Dogs live with us, watch us, and often reflect our lives back at us. When routines shift, they shift. When stress builds, they sense it. 



Scientists wanted to know just how much these changes affect <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/national-puppy-day-2025-where-happiness-meets-responsibility/">dogs</a>, particularly during the upheaval of the pandemic. That curiosity led to one of the largest studies ever on canine behavior.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tracking-dog-behavior-and-health">Tracking dog behavior and health</h2>



Researchers at Virginia Tech and the <a href="https://www.washington.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Washington</a> studied over 47,000 dogs between 2020 and 2023. 



The work was conducted as part of the Dog Aging Project, a massive effort that tracks the lives and health of dogs across the United States.



"Most importantly, with these data, we're excited to now have a starting point from which we can continue to follow changes in the behaviors of tens of thousands of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dogs-may-respond-to-each-other-through-blinking/">dogs</a> as they age, which will ultimately help us understand how behavior and health are linked," said Courtney Sexton, lead researcher from Virginia Tech.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-detecting-changes-in-dogs">Detecting changes in dogs</h2>



Behavior in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dogs-suffer-from-the-january-blues-just-like-humans/">dogs</a> is more than personality. A sudden change can point to illness, pain, or stress. Small shifts in aggression, fear, or trainability can signal bigger problems. 



By establishing a baseline, researchers now have a way to spot meaningful changes across time. 



The team relied on a widely used survey known as C-BARQ, in which owners reported on 14 aspects of their dogs’ behavior - from aggression to trainability. 



Researchers then organized these traits into four broad categories: Fear, Attention and Excitability, Aggression, and Trainability. This framework allowed them to track and compare behavior patterns over time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-strength-of-the-data">Strength of the data</h2>



The dataset was huge. It included dogs from every region of the United States. Nearly half of the dogs were mixed breeds, while the rest were single breeds. Ages ranged from puppies to seniors.



"When you have a data set this big, you really do have power in numbers," Sexton explained. "While we can't understand all the factors, when we find statistical significance, there is likely something there worth thinking about in its real-world context."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dog-behavior-during-the-pandemic">Dog behavior during the pandemic </h2>



The original goal was clear. Researchers wanted to see how the pandemic shaped dog behavior. People spent more time at home. Many adopted new pets, and social interactions declined.



Routines changed overnight. Did <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dogs-are-evolving-to-fit-the-modern-lives-of-humans/">dogs</a> change too? Scientists hoped to uncover whether these new conditions led to lasting behavioral shifts, from training challenges to changes in aggression or fear. They wanted to know if dogs adapted or struggled alongside humans.



The data showed that dogs remained surprisingly consistent from 2020 through 2023. "We saw that certain factors, such as a dog's life stage, sex, and size had some influence on their behavior," Sexton said.



"Interestingly, we found that throughout the COVID-19 pandemic time period, there were not substantial changes in dogs' overall behavioral profiles from year to year despite what we might have expected given the changes in environment and routines that many were experiencing at that time."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-pandemic-puppy-struggles">Pandemic puppy struggles</h2>



One behavior did shift: trainability. Dogs enrolled in 2020 scored higher than those added in later years. Scores dropped in 2021, 2022, and 2023. 



Researchers think the dip reflects “pandemic puppy” struggles. New owners often lacked time or access to training. Dogs had fewer chances to socialize. Stress in households added to the mix.



By 2023, trainability scores started to climb back toward earlier levels. That rebound suggests that as people regained stable routines, dogs did too.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-role-of-gender-breed-and-size">The role of gender, breed, and size</h2>



The study also revealed differences tied to breed and body size. Mixed-breed dogs scored higher on fear, attention-seeking, and aggression than purebred dogs. Shelter backgrounds and early trauma may play a role.



Small dogs were more fearful, more aggressive, and less trainable than larger dogs. 



Puppies needed more attention, were less fearful and less aggressive, but also harder to train. Males were more aggressive and less trainable than females.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dogs-and-owners-bounced-back">Dogs and owners bounced back</h2>



Owners in 2020 reported more aggression than those in 2023. That drop may reflect less household stress and more opportunities for dogs to interact as restrictions lifted.



“What was interesting was that the difference in reported trainability between the first year and the last year was the smallest of any in the averages,” Sexton noted. 



“It’s a small statistical significance but could show that dogs, or their owners, are bouncing back.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-research-on-dog-behavior">Future research on dog behavior</h2>



This is only the beginning. <a href="https://dogagingproject.org" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">The Dog Aging Project</a> will keep tracking these dogs as they grow older. Researchers want to see how location, health, and age shape behavior over time. 



The ultimate goal is to connect behavior with health so owners can better care for their pets.



Dogs adapted through the pandemic. They struggled in some ways, especially with training, but showed remarkable resilience. Their story mirrors ours. 



As life changed, dogs adjusted, and as routines returned, they found steadier ground. This study now offers the first large-scale baseline of canine behavior - a reference point that will guide both researchers and dog owners for years to come.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0330257" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">PLOS One</a>.



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How the pandemic changed dog behavior over 3 years

Dogs live with us, watch us, and often reflect our lives back at us. When routines shift, they shift. When stress builds, they sense it. Scientists wanted to know just how much these changes affect dogs, particularly during the upheaval of the pandemic. That curiosity led to one of the largest studies ever on canine behavior. Tracking dog behavior and health Researchers at Virginia Tech and the University of Washington studied over 47,000 dogs between 2020 and 2023. The work was conducted as part of the Dog...

How just a few drops of viper venom call kill you.  How just a few drops of viper venom call kill you. Scientists at the <a href="http://www.butantan.gov.br/">Instituto Butantan</a> in Brazil have been analyzing the sugar molecules and proteins in several species of lancehead vipers. The experts found that sugar chains within the snakes known as glycans can modify the toxic proteins in snake venom, causing it to become more lethal.

The lancehead viper is one of the most dangerous snakes in South America, and a single bite can be fatal. Species found throughout Central and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/endangered-south-american-forests/">South America</a> have venom that can cause hemorrhaging, strokes, and kidney failure.

The team was led by Solange Serrano, a researcher in the Laboratory of Applied Toxicology at Instituto Butantan. According to Serrano, most proteins in lancehead venom are modified with glycans, which can affect the folding, stability, and binding of the proteins. However, little is known about glycan structure in the snakes' venom.

Serrano's graduate student Debora Andrade-Silva visited the lab of glycomics expert Vernon Reinhold at the <a href="https://unh.edu/">University of New Hampshire</a> to learn ways to structurally characterize glycans. 

Using mass spectrometry, the team characterized the structure of 60 glycan chains in eight lancehead venoms. They were able to determine which sugars were present and how they were linked into glycan structures.

Lancehead venom contains nearly 100 milligrams of protein per milliliter of liquid. At this concentration, protein solutions tend to become very viscous or form gels. 

The researchers found that a disproportionate number of glycans attached to the proteins were tipped with sialic acid, a sugar with a negative charge. 

Sialic acid on a toxic enzyme may also bind to host proteins called siglecs, pulling the enzyme closer to target cells for a type of “supercharged” venom, which is an effect that has been observed in other types of venom.


The team in Brazil continues working to gain a better understanding of how venom differs among snake species. This discovery could lead to the development of improved anti-venom treatment. 

Serrano explained that “the antivenoms do a reasonable job, but they are not so good at neutralizing the local effects of snakebite,” which include swelling, hemorrhage and necrosis. 

The research is published in the journal <a href="http://www.mcponline.org/">Molecular &amp; Cellular Proteomics</a>.

--

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

How just a few drops of viper venom call kill you

How just a few drops of viper venom call kill...

Oldest animal fossil footprint on record discovered in China. Researchers may have uncovered the oldest fossil footprints on record, dating back to the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ancient-animals-grew-large/">Ediacaran Period</a> 600 million years ago, in China. 

Fossils and footprints can reveal a great deal about what life was like millions of years before humans walked the Earth. 

The Cambrian Period marks the time in the fossil record when most major groups of animals <a href="http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/cambrian/cambrian.php">first appeared</a>. This abundance of life is known as the Cambrian Explosion and some of the oldest fossils ever discovered come from this period. 

Some forms of life are suspected to have evolved before the Cambrian Explosion, for example, bilaterian animals with paired appendages, and now researchers can confirm that this is true. 

Researchers from the <a href="http://english.nigpas.cas.cn/">Nanjing Institute of Geology and Palaeontology</a> of the Chinese Academy of Sciences in collaboration with the <a href="https://vt.edu/">Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University</a> examined trackways and burrows in sediment dating back to the Ediacaran Period. 

The burrows were found in the Ediacaran Shibantan Member of the Dengying Formation (551 to 541 million years ago) in the Yangtze Gorges area of South China, and the trackway patterns suggested that they were left by species with paired appendages. 

The trackways were also connected to the burrows which just strengthened the hypothesis that they were left by animals who dug burrows in the sediment for food. 

These are thought to be the earliest fossil footprints ever discovered and the find extends the fossil record of animals with appendages from the early <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-seek-solve-mystery-cambrian-oxygen-spike/">Cambrian</a> to the late Ediacaran Period. 

A paper detailing the new fossil footprints was published in the journal Science Advances. 

--

By <a href="mailto:kayvandette@gmail.com">Kay Vandette</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Image Credit: NIGP

Oldest animal fossil footprint on record discovered in China

Oldest animal fossil footprint on record discovered in China. Researchers...

The tropical beauty of El Cielo Biosphere Reserve. In the Mexican state of Tamualipas, it's possible to drive past a small sign marking the Tropic of Cancer.  As you head south past this boundary marking out the tropical belt surrounding the center of the globe, some changes are obvious.  Power lines are hung with the intricately woven, pendulous nests of Oropendolas; trees are draped with moss, wrapped in vines and spotted with lichen.  Lurid butterflies are noticeably more common everywhere. 

On an ongoing road trip through Mexico, my fiancé and I decided to venture into the tropics.  As we drove south, hills rose around us, covered with an abundance of green life.  The air became sticky.  It was hot.  It was humid.  We were driving to El Cielo Biosphere Reserve.  

El Cielo translates as 'Heaven' and the beauty of the place fit the descriptor.  El Cielo is the northernmost extent of tropical forests in North America and contains several different habitats including montane cloud forest, sub-deciduous tropical forest and dry, high elevation xerophyte shrublands.  The park itself extends for 357,100 acres, is an UNESCO World Heritage Site, and contains within it a few small, semi-remote villages. According to a 1999 survey, 6,208 people live inside the park. The human population is scattered among at least seven small villages strung along a road that gets rougher the further into the park you venture.       

[caption id="attachment_1215177" align="aligncenter" width="300"]<a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2018/06/el-cielo-2.jpg"><img class="size-medium wp-image-1215177" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2018/06/el-cielo-2-300x225.jpg" alt="" width="300" height="225" /></a> Image Credit: Erin Moody[/caption]

Arriving in El Cielo, we were too late in the day for camping, so we found a nice hotel hugged by trees overlooking an impressive valley and hillside.  Birds called loudly from the trees. Humidity was omnipresent, sticking clothes to my body, dusting my face. The town we spent our first night in is at the end of the paved road, the rest of the roads are rocky dirt things with patches of concrete that apparently were last officially maintained before I was born.  As day turned to darkness, the songs of insects were everywhere: cicadas and katydids competing with frogs in their calls for sex. The people acted like they lived in heaven too, delicious street food was cheap and live music mingled with the animal sounds in the tropical night. The next day we drove on, following a road I wouldn’t again take our two wheel drive van on to start camping and really experience El Cielo if for but a short time.      

[caption id="attachment_1215174" align="aligncenter" width="300"]<a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2018/06/millipede-el-cielo1.jpg"><img class="size-medium wp-image-1215174" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2018/06/millipede-el-cielo1-300x225.jpg" alt="" width="300" height="225" /></a> Image Credit: Erin Moody[/caption]

In El Cielo, black bear, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/jaguar-conservation-attitude/">jaguar</a>, and mountain lions coexist.  If you remember that jaguars are often called 'el tigre' in Spanish, you could almost say, 'lions and tigers and bears, oh my!' It's rare to be in the habitat of so many large predators in North America.  Military Macaws nest in El Cielo and we saw a Mot Mot perch briefly in a tree before flitting away into a bank of fog.  Mot mots are an interesting tropical bird, sometimes referred to as ‘pajaro del reloj’ for the resemblance of their long tails to pendulums in old grandfather clocks.  I visited a cave with large clear pools of water and dripping stalactites that shelters vampire bats. Hiding under rocks and leaves are an abundance of interesting arthropods, giant millipedes are common.  I found a dead specimen of one of the world's strangest arachnids, an animal known as the vinegaroon.  Vinegaroons look mainly like scorpions except for delicate whip-like tails without stingers.  Instead of stinging vinegaroons squirt a stream of acid into the eyes of would-be attackers.

The park is also home to extensive karst formations that filter the local rain and supply delicious drinking water for the park’s inhabitants.  There are even caves where the rare blind Mexican Tetra (Astyanax mexicanus) a fish adapted to the subterranean dark lives.  The form of fish living in caves is whitish but not technically albino.  Without the use of eyes, the fish navigates with a lateral line system, sensing slight differences in water pressure.

There are at least 255 species of resident birds in El Cielo and more than 175 migrants have been recorded in the reserve.  There are also 81 reptile and amphibian species and 40 types of bats, according to a pamphlet written by Alejandra Sosa Florescano.  Reptiles include dangerous snakes like the neotropical rattlesnake, the coral snake and the lancehead. There is an alligator lizard adapted to living in trees that can be found in El Cielo as well as throughout the Sierra Madre Oriental.     

Continuing the weird mash-up of tropical and temperate mammal species resulting from such a far north tropical forest, small cat species are all over the map.  Bobcats share El Cielo with Margays, ocelots and jaguarundi. White Tailed deer live in the park as well as the more typically tropical Red Brocket Deer. The ubiquitous raccoon lives in El Cielo as well as the hooded skunk, a species at the northern edge of its range in the southwestern United States.

Trees range from Mexican Maple, Mexican Yew and Mexican Beech to the more obviously tropical species like the beautiful magnolia.  For those like me who are used to seeing maples on in the far north, seeing one in the tropics is exciting. 

Part of the reason for the amazing array of species in El Cielo is the elevation gradient.  The park is full of mountains and hills, half of the reserve being made up by the Cucharas Mountains and ranging in elevation from about 660 feet above sea level to 7,500 feet.  Being in the northern range of the tropics where species from North America as well as species originating further south also adds a dimension to the assemblage of species in El Cielo.

El Cielo is also part of a migration corridor.  Monarch Butterflies rest in El Cielo on their yearly trip to wintering grounds further south in Mexico, near Mexico City.  The Central Flyway birds in North America use for migration also extends into this part of Mexico. 

El Cielo was protected relatively late. From 1900 to the 1930s, the area was under an intensively managed forestry program.  In 1935, a Canadian farmer named John William Francis Harrison created a homestead in what is now El Cielo Biosphere Reserve.  In 1965 Harrison along with Juan Fidel Zorrilla and Francisco García San Miguel created an institution, El Cielo, S.A., created initially with 25 hectares of land, to study and preserve the important environment of the area.  Harrison was later murdered over a land dispute. Harrison’s homestead is now El Cielo Biological Research Center. In 1975, the Tamaulipas government made El Cielo state park. In 1985, the El Cielo Biosphere Reserve was created and in 1987 El Cielo was recognized by UNESCO.                 

We spent five nights at El Cielo and went hiking every day, exploring a small amount of the tropical forest.  The place is beautiful but also somewhat perilous.  Besides the more obvious dangers of large predators, there is the overbearing presence of mosquitoes that descend in the evening.  I picked as many as 15 ticks from my body in a day and Erin found a similar amount on herself.  It also rained every night we were there.  It rained hard enough that we tied a tarp over the back of the van to keep water out.  For me, the hardships highlight the wildness of the place and accentuate its beauty.  You know a place better if you know its nastier moods.

--

By <a href="mailto:zachfitzner@yahoo.com">Zach Fitzner</a>, <a href="http://earth.com">Earth.com</a> Contributing Writer

Images by Erin Moody

The tropical beauty of El Cielo Biosphere Reserve

The tropical beauty of El Cielo Biosphere Reserve. In the...

&nbsp;

  Both humans and animals use language tactic of turn-taking. Language is a distinct trait that separates humans from the rest of the pack, even if we don’t all speak the same language. It is a trait characterized by cooperative turn-taking, where we exchange information by taking short and flexible turns as we speak with each other. Turn-taking is used universally across languages and cultures, and some signs of it can be found in all clades of the primate lineage. Because of this, turn-taking has been suggested as an ancient mechanism of the language system that bridges the gap between us humans and our inarticulate primate cousins. 

Since language is a major area of study for evolutionary theory, researchers from the <a href="https://www.eva.mpg.de/index.html">Max Planck Institute of Evolutionary Anthropology</a> wanted to determine what nonhuman primates and other animal taxa may exhibit for similar behavior.

The researchers assessed previous literature by reviewing turn-taking phenomena in birds, mammals, insects, and anurans. 

“Direct comparisons of turn-taking skills of nonhuman animals in relation to language origins are highly constrained by lack of data, the application of different terms, methodological designs, and study environments,” says Simone Pika, first author of the study from Department of Primatology at the Max Planck Institute of Evolutionary Anthropology.

Pika also points out that studies have been biased toward birds and vocal interactions, and are mostly focused on just one key element of full-blown human turn-taking, known as the time window. The time window is the gap between an initiating turn and the response turn, and varies in human conversation from 0-500 milliseconds and across nonhuman animal taxa from less than 50 milliseconds to 5,000 milliseconds.

“Research studies on other turn-taking systems – for example gestural interactions of bonobos and chimpanzees – are currently relatively rare, but represent, due to the application of key elements characterizing human full-blown turn-taking, the most promising avenue to tackle the question whether turn-taking played a key role in language evolution,” says Pika.

To improve research efforts, the researchers propose a new framework, which looks to enable comparative research through focusing on four key elements that characterize human conversations. These four elements are flexibility of turn-taking organization, which individual is taking the next turn, when the response turns occur, and what the next turn does. The study’s authors suggest applying this framework to precisely chosen representatives of over 50 genera of primates, and using it to characterize the current turn-taking phenotypes.

The researchers also believe that more attention should be paid to related phenomena due to convergent evolution. Past studies on language competence and cognitive skills of parrots and corvids have put into question the previously assumed simple inverse correlation between language-readiness and genetic distance from humans. The new field of comparative turn-taking could help solve one of the most difficult problems in science through testing whether turn-taking had significant downstream effects on human culture and cooperation, and determine whether it may have laid the foundation for the evolution of language. Also Both humans and animals use language tactic of turn-taking shown in the images with show.

--

By <a href="mailto:certz@earth.com">Connor Ertz</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Image Credit: Simone Pika

Both humans and animals use language tactic of turn-taking

&nbsp;   Both humans and animals use language tactic of...

Will dogs be the source of the next global flu outbreak?.  A new study from the <a href="https://www.asm.org/">American Society for Microbiology</a> has found that dogs have become the potential source of a global flu outbreak. The researchers demonstrated that influenza is becoming increasingly diverse in canines, and that the flu virus can jump from pigs into <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dogs-experience-complex-emotions/">dogs</a>.

Study author Dr. Adolfo García-Sastre is the director of the <a href="http://icahn.mssm.edu/research/global-health">Global Health and Emerging Pathogens Institute</a> and a principal investigator at the <a href="http://icahn.mssm.edu/research/influenza-pathogenesis">Center for Research on Influenza Pathogenesis</a> (CRIP) in the Icahn School of Medicine.

“The majority of pandemics have been associated with pigs as an intermediate host between avian viruses and human hosts,” explained Dr. García-Sastre. “In this study, we identified influenza viruses jumping from pigs into dogs.”

Pandemic influenza occurs when viruses jump from animal reservoirs to humans, who do not usually have immunity to the viruses because they have never been exposed to them. Wild birds, poultry, pigs, and horses are some of the primary hosts for influenza.

Viral genes from the 2009 pandemic H1N1 virus originated from an avian virus that jumped to pigs and then into humans. Birds and swine are major reservoirs of viral genetic diversity, while horses and dogs have historically been restricted to one or two stable influenza A viruses lineages with very limited transmission to humans.

Researchers documented the first circulating canine influenza virus that jumped from a horse to a dog fifteen years ago. In 2013, researchers identified an avian-origin H3N2 canine influenza virus circulating in farmed dogs in Guangdong, China.

“In our study, what we have found is another set of viruses that come from swine that are originally avian in origin, and now they are jumping into dogs and have been reassorted with other viruses in dogs,” said Dr. García-Sastre. “We now have H1N1, H3N2, and H3N8 in dogs. They are starting to interact with each other. This is very reminiscent of what happened in swine ten years before the H1N1 pandemic.”


The research team sequenced the complete genomes of 16 influenza viruses obtained from canines in southern China between 2013 and 2015. The researchers found three lineages of the influenza virus that circulate among pigs.

“The new virus we have identified in our study is H1N1, but it comes from swine and is of avian origin, so it is different antigenically from the new H1N1s that were seen in the pandemic and a different origin as the previous H1N1 seen in humans," said Dr. García-Sastre.

Further research is needed to characterize the virus further and to determine whether or not humans have existing immunity against canine H1N1. 

“If there is a lot of immunity against these viruses, they will represent less of a risk, but we now have one more host in which influenza virus is starting to have a diverse genotypic and phenotypic characteristics, creating diversity in a host which is in very close contact to humans.”

“The diversity in dogs has increased so much now that the type of combinations of viruses that can be created in dogs represent potential risk for a virus to jump to a dog into a human.”

According to the experts, methods of restricting the influenza virus in dogs are needed. Dr. García-Sastre said that there are attempts to restrict influenza virus in pigs through vaccination, and that flu vaccinations for dogs should be considered as well.

The research is published in the journal <a href="http://mbio.asm.org/">mBio</a>.

--

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Will dogs be the source of the next global flu outbreak?

Will dogs be the source of the next global flu...

Poison dart frogs use their bright colors as camouflage. Scientists at the <a href="http://www.bristol.ac.uk/">University of Bristol</a> have found that the bright colors of the poison dart frog not only function as a way to ward off predators, but also serve as a second type of defense mechanism. Surprisingly, the vivid color patterns also help the frogs to blend in with their surroundings.

“Effective as warning signals are, it's not necessarily the best strategy to be maximally conspicuous,” explained study lead author Jim Barnett. 

“Certain predators have evolved tolerance of toxins that would be deadly for humans, and some individual predators may have not encountered the warning signal prey before (a dangerous mistake for the predator, but also for the frog).”

“So, color patterns that could be distinctive close-up, but work as camouflage from a distance, would provide a clear advantage.” Poison dart frogs use their bright colors as camouflage

The researchers used a combination of computational modeling, lab experiments, and fieldwork in the jungles of French Guiana for their analysis, which was focused on the Dyeing Dart Frog. 

The experts wanted to find out how this particular frog uses its colors to balance the advantages of effective warning signals with the benefits of concealment. The study revealed that the specific colors and their patterns, which attract attention at close range, actually work as a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/iridescent-colors-started-camouflage/">camouflage</a> when viewed from far away. 

This means that the Dyeing Dart Frog does not have to strike a balance between cautioning rivals or being concealed, because the frog’s bright yellow-and-black pattern functions both ways - as a camouflage from a distance and as a warning signal up close.

“How many other animals use ‘distance-dependent coloration’ to balance competing evolutionary pressures is yet to be explored,” said study co-author Professor Innes Cuthill. “Being able to signal when close to a would-be mate, whilst remaining inconspicuous to more distant predators would seem beneficial.” 

“So too for human applications such as military camouflage, where recognition by allies is as important as concealment from foes. Also, signage that only need be clear at the distance where the information is needed, but might be distracting if detected earlier.”

The research is published in the <a href="http://www.pnas.org/">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a>.

--

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Image Credit: James B. Barnett

Poison dart frogs use their bright colors as camouflage

Poison dart frogs use their bright colors as camouflage. Scientists...

After days of efforts to save its life, a shortfin male pilot whale has died from ingesting a shocking amount of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plastic-pollution-galapagos-islands/">plastic waste</a>. During an autopsy, veterinarians discovered more than 80 plastic bags in the whale’s stomach, which collectively weighed over 17 pounds.

The whale was seen along the coast of southern Thailand in Songkhla Province on May 28th appearing ill and unable to swim. A team of veterinarians and conservationists worked for five days to save the animal’s life.

Experts say that the bags would have made it impossible for the small whale to digest normal food.

According to the <a href="http://www.nutrientchallenge.org/department-marine-and-coastal-resources">Department of Marine and Coastal Resources</a> (DMCR), the whale began heaving out pieces of plastic bags before dying on Friday. 

Jatuporn Buruspat, the head of the DMCR in Thailand, said that the issue of plastic pollution will be brought to the public’s attention during the observation of World Oceans Day on June 8th.

“We will use the whale case and invite all sectors to show their intentions on how to reduce the use of plastic in Thailand,” Mr. Buruspat told <a href="https://www.reuters.com/">Reuters</a>.

A report from the UK, “<a href="https://www.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/634433/Future_of_the_sea_-_plastic_pollution_final.pdf">Future of the Sea: Plastic Pollution</a>,” has revealed that plastic makes up 70 percent of the world's marine letter and that the amount of plastic in the ocean is set to triple over the next decade.

The document states: “Over 700 species of marine organisms, including marine mammals, birds, fish and invertebrates, are known to encounter plastic debris.” 

“This can result in severe physical harm and death, or have more subtle sub-lethal effects on behavior and ecological interactions.”

The European Commission has recently proposed laws to ban and greatly reduce the distribution of single-use plastics in an effort to combat the growing issue of plastic marine litter.

--

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Image Credit: Thai Whales

Pilot whale dies with 17 pounds of plastic in its stomach

After days of efforts to save its life, a shortfin...

A study led by the <a href="https://www.exeter.ac.uk/">University of Exeter</a> has revealed that Trinidadian guppies change their eye color to give other fish a warning that they are feeling aggressive. Just before launching an <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/teeth-fossils-dinosaurs-ate/">attack</a>, the guppies quickly turn their irises from silver to black.

In addition, larger guppies were found to use this tactic when advancing toward smaller guppies, but not the other way around.


For their investigation, the researchers created robotic guppies to examine what would happen if the smaller fish used the same aggressive gesture. The experts found that this caused larger guppies to surround the small robots in an effort to steal their prey.

“Trinidadian guppies can change their iris color within a few seconds, and our research shows they do this to honestly communicate their aggressive motivation to other guppies,” explained study lead author Dr. Robert Heathcote.

“Experimentally showing that animals use their eye coloration to communicate with each other can be very difficult, so we made realistic-looking robotic fish with differing eye colors and observed the reaction of real fish.”

“Eyes are one of the most easily recognized structures in the natural world and many species go to great lengths to conceal and camouflage their eyes to avoid unwanted attention from predators or rivals,” said study co-author Professor Darren Croft.

“However, some species have noticeable or prominent eyes and, for the most part, it has remained a mystery as to why this would be. This research gives a new insight into the reasons behind why some animals have such 'conspicuous' eyes.”

Study co-author Professor Indar Ramnarine is a researcher at the <a href="http://www.uwi.edu/">University of the West Indies</a>. Professor Ramnarine was amazed that the guppies have evolved a way to change their eye color to warn others of their aggression.

According to co-author Dr. Jolyon Troscianko, the team used “carefully calibrated photography and printing techniques to create robotic models, and guppies responded to them as though they were real fish.”

The study demonstrated that food defended by the black-eyed robots attracted disproportionate competition from large guppies, particularly those with black eyes.

“It is well known that in humans the white sclera of the eye is used to signal gaze direction - it provides others with information on what we are looking at,” said co-author Dr. Safi Darden. 

“Our work shows that just like humans these little fish pay attention to the eyes of their group members and that the eyes provide important information to other rival fish.”

The research is published in the journal <a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/home">Current Biology</a>.

--

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Image Credit: Robert Heathcote, <a href="https://www.exeter.ac.uk/">University of Exeter</a>

Guppies give rivals a warning by turning their eyes black

A study led by the University of Exeter has revealed...

Researchers are now getting a rare look into unexplored reef habitats deep below the ocean’s surface thanks to a new device that allows for the transport of marine species. 

The Submersible Chamber for Ascending Specimens (SubCAS) device is a pressurized chamber that allows deep sea divers to easily transport twilight zone coral reef fish to the surface for research and public display, 

SubCAS is bringing many new species to light, literally, as the twilight zone is a narrow deep stretch of the ocean 200 to 500 feet below the surface where sunlight is scarce and diving down to such extreme depths takes considerable effort. 

Because of how much work and coordination is required to safely dive and explore twilight zone reef habitats, scientists at the <a href="https://www.calacademy.org/">California Academy of Sciences </a>and the <a href="http://www.montereybayaquarium.org/">Monterey Bay Aquarium</a> created a device that made specimen collection easy and safe for both divers and the species being brought to the surface. 

A report discussing SubCAS and its implications for marine science and habitat conservation was recently published in the journal Frontiers in Marine Science.

“A rapid ascent can rupture a fish's swim bladder,” said Luiz Rocha, the paper’s co-author. “Using an adjustable pressure control valve, we ensure that the pressure inside the chamber is similar to the depth where the fishes were collected. Over the course of two to three days, we bring them to the surrounding surface pressure in a highly controlled manner.”

The SubCAS consists of an inner collecting jar and a larger chamber housing. The device is transparent so divers can monitor specimens while ascending to the surface. 

At a depth of 180 feet, the inner collecting jar is placed in the larger chamber and an air bubble is blown into the device which maintains air pressure in the SubCAS. 

When the divers reach 100 feet, all the while monitoring their own air pressure and making controlled decompression stops, the device is handed off to a support dive team that take the fish to a facility for decompression before being shipped to the Academy in San Francisco. 

The survival rate is nearly 100 percent which is impressive. and researchers found that the type of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/technology-fishermen-conservationists/">fish</a> collected greatly dictated the likelihood of surviving the ascent. 

Thanks to SubCAS, both researchers and the public have access to a little explored part of the world hundreds of feet below the surface thanks to aquarium exhibits displaying the newly collected specimens. 

“The SubCAS is an important innovation,” said Hudson Pinheiro, a fellow co-author. “It allows for detailed study of new-to-science species while they're thriving outside of their natural habitat. We can gain important insights about fish biology and behavior that we couldn't obtain otherwise, helping us better understand what it takes to survive in a region as mysterious as the twilight zone.”

Exploring the twilight zone reefs will also help with reef conservation and management, particularly now when corals are dying off at an alarming rate. 

“These species are ambassadors of important environments that are rarely included in marine protected areas or sanctuaries,” said Bart Shepherd, the lead author of the paper. “Our goal is to remind the public of the ocean's vast and unexplored wonders and to inspire its conservation for future generations.”

--

By <a href="mailto:kayvandette@gmail.com">Kay Vandette</a>,<a href="https://www.earth.com/"> Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 

Image © 2015 California Academy of Sciences

New device offers rare glimpse into deep ocean fish

Researchers are now getting a rare look into unexplored reef...

A new study has confirmed fears about the recent introduction of a toxic Asian toad to Madagascar. Researchers have found genetic evidence to support the theory that predators native to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-species-pelican-spiders/">Madagascar</a> are highly sensitive to toad toxins, and could die from eating the toads.

“In Australia, the introduction of cane toads has caused profound perturbation to many ecosystems by removing key predators from local food webs with their toxins,” explained study co-author Wolfgang Wüster of <a href="https://www.bangor.ac.uk/">Bangor University</a>. 

“Similar effects are likely to occur in Madagascar, where toads were never present before, as well; predators that frequently feed on toads and do not rapidly learn or evolve to avoid them are likely to become much rarer or possibly extinct.”

The bufonidae species of toads secrete chemical compounds known as bufadienolides that can kill predators by suppressing the sodium-potassium pump.Some predator species have evolved resistance to these toxins, but this takes time and repeated exposure. 

The controversial introduction of the invasive Asian toads, or Duttaphrynus melanostictus, to Madagascar sparked a debate over their potential impact and also over actions that may be needed to control them.

Study co-author Andolalao Rakotoarison is the co-chair of Madagascar's IUCN Amphibian Specialist Group.

“A crucial knowledge gap has been whether native Malagasy predators are indeed sensitive to toad toxins: this has been widely assumed by conservationists, but without concrete evidence," explained Rakotoarison.


In the current study, the researchers examined the DNA of animals that may prey on the newly-introduced toads, including 27 snakes, two lizards, 12 frogs, eight mammals and 28 birds. 

The study revealed that only one single native species has evolved resistance to the toad’s poisonous secretion, suggesting that the alien species must be controlled in order to prevent the progression of the ongoing biodiversity crisis in Madagascar.

“Our findings confirm that the invasive toads are likely to have a significant impact on many Malagasy endemic species, adding to the country's existing conservation problems and potentially endangering many of Madagascar's most iconic endemic species, such as tenrecs and the enigmatic fossa, as well as a plethora of other species,” said study co-author Nicholas Casewell.


According to the researchers, further investigation is needed to evaluate the threat from the toad's tadpoles to fish, water beetles, dragonfly larvae, and crustaceans.

“This is another example of how species introduced from one part of the world to another can disrupt natural ecosystems,”  said first author Ben Marshall. “Preventing the introduction of alien invasive species must be a top priority for biodiversity conservation.”

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/home">Current Biology</a>.

--

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Image Credit: Benjamin Marshall

Toxic toad species could escalate Madagascar’s biodiversity crisis

A new study has confirmed fears about the recent introduction...

Primatologists at <a href="https://www.kyoto-u.ac.jp/en/">Kyoto University</a> are looking to our closest cousins to solve a gut-churning mystery: how the concept of disgust evolved.

The researchers looked at how bonobos reacted to a wide variety of foods to see if they share this emotion with humanity, and perhaps get some clues into why it exists in the first place. Did the “ick factor” originate as a way to protect against germs, millennia before humans even knew what a germ was?

"Current studies suggest that animals evolved a system to protect against such threats, now known as the adaptive system of disgust," lead author Dr. Cecile Sarabian said in a news release. "For example, bodily fluids are universal disgust elicitors in humans, and recently, we published evidence that the same reaction exists in our primate cousins."

In the new study, published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2017.0195">Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B</a>, the researchers wanted to see whether bonobos also showed disgust at food items that might spread illness.

To test this theory, they presented the primates with a variety of fruits. Some was fresh while other pieces were rotten. Some food items were “dirtied” with items like soil or feces and presented alongside clean, fresh fruit. In other sets, they slipped in fruits that the bonobos wouldn’t see in the wild, like apples, to see if disgust evolved among the primates toward new or unfamiliar foods – something that picky human eaters might be accused of.

The bonobos were happy to sample clean, fresh food, but avoided anything that seemed contaminated, even if it was just linked by smell. They ignored food close to a source of contamination, even if it was otherwise clean, but ate foods farther away. 

But unlike humans, bonobos were eager to try new foods, as long as they were clean and fresh.

"There's some evidence from humans and other animals – classically with rats – on what we call food neophobia, which is an inclination to stay away from or be cautious around new foods," senior author Andrew MacIntosh said. "This might also be related to our tendencies to avoid things that might make us sick, with different individuals being more or less conservative in both cases."

Bonobos don’t seem to have developed the same disgust toward new food items – but more research would be needed to confirm that adventurous spirit toward new flavors, the researchers said.

—

By Kyla Cathey, <a href="http://www.earth.com">Earth.com</a> staff writer

Image credit: Dr. Cecilie Sarabian, <a href="https://www.kyoto-u.ac.jp/en/">Kyoto University </a>

Bonobos offer clues into how human disgust evolved

Primatologists at Kyoto University are looking to our closest cousins...

A recent survey has revealed that a population of mountain gorillas in East Africa has more than doubled in the last 30 years. In the Virunga Massif, the number of mountain gorillas has increased from 480 in 2010 to over 600, according to the <a href="https://www.worldwildlife.org/">World Wildlife Foundation</a> (WWF). 

Home to one of only two populations of mountain gorillas, the Virunga Mountains is a chain of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/vog-kilauea-eruption-health-threat/">volcanoes</a> along the northern border of Rwanda, the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC), and Uganda.

The other population, which resides in Uganda's Bwindi Impenetrable National Park, brings the total number of mountain gorillas to an estimated 1,004.

Martha Robbins is research scientist and gorilla expert at the <a href="https://www.eva.mpg.de/">Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology</a>.

“This represents one of the rare success stories in conservation.” said Robbins. “This increase exemplifies the dedicated efforts of the governments of Rwanda, Uganda, and the Democratic Republic of Congo to conserve these critically endangered great apes, and notably, the hard work of park staff on the ground.” 

“This dramatic increase also shows that extreme conservation efforts including tourism, veterinary work, and community projects can have a positive impact on one of our closest living relatives.”

The experts combined data from fieldwork in 2015 and 2016 with the genetic analysis of over 1,100 fecal samples for their investigation. The team found that there are at least 186 unhabituated gorillas in the Virunga Mountains, while the remaining 418 gorillas are habituated for research and tourism.

“Genetic analysis of DNA from fecal samples allows us to count gorillas without even observing them,” explained study co-author Linda Vigilant. “Next we will be analyzing the detection history of individuals over time to get more insights into how groups form and group membership changes.”

The recent survey was a massive collaboration among three national park services, the <a href="https://www.eva.mpg.de/">Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology</a>, and several conservation organizations.

In 2008, mountain gorillas were listed as Critically Endangered on the IUCN Red List as a result of many decades of war, disease, hunting, and habitat loss. 

The mountain gorilla is one of two subspecies of the eastern gorilla. After the discovery of the subspecies in 1902, threats to their survival became so severe that there was a time when mountain gorillas were expected to completely vanish by the end of the 20th century, according to the WWF.

Sir David Attenborough is the vice president of <a href="https://www.fauna-flora.org/">Fauna &amp; Flora International</a> and a WWF-UK ambassador.

“When I first visited the mountain gorillas in 1979, the situation was dire; the number of these remarkable animals was dreadfully small,” said Sir Attenborough.

“It is incredibly heartening therefore to see how the efforts of so many different groups - communities, governments, NGOs - have paid off.”

“The threats to mountain gorillas haven't disappeared entirely, of course, so now the challenge must be to ensure that these achievements are sustained long into the future.”

--

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Mountain gorillas are making a comeback

A recent survey has revealed that a population of mountain...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2E0mn5mTvhQ
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">'Death Star' moon Mimas conceals a 15-million-year-old ocean that scientists never expected.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hidden-waters-beneath-ancient-craters">Hidden waters beneath ancient craters</h2>



Scientists have made a startling discovery that challenges everything we thought we knew about <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/saturn-moon-mimas-has-remarkably-young-ocean/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Saturn's moon Mimas</a>. Beneath the heavily cratered surface that earned it the nickname "Death Star" lies a global ocean that formed just 5 to 15 million years ago—a remarkably young age by cosmic standards.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cassini-data-reveals-orbital-secrets">Cassini data reveals orbital secrets</h2>



The discovery, led by Dr. Valéry Lainey of the <a href="https://observatoiredeparis.psl.eu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Observatoire de Paris</a>, emerged from careful analysis of <a href="https://www.nasa.gov" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NASA</a>'s Cassini spacecraft data. By studying subtle irregularities in Mimas's orbit around Saturn, researchers detected the gravitational signature of liquid water hidden 20 to 30 kilometers beneath the moon's icy shell.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-an-unlikely-ocean-world">An unlikely ocean world</h2>



At only 400 kilometers in diameter, Mimas seemed like the least likely candidate to harbor a subsurface ocean. Unlike other ocean moons such as Europa and Enceladus, which show clear surface signs of internal activity, Mimas displays no obvious hints of the liquid water beneath its ancient, crater-scarred exterior.



"Mimas is a small moon, and its heavily cratered surface gave no hint of the hidden ocean beneath," explained Dr. Nick Cooper from <a href="https://www.qmul.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Queen Mary University of London</a>, a study co-author.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-astrobiology">Implications for astrobiology</h2>



The ocean's recent formation makes Mimas a prime target for studying how oceans develop and potentially support life. This discovery adds another member to the exclusive club of ocean worlds in our solar system, each offering unique insights into the conditions necessary for habitability.



The research, published in <a href="https://www.nature.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature</a> journal, demonstrates how advanced orbital analysis can reveal hidden features of celestial bodies, opening new possibilities for understanding ocean formation throughout the cosmos.



—–



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Scientists discover unexpected young ocean on Saturn's cratered moon Mimas

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2E0mn5mTvhQ 'Death Star' moon Mimas conceals a 15-million-year-old ocean that...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE
</div></figure>



On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop and sunlight barely penetrates through the polar winter. It was here, however, that an international team of scientists found <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/predatory-worms-were-terror-beasts-half-a-billion-years-ago/#google_vignette" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evidence of sea monsters</a> that would change our understanding of ocean life in the past.



This video captures the discovery of Timorebestia fossils that had been hidden for more than 500 million years in the Sirius Passet formation. The "terror beasts," as they are called, are a hidden chapter in the evolutionary history of <a href="https://www.earth.com" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Earth</a>, showing that sophisticated predator-prey interactions occurred much earlier than previously envisioned.



Dr. Jakob Vinther and his research team at the <a href="https://www.bristol.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Bristol</a>, in collaboration with researchers at the <a href="https://eng.kopri.re.kr/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Korean Polar Research Institute</a>, braved extreme weather conditions at 82.5 north latitude to locate these giant creatures. Using sophisticated electron microprobe analysis, they revealed the detailed anatomy of the animals, including their muscle and nerve tissues.



The find upsets the traditional timeline of sea predators. Although we've long appreciated that Cambrian oceans were at one time ruled by <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jWI3-UgA3_o&amp;list=PL1QLQMW9MWDwpkFOnvgAmu7wT6rZmYqdJ&amp;index=19" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">arthropods</a>, these discoveries indicate that relatives of arrow worms were first to dominate the seas. These worms were building sophisticated food webs several million years before other predator groups arose.



Each fossil is a story of ancient hunger, with fossil stomach contents revealing these meter-long beasts dined on heavily armored arthropods regularly, cementing their place as the ocean's first apex predators.



-----



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Worms dominated seas before dinosaurs

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">New York is the site of the world's oldest forest.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-385-million-year-old-trees-discovered">385-million-year-old trees discovered</h2>



Scientists have uncovered something extraordinary just two hours north of New York City. The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/worlds-oldest-forest-discovered-close-to-new-york-city/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">world's oldest forest</a>, dating back 385 million years, offers a window into how Earth's first complex forests shaped our planet's atmosphere.



Located near <a href="https://townofcairo.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cairo, New York</a>, in Greene County, these weren't merely primitive plants struggling to survive. These were sophisticated trees with root systems remarkably similar to modern forests. This ancient woodland predates dinosaurs by 140 million years.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-cairo-forest-discovery">The Cairo forest discovery</h2>



385 million years ago, upstate New York was a tropical paradise near the equator. Thanks to continental drift, this ancient forest has traveled thousands of miles to its current location.



The fossil forest sits in an abandoned quarry, roughly half the size of a football field. This represents just a slice of what was likely a massive forest system stretching from New York into Pennsylvania.



Charles Ver Straeten, curator of sedimentary rocks at the <a href="https://www.nysm.nysed.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">New York State Museum</a>, made the discovery in 2009. While scouting the former highway department property, his trained eye spotted wandering patterns in the stone that looked like marine features.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-revolutionary-age-and-preservation">Revolutionary age and preservation</h2>



The site contains 385-million-year-old rocks with fossilized woody roots forming horizontal patterns up to 18 feet (5.5 meters) wide. As Christopher Berry, a paleobotanist at Cardiff University, explains: "You are walking through the roots of ancient trees."



This discovery pushes back advanced tree evolution by millions of years. The research, published in <a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/home" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Current Biology</a> in December 2019, fundamentally changes our understanding of when complex forests first emerged.



Researchers believe a massive flood buried the forest floor, creating perfect fossilization conditions. Over millions of years, sediment hardened into rock, preserving these root patterns like nature's time capsule.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-meet-archaeopteris-the-first-modern-tree">Meet Archaeopteris: the first modern tree</h2>



The star of this ancient forest is Archaeopteris – not to be confused with the feathered dinosaur Archaeopteryx. This tree was far older and more revolutionary.



William Stein from <a href="https://www.binghamton.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Binghamton University</a> describes the roots as "strikingly modern, essentially what you'd see outside in my yard right now." These weren't simple root systems you'd expect from ancient plants.



Some fossilized roots are six inches (15 centimeters) in diameter, forming 36-foot-wide (11-meter) patterns. These giants grew up to 65 feet (20 meters) tall with five-foot-diameter (1.5-meter) trunks.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-changing-impact">Climate-changing impact</h2>



These trees fundamentally changed Earth's environment. Kevin Boyce, a Stanford University geoscientist, explains how their deep roots triggered "weathering," chemical reactions that pulled carbon dioxide from the atmosphere.



This process dropped atmospheric CO2 levels from 10-15 times higher than today to roughly modern concentrations. These ancient trees helped create atmospheric conditions that made complex life possible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ancient-forest-ecosystem">Ancient forest ecosystem</h2>



The forest was remarkably diverse. Scientists identified Eospermatopteris, palm tree-like plants with short roots that reached 30 feet (9 meters) tall but lacked woody structure. The forest also housed cladoxylopsids and a mysterious third species still being studied.



All reproduced through spores rather than seeds – millions of years before seeds evolved. This tropical environment had no grass, flowers, or flying insects, just towering trees creating Earth's first complex forest canopy.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-scientific-significance">Scientific significance</h2>



Before this finding, the Gilboa forest, located 25 miles (40 kilometers) away, held the "oldest forest" title. Cairo's trees are 2-3 million years older, showing that complex forest ecosystems developed much faster than scientists believed possible.



Patricia Gensel, a <a href="https://www.unc.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of North Carolina</a> paleobotanist, notes: "The size of those root systems is really changing the picture. Even 20 years ago, researchers assumed trees with such complex root systems didn't evolve so early."



The Cairo site presents three unique root systems, suggesting Devonian period forests were diverse ecosystems with different trees occupying different environmental niches, much like today's forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-modern-preservation-efforts">Modern preservation efforts</h2>



In 2022, New York State Senator Michelle Hinchey secured a $170,000 grant for the town of Cairo to construct specialized fencing around the fossil forest site. The town plans to conduct a feasibility study exploring the possibility of creating an educational center and working lab on-site.



Joe Hasenkopf, chair of the Cairo Planning Board, hopes to partner with educational institutions to create a research facility serving scientists, students, and the public.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lessons-for-today-s-climate">Lessons for today's climate</h2>



Why does a 385-million-year-old forest matter today? It shows how dramatically forests can change Earth's climate. These ancient woodlands created the atmospheric conditions supporting complex life.



Understanding how prehistoric forests transformed the planet helps us appreciate modern forests' critical role in addressing climate change. Forests remain Earth's most effective carbon capture systems.



These prehistoric trees changed Earth's atmosphere by pulling massive amounts of carbon dioxide from the air. As we face modern climate challenges, this ancient forest reminds us of trees' incredible power to transform our planet's environment.



The next time you walk through a forest, remember you're experiencing an ecosystem whose blueprint was established 385 million years ago in upstate New York. These ancient pioneers didn't just survive – they thrived and changed the world forever.



The full study was published in the journal Current Biology.



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Earth's oldest forest found in the United States

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ New York is the site of the world's oldest...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Acid rain and a crisis solved.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-don-t-we-ever-hear-about-acid-rain-anymore-the-environmental-crisis-that-was-solved">Why don't we ever hear about "acid rain" anymore? The environmental crisis that was solved</h2>



Remember the 1980s when acid rain dominated headlines? Dire warnings about rain eating buildings, killing fish, and destroying forests filled every news cycle. Then, almost like magic, acid rain vanished from public discourse. What happened? Did we actually solve one of the late 20th century's most pressing environmental challenges?



The answer might surprise you. Unlike many environmental issues that drag on indefinitely, acid rain represents one of modern history's most successful ecological recovery stories. It's a tale of science, politics, and technology working together to tackle what seemed impossible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What was acid rain?</h2>



Acid rain isn't regular rain having a bad day – it's precipitation that became significantly more acidic due to air pollution. When power plants, factories, and vehicles burn fossil fuels, they release sulfur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides (NOx) into the atmosphere.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The science behind it</h2>



Think of acid rain as nature's chemistry experiment gone wrong. These compounds react with water, oxygen, and other chemicals to form sulfuric and nitric acids. When mixed with water vapor in clouds, they create precipitation with dangerously low pH levels.



While clean rain has a pH of about 5.6, acid rain could drop as low as 4.2 to 4.4 – roughly as acidic as tomato juice or coffee. According to US Geological Survey documentation, Scottish chemist Angus Smith first coined "acid rain" in 1872, but it didn't become a household phrase until the 1960s and 1970s when Swedish scientist Svante Odén documented its devastating effects on Scandinavian lakes and European forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The crisis at its peak</h2>



During the height of public concern, environmental damage was both widespread and visible. This wasn't some abstract future threat – people could see destruction happening in real-time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Environmental devastation</h2>



The most dramatic impacts were impossible to ignore. Research documented by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation and the New York State Department of Environmental Conservation shows that in the Adirondack Mountains, more than 200 lakes became so acidic they couldn't support fish life. The Adirondack Council reports that 409 lakes once supported brook trout, but many lost their fish populations due to acid rain.



By 1976, when scientists cataloged all acidified lakes in the Adirondack Park, researchers found that half of the lakes over 2,000 feet above sea level had no fish, according to studies published in environmental journals. The acidification process worked like a slow-motion disaster. As acid rain fell into watersheds, it gradually lowered pH levels. Fish couldn't survive in acidic water, and their food sources died off too.



Trees at high elevations showed stress directly linked to acid rain. It weakened them by leaching nutrients and making them susceptible to disease. Historical records show Germany's Black Forest saw nearly half its trees damaged by the mid-1980s.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Economic impact</h2>



Acid rain wasn't just environmental – it was expensive. Acidic precipitation corroded infrastructure, buildings, and monuments. Historic stone structures deteriorated at accelerated rates. Tourism suffered as lakes became fishless and forests declined. EPA economic analyses from the period documented repair costs mounting into billions annually.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The solution: government action and technology</h2>



Transformation from crisis to success required unprecedented cooperation between governments, industries, and environmental groups.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The Clean Air Act of 1990</h2>



The turning point came with the Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990, signed by President George H.W. Bush. This represented a fundamentally new approach to environmental regulation, as documented in EPA historical records.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Cap-and-trade success</h2>



Instead of mandating specific technologies, the 1990 amendments introduced something revolutionary: a cap-and-trade system for sulfur dioxide emissions. EPA program documentation shows this market-based approach set overall limits but allowed companies to trade emission allowances.



The genius was harnessing market forces to find cost-effective pollution reduction. Companies reducing emissions cheaply could sell excess allowances to those facing higher costs. Research published in environmental economics journals and EPA progress reports shows this resulted in dramatic SO2 reduction at a fraction of projected costs.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Technology advances</h2>



Policy provided the framework, but technology made reductions possible. Studies in atmospheric science journals document the widespread adoption of flue gas desulfurization systems ("scrubbers") that removed sulfur dioxide before it reached the atmosphere. By the 2000s, new installations could remove over 95% of SO2 emissions, according to EPA technical reports.



The push coincided with cleaner energy development. Natural gas produces fewer sulfur compounds than coal. Wind and solar, emerging in the 1990s, captured growing market share, reducing reliance on high-sulfur coal.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-we-don-t-hear-about-it-today">Why we don't hear about it today</h2>



Why did acid rain disappear from headlines? Simple: the problem was largely solved.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Success doesn't make news</h2>



There's an old journalism saying: "If it bleeds, it leads." Environmental success stories don't generate urgency like crisis reporting. Media attention shifted to other challenges: climate change, plastic pollution, and biodiversity loss. There's only so much environmental anxiety the public can absorb, and newer concerns replaced acid rain.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Mission accomplished</h2>



The primary reason is beautifully simple: interventions worked. EPA monitoring data shows sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990. Academic research published in environmental science journals confirms pH levels in formerly affected areas returned closer to normal. This represents one of history's most dramatic environmental recoveries. Studies by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation show fishless lakes now support healthy populations. Forests recovered, and building damage slowed dramatically.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-is-it-really-gone">Is it really gone?</h2>



The crisis is largely resolved, but monitoring data shows the problem isn't completely eliminated – it's managed to acceptable levels. Some areas still experience occasional events during high pollution periods. International environmental research indicates that rapidly industrializing Asian countries face similar problems to what we experienced decades ago, though they're implementing successful strategies.



EPA research shows nitrogen oxide emissions proved more challenging than sulfur dioxide, coming from vehicles and mobile sources. Climate science studies suggest changing weather patterns add complexity to how acid rain forms and falls.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What this teaches us</h2>



The acid rain experience proves that seemingly intractable environmental problems can be solved with scientific understanding, political will, and technological innovation. Environmental monitoring data shows recovery speed was remarkable – within a decade, measurable improvements appeared in air quality and ecosystem health.



Success came from bipartisan support across party lines. Policy analysis studies show the market-based approach appealed to those preferring economic incentives while achieving environmental goals. This support created lasting policy surviving political changes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Conclusion</h2>



Acid rain's disappearance from public consciousness represents environmental science's greatest success stories. Through effective regulation, technological innovation, and international cooperation, we transformed an overwhelming crisis into a manageable challenge.



Today's silence isn't because we forgot – it's because we solved it. The 1990 Clean Air Act, combined with technology and energy market changes, reduced acid rain emissions over 90%, according to comprehensive EPA data analysis.



This success offers hope for current challenges. It proves complex problems can be solved when science, policy, and technology work together. As we face climate change and plastic pollution, acid rain reminds us that dramatic positive change is possible.



Next time someone asks whether environmental regulations work, remember acid rain. It's proof that sometimes, we get it right.



<hr class="wp-block-separator has-alpha-channel-opacity"/>



Sources: This article draws from EPA official documentation and progress reports, peer-reviewed research published in environmental and atmospheric science journals, historical data from the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation, New York State Department of Environmental Conservation records, US Geological Survey publications, policy analysis studies, and environmental monitoring data collected over three decades.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Frequently Asked Questions</h2>



1. Is acid rain completely gone? No, but EPA monitoring shows it's reduced to manageable levels. US sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990, making acid rain much less severe than the 1980s crisis.



2. How long did solving take? Environmental monitoring data shows significant improvements began within 5-10 years of 1990s emission controls. Full ecosystem recovery took longer – some areas need 20-30 years for complete recovery.



3. What made the solution successful? Clear scientific understanding, visible damage motivating action, bipartisan support, available technology, and innovative market-based policies like cap-and-trade.



4. Do other countries have acid rain problems? Yes, particularly rapidly industrializing Asian countries. However, international environmental research shows many implement similar successful control strategies.



5. Could acid rain return? Potentially, if regulations weaken or we return to high-sulfur coal without controls, though effects would take years to become severe according to environmental projections.



6. Can you recommend any teaching tools on the subject of "acid rain"? The United States Environmental Protection Agency produced a wonderful teacher's guide for ages 14 and under that you can find on the EPA website here: <a href="https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf</a>



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The environmental problem we actually solved

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk Acid rain and a crisis solved. Why don't we...

Fresh,Radish,Harvest,On,Soil,In,Garden.

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</div></figure>







Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving fall garden, and this guide lays out the best vegetables and herbs to plant now for a fruitful autumn harvest. 



Fast-growing leafy greens such as spinach, lettuce, kale, and arugula perform especially well in the waning summer heat, with harvests beginning as soon as 30 days. 



These cool-season crops relish the transition into fall, offering repeated yields with cut-and-come-again methods.



Root vegetables like radishes, carrots, and beets also excel during this period. Radishes deliver satisfaction in under a month, while carrots and beets mature in about two months. Employing succession planting ensures a continuous stream of produce deep into the cooler months. 



For a boost of fresh flavor, herbs like cilantro, basil, dill, and chervil are excellent picks. These heat-loving varieties flourish in July’s warmth and are harvest-ready in about 30 days, especially when sown continuously.



Gardeners in zones 6 through 9 can benefit from planting bush beans and snap peas, which don’t require trellising and are ideal for compact plots. 



Maturing in 50–60 days, they’re a smart choice for quick, protein-rich harvests. For those in hotter regions, heat-tolerant crops such as okra and southern peas provide reliable yields and thrive in scorching conditions.



This guide emphasizes more than crop selection—it highlights the importance of timing, soil preparation, and ongoing sowing techniques. 



With thoughtful planning and attention to regional climate needs, even late-summer gardeners can enjoy fresh salads, hearty stews, and the satisfaction of a robust, homegrown harvest well into fall.



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What to plant in your garden in mid-July

https://youtu.be/Fi2OeEwuzRM?si=vTyd2m9FMmtyWkex Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving...

Green,Ecoduct,Over,An,Empty,Highway,During,Sunset.

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https://youtu.be/XYgiPzmNBTU?si=eFYY7gPHU1JznLvU
</div></figure>



A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that wildlife tunnels significantly reduce amphibian road mortality during seasonal migrations. 



Frogs and salamanders often cross roads to reach breeding ponds each spring, but many are killed by vehicles. 



Researchers from the <a href="https://www.uvm.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Vermont</a>, in collaboration with local citizens and the Vermont Agency of Natural Resources, installed two underpass tunnels in 2015. 



Over a 12-year monitoring period, they observed an 80.2% reduction in amphibian deaths, and up to 94% for non-climbing species like salamanders. 



The study used a before-after-control-impact design and documented more than 5,200 amphibians, highlighting the tunnels’ effectiveness even in nearby buffer zones.



Funded at $342,397 - far cheaper than wildlife crossings for large mammals - the project showcased the power of community-led conservation.



Local groups initiated the effort after observing mass amphibian deaths. Wildlife cameras later captured over 2,200 amphibians using a tunnel in just one spring, along with other species like raccoons and bobcats, indicating wider ecosystem benefits.



This marks the first peer-reviewed, long-term data set in the northeastern U.S. confirming amphibian-specific underpasses work. 



The study urges transportation departments to incorporate these designs into road planning and highlights how community action, thoughtful infrastructure, and persistence can make a real difference for biodiversity.



The full study was published in the <a href="https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1617138125000780" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal for Nature Conservation</a>.



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-----

Wildlife tunnels save millions of amphibians

https://youtu.be/XYgiPzmNBTU?si=eFYY7gPHU1JznLvU A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that...

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing it with probiotics and prebiotics, aiming to create a treat that satisfies cravings while supporting gut health. 



The challenge lies in maintaining chocolate's beloved texture and flavor while adding health benefits.



<figure class="wp-block-embed aligncenter is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://youtu.be/Ug657J67iEo?si=w96YjGMsg939LD_3
</div></figure>



Probiotics - beneficial microbes that balance gut bacteria and aid digestion - are typically fragile and can be destroyed by stomach acid or processing. 



Prebiotics act as food for these microbes, helping them thrive. Together, they form "synbiotics," a powerful health combination.



Researchers Smriti Gaur and Shubhi Singh from India's Jaypee Institute of Information Technology took an innovative approach, using natural prebiotics like corn and honey instead of complex processing methods. 



They created five chocolate varieties: a control and four synbiotic versions containing different combinations of prebiotics, probiotics (Lactobacillus strains), and flavor enhancers (cinnamon or orange).



Laboratory simulations of human digestion showed the probiotics remained viable for over five hours, suggesting they could survive long enough to benefit gut health.



Taste tests were positive, with researchers particularly enjoying the orange-flavored variety, describing it as having "vibrant citrus notes" complementing the "rich cocoa" with a "luxurious" texture.



This research represents just the beginning. With further refinement of strains, textures, and flavors, chocolate could evolve beyond mere indulgence to become a functional food that nourishes while it delights.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.4c00741" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ACS Food Science &amp; Technology</a>.

Is chocolate the next nutritional powerhouse?

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

[sendtonews key="0ynNMYkMKa-2340414-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

[sendtonews key="G9bUoxcjr4-2511624-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

[sendtonews key="3upvlAaHgO-2256633-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

[sendtonews key="LvS8v8bp9z-2564889-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="X0f6OHYoI4-2310561-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How does salt makes things taste better?

[sendtonews key="X0f6OHYoI4-2310561-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="JRaP49ISmm-2357509-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Santiago, Chile in South America

[sendtonews key="JRaP49ISmm-2357509-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

[sendtonews key="e4ZG0Jawp3-2374785-12187" type="single"] Astronomers at Johns Hopkins University have created...

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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.



According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."



Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;



ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. 



Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

[sendtonews key="uV9Lh2fQbV-1760058-12187" type="single"] Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

[sendtonews key="qjvhBOBnY8-2426650-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

[sendtonews key="oL4FnPTGCV-2384527-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

[sendtonews key="0879czfG3k-1785905-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from NASA...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

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Earth,Like,Exoplanet,3d,Render

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

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