Sockeye,Salmon,Spawning,In,River,,British,Columbia,,Canada

In northern California, rivers feed people, wildlife, and culture. But what fuels these river waters? Scientists found that a partnership between microscopic algae and specialized bacteria feeds the food web from the ground up. It is not fertilizer, not runoff, but life itself that is keeping rivers alive.



Along the Eel river, this unexpected algae partnership benefits the health of the ecosystem and supports the salmon populations. 



Salmon are at the center of it all - they are food, heritage and a sign of healthy <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/discovery-about-earths-bending-rivers-could-help-us-find-water-on-other-planets/">waters</a>. When salmon run strong, rivers thrive. When they struggle, entire communities feel the loss.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-algae-and-bacteria-work-together">Algae and bacteria work together</h2>



The study shows how tiny algae and bacteria work as one. Together they create a clean nitrogen <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/why-rivers-split-a-century-old-mystery-has-finally-been-solved/">source</a> that acts as a natural engine, powering the food chain without pollution. 



The key player is a diatom named&nbsp;Epithemia, that carries inside it bacterial partners called <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/37066385/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">diazoplasts</a>.



“This is nature’s version of a clean nutrient pipeline, from sunlight to fish, without the runoff that creates harmful algal blooms,” said Jane Marks, biology professor at <a href="https://nau.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Northern Arizona University</a>, and lead author of the study.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-epithemia-works">How Epithemia works</h2>



The diatom captures sunlight and turns it into sugar. The diazoplast eats that sugar and uses the energy to pull nitrogen from the air. In return, it hands nitrogen back to the diatom. 



The diatom then keeps making more sugar. The loop is tight, efficient, and endlessly productive.



“It’s like a handshake deal: both sides benefit, and the entire river thrives,” said Mike Zampini, a postdoctoral researcher at NAU and isotope tracing lead.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-salmon-thrive-on-epithemia">Salmon thrive on Epithemia</h2>



In spring, Cladophora algae grow long and green, using runoff <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/meandering-rivers-shaped-early-landscapes-before-plants-arrived/">nutrients</a>. By summer, nutrients run low. Epithemia takes over. 



It covers Cladophora until the mats turn rusty red. At this stage, almost 90 percent of new nitrogen in the food web comes from Epithemia.



“Healthy rivers don’t just happen - they’re maintained by ecological interactions, like this partnership,” said Mary Power, co-author of the study and faculty director of <a href="https://www.berkeley.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">UC Berkeley</a>’s Angelo Coast Range Reserve.



Insects such as caddisflies feed on the mats. Young salmon eat the insects. A chain begins with invisible microbes and ends with one of the most important fish in the region.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-algae-feed-river-insects">Algae feed river insects</h2>



Caddisflies grazing on algae thick with Epithemia&nbsp;gain far more energy than those feeding on plain green algae. They take in ten times more carbon. Nitrogen transfer reaches over half of what the diatoms fix. 



Insects also prefer diatoms because they are easier to digest. Their thin silica shells crack open more easily than the walls of green algae.



Diatoms are richer too. They carry fatty acids, carotenoids, and even thiamine. This last nutrient matters for salmon. 



Without enough thiamine, hatchlings often fail. By supplying insects with thiamine-rich cells, Epithemia helps salmon indirectly, but crucially.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-changing-roles-in-summer">Changing roles in summer</h2>



Cladophora&nbsp;begins the season as the main producer. But as&nbsp;Epithemia&nbsp;spreads, the green algae fade. They stop making much food themselves. Instead, they serve as scaffolding, a support structure for diatom growth. 



Even in this weakened state, Cladophora matters. Its filaments stretch across rocks, providing space for billions of microbes to attach.



This switch shows how ecosystems adapt. One species starts the chain. Another takes over when conditions change. Together they keep the food web running, even during lean months.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-epithemia-dominate-healthy-rivers">Epithemia dominate healthy rivers</h2>



Not all microbes fix nitrogen equally. Many free-living bacteria can do it, but diazoplasts dominate in the Eel River. By late summer, they fix nearly 90 percent of all new nitrogen. 



Their close tie with&nbsp;Epithemia&nbsp;gives diazoplasts the edge. While free-living bacteria must split their effort between different jobs, diazoplasts specialize in one: fixing nitrogen.



That specialization makes them fast, efficient, and critical to the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rivers-are-releasing-a-massive-amount-of-carbon-dioxide-into-the-air/">ecosystem</a>. Their size also matters. Even when they are few, they make up most of the biomass of nitrogen fixers.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fuel-for-nitrogen-production">Fuel for nitrogen production </h2>



This is not a small-scale effect. Field surveys show that mats of red&nbsp;Cladophora&nbsp;cover nearly a quarter of some streambeds. Despite covering less ground than other algae, they produce over half the nitrogen in the system. 



When scaled across the river network, the contribution is huge. Scientists estimate that about 90 percent of midsummer nitrogen comes from&nbsp;Epithemia&nbsp;and its diazoplasts.



That rivals the productivity of massive cyanobacteria blooms seen elsewhere. Yet here, the same force is carried by a diatom the size of a hair’s width.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-algae-partnerships-are-found-worldwide">Algae partnerships are found worldwide</h2>



Diatom-bacteria partnerships like this are not unique to the Eel River. They appear in lakes, rivers, and oceans around the world, especially in places where nitrogen is scarce. They may quietly boost food webs far more than scientists realized.



This has human implications too. If crops or biofuels could mimic the same process, farmers might cut costs and reduce pollution. Instead of spreading chemical fertilizers, plants could feed themselves using microbial help.



"When nature engineers solutions this elegant, it reminds us what’s possible when people, places and discovery come together," said Professor Marks. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-epithemia-and-future-salmon-survival">Epithemia and future salmon survival</h2>



The lesson is clear. Salmon survival depends on far more than the obvious. It rests on unseen alliances between algae and bacteria, locked in a trade of sugar and nitrogen. 



By following these links, we see how even the smallest Epithemia cells can shape an entire river ecosystem.



Using stable isotope tracing and advanced imaging, the researchers followed carbon and nitrogen from single cells to entire watersheds. 



They showed how invisible interactions scale up into forces that sustain fish, rivers, and even human culture.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.2503108122" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a>.



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Salmon have their own 'secret superfood' in rivers that helps them survive and thrive

In northern California, rivers feed people, wildlife, and culture. But what fuels these river waters? Scientists found that a partnership between microscopic algae and specialized bacteria feeds the food web from the ground up. It is not fertilizer, not runoff, but life itself that is keeping rivers alive. Along the Eel river, this unexpected algae partnership benefits the health of the ecosystem and supports the salmon populations. Salmon are at the center of it all - they are food, heritage and a sign of healthy waters. When...

According to a new study from the <a href="https://www.york.ac.uk/">University of York</a>, carefully managed fire can optimize mammal and bird diversity in African savannas. 

The research, which is the first of its kind to examine the “pyrodiversity" of an entire continent, revealed that this strategy can improve the number of mammal species by 20 percent and the number of bird species by 30 percent with adequate rainfall.

“Fire is often viewed as homogeneous, but in reality there is a range of different fires characterized by variation in size, intensity, season and frequency of burning,” said lead author Dr. Colin Beale. “We found that in wet savanna increasing the range of different types of fire in an area allows a wider number of species to thrive.”

“Fire is widely thought to have a negative impact on the environment, but in African savannas hominids have been setting a variety of fires for around a million years so fire is something the ecosystem has co-evolved with and adapted to.”

The researchers gathered 15 years of satellite data on fires and accessed distribution maps of all the bird and mammal species in protected areas across <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/african-savannahs-climate-change/">Africa's savannas</a>. The study revealed that savannas with abundant rainfall and the most varied types of fire contained significantly more bird and mammal diversity.

The experts found that a range of fire types allowed rare species of birds, such as the Rufous-tailed Weaver and the Black-bellied Sunbird, to cohabitate with more common bird species. The study findings indicate that fires alter the conditions within savanna habitats and increase the availability of nutrients, terrain, and shelter for a greater number of species to thrive.

As a result of the investigation, the researchers hope to provide land managers and conservationists with guidance on how to use carefully managed fire as a tool to boost biodiversity.

“Pyrodiversity is particularly important for biodiversity in wet savanna landscapes, but this isn't the only reason people light fires: different goals require different burning patterns,” said Dr. Beale. “We want to develop tools to help the managers of conservation areas articulate what they want to achieve and help them to use fire to do it.”

The study is published today in <a href="http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/journal/10.1111/(ISSN)1461-0248">Ecology Letters</a>. 

--

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Image Credit: Dr. Colin Beale, University of York

Carefully managed fire can improve African savanna diversity

According to a new study from the University of York,...

Researchers at the <a href="https://www.uni-wuerzburg.de/en/ueber/university/">Julius Maximilian University of Würzburg</a> (JMU) have made the incredible discovery that African Matabele ants treat each other's wounds. While 80 percent of the injured ants died from untreated wounds, the study revealed that only around ten percent of the injured <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ants-produce-powerful-antibiotics/">ants</a> died after receiving treatment.

Matabele ants, found commonly in Sub-Saharan Africa, run a high risk of injury as they invade the foraging sites of termites multiple times a day. Hundreds of ants line up to participate in the raids, where they attack and kill workers to take home as food.

The termites do not go down without a fight, however, and many ants are killed or lose limbs that are bitten off in combat.

Last year, study co-author Erik T. Frank described what happens to the injured ants next. He explained that they release a chemical substance to signal for help and then other ants come to the rescue, carrying the fallen comrades back to the nest. 

In the current study, the JMU biologists set out to further explore this rescue service. The team wanted to know, for example, what happens once the injured ants are back in the nest. The experts discovered that ants treat the open wounds of others by licking them for up to several minutes at a time.

“We suppose that they do this to clean the wounds and maybe even apply antimicrobial substances with their saliva to reduce the risk of bacterial or fungal infection,” said Frank.

The researchers also found that ants with the most serious injuries are not rescued. Interestingly, it is the wounded ants themselves who make decisions about who is saved and who is left behind.

Ants that are only slightly injured are very cooperative with their rescuers, but ants who are severely injured put up a fight and refuse the help.

“They simply don't cooperate with the helpers and are left behind as a result,” said Frank. The experts believe that the terminally injured ants are making sure that no energy is wasted on an attempt to rescue them.

Erik T. Frank plans to expand upon this research to determine how ants recognize precisely where another ant is injured and how they decide the amount of time that needs to be invested in treating the wounds.

No other insects are known to treat the injuries of their comrades, and the JMU team believes that this behavior may be unique in the entire animal kingdom.

The study is published in the journal <a href="http://rspb.royalsocietypublishing.org/">Proceedings of the Royal Society B</a>.

--

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Image Credit: Photo: Erik T. Frank

Ants treat each other’s wounds

Researchers at the Julius Maximilian University of Würzburg (JMU) have...

New research has found that zebra finches sing while they are dreaming as a way to practice their calls, try new improvisations, and mimic the songs of their friends. 

Previous studies have shown that birds dream about singing, but researchers from the<a href="http://www.uba.ar/"> University of Buenos Aires</a> found that zebra finches move their vocal chords in sync with the birdsongs in their dreams. 

By attaching electrodes to the vocal muscles of ten <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/humans-birds-speech-song/">zebra finches</a> and monitoring the birds as they slept, the researchers found the movements matched the activity in their brain. 

The researchers were even able to jumpstart the silent movements in the vocal muscles by playing recordings of the finches’ calls. 

“In this work, we found that nocturnal playbacks of the bird's own song, or synthetic versions of that song, evoke [syringeal ventralis] vS activity patterns strikingly similar to those recorded during song execution,” wrote the authors in a <a href="https://www.biorxiv.org/content/biorxiv/early/2018/01/22/251256.full.pdf">bioRxiv</a> paper. 

When the finch dreams, its brain seems to play through its daily call or birdsong, and the movement in the vocal cords matches this activity. 

An earlier 2000 study came to a similar conclusion by analyzing brain activity in zebra finches. 

The study results showed that if the bird slept for long periods, it would not only play through its birdsong but also try different variations like changing notes or tempo. 

“The zebra finch appears to store the neuronal firing pattern of song production during the day and reads it out at night, rehearsing the song, and perhaps, improvising variations,” said Daniel Margoliash, the lead researcher of the 2000 study. 

Both the 2000 study and the recent research emphasize the brain patterns of sleeping finches and their resemblance to brain activity while the bird is singing during the day. 

However, the new study is first of its kind to match vocal cord muscle movements to bird calls during sleep. 

--

By <a href="mailto:kayvandette@gmail.com">Kay Vandette</a>,<a href="https://www.earth.com/"> Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Zebra finches sing in their sleep

New research has found that zebra finches sing while they...

DCIM100MEDIADJI_0028.JPG

Researchers in Adelaide, Australia set up thousands of lifesize decoy birds on a beach to test who could come up with a more accurate count of the fake birds: drones or expert wildlife spotters.

For conservationists, biologists, and researchers, coming up with accurate <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/california-sea-lion-comeback/">population</a> counts is crucial to wildlife monitoring. 

Researchers from the <a href="https://www.adelaide.edu.au/">University of Adelaide</a> wanted to explore the accuracy of drones used to monitor wildlife, so they set up the decoy test, also known as the #EpicDuckChallenge.

Drones are becoming increasingly popular in conservation, says the study, which was published in the journal Methods in Ecology and Evolution.

“For a few years now, drones have been used to monitor different animals that can be seen from above, including elephants, seals, and nesting birds,” said Jarrod Hodgson the study’s lead author. “But, until now, the accuracy of using drones to count wildlife was unclear.” 

The results show that drones and algorithms that count animal populations are more accurate than other traditional monitoring methods. 

For the experiment, the researchers created ten fake greater crested tern bird colonies using life-size plastic ducks. 

Expert wildlife spotters were asked to count the birds using binoculars and telescopes from the ground while overhead a drone took pictures of the colonies. 

Citizen scientists tallied the birds in the drone imagery, and these numbers were compared to the final count that the ground spotters had come up with. It turns out that drone imagery produced a more accurate count.  

The researchers then created a computer algorithm to count the birds using the drone imagery to see if its calculations would be just as accurate, which it was. 

The results are exciting for wildlife monitoring efforts and the researchers are hopeful that their study could help produce accurate population numbers for a wide array of species. 

“With so many animals across the world facing extinction, our need for accurate wildlife data has never been greater," said Hodgson. “Accurate monitoring can detect small changes in animal numbers. That is important because if we had to wait for a big shift in those numbers to notice the decline, it might be too late to conserve a threatened species.”

--

By <a href="mailto:kayvandette@gmail.com">Kay Vandette</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Image Credit: Jarrod Hodgson

#EpicDuckChallenge proves drones can monitor wildlife populations

Researchers in Adelaide, Australia set up thousands of lifesize decoy...

What could be stranger than using noise for navigation?  Of course humans use radar, but imagine standing in a completely dark room and using only your own voice and your ears to find your way through the night. Echolocation is an odd and deeply interesting adaptation shared among unrelated mammals and birds.  

Most people think of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/saving-bats-whose-teeth-used-currency/">bats</a>, and echolocation is incredibly important for the flying mammals, but they’re not alone.  Bats hunting at night can locate insects in the dark via the clicks they produce and echoes from those clicks.  Certain wary moths hearing the clicks actually use their own noises to ‘jam’ the bats echolocation and quickly drop out of the bat’s flight path.  I’ve volunteered with the Colorado Division of Wildlife to set up audio recorders near cave entrances.  The recordings of bats can be analyzed by software and identify bats to species and give good estimates of bat numbers.  It’s hoped that audio monitoring can also help scientists identify bat colonies in trouble or under stress from disease or other disturbance.  

In an interesting case of convergent evolution, oil birds use echolocation to navigate the caves where they perch at night as well as the forests at night where they feed.  Oil birds are so named because of the high concentrations of oil in their bodies due to their unique diets.  Fruit bats tend to favor sweeter fruits but there are other oily or fatty fruits such as the avocado that oil birds prefer.  Oil bird echolocation isn’t as fine as detecting small insects on the wing but it works fine for locating fruit trees and cave roosts in the dark.

There are also swifts, birds not closely related to oil birds that nest in caves of South-east Asia and Australia and use echolocation.  

Toothed Whales also use echolocation.  Cetaceans such as Narwhales and river dolphins are nearly blind.  The Arctic Ocean is full of the vocalizations of marine mammals, including narwhals and has been described as a sound cape few humans ever experience much less learn to appreciate.  In his book Arctic Dreams, Barry Lopez makes clear that Narwhals live in a world of sound, there has even been conjecture that narwhal males ‘sound joust’.  

Less well known is the fact that the humble shrew uses echolocation.  Research is just in it’s infancy as far as shrew echolocation but it makes sense that the blind mammal would use echolocation to locate itself in the environment.      

Echolocation involves a host of evolutionary adaptations from the ability to create noises that echo in an appropriate form for echolocation to hearing to a brain that can quickly and accurately analyze sounds for navigation.  The fact that echolocation has evolved separately so many times proves its utility and suggests that there could be other animals using echolocation without our notice or new species of echolocation using animals yet undiscovered.  Who knows what this world of noise in the dark has yet to reveal to the curious, I for one hope it always remains a bit mysterious though.  

--

By <a href="mailto:zachfitzner@yahoo.com">Zach Fitzner</a>, <a href="http://earth.com">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Noise navigation: How animals use echolocation

What could be stranger than using noise for navigation?  Of...

In the over 4.5 billion years that the Earth has been around – and the roughly 4 billion years that life has existed on this planet – <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/tasmanian-tigers-aboriginals-extinct/">extinction</a> of species has been a constant occurrence. 

It can happen for a number of reasons, the spread of disease, over-hunting, and inability to adapt to a changing environment are just a few of those reasons. But for many extinct species, ultimately the major decider was energy – or a lack thereof. Whatever factors may lead to it, if individuals in a species cannot access enough resources to survive, the species itself may not stick around very long.

When modeling extinction risk for species, scientists usually keep it simple. Most models reduce complex ecological systems to a linear relationship between resource density and population growth. This combination can usually be broadly applied to determine how much resource loss a species can survive. However, new research published in <a href="https://www.nature.com/ncomms/">Nature Communications</a> introduces a more nuanced model for extinction that also determines why animal species tend to evolve towards larger body sizes.

The researchers have put together the Nutritional State-structured Model (NSM), which incorporates body size and metabolic scaling into an extinction model where “hungry” and “full” animals – both big and small – interact and procreate in an environment with limited resources. 

“Unlike many previous forager models, this one accounts for body size and metabolic scaling,” says Chris Kempes, a biologist at <a href="https://www.santafe.edu/">Santa Fe Institute</a>. “It allows for predictions about extinction risk, and also gives us a systematic way of assessing how far populations are from their most stable states.”

In the NSM, only the full animals are able to reproduce, while the hungry animals are more at risk of mortality. Since animals’ energetic needs change with body size, the model’s calculations for replenishment and reproduction were based on biological scaling laws that relate body size to metabolism. 

The model determined that species of different sizes gravitate toward population states most stable against extinction. A pattern emerges within the NSM where the bigger the species, the fewer individuals cohabitate a given area. This arises because larger species are more stable against starvation in small numbers.

The model also shows that larger animals with slower metabolisms are the most stable against extinction by starvation, and even predicts an energetically “ideal” mammal – shown to be 2.5 times the size of an African elephant. The researchers were surprised, but pleased, to find that the NSM accurately predicts the maximum mammalian body size observed in the fossil record, exhibiting the overall accuracy of the model.

“The dynamics of foraging and the interaction of body size in foraging and resource availability, these are all rich problems for which there is beautiful phenomenology,” says Sidney Redner, a physicist at <a href="https://www.santafe.edu/">Santa Fe Institute</a>. “I hope some of this will have relevance in managing resources and ensuring species don’t go extinct.”

--

By <a href="mailto:certz@earth.com">Connor Ertz</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Image Credit: Laura Chambliss/Studio Yopp

Big body size helps a species avoid extinction

In the over 4.5 billion years that the Earth has...

Everyone knows <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-species-pelican-spiders/">spiders</a> are arachnids. Many people know that scorpions are arachnids.  A few people know that what most people call “daddy long legs” aren’t actually spiders but in fact are arachnids in the order Opiliones.  Actually, even that bit of information on arachnids is just the tip of the iceberg when it comes to the wide world of arachnid taxonomy.  

Arachnida is a class comprised of several orders and super orders; always changing as more scientific information is available.  In addition to these extant orders, there are a few more extinct orders.  Taken all together, the class Arachnida is a lesson in bizarre life forms.  

Everyone knows of scorpions, but less known are the pseudoscorpions of the order Pseudoscorpiones.  Most pseudoscorpions are tiny, easily fitting on the face of a dime.  Besides their diminutive size, the habitat of many makes pseudoscorpions easy to miss.  There have been pseudoscorpions living blind, hidden in caves, individual species being found only in specific caves sometimes.  

Other pseudoscorpions are interstitial, meaning they live between grains of soil.  I was surprised and excited to once find a small pseudoscorpion in the soil when excavating a dinosaur skeleton on the prairie of South Dakota.  In my excitement I shared the creature with everyone on the dig, letting the interesting arachnid crawl across many hands before I carefully placed her in the soil a safe distance from the dig.  Pseudoscorpions look very similar to scorpions with pinchers but without the tail or stinger; instead the claws contain venom sometimes.  The pseudoscorpion I encountered was very docile and given its size, seemed very unlikely to cause harm to a human.  

Many people have seen the exaggerated photos and descriptions emailed around from soldiers in Iraq that encountered ‘camel spiders’ or ‘sun spiders’.  Less people are aware that these creatures are arachnids of the order solifugae and not spiders at all.  Despite how intimidating these animals are made to seem, they’re mostly quite harmless.  There are more than 1,000 species of solifugids in 153 genera, occupying semi-arid and desert regions in all continents except Antarctica and Australia.  

Acariformes is a super order of arachnids that are widely detested but rarely acknowledged as arachnids: a group of mites.  There are over 32,000 described species of mite in this super order.  There are 10 families of mites that are free living, non-parasitic but many of the other species are parasitic to plants.  Orabatid mites are ingested by poison dart frogs and are the actual source of their alkaloid toxins.  In captivity, poison dart frogs quickly lose the protective toxins found in their skin without their diet of mites. 

One of my favorite arachnid group is the vinegaroons of the order thelyphonida.  Vinegaroons look mostly like scorpions, again without the stinger embellished tail.  What makes vinegaroons special is the ability to shoot acetic acid if attacked by predators.  Mostly vinegaroons hunt at night, preying on a number of arthropods including centipedes.  

The order Amblypygi commonly known as the tail-less whip scorpion is not a scorpion at all.  The animal is large, and encountered at night on a trail in the South American forest as I’ve seen them, it is intimidating.  Amblypygians are completely harmless to humans but have huge predatory appendages that look like horned claws but are actually mouth parts known as pedipalps.  Appearing black at first, many Amblypygians are actually quite colorful, appearing more like the rainbow in an oil slick than one color on closer inspection.  The order is entirely found in the tropics, so if you find them creepy, don’t worry about them taking over the Subway in New York or a ranch in Montana.  Amblypygians hunt at night and often live in caves which they venture out of at dark to prey upon other arthropods. 

Harvest Men, or Daddy Long-legs of the order Opiliones are often a childhood favorite as many people learn of their harmlessness to humans and are charmed by their long legged beauty.  The diversity and wildness of form of Opiliones can only be glimpsed in the tropics.  I’ve seen a harvest man be-decked in spikes holding a caterpillar in his jaws on a dewy leaf in the Ecuadorian night and been startled by the fierceness of the savage little hunter.

Beyond the orders I’ve talked about, there are ticks, microscorpions, the order Schizomida, hooded tick spiders and an abundance of extinct orders to explore.  That’s not mentioning all of the families, genera, species and subspecies of arachnids to consider.  Look around you, the world is filled with arachnids, quietly hunting and eating insects, living with us, with plants.  Everywhere you go (outside Antarctica) you are in a world quietly held together by arachnids among other tiny creatures.     

--

By <a href="mailto:zachfitzner@yahoo.com">Zach Fitzner</a>, <a href="http://earth.com">Earth.com</a> Contributing Writer

Photo Credit: Zach Fitzner

Arachnids: Spiders and scorpions are the tip of the iceberg

Everyone knows spiders are arachnids. Many people know that scorpions...

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Flattie spiders from the family Selenopidae can spin around at whip-fast speeds to catch prey. This spinning maneuver is the fastest on the planet, with rapid movement at speeds comparable to hummingbirds and fruit flies.

Researchers from the <a href="https://www.ucmerced.edu/">University of California Merced</a> and the <a href="https://www.calacademy.org/">California Academy of Sciences</a> were able to record the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/arachnids-spiders-scorpions/">spiders</a> in slow motion as they snagged their prey, which provided insight into how the spider manages this maneuver.

The results, published in the Journal of Experimental Biology, could someday be used to improve robot movements. 

“We are documenting and modeling their fast spins to help chart a course for making robots and other machines more maneuverable,” said Yu Zeng, the study’s lead author.

For prey, there’s simply no escaping the flattie spider. The spiders can sense prey in any direction and spin around in one-eighth of a second to strike. 

In order to capture and slow down this amazing feat, the researchers set up two synchronized high-speed cameras above and next to a flattie spider. In the wild, flattie spiders are known as sit-and-wait predators. 

For their experiment, the research team released a cricket and let it cross the path of the flattie spider. The cameras then recorded the footage of the spiders turning to get the crickets. 

After slowing down the footage to a rate of 40 times slower than the original attack speed, the researchers were able to see how the flattie spider manages this spinning tactic. 

The spider is anchored by its legs, and each of its legs is facing a different direction. No matter which direction prey comes from the spider can orientate itself. 

"We found that the leg nearest the prey anchors to the ground, creating a leverage point from which the spider can pull in its torso closer to the prey," says Zeng,

Similar to figure skaters, flattie spiders bring their legs inward to make their spins faster. The legs that are opposite of the prey push off the ground and the spider then employs a push-and-pull kind of tactic to get to the prey. 

The researchers hope their results will help with improving robot maneuvers in small spaces. 

“By simply observing these spiders and their natural history, we were able to make discoveries across disciplines,” said Sarah Crews, a member of the research team. “You just never know what path science may lead you down next--some of the best discoveries are made by accident.”

--

By<a href="mailto:kayvandette@gmail.com"> Kay Vandette</a>,<a href="https://www.earth.com/"> Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Photo Credit © 2015 Dr. Yu Zeng

These spiders are the fastest spinners on Earth

Flattie spiders from the family Selenopidae can spin around at...

In recent years, it’s become more accepted that pets may have a positive impact on people with mental health conditions. However, an analysis of research around the therapeutic benefits of pets has been lacking.

So Dr. Helen Brooks of the <a href="https://www.liverpool.ac.uk/">University of Liverpool</a> put together a team to look at the evidence. The researchers – from the <a href="http://www.manchester.ac.uk/">University of Manchester</a> and the <a href="https://www.southampton.ac.uk/">University of Southampton</a> as well as Liverpool – searched nine databases and looked at 17 studies from around the world about the effects of pet ownership on people with chronic mental health conditions.

“To be eligible for inclusion, studies had to be published in English and report on primary data related to the relationship between domestic animal ownership and the management of diagnosable mental health conditions,” the researchers wrote.

The research team looked at the results of each study, both positive and negative, and split them into quantitative and qualitative research.

“Qualitative studies illuminated the intensiveness of connectivity people with companion animals reported, and the multi-faceted ways in which pets contributed to the work associated with managing a mental health condition, particularly in times of crisis,” they wrote.

Some of the themes the team spotted in the studies:
<ul>
 	<li style="font-weight: 400;">While petting an animal companion had mixed immediate results, some positive and some negative, pets could provide profound emotional support to people with mental health difficulties. In some cases, pets were a more comforting presence than human friends or family members. This was especially true in times of crisis, the studies showed.</li>
 	<li style="font-weight: 400;">People could tell their pets things that they were unwilling to voice aloud to a therapist or human loved one.</li>
 	<li style="font-weight: 400;">The need to feed, walk and otherwise care for pets helped provide a distraction and a routine when people had a spike in symptoms or went into crisis. Pets could also help disrupt symptoms such as panic attacks or auditory hallucinations. “They encouraged their owners to stay in the present avoiding worry and ruminations about past behaviours or concerns about the future,” Brooks’ team wrote.</li>
 	<li style="font-weight: 400;">In one study, patients self-reported needing less medication due to the presence of their pet.</li>
 	<li style="font-weight: 400;">Pet owners also reported that their pets pushed them to interact with others more, both with friends and family, and with strangers or acquaintances. “Interestingly, one study found that dogs increased social interactions that would not have been possible without their pet (e.g. other dog walkers),” the team wrote. However, this benefit varied by pet and number of pets.</li>
 	<li style="font-weight: 400;">Two quantitative studies found that pet owners scored higher on meaningful activity scales and that they felt better about themselves than those without pets.</li>
</ul>
The researchers did note some negatives: poorly behaved pets could add stress to people already dealing with the stress of a mental health condition, and they were an added financial burden. Pets should be carefully matched to the person, several of the studies warned.

They could also be an obstacle to some of the goals patients set for their own recovery. And losing a pet could – unsurprisingly – have a negative effect on mental health, the studies showed.

Overall, though, the research analysis seems to show that pets bring more positives than negatives with them. 

“Despite the mixed evidence from the quantitative data, the participants included in the review enjoyed keeping their animals and believed that they gained psychological benefit from these relationships as demonstrated by the thick descriptions derived from the qualitative data,” the researchers wrote. “The review demonstrated that those with diagnosable mental health problems can infer the same benefits from pet ownership as the general population and pets may have a particular role in terms of enhancing quality of life given that levels of social exclusion and stigma are likely to be greater for this population.”

That said, most of the existing research is focused on anecdotes and self-reporting. More quantitative research is needed, the team wrote.

The new review of evidence has been published in the journal <a href="https://bmcpsychiatry.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s12888-018-1613-2">BMC Psychiatry</a>. Funding was provided by the National Institute for Health Research's <a href="https://www.nihr.ac.uk/research-and-impact/research/nihr-studies/programme-grants-for-applied-research.htm">Programme Grants for Applied Research Programme</a>.

—

By <a href="mailto:kcathey@earth.com">Kyla Cathey</a>, <a href="http://www.earth.com">Earth.com</a> staff writer

When it comes to mental health, pets may help more than harm

In recent years, it’s become more accepted that pets may...

Water in the desert: the secret that holds a delicate net of life in its grasp.  

According to the definition of the <a href="https://www.usgs.gov/">USGS</a>, Piñon-Juniper ecosystems are not technically <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/10-largest-deserts-world/">deserts</a> but at 10-15 inches of rain annually, they are quite dry, and locals commonly refer to it as a desert.

When I was studying Biology in college, I would go hiking in the arid piñon-juniper woodlands of the Colorado plateau.  On these hikes I collected bits of dry moss gathered on rocks here and there.

Back in the lab, I put the moss I put the moss into petri dishes with a little distilled water and let it sit overnight.  Under a microscope, the change was amazing.  What seemed like a dead piece of plant became a forest teeming with microscopic wild life.  

Rotifers; nightmare creatures in miniature beat the cilia of their wheel like heads, pulling unwary prey into jaws that mash like a beating heart.  The cilia actually create a vortex in the surrounding water, pulling food into their mouths like a whirlpool.  The rotifer ‘jaws’ (called trophi) are almost continuously moving to crush food particles.  The whole body of the rotifers telescope, making the animal seem larger or smaller depending on how stretched it is.  Rotifers are a group, making up phylum Rotifera, consisting of about 1750 species in three separate classes.  Rotifers are found almost anywhere there is a bit of water and even can remain dormant in the desert, clinging to dry moss as I found them.  

Nematodes were also found in the moss, elegant, round worms related to hookworms, the nematodae I found were mostly harmless.  There are 25,000 species of nematode described with estimates as high as 40,000 species existing worldwide.  The nematodes move like eels through the water.  These tiny creatures are found everywhere from soil to water all over the world.  Nematodes (along with other microbes) are important in the breakdown of waste and recycling of nutrients vital to plant and animal life.  

The creature I was looking for under the microscope, the object of my research was the legendary water bear of the phylum Tardigrada.  Eight-legged Tardigrades lumber through the scene of microscopic forest moving much like their namesake: bears.  Most tardigrades eat plants or bacteria but some prey upon smaller species of tardigrade.  

Much has been made of the toughness of tardigrades and for good reason.  Water bears have the ability to enter a dormant ‘tun’ state in which they appear dead and can remain for years.  Tardigrades found in moss that was dried out for museum collections over 120 years old have claimed to be revived with added water.  Tardigrades have been blasted into space on satellites and many of them survived, some females even laying eggs that hatched healthy young.  Tardigrades were put into liquid air at -200 °C for 21 months and sprang back to life with added water at normal temperatures.  The lowest recorded natural temperature on earth was -89.2 °C for context.  In fact water bears can survive almost absolute zero and have also been boiled in alcohol.

As long as a tardigrade is in its tun state, there is very little these tiny creatures can’t survive.  The amazing thing about tardigrades is the bizarreness of something that’s nearly everywhere.  Just like all the strange creatures I saw under the microscope, you’ve drank a water bear or two in your life, swam with them, had them stick to your skin, without ever being aware.

Water bears, rotifers and nematodes along with whole hosts of other microscopic or near microscopic (you can just barely see some of these with the naked eye but they’re really never noticed) have a strange similarity.  There is little pigment in the outer membrane of these animals and the effect is of looking at what appears to be an illustrated animal.  Small organs, even food being consumed or digested can be seen within the animal with a microscope.  This is partly with the rotifers ever moving jaws are so eerie, they look like a beating heart within the body and you can watch food particles crushed within.  Watching microscopic creatures is disorienting, you’re introduced to a world omnipresent but never noticed, like stepping into another dimension.  

The microscopic world all around us was so hard to accept at its discovery that van Leeuwenhoek, the Dutch microscope builder and first to describe microscopic ‘animalcules’ as he called them was widely mocked.  Anthony van Leeuwenhoek was a tradesman that originally used microscopes to study the structure of textiles and accidentally found his animalcules swimming in rain water.  A letter he sent to the British Royal Society was responded to quite rudely with utter disregard to the gravity of his discovery:

“Your letter of October 10th has been received here with amusement. Your account of myriad ‘little animals’ seen swimming in rainwater, with the aid of your so-called ‘microscope’ caused the members of the society considerable merriment when read at our most recent meeting. However, a vote having been taken among the members (accompanied, I regret to inform you, by considerable giggling) it has been decided not to publish your communication in the Proceedings of this esteemed society. However, all here wish your ‘little animals’ health, prodigality and good husbandry by their ingenious ‘discoverer’ “

In the long run of course, Leeuwenhoek has been vindicated and the world of miniscule creatures around us is known to far surpass the world of visible organisms in sheer numbers, as well as being some of the first organisms on earth and their ability to live everywhere.                   

--

By <a href="mailto:zachfitzner@yahoo.com">Zach Fitzner</a>, <a href="http://earth.com">Earth.com</a> Contributing Writer

Microscopic organisms in the driest places

Water in the desert: the secret that holds a delicate...

Saguaros are big… very big for cacti.  That’s one of the first impressions one is likely to get about the plants of the Sonoran Desert, the only place the iconic cactus lives naturally.  

Looking closely at a Saguaro, one gets the impression that the cactus has a hard life.  It’s clear that needles and a generally unappealing (at least for food) nature doesn’t make the plant’s life problem-free.  Of course there are the physical limitations to living in the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/10-largest-deserts-world/">Sonoran Desert</a>, things such as lack of water and high summer temperatures but there are also scars on saguaros.  Scars on saguaros sometimes come from cold temperatures that leave a pinched look on some of the cactus.  There are also cactus that I am convinced were shot, possible by inebriated college kids looking for senseless fun.  There are holes clearly made by insects, small but still probably somewhat damaging and then there are bigger holes.

Other cacti have a lot of holes as well.  Some holes are caused by insects but javelina (often thought a pig, javelina are actually peccaries) and desert tortoise take bites from various species of prickly pear.  Spines don’t mean that no one will eat you.  Cactus fruit are also a big source of food and some Native American groups improvised many culinary uses for saguaro (and other cacti) fruit as well as fruit gathering ceremonies.  Saguaro fruit can even be made into wine.         

Woodpeckers leave holes in saguaros for their homes but not all woodpecker holes are the same.  Gilded Flickers, (Colaptes chrysoides) a beautiful woodpecker eats insects but unlike non-desert species also eats cactus fruit.  The gilded flicker also uses saguaros for a home.  The flicker hammers through to the center of saguaro cactus and above their holes you sometimes see the rest of the plant leaning over sharply, drooping due to a loss of its structural integrity.

Gila Woodpeckers (Melanerpes uropygialis) also make their homes inside of saguaros but with a different method.  Gila Woodpeckers break through only the outside layer of a cactus.  The cactus is allowed to heal, creating a pocket of scar tissue.  Sometimes these pockets of scar tissue (called boots) were collected by Native Americans to use for carrying water.  Since the Gila Woodpecker doesn’t damage the saguaro’s hard wooden interior, the cactus stands strong still, with just superficial damage when compared to that done by Gilded Flickers.      

The advantages of nesting in cacti are obvious if you consider them for a bit.  A bird can reach a cactus rather easily by flying to it but imagine being a hungry cat trying to climb the plant to catch a bird.  Cactus Wrens nest in Cholla cactus, building tubes of needles and sticks to raise eggs in.  Sometimes Cactus Wrens also build dummy nests to lure would be predators to the wrong nest.

Life in the desert seems exceedingly hard, and there is less biodiversity than in some places, but all it really requires is a bit of innovation and natural selection is an amazing innovator.  

--

By <a href="mailto:zachfitzner@yahoo.com">Zach Fitzner</a>, <a href="http://earth.com">Earth.com</a> Contributing Writer

Cacti, birds, and life in the Sonoran Desert

Saguaros are big… very big for cacti.  That’s one of...

The earliest known evidence of canine domestication was discovered in 1914 when workers happened upon the buried remains of ancient humans and a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/game-dogs-cognitive-decline/">dog</a>. 

Now, a new study estimates the remains to be 14,000 years old and has provided clues about the relationship between dogs and humans that date back as far back as the Paleolithic period.  

The domestication of dogs likely happened 20,000 to 40,000 years ago, when humans and dogs entered a symbiotic relationship. This led to a gradual evolution in which dogs became companions and protectors living with humans rather than in wild packs. 

Luc Janssens, a veterinarian and archaeologist from <a href="https://www.ugent.be/en">Ghent University</a>, examined the 1914 remains and realized that the dog was sick before it died and that the animal could not have survived as long as it did without the care of humans.

Janssens’ research, published in the Journal of Archaeological Science, shows that in the early years of domesticated dogs, they were cared for, fed, and kept safe by people.  

For the study, Janssens closely examined the dog’s remains, specifically the teeth, and found that the dog was 27 to 28 weeks old when it died of distemper. Distemper is a viral illness that still affects animals today, and it’s often fatal. 

“Without adequate care, a dog with a serious case of distemper will die in less than three weeks,” said Janssens. “That would mean keeping it warm and clean and giving it food and water, even though, while it was sick, the dog would not have been of any practical use as a working animal.”

Janssens cannot conclusively prove what killed the dog, but the damage to the teeth points to distemper.  

The fact that the animal was buried with people and lived so long is convincing evidence that domesticated dogs were an important part of people’s lives even as far back as the Paleolithic period. 

The study sheds light on the bond between early humans and canines and the gradual domestication of dogs through the years.

--

By <a href="mailto:kayvandette@gmail.com">Kay Vandette,</a> <a href="https://www.earth.com/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

The bond between humans and dogs dates back 20,000 years

The earliest known evidence of canine domestication was discovered in...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE
</div></figure>



On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop and sunlight barely penetrates through the polar winter. It was here, however, that an international team of scientists found <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/predatory-worms-were-terror-beasts-half-a-billion-years-ago/#google_vignette" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evidence of sea monsters</a> that would change our understanding of ocean life in the past.



This video captures the discovery of Timorebestia fossils that had been hidden for more than 500 million years in the Sirius Passet formation. The "terror beasts," as they are called, are a hidden chapter in the evolutionary history of <a href="https://www.earth.com" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Earth</a>, showing that sophisticated predator-prey interactions occurred much earlier than previously envisioned.



Dr. Jakob Vinther and his research team at the <a href="https://www.bristol.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Bristol</a>, in collaboration with researchers at the <a href="https://eng.kopri.re.kr/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Korean Polar Research Institute</a>, braved extreme weather conditions at 82.5 north latitude to locate these giant creatures. Using sophisticated electron microprobe analysis, they revealed the detailed anatomy of the animals, including their muscle and nerve tissues.



The find upsets the traditional timeline of sea predators. Although we've long appreciated that Cambrian oceans were at one time ruled by <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jWI3-UgA3_o&amp;list=PL1QLQMW9MWDwpkFOnvgAmu7wT6rZmYqdJ&amp;index=19" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">arthropods</a>, these discoveries indicate that relatives of arrow worms were first to dominate the seas. These worms were building sophisticated food webs several million years before other predator groups arose.



Each fossil is a story of ancient hunger, with fossil stomach contents revealing these meter-long beasts dined on heavily armored arthropods regularly, cementing their place as the ocean's first apex predators.



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Worms dominated seas before dinosaurs

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">New York is the site of the world's oldest forest.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-385-million-year-old-trees-discovered">385-million-year-old trees discovered</h2>



Scientists have uncovered something extraordinary just two hours north of New York City. The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/worlds-oldest-forest-discovered-close-to-new-york-city/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">world's oldest forest</a>, dating back 385 million years, offers a window into how Earth's first complex forests shaped our planet's atmosphere.



Located near <a href="https://townofcairo.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cairo, New York</a>, in Greene County, these weren't merely primitive plants struggling to survive. These were sophisticated trees with root systems remarkably similar to modern forests. This ancient woodland predates dinosaurs by 140 million years.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-cairo-forest-discovery">The Cairo forest discovery</h2>



385 million years ago, upstate New York was a tropical paradise near the equator. Thanks to continental drift, this ancient forest has traveled thousands of miles to its current location.



The fossil forest sits in an abandoned quarry, roughly half the size of a football field. This represents just a slice of what was likely a massive forest system stretching from New York into Pennsylvania.



Charles Ver Straeten, curator of sedimentary rocks at the <a href="https://www.nysm.nysed.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">New York State Museum</a>, made the discovery in 2009. While scouting the former highway department property, his trained eye spotted wandering patterns in the stone that looked like marine features.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-revolutionary-age-and-preservation">Revolutionary age and preservation</h2>



The site contains 385-million-year-old rocks with fossilized woody roots forming horizontal patterns up to 18 feet (5.5 meters) wide. As Christopher Berry, a paleobotanist at Cardiff University, explains: "You are walking through the roots of ancient trees."



This discovery pushes back advanced tree evolution by millions of years. The research, published in <a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/home" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Current Biology</a> in December 2019, fundamentally changes our understanding of when complex forests first emerged.



Researchers believe a massive flood buried the forest floor, creating perfect fossilization conditions. Over millions of years, sediment hardened into rock, preserving these root patterns like nature's time capsule.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-meet-archaeopteris-the-first-modern-tree">Meet Archaeopteris: the first modern tree</h2>



The star of this ancient forest is Archaeopteris – not to be confused with the feathered dinosaur Archaeopteryx. This tree was far older and more revolutionary.



William Stein from <a href="https://www.binghamton.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Binghamton University</a> describes the roots as "strikingly modern, essentially what you'd see outside in my yard right now." These weren't simple root systems you'd expect from ancient plants.



Some fossilized roots are six inches (15 centimeters) in diameter, forming 36-foot-wide (11-meter) patterns. These giants grew up to 65 feet (20 meters) tall with five-foot-diameter (1.5-meter) trunks.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-changing-impact">Climate-changing impact</h2>



These trees fundamentally changed Earth's environment. Kevin Boyce, a Stanford University geoscientist, explains how their deep roots triggered "weathering," chemical reactions that pulled carbon dioxide from the atmosphere.



This process dropped atmospheric CO2 levels from 10-15 times higher than today to roughly modern concentrations. These ancient trees helped create atmospheric conditions that made complex life possible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ancient-forest-ecosystem">Ancient forest ecosystem</h2>



The forest was remarkably diverse. Scientists identified Eospermatopteris, palm tree-like plants with short roots that reached 30 feet (9 meters) tall but lacked woody structure. The forest also housed cladoxylopsids and a mysterious third species still being studied.



All reproduced through spores rather than seeds – millions of years before seeds evolved. This tropical environment had no grass, flowers, or flying insects, just towering trees creating Earth's first complex forest canopy.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-scientific-significance">Scientific significance</h2>



Before this finding, the Gilboa forest, located 25 miles (40 kilometers) away, held the "oldest forest" title. Cairo's trees are 2-3 million years older, showing that complex forest ecosystems developed much faster than scientists believed possible.



Patricia Gensel, a <a href="https://www.unc.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of North Carolina</a> paleobotanist, notes: "The size of those root systems is really changing the picture. Even 20 years ago, researchers assumed trees with such complex root systems didn't evolve so early."



The Cairo site presents three unique root systems, suggesting Devonian period forests were diverse ecosystems with different trees occupying different environmental niches, much like today's forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-modern-preservation-efforts">Modern preservation efforts</h2>



In 2022, New York State Senator Michelle Hinchey secured a $170,000 grant for the town of Cairo to construct specialized fencing around the fossil forest site. The town plans to conduct a feasibility study exploring the possibility of creating an educational center and working lab on-site.



Joe Hasenkopf, chair of the Cairo Planning Board, hopes to partner with educational institutions to create a research facility serving scientists, students, and the public.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lessons-for-today-s-climate">Lessons for today's climate</h2>



Why does a 385-million-year-old forest matter today? It shows how dramatically forests can change Earth's climate. These ancient woodlands created the atmospheric conditions supporting complex life.



Understanding how prehistoric forests transformed the planet helps us appreciate modern forests' critical role in addressing climate change. Forests remain Earth's most effective carbon capture systems.



These prehistoric trees changed Earth's atmosphere by pulling massive amounts of carbon dioxide from the air. As we face modern climate challenges, this ancient forest reminds us of trees' incredible power to transform our planet's environment.



The next time you walk through a forest, remember you're experiencing an ecosystem whose blueprint was established 385 million years ago in upstate New York. These ancient pioneers didn't just survive – they thrived and changed the world forever.



The full study was published in the journal Current Biology.



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Earth's oldest forest found in the United States

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ New York is the site of the world's oldest...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Acid rain and a crisis solved.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-don-t-we-ever-hear-about-acid-rain-anymore-the-environmental-crisis-that-was-solved">Why don't we ever hear about "acid rain" anymore? The environmental crisis that was solved</h2>



Remember the 1980s when acid rain dominated headlines? Dire warnings about rain eating buildings, killing fish, and destroying forests filled every news cycle. Then, almost like magic, acid rain vanished from public discourse. What happened? Did we actually solve one of the late 20th century's most pressing environmental challenges?



The answer might surprise you. Unlike many environmental issues that drag on indefinitely, acid rain represents one of modern history's most successful ecological recovery stories. It's a tale of science, politics, and technology working together to tackle what seemed impossible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What was acid rain?</h2>



Acid rain isn't regular rain having a bad day – it's precipitation that became significantly more acidic due to air pollution. When power plants, factories, and vehicles burn fossil fuels, they release sulfur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides (NOx) into the atmosphere.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The science behind it</h2>



Think of acid rain as nature's chemistry experiment gone wrong. These compounds react with water, oxygen, and other chemicals to form sulfuric and nitric acids. When mixed with water vapor in clouds, they create precipitation with dangerously low pH levels.



While clean rain has a pH of about 5.6, acid rain could drop as low as 4.2 to 4.4 – roughly as acidic as tomato juice or coffee. According to US Geological Survey documentation, Scottish chemist Angus Smith first coined "acid rain" in 1872, but it didn't become a household phrase until the 1960s and 1970s when Swedish scientist Svante Odén documented its devastating effects on Scandinavian lakes and European forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The crisis at its peak</h2>



During the height of public concern, environmental damage was both widespread and visible. This wasn't some abstract future threat – people could see destruction happening in real-time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Environmental devastation</h2>



The most dramatic impacts were impossible to ignore. Research documented by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation and the New York State Department of Environmental Conservation shows that in the Adirondack Mountains, more than 200 lakes became so acidic they couldn't support fish life. The Adirondack Council reports that 409 lakes once supported brook trout, but many lost their fish populations due to acid rain.



By 1976, when scientists cataloged all acidified lakes in the Adirondack Park, researchers found that half of the lakes over 2,000 feet above sea level had no fish, according to studies published in environmental journals. The acidification process worked like a slow-motion disaster. As acid rain fell into watersheds, it gradually lowered pH levels. Fish couldn't survive in acidic water, and their food sources died off too.



Trees at high elevations showed stress directly linked to acid rain. It weakened them by leaching nutrients and making them susceptible to disease. Historical records show Germany's Black Forest saw nearly half its trees damaged by the mid-1980s.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Economic impact</h2>



Acid rain wasn't just environmental – it was expensive. Acidic precipitation corroded infrastructure, buildings, and monuments. Historic stone structures deteriorated at accelerated rates. Tourism suffered as lakes became fishless and forests declined. EPA economic analyses from the period documented repair costs mounting into billions annually.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The solution: government action and technology</h2>



Transformation from crisis to success required unprecedented cooperation between governments, industries, and environmental groups.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The Clean Air Act of 1990</h2>



The turning point came with the Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990, signed by President George H.W. Bush. This represented a fundamentally new approach to environmental regulation, as documented in EPA historical records.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Cap-and-trade success</h2>



Instead of mandating specific technologies, the 1990 amendments introduced something revolutionary: a cap-and-trade system for sulfur dioxide emissions. EPA program documentation shows this market-based approach set overall limits but allowed companies to trade emission allowances.



The genius was harnessing market forces to find cost-effective pollution reduction. Companies reducing emissions cheaply could sell excess allowances to those facing higher costs. Research published in environmental economics journals and EPA progress reports shows this resulted in dramatic SO2 reduction at a fraction of projected costs.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Technology advances</h2>



Policy provided the framework, but technology made reductions possible. Studies in atmospheric science journals document the widespread adoption of flue gas desulfurization systems ("scrubbers") that removed sulfur dioxide before it reached the atmosphere. By the 2000s, new installations could remove over 95% of SO2 emissions, according to EPA technical reports.



The push coincided with cleaner energy development. Natural gas produces fewer sulfur compounds than coal. Wind and solar, emerging in the 1990s, captured growing market share, reducing reliance on high-sulfur coal.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-we-don-t-hear-about-it-today">Why we don't hear about it today</h2>



Why did acid rain disappear from headlines? Simple: the problem was largely solved.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Success doesn't make news</h2>



There's an old journalism saying: "If it bleeds, it leads." Environmental success stories don't generate urgency like crisis reporting. Media attention shifted to other challenges: climate change, plastic pollution, and biodiversity loss. There's only so much environmental anxiety the public can absorb, and newer concerns replaced acid rain.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Mission accomplished</h2>



The primary reason is beautifully simple: interventions worked. EPA monitoring data shows sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990. Academic research published in environmental science journals confirms pH levels in formerly affected areas returned closer to normal. This represents one of history's most dramatic environmental recoveries. Studies by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation show fishless lakes now support healthy populations. Forests recovered, and building damage slowed dramatically.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-is-it-really-gone">Is it really gone?</h2>



The crisis is largely resolved, but monitoring data shows the problem isn't completely eliminated – it's managed to acceptable levels. Some areas still experience occasional events during high pollution periods. International environmental research indicates that rapidly industrializing Asian countries face similar problems to what we experienced decades ago, though they're implementing successful strategies.



EPA research shows nitrogen oxide emissions proved more challenging than sulfur dioxide, coming from vehicles and mobile sources. Climate science studies suggest changing weather patterns add complexity to how acid rain forms and falls.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What this teaches us</h2>



The acid rain experience proves that seemingly intractable environmental problems can be solved with scientific understanding, political will, and technological innovation. Environmental monitoring data shows recovery speed was remarkable – within a decade, measurable improvements appeared in air quality and ecosystem health.



Success came from bipartisan support across party lines. Policy analysis studies show the market-based approach appealed to those preferring economic incentives while achieving environmental goals. This support created lasting policy surviving political changes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Conclusion</h2>



Acid rain's disappearance from public consciousness represents environmental science's greatest success stories. Through effective regulation, technological innovation, and international cooperation, we transformed an overwhelming crisis into a manageable challenge.



Today's silence isn't because we forgot – it's because we solved it. The 1990 Clean Air Act, combined with technology and energy market changes, reduced acid rain emissions over 90%, according to comprehensive EPA data analysis.



This success offers hope for current challenges. It proves complex problems can be solved when science, policy, and technology work together. As we face climate change and plastic pollution, acid rain reminds us that dramatic positive change is possible.



Next time someone asks whether environmental regulations work, remember acid rain. It's proof that sometimes, we get it right.



<hr class="wp-block-separator has-alpha-channel-opacity"/>



Sources: This article draws from EPA official documentation and progress reports, peer-reviewed research published in environmental and atmospheric science journals, historical data from the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation, New York State Department of Environmental Conservation records, US Geological Survey publications, policy analysis studies, and environmental monitoring data collected over three decades.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Frequently Asked Questions</h2>



1. Is acid rain completely gone? No, but EPA monitoring shows it's reduced to manageable levels. US sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990, making acid rain much less severe than the 1980s crisis.



2. How long did solving take? Environmental monitoring data shows significant improvements began within 5-10 years of 1990s emission controls. Full ecosystem recovery took longer – some areas need 20-30 years for complete recovery.



3. What made the solution successful? Clear scientific understanding, visible damage motivating action, bipartisan support, available technology, and innovative market-based policies like cap-and-trade.



4. Do other countries have acid rain problems? Yes, particularly rapidly industrializing Asian countries. However, international environmental research shows many implement similar successful control strategies.



5. Could acid rain return? Potentially, if regulations weaken or we return to high-sulfur coal without controls, though effects would take years to become severe according to environmental projections.



6. Can you recommend any teaching tools on the subject of "acid rain"? The United States Environmental Protection Agency produced a wonderful teacher's guide for ages 14 and under that you can find on the EPA website here: <a href="https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf</a>



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The environmental problem we actually solved

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk Acid rain and a crisis solved. Why don't we...

Fresh,Radish,Harvest,On,Soil,In,Garden.

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Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving fall garden, and this guide lays out the best vegetables and herbs to plant now for a fruitful autumn harvest. 



Fast-growing leafy greens such as spinach, lettuce, kale, and arugula perform especially well in the waning summer heat, with harvests beginning as soon as 30 days. 



These cool-season crops relish the transition into fall, offering repeated yields with cut-and-come-again methods.



Root vegetables like radishes, carrots, and beets also excel during this period. Radishes deliver satisfaction in under a month, while carrots and beets mature in about two months. Employing succession planting ensures a continuous stream of produce deep into the cooler months. 



For a boost of fresh flavor, herbs like cilantro, basil, dill, and chervil are excellent picks. These heat-loving varieties flourish in July’s warmth and are harvest-ready in about 30 days, especially when sown continuously.



Gardeners in zones 6 through 9 can benefit from planting bush beans and snap peas, which don’t require trellising and are ideal for compact plots. 



Maturing in 50–60 days, they’re a smart choice for quick, protein-rich harvests. For those in hotter regions, heat-tolerant crops such as okra and southern peas provide reliable yields and thrive in scorching conditions.



This guide emphasizes more than crop selection—it highlights the importance of timing, soil preparation, and ongoing sowing techniques. 



With thoughtful planning and attention to regional climate needs, even late-summer gardeners can enjoy fresh salads, hearty stews, and the satisfaction of a robust, homegrown harvest well into fall.



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What to plant in your garden in mid-July

https://youtu.be/Fi2OeEwuzRM?si=vTyd2m9FMmtyWkex Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving...

Green,Ecoduct,Over,An,Empty,Highway,During,Sunset.

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A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that wildlife tunnels significantly reduce amphibian road mortality during seasonal migrations. 



Frogs and salamanders often cross roads to reach breeding ponds each spring, but many are killed by vehicles. 



Researchers from the <a href="https://www.uvm.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Vermont</a>, in collaboration with local citizens and the Vermont Agency of Natural Resources, installed two underpass tunnels in 2015. 



Over a 12-year monitoring period, they observed an 80.2% reduction in amphibian deaths, and up to 94% for non-climbing species like salamanders. 



The study used a before-after-control-impact design and documented more than 5,200 amphibians, highlighting the tunnels’ effectiveness even in nearby buffer zones.



Funded at $342,397 - far cheaper than wildlife crossings for large mammals - the project showcased the power of community-led conservation.



Local groups initiated the effort after observing mass amphibian deaths. Wildlife cameras later captured over 2,200 amphibians using a tunnel in just one spring, along with other species like raccoons and bobcats, indicating wider ecosystem benefits.



This marks the first peer-reviewed, long-term data set in the northeastern U.S. confirming amphibian-specific underpasses work. 



The study urges transportation departments to incorporate these designs into road planning and highlights how community action, thoughtful infrastructure, and persistence can make a real difference for biodiversity.



The full study was published in the <a href="https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1617138125000780" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal for Nature Conservation</a>.



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-----

Wildlife tunnels save millions of amphibians

https://youtu.be/XYgiPzmNBTU?si=eFYY7gPHU1JznLvU A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that...

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing it with probiotics and prebiotics, aiming to create a treat that satisfies cravings while supporting gut health. 



The challenge lies in maintaining chocolate's beloved texture and flavor while adding health benefits.



<figure class="wp-block-embed aligncenter is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://youtu.be/Ug657J67iEo?si=w96YjGMsg939LD_3
</div></figure>



Probiotics - beneficial microbes that balance gut bacteria and aid digestion - are typically fragile and can be destroyed by stomach acid or processing. 



Prebiotics act as food for these microbes, helping them thrive. Together, they form "synbiotics," a powerful health combination.



Researchers Smriti Gaur and Shubhi Singh from India's Jaypee Institute of Information Technology took an innovative approach, using natural prebiotics like corn and honey instead of complex processing methods. 



They created five chocolate varieties: a control and four synbiotic versions containing different combinations of prebiotics, probiotics (Lactobacillus strains), and flavor enhancers (cinnamon or orange).



Laboratory simulations of human digestion showed the probiotics remained viable for over five hours, suggesting they could survive long enough to benefit gut health.



Taste tests were positive, with researchers particularly enjoying the orange-flavored variety, describing it as having "vibrant citrus notes" complementing the "rich cocoa" with a "luxurious" texture.



This research represents just the beginning. With further refinement of strains, textures, and flavors, chocolate could evolve beyond mere indulgence to become a functional food that nourishes while it delights.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.4c00741" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ACS Food Science &amp; Technology</a>.

Is chocolate the next nutritional powerhouse?

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

[sendtonews key="0ynNMYkMKa-2340414-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

[sendtonews key="G9bUoxcjr4-2511624-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

[sendtonews key="3upvlAaHgO-2256633-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

[sendtonews key="LvS8v8bp9z-2564889-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How does salt makes things taste better?

[sendtonews key="X0f6OHYoI4-2310561-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Santiago, Chile in South America

[sendtonews key="JRaP49ISmm-2357509-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

[sendtonews key="e4ZG0Jawp3-2374785-12187" type="single"] Astronomers at Johns Hopkins University have created...

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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.



According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."



Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;



ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. 



Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

[sendtonews key="uV9Lh2fQbV-1760058-12187" type="single"] Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

[sendtonews key="qjvhBOBnY8-2426650-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

[sendtonews key="oL4FnPTGCV-2384527-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

[sendtonews key="0879czfG3k-1785905-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from NASA...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

[sendtonews key="6HyfrAJTBI-1831843-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

[sendtonews key="QIoVYJqRBi-2434608-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from NASA...

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Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes Earth’s interconnected systems, and how this network is affected by rising temperatures.&nbsp;



During 2020, average global temperatures matched the hottest year on record. The hurricane season was also record-breaking, with many of the storms intensifying at extraordinary speeds. Hot water in the ocean is fuel for hurricanes. The satellite data shows that it's all one interconnected system showing how Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected.



According to NASA, dust swept up from Northern Africa plays a major role in the formation of hurricanes, and is also a key source of fertilization in the Amazon rainforest. As a result of<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seagrass-wasting-disease-is-fueled-by-climate-change/"> climate</a> change, dust plumes are expected to decline, which will have an effect on vegetation far away.&nbsp;



Images from Earth-observing satellites show how the world’s plant life is affected by natural disasters, fires, and deforestation. Satellites also reveal how widespread changes in vegetation impact waterways,&nbsp; the climate, air quality. Satellites communicate by using radio waves to send signals to the antennas on the Earth. "Earth From Space" is a groundbreaking two-hour special that reveals a spectacular new space-based vision of our planet. 



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected

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