees occupying different environmental niches, much like today's forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-modern-preservation-efforts">Modern preservation efforts</h2>



In 2022, New York State Senator Michelle Hinchey secured a $170,000 grant for the town of Cairo to construct specialized fencing around the fossil forest site. The town plans to conduct a feasibility study exploring the possibility of creating an educational center and working lab on-site.



Joe Hasenkopf, chair of the Cairo Planning Board, hopes to partner with educational institutions to create a research facility serving scientists, students, and the public.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lessons-for-today-s-climate">Lessons for today's climate</h2>



Why does a 385-million-year-old forest matter today? It shows how dramatically forests can change Earth's climate. These ancient woodlands created the atmospheric conditions supporting complex life.



Understanding how prehistoric forests transformed the planet helps us appreciate modern forests' critical role in addressing climate change. Forests remain Earth's most effective carbon capture systems.



These prehistoric trees changed Earth's atmosphere by pulling massive amounts of carbon dioxide from the air. As we face modern climate challenges, this ancient forest reminds us of trees' incredible power to transform our planet's environment.



The next time you walk through a forest, remember you're experiencing an ecosystem whose blueprint was established 385 million years ago in upstate New York. These ancient pioneers didn't just survive – they thrived and changed the world forever.



The full study was published in the journal Current Biology.



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Earth's oldest forest found in the United States

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ New York is the site of the world's oldest...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Acid rain and a crisis solved.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-don-t-we-ever-hear-about-acid-rain-anymore-the-environmental-crisis-that-was-solved">Why don't we ever hear about "acid rain" anymore? The environmental crisis that was solved</h2>



Remember the 1980s when acid rain dominated headlines? Dire warnings about rain eating buildings, killing fish, and destroying forests filled every news cycle. Then, almost like magic, acid rain vanished from public discourse. What happened? Did we actually solve one of the late 20th century's most pressing environmental challenges?



The answer might surprise you. Unlike many environmental issues that drag on indefinitely, acid rain represents one of modern history's most successful ecological recovery stories. It's a tale of science, politics, and technology working together to tackle what seemed impossible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What was acid rain?</h2>



Acid rain isn't regular rain having a bad day – it's precipitation that became significantly more acidic due to air pollution. When power plants, factories, and vehicles burn fossil fuels, they release sulfur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides (NOx) into the atmosphere.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The science behind it</h2>



Think of acid rain as nature's chemistry experiment gone wrong. These compounds react with water, oxygen, and other chemicals to form sulfuric and nitric acids. When mixed with water vapor in clouds, they create precipitation with dangerously low pH levels.



While clean rain has a pH of about 5.6, acid rain could drop as low as 4.2 to 4.4 – roughly as acidic as tomato juice or coffee. According to US Geological Survey documentation, Scottish chemist Angus Smith first coined "acid rain" in 1872, but it didn't become a household phrase until the 1960s and 1970s when Swedish scientist Svante Odén documented its devastating effects on Scandinavian lakes and European forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The crisis at its peak</h2>



During the height of public concern, environmental damage was both widespread and visible. This wasn't some abstract future threat – people could see destruction happening in real-time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Environmental devastation</h2>



The most dramatic impacts were impossible to ignore. Research documented by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation and the New York State Department of Environmental Conservation shows that in the Adirondack Mountains, more than 200 lakes became so acidic they couldn't support fish life. The Adirondack Council reports that 409 lakes once supported brook trout, but many lost their fish populations due to acid rain.



By 1976, when scientists cataloged all acidified lakes in the Adirondack Park, researchers found that half of the lakes over 2,000 feet above sea level had no fish, according to studies published in environmental journals. The acidification process worked like a slow-motion disaster. As acid rain fell into watersheds, it gradually lowered pH levels. Fish couldn't survive in acidic water, and their food sources died off too.



Trees at high elevations showed stress directly linked to acid rain. It weakened them by leaching nutrients and making them susceptible to disease. Historical records show Germany's Black Forest saw nearly half its trees damaged by the mid-1980s.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Economic impact</h2>



Acid rain wasn't just environmental – it was expensive. Acidic precipitation corroded infrastructure, buildings, and monuments. Historic stone structures deteriorated at accelerated rates. Tourism suffered as lakes became fishless and forests declined. EPA economic analyses from the period documented repair costs mounting into billions annually.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The solution: government action and technology</h2>



Transformation from crisis to success required unprecedented cooperation between governments, industries, and environmental groups.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The Clean Air Act of 1990</h2>



The turning point came with the Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990, signed by President George H.W. Bush. This represented a fundamentally new approach to environmental regulation, as documented in EPA historical records.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Cap-and-trade success</h2>



Instead of mandating specific technologies, the 1990 amendments introduced something revolutionary: a cap-and-trade system for sulfur dioxide emissions. EPA program documentation shows this market-based approach set overall limits but allowed companies to trade emission allowances.



The genius was harnessing market forces to find cost-effective pollution reduction. Companies reducing emissions cheaply could sell excess allowances to those facing higher costs. Research published in environmental economics journals and EPA progress reports shows this resulted in dramatic SO2 reduction at a fraction of projected costs.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Technology advances</h2>



Policy provided the framework, but technology made reductions possible. Studies in atmospheric science journals document the widespread adoption of flue gas desulfurization systems ("scrubbers") that removed sulfur dioxide before it reached the atmosphere. By the 2000s, new installations could remove over 95% of SO2 emissions, according to EPA technical reports.



The push coincided with cleaner energy development. Natural gas produces fewer sulfur compounds than coal. Wind and solar, emerging in the 1990s, captured growing market share, reducing reliance on high-sulfur coal.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-we-don-t-hear-about-it-today">Why we don't hear about it today</h2>



Why did acid rain disappear from headlines? Simple: the problem was largely solved.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Success doesn't make news</h2>



There's an old journalism saying: "If it bleeds, it leads." Environmental success stories don't generate urgency like crisis reporting. Media attention shifted to other challenges: climate change, plastic pollution, and biodiversity loss. There's only so much environmental anxiety the public can absorb, and newer concerns replaced acid rain.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Mission accomplished</h2>



The primary reason is beautifully simple: interventions worked. EPA monitoring data shows sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990. Academic research published in environmental science journals confirms pH levels in formerly affected areas returned closer to normal. This represents one of history's most dramatic environmental recoveries. Studies by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation show fishless lakes now support healthy populations. Forests recovered, and building damage slowed dramatically.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-is-it-really-gone">Is it really gone?</h2>



The crisis is largely resolved, but monitoring data shows the problem isn't completely eliminated – it's managed to acceptable levels. Some areas still experience occasional events during high pollution periods. International environmental research indicates that rapidly industrializing Asian countries face similar problems to what we experienced decades ago, though they're implementing successful strategies.



EPA research shows nitrogen oxide emissions proved more challenging than sulfur dioxide, coming from vehicles and mobile sources. Climate science studies suggest changing weather patterns add complexity to how acid rain forms and falls.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What this teaches us</h2>



The acid rain experience proves that seemingly intractable environmental problems can be solved with scientific understanding, political will, and technological innovation. Environmental monitoring data shows recovery speed was remarkable – within a decade, measurable improvements appeared in air quality and ecosystem health.



Success came from bipartisan support across party lines. Policy analysis studies show the market-based approach appealed to those preferring economic incentives while achieving environmental goals. This support created lasting policy surviving political changes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Conclusion</h2>



Acid rain's disappearance from public consciousness represents environmental science's greatest success stories. Through effective regulation, technological innovation, and international cooperation, we transformed an overwhelming crisis into a manageable challenge.



Today's silence isn't because we forgot – it's because we solved it. The 1990 Clean Air Act, combined with technology and energy market changes, reduced acid rain emissions over 90%, according to comprehensive EPA data analysis.



This success offers hope for current challenges. It proves complex problems can be solved when science, policy, and technology work together. As we face climate change and plastic pollution, acid rain reminds us that dramatic positive change is possible.



Next time someone asks whether environmental regulations work, remember acid rain. It's proof that sometimes, we get it right.



<hr class="wp-block-separator has-alpha-channel-opacity"/>



Sources: This article draws from EPA official documentation and progress reports, peer-reviewed research published in environmental and atmospheric science journals, historical data from the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation, New York State Department of Environmental Conservation records, US Geological Survey publications, policy analysis studies, and environmental monitoring data collected over three decades.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Frequently Asked Questions</h2>



1. Is acid rain completely gone? No, but EPA monitoring shows it's reduced to manageable levels. US sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990, making acid rain much less severe than the 1980s crisis.



2. How long did solving take? Environmental monitoring data shows significant improvements began within 5-10 years of 1990s emission controls. Full ecosystem recovery took longer – some areas need 20-30 years for complete recovery.



3. What made the solution successful? Clear scientific understanding, visible damage motivating action, bipartisan support, available technology, and innovative market-based policies like cap-and-trade.



4. Do other countries have acid rain problems? Yes, particularly rapidly industrializing Asian countries. However, international environmental research shows many implement similar successful control strategies.



5. Could acid rain return? Potentially, if regulations weaken or we return to high-sulfur coal without controls, though effects would take years to become severe according to environmental projections.



6. Can you recommend any teaching tools on the subject of "acid rain"? The United States Environmental Protection Agency produced a wonderful teacher's guide for ages 14 and under that you can find on the EPA website here: <a href="https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf</a>



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The environmental problem we actually solved

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk Acid rain and a crisis solved. Why don't we...

Fresh,Radish,Harvest,On,Soil,In,Garden.

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://youtu.be/Fi2OeEwuzRM?si=vTyd2m9FMmtyWkex
</div></figure>







Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving fall garden, and this guide lays out the best vegetables and herbs to plant now for a fruitful autumn harvest. 



Fast-growing leafy greens such as spinach, lettuce, kale, and arugula perform especially well in the waning summer heat, with harvests beginning as soon as 30 days. 



These cool-season crops relish the transition into fall, offering repeated yields with cut-and-come-again methods.



Root vegetables like radishes, carrots, and beets also excel during this period. Radishes deliver satisfaction in under a month, while carrots and beets mature in about two months. Employing succession planting ensures a continuous stream of produce deep into the cooler months. 



For a boost of fresh flavor, herbs like cilantro, basil, dill, and chervil are excellent picks. These heat-loving varieties flourish in July’s warmth and are harvest-ready in about 30 days, especially when sown continuously.



Gardeners in zones 6 through 9 can benefit from planting bush beans and snap peas, which don’t require trellising and are ideal for compact plots. 



Maturing in 50–60 days, they’re a smart choice for quick, protein-rich harvests. For those in hotter regions, heat-tolerant crops such as okra and southern peas provide reliable yields and thrive in scorching conditions.



This guide emphasizes more than crop selection—it highlights the importance of timing, soil preparation, and ongoing sowing techniques. 



With thoughtful planning and attention to regional climate needs, even late-summer gardeners can enjoy fresh salads, hearty stews, and the satisfaction of a robust, homegrown harvest well into fall.



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What to plant in your garden in mid-July

https://youtu.be/Fi2OeEwuzRM?si=vTyd2m9FMmtyWkex Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving...

Green,Ecoduct,Over,An,Empty,Highway,During,Sunset.

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://youtu.be/XYgiPzmNBTU?si=eFYY7gPHU1JznLvU
</div></figure>



A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that wildlife tunnels significantly reduce amphibian road mortality during seasonal migrations. 



Frogs and salamanders often cross roads to reach breeding ponds each spring, but many are killed by vehicles. 



Researchers from the <a href="https://www.uvm.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Vermont</a>, in collaboration with local citizens and the Vermont Agency of Natural Resources, installed two underpass tunnels in 2015. 



Over a 12-year monitoring period, they observed an 80.2% reduction in amphibian deaths, and up to 94% for non-climbing species like salamanders. 



The study used a before-after-control-impact design and documented more than 5,200 amphibians, highlighting the tunnels’ effectiveness even in nearby buffer zones.



Funded at $342,397 - far cheaper than wildlife crossings for large mammals - the project showcased the power of community-led conservation.



Local groups initiated the effort after observing mass amphibian deaths. Wildlife cameras later captured over 2,200 amphibians using a tunnel in just one spring, along with other species like raccoons and bobcats, indicating wider ecosystem benefits.



This marks the first peer-reviewed, long-term data set in the northeastern U.S. confirming amphibian-specific underpasses work. 



The study urges transportation departments to incorporate these designs into road planning and highlights how community action, thoughtful infrastructure, and persistence can make a real difference for biodiversity.



The full study was published in the <a href="https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1617138125000780" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal for Nature Conservation</a>.



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-----

Wildlife tunnels save millions of amphibians

https://youtu.be/XYgiPzmNBTU?si=eFYY7gPHU1JznLvU A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that...

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing it with probiotics and prebiotics, aiming to create a treat that satisfies cravings while supporting gut health. 



The challenge lies in maintaining chocolate's beloved texture and flavor while adding health benefits.



<figure class="wp-block-embed aligncenter is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://youtu.be/Ug657J67iEo?si=w96YjGMsg939LD_3
</div></figure>



Probiotics - beneficial microbes that balance gut bacteria and aid digestion - are typically fragile and can be destroyed by stomach acid or processing. 



Prebiotics act as food for these microbes, helping them thrive. Together, they form "synbiotics," a powerful health combination.



Researchers Smriti Gaur and Shubhi Singh from India's Jaypee Institute of Information Technology took an innovative approach, using natural prebiotics like corn and honey instead of complex processing methods. 



They created five chocolate varieties: a control and four synbiotic versions containing different combinations of prebiotics, probiotics (Lactobacillus strains), and flavor enhancers (cinnamon or orange).



Laboratory simulations of human digestion showed the probiotics remained viable for over five hours, suggesting they could survive long enough to benefit gut health.



Taste tests were positive, with researchers particularly enjoying the orange-flavored variety, describing it as having "vibrant citrus notes" complementing the "rich cocoa" with a "luxurious" texture.



This research represents just the beginning. With further refinement of strains, textures, and flavors, chocolate could evolve beyond mere indulgence to become a functional food that nourishes while it delights.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.4c00741" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ACS Food Science &amp; Technology</a>.

Is chocolate the next nutritional powerhouse?

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="0ynNMYkMKa-2340414-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

[sendtonews key="0ynNMYkMKa-2340414-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="G9bUoxcjr4-2511624-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

[sendtonews key="G9bUoxcjr4-2511624-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="3upvlAaHgO-2256633-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

[sendtonews key="3upvlAaHgO-2256633-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

[sendtonews key="LvS8v8bp9z-2564889-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="X0f6OHYoI4-2310561-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How does salt makes things taste better?

[sendtonews key="X0f6OHYoI4-2310561-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="JRaP49ISmm-2357509-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Santiago, Chile in South America

[sendtonews key="JRaP49ISmm-2357509-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="e4ZG0Jawp3-2374785-12187" type="single"]</div>



Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.



According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."



Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;



ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. 



Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

[sendtonews key="0879czfG3k-1785905-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from NASA...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

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