Eels move in ways that seem to ignore the rules most vertebrates live by. They swim with flowing body waves, they can scoot across wet ground, and they often keep going even when the spinal cord is cut. 



According to a new paper, two simple body signals, stretch and pressure, help explain how that is possible.



Those signals are not fancy. Stretch tells the body how much each segment bends, and pressure reports forces on the skin from water or from <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-discover-a-new-eel-species-with-fang-like-teeth/">objects</a>. 



When these signals are fed into the spinal circuits that set a basic rhythm for movement, the eel’s whole body keeps time without micromanagement from the brain.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-secrets-of-eel-movement">Secrets of eel movement</h2>



Kotaro Yasui is an assistant professor at Tohoku University’s Frontier Research Institute for Interdisciplinary Science (<a href="https://www.fris.tohoku.ac.jp/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">FRIS</a>) and lead author of the study



“Our findings will help design highly adaptive robots capable of navigating complex and unpredictable environments,” noted Professor Yasui.



Most vertebrates walk or swim thanks to networks in the spinal cord called central pattern generator <a href="https://openbooks.lib.msu.edu/introneuroscience1/chapter/central-pattern-generators/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">circuits</a>. 



These circuits can produce rhythmic muscle commands on their own, then shape that rhythm using feedback from the body. That is why the same overall plan can show up in animals as different as fish, salamanders, and mice.



Eels add a twist by leaning hard on two kinds of sensory input. Proprioception is internal sensing of stretch that tells a segment where it is in the cycle. Exteroception is sensing from outside the body, including water pressure on the sides of the fish or contact with a surface. 



Stretch sensitive neurons like the classic lamprey edge cells have long shown how such bending <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earth-day-2025-our-power-our-planet/">signals</a> can tune the spinal rhythm.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-flexible-robot-mimics-eel-movement">Flexible robot mimics eel movement </h2>



Yasui’s team built a mathematical model in which each body segment has a small local oscillator that produces a timing signal. They wired in two feedback loops, one for stretch and one for pressure, so the oscillators would be tugged into step by what the body feels.



The researchers tested the controller in two settings. First, they used computer simulations that generated body movements and force patterns. Then, they tried it on a physical eel-like robot made of flexible segments and equipped with skin-level sensors.



The same controller worked in both settings, and it produced stable swimming quickly, without central commands to lock the segments together.



The stretch loop had a special job. It sped up the time it took for a smooth traveling wave to appear from random starting positions. It also helped the body hold a strong stride once the pattern settled, even though that gain could cost a little <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earth-day-2025-what-were-really-fighting-for/">energy</a> because the joints work harder during sharper turns.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-spinal-rhythm-and-sensory-feedback">Spinal rhythm and sensory feedback</h2>



The team asked a simple question. If the controller swims well, can it also crawl on land when the ground is dotted with obstacles? They ran the robot through a peg field where pushing and bracing matter more than glide.



Stretch feedback made the difference. With stretch only, the robot found traction on the pegs and made steady headway. 



Pressure alone did not help in that setting, which fits earlier <a href="https://jan.ucc.nau.edu/acg/publications/Pace_%26_Gibb_2011.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">research</a> showing that elongated fishes such as ropefish change their kinematics across water and land in specific ways, with long, slow, high amplitude body waves on land.



The results suggest continuity rather than a clean break between swimming and crawling in these fishes. 



The same spinal rhythm and sensory feedback can drive both swimming and crawling, as long as the environment provides the right reaction forces. The fish doesn’t need a separate land-based neural controller to move



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-spinal-injuries-teach-us">What spinal injuries teach us</h2>



The most striking tests involved spinal cord transection. The group measured swimming in live American eels before and after a complete cut around the middle of the body, then matched those tests with simulation and robot runs using the same controller.&nbsp;



The movement behind the injury kept a similar frequency and phase as the movement in front of it, which echoes decades old <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/11744256/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evidence</a> that eels can recover coordinated swimming after transection as regrowth advances.



In the model, that coordination did not need signals from the brain. It emerged when the local oscillators had some built-in tendency to tick on their own, and when stretch and pressure loops were strong enough. 



The body above the cut tugged the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/animals-secretly-reshape-landscapes-in-powerful-ways/">body</a> below the cut into the same rhythm through passive motion and local sensing.



That simple recipe explains why eels can move immediately after injury while many amphibians and mammals cannot. If the posterior spinal cord cannot oscillate on its own, or if the feedback pathways are too weak, the two halves fall out of step and the body stalls.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-eel-movement-robots-and-evolution">Eel movement, robots, and evolution</h2>



Robots that move without legs need to live with uncertainty. Water currents change, floors are cluttered, and obstacles shift. Prior <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/scirobotics.abf6354" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">work</a> has shown that proprioceptive feedback can entrain undulatory robots into reliable patterns despite turbulence and noise.



This study adds pressure sensing on the skin to that recipe and shows how a simple stretch rule helps robots use clutter for propulsion. That means eel-like machines could search pipes, navigate earthquake rubble, or inspect tanks without complex top down control.



There is also a story about evolution here. If a swimming controller can produce useful crawling when the environment offers something to push against, early vertebrates may have needed adjustments more than a full rewrite to move onto land. Flexible circuits and strong local feedback could have carried a lot of that load.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-research-directions">Future research directions </h2>



Biologists can now test specific predictions in the lab. For example, they can look for descending stretch pathways that echo the model’s anterior to posterior copy rule, and they can probe how pressure sensors along the skin tune rhythm in moving fish.



Engineers can search for energy savings by blending stretch rules that boost stride with rules that prevent excessive bending. They can also explore how to route around damaged links in a robot by letting neighboring segments pull each other back into rhythm.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.2422248122" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a>.



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Spinal secrets: What eels reveal about the origins of movement

Eels move in ways that seem to ignore the rules most vertebrates live by. They swim with flowing body waves, they can scoot across wet ground, and they often keep going even when the spinal cord is cut. According to a new paper, two simple body signals, stretch and pressure, help explain how that is possible. Those signals are not fancy. Stretch tells the body how much each segment bends, and pressure reports forces on the skin from water or from objects. When these signals are fed...

Researchers from <a href="https://www.yale.edu/">Yale University</a> have discovered that ground squirrels and Syrian hamsters do not feel cold like some other rodents which do not hibernate, such as rats and mice. These <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/black-bears-focus-protein/">hibernating</a> animals have adapted neurons which have a weakened ability to detect freezing temperatures. The scientists believe that this evolution allows the rodents to hibernate because their body temperatures can drop without causing them stress.

"If these animals were to feel cold, they would not be able to hibernate because their sensory system would tell the rest of the body that they need to warm up first," explained senior author Elena Gracheva. "They would not be able to survive as a species."

The researchers found that the two hibernating species evolved their cold-suppressing abilities independently. Experimentation showed that it took a lot more to activate cold-sensing receptors in ground squirrels and Syrian hamsters compared to other animals that do not hibernate.

When the researchers observed the response of squirrels, hamsters, and mice to two temperature-controlled plates, the mice preferred the warm plate at all times. However, the squirrels and hamsters showed no preference unless the cold plate approached 5 degrees Celsius. 

The experts linked this behavior to an ion channel in the neurons of these rodents, called TRPM8. In ground squirrels and hamsters, TRPM8 is less sensitive to cold than it is in mice.

The resistance to feeling cold occurs not only during hibernation but also while squirrels and hamsters are active. For example, 13-lined ground squirrels can survive temperatures of 2 degrees Celsius for up to 9 months.

While species like birds can migrate when the weather gets too cold, smaller mammals cannot travel long distances. Because they do not have the means to change their environment, they must adapt their bodies. 

"This adaptation is the perfect example of how environment can shape properties of the sensory system," said Gracheva.


The research is published in the journal <a href="http://www.cell.com/cell-reports/home">Cell Reports</a>.

--

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Image Credit: Gracheva Lab

Squirrels evolved an ability to withstand colder temperatures

Researchers from Yale University have discovered that ground squirrels and...

Scientists now have evidence that a river turtle made an incredible journey out of the ancient continent Gondwana 95 million years ago. The turtle adapted to marine environments and left the African region in the first known dispersal event of a turtle from Gondwana. Its remains were found in the city Algora of Castile-La Mancha, Spain, and also in Portugal.

The turtle, which scientists often refer to as “traveler,” was named Algorachelus peregrinus. It began its long journey in Africa during the Upper Cretaceous before arriving in Spain and Portugal.

"It is not just any turtle, but, as the name suggests, it gives us the necessary clues to describe how a successful migration occurred about 95 million years ago; this journey would have drastic consequences," explained Adán Pérez -García, a researcher at the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_University_of_Distance_Education">National University of Distance Education</a>.

Millions of years ago, the supercontinent <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/continental-rifting-carbon/">Pangea</a> was broken down into two large continental masses including Gondwana, which is currently Africa and South America, and Laurasia, which included Greenland, Europe, and North America.

"This geographic isolation allowed the development of lineages of independent animals in both continental masses," said Pérez-García.

The “traveler” turtle, which is now extinct, adapted from purely freshwater environments to coastal marine environments. This is how they made their way to Europe much earlier than previously realized.

The turtles settled in the new continent, becoming very abundant and diverse until the end of the Mesozoic, about 65 million years ago. Evidence of this is found in ancient fossils recovered in Guadalajara.

The discovery of the fossilized remains of a turtle shell in Portugal has provided even more insight into this migration out of Africa.

According to the scientists, what makes the journey of the “traveler” turtle a success is that it did not end in Spain. Algorachelus and other closely-related turtles continued their migration to the United States.

The study is published in the <a href="http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/tjsp20">Journal of Systematic Palaeontology</a>.

--

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Image Credit: José Antonio Peñas / SINC

First African turtle that migrated to Europe made a wild journey

Scientists now have evidence that a river turtle made an...

three great tits on a branch

Camouflage can be an essential survival trait for animals who need to hide from predators. But it turns out that standing out can also have its advantages in the natural world.

Some birds and bugs even evolve bright colors as a way to keep predators away, as the bright colors signal poison or bitter taste. 

But how exactly did these creatures evolve vibrant colors as a way to highlight themselves as a poor choice of meal? 

A new study has found that social transmission, or learning by observing, may have offered the perfect opportunity for birds to evolve bright colors. 

The study, conducted by researchers from the <a href="https://www.cam.ac.uk/">University of Cambridge</a>, <a href="https://www.jyu.fi/en">University of Jyväskylä </a>and the <a href="https://www.uzh.ch/en.html">University of Zurich</a>, used the great tit, similar to the chickadee, as a model predator to show how many species learn by modeling or following another’s behavior. 

“Our study demonstrates that the social behavior of predators needs to be considered to understand the evolution of their prey," said Dr. Rose Thorogood, the lead author of the study. “Without social transmission taking place in predator species such as great tits, it becomes extremely difficult for conspicuously colored prey to outlast and outcompete alternative prey, even if they are distasteful or toxic.”

For the study, the researchers captured wild great tits in Finland and trained them to forage for almonds wrapped in white paper packages. 

After the birds learned to associate the white paper packages with prey, the packages were marked with a cross or square. 

The cross meant the almond was perfectly safe to eat, mimicking a camouflaged or inconspicuous <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bats-echolocation-hunt-prey/">prey</a> in the wild. A package with a square on the wrapping meant that the almond inside was bitter and inedible, a model for prey with bright coloring. 

The researchers then filmed one of the birds encountering the bitter almond and rejecting the meal in disgust. This recording was then played on a TV for a group of tits before their chance to forage for the paper packages. 

The birds who had watched the great tit reject the square package were far more likely to choose the packages with a cross instead, learning from the recording. 

After their experiments with the great tits, the researchers created a mathematical model based on the data to show how social transmission in predators creates an evolutionary opportunity for prey. 

“By modeling the social spread of information from our experimental data, we worked out that predator avoidance of more vividly conspicuous species would become enough for them to survive, spread, and evolve,” said Thorogood. 

The study shows how important it is to look at all factors when considering the evolution of a species, including the patterns and social behavior of its natural predators. 

--

By <a href="mailto:kayvandette@gmail.com">Kay Vandette</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Image Credit: Per Tillmann

Birds evolved bright colors to keep predators away

Camouflage can be an essential survival trait for animals who...

A team of scientists have found 3.5 million-year-old fossils of an ancient bear, and its teeth showed it loved sweets.

The fossils include the skull, teeth and partial skeletal remains of two individual bears from the species Protarctos abstrusus, previously known only from a fossilized tooth discovered in Idaho. Scientists from the <a href="https://nhm.org/">Natural History Museum of Los Angeles County</a> and the <a href="https://nature.ca/en/home">Canadian Museum of Nature</a> studied the new fossils, and made an interesting discovery: cavities in the teeth.

The ancient bear was a close relative to the ancestor of modern bears, the researchers also discovered.

"This is evidence of the most northerly record for primitive bears, and provides an idea of what the ancestor of modern bears may have looked like," said Dr. Xiaoming Wang of the Natural History Museum of Los Angeles County, the study’s lead author

P. abstrusus was slightly smaller than today’s black bears, with a flatter head and different dental profile, the researchers said.

However, one characteristic is similar to many modern bears. The ancient bear ate a high-calorie, sugary diet – possibly to prepare for winter hibernation.

“This is the first and earliest documented occurrence of high-calorie diet in basal bears, likely related to fat storage in preparation for the harsh Arctic winters,” Wang said.

The bones were discovered at a fossil site called the Beaver Pond, part of a rich prehistoric site on Ellesmere Island in Canada’s Nunavut province. Peat deposits at the site have helped scientists reconstruct life 3.5 million years ago, with fossils including fish, beaver, three-toed horse ancestors, deerlets and small carnivores. 

Plant fossils have revealed the region as a boreal-type wetland forest that would have seen about six months of snowy winter each year. Fossil berries might have been the same sugary plants that gave the bears their cavities, the researchers said.

“The Ellesmere bear is important because it suggests that the capacity to exploit the harshest, most northern forests on the planet is not an innovation of modern grizzlies and black bears, but may have characterized the ursine lineage from its beginning,” Wang said.

The researchers looked at fossils of other ancient bear species to identify the Canadian skeletal remains and place them in an evolutionary context.

The researchers have published their findings in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-017-17657-8">Scientific Reports</a>.

—

By <a href="mailto:kcathey@earth.com">Kyla Cathey</a>, <a href="http://www.earth.com">Earth.com</a> staff writer

Image credit: Art by Mauricio Antón based on this paper; with input on plants from Alice Telka

Ancient bear had a sweet tooth, researchers say

A team of scientists have found 3.5 million-year-old fossils of...

Songbirds can create some complex melodies – but somehow, when they manage to make their duets sound great. A new study has found that songbirds dance to signal their songs to one another.

A group of scientists, led by Dr. Paweł Ręk of <a href="https://international.amu.edu.pl/">Adam Mickiewicz University</a> in Poland, used robotic birds to study how pairs of Australian magpie-larks coordinate their songs.

The researchers used taxidermic skins on the robots to make them look as realistic as possible. Then they used the robotic birds to produce song with and without wing movements.

When the fake magpie-larks moved while they sang, both male and female magpie-larks responded. The scientists used the number of songs and flying toward the robots to measure the response. 

"Multimodality of signals can be beneficial for the signaller as well as for the receiver because there are many ways through which one signal component can improve the efficacy of the other,” Ręk said. 

Each test was conducted with 12 pairs of birds, with two tests per day, and then four days before the next set of tests.

The researchers found that both male and female magpie-larks start singing more often and sing more duets when the fake songbirds dance.

"The problem appears when signal components are not aligned in time because the mismatch creates illusions and conflicts from the perspective of the receiver,”  Ręk said. 

However, the researchers found that, when the song and movements were coordinated in the fake birds, the real magpie-larks did not see the interlopers as threats.

“Multimodal coordination within individuals has been studied for many years but it concerned signals with mechanistically constrained components,”  Ręk said. “This study shows that it is also important in cooperatively signalling species, in which coordination is not an effect of a physical constraint but motivation and experience of partners."

The study has been published in the journal <a href="https://academic.oup.com/beheco">Behavioral Ecology</a>. Funding was provided by the <a href="https://ncn.gov.pl/?language=en">National Science Centre Poland</a> and the <a href="http://biology.anu.edu.au/">Research School of Biology at the Australian National University</a>.

—

By <a href="mailto:kcathey@earth.com">Kyla Cathey</a>, <a href="http://www.earth.com">Earth.com</a> staff writer

Songbirds dance to coordinate their music

Songbirds can create some complex melodies – but somehow, when...

Baby-talk is a common (and cringe-worthy) tendency that people use when talking to pets, children, and even their partners. 

According to a new study, it turns out that we aren’t the only species to employ a specialized way of talking to a prospective mate or our partner, as mice also use different calls and sounds when talking to a member of the opposite sex. 

The sounds have been compared to bird songs, as <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/skin-patch-dissolves-fat/">mice</a> emit vocalizations at higher frequencies when they sense a mate is near. 

The study was conducted by researchers from the<a href="https://www.vetmeduni.ac.at/en/konrad-lorenz-institute-of-ethology/"> Konrad Lorenz Institute of Ethology </a>and published in the journal PLOS One. 

The study was based on the vocalizations of first generation house mice which means their parents came from the wild. 

The researchers were able to get a more authentic feel for how mice would communicate with each other in their natural habitats rather than if the mouse subjects had come from generations of lab-raised mice. 

Mice often emit vocalizations that are too high to be audible to humans, but these calls are an essential part of mouse interactions. Mice use different vocalizations when they recognize a familiar face, if they wish to intimidate a rival mouse, and also to attract a mate. 

Previous research has even found that male mice sing a kind of love song to potential mates and each song is different based on the mouse making the sounds. 

For this recent study, the researchers were curious to see how vocalizations differed when the mice were interacting with mice of the same and opposite sex. 

20 males and 20 females were observed interacting for ten minute periods, and their vocalizations were recorded.

The study shows that mice, like birds, specifically employ different vocalizations at higher frequencies when communicating with a potential mate and could help future research examining animal interactions. 

--

By<a href="mailto:kayvandette@gmail.com"> Kay Vandette</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Mice use higher pitches when communicating with the opposite sex

Baby-talk is a common (and cringe-worthy) tendency that people use...

As we begin to wrap up the year, it goes without saying that 2017 included one of the worst <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/hurricane-harvey-global-warming/">hurricane seasons</a> of all time. Hurricane Harvey caused massive flooding in Houston Texas, and the Florida Keys and Caribbean were devastated by Hurricane Irma. Hurricane Maria also caused flooding, power outages, and downed buildings in Puerto Rico and the Caribbean. 

In all areas affected by the 2017 hurricane season, displaced animals are in desperate need of care and attention. 

The idea of leaving a pet behind during a hurricane may seem unthinkable. Many photos and video clips shared during all three hurricanes included people evacuating with kennels or <a href="http://www.cnn.com/2017/08/26/us/gallery/hurricane-harvey/index.html">holding their pets close</a>. 

But sadly, sometimes the realities of evacuation leave little time or consideration for pets and livestock, meaning that many animals were left behind. 

Now, with floodwaters receded and relief efforts underway, many organizations are coming together specifically to help those animals that were abandoned during Hurricane Maria. 

<a href="https://www.alltherooms.com/w/2017/11/caught-storm-helping-animals-hurricane-damaged-caribbean/">All the Rooms</a> is a company passionately committed to spreading the word about the many organizations helping displaced animals in the Caribbean. 

Rather than working with just one organization, <a href="https://www.alltherooms.com/">All the Rooms</a> has created a comprehensive rundown of all the relief efforts working to help animals affected by the hurricanes. 

For example, <a href="http://humanebroward.com/">humane societies</a> have been working hard to transport displaced pets and rehome them in the United States. A few organizations like<a href="https://www.peta.org/"> PETA</a> and the <a href="http://www.ifaw.org/">International Fund for Animal Welfare</a> provide food and veterinary care to animals in hard-hit areas in the Dominican REpublic. . 

Getting aid to disaster areas takes time, effort, and often relies on donations. Thankfully, <a href="https://www.alltherooms.com/w/2017/11/caught-storm-helping-animals-hurricane-damaged-caribbean/">All the Rooms</a> has simplified and expedited the process for those looking to help get much-needed aid to animals affected by the 2017 hurricane season. 

Check out the All The Room’s <a href="https://www.alltherooms.com/w/2017/11/caught-storm-helping-animals-hurricane-damaged-caribbean/">comprehensive list</a> if you want to learn more.

--

By <a href="mailto:kayvandette@gmail.com">Kay Vandette</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Helping animals displaced by Hurricanes Maria and Irma

As we begin to wrap up the year, it goes...

We felt the truck rocking and looked at each other, concerned. We were in South Dakota, parked near the edge of a bison heard wandering across and around a road. One of the furry animals had passed us in the truck and now was behind the cab, rocking the whole truck a little. Bison are large, strong and dangerous. I looked in the mirror to get a view of the animal and laughed. The bison was licking the truck. It had snowed not long ago, the roads were salted and the Bison was licking salt from the bed of the truck we were sitting in. It’s rare to see bison, much less hundreds of bison wandering the prairie as they must in the past. Moving to South Dakota opened a world of grass, a place of Bison and we were thrilled to be there.

We drove back through Custer’s wildlife loop to see the bison when they were calving, my partner smiled to see them, calling them little cheese puffs. They did look like cheese puffs, with orange-ish fur puffed out over their bodies. The babies ran and jumped like any young animal, thrilled to be alive and young.

We hiked in Wind Cave National Park, Jewel Cave National Monument and Badlands National Parks, all great places to see Bison. We walked through enormous prairie dog towns and spotted burrowing owls. We howled back at coyote packs and listened for their yippy reply. We hiked in snow and sun; we slept in a tent.

The Bison’s survival has depended on a complete change of policy and practice for both the American government as well as its citizens. Bison were once plinked away by the millions for hides or simply to decimate Native peoples. While killing bison, many commercial hunters poisoned the carcasses after they were skinned, indiscriminately killing eagles, foxes, coyotes, wolves, mountain lions, bears and more. Bison were a hated symbol of the wild, of enemy cultures of everything not brought under the rule of government.

Things changed when it was almost too late for the Bison. Bison were bred by ranchers in the west and the American Zoological Society at New York’s Bronx Zoo. Now zoo animals, Bison were reintroduced to places like Yellowstone and Wind Cave. Bison were stamped into nickels, the flipside of a stereotypical ‘Indian’ head.

Bison are now the official national mammal of the US. What was once the symbol of the ‘other’ has become one of our own cherished national symbols. The problem is the bison was never our symbol for the taking. The National Bison Legacy Act, which designated the Bison as our national mammal had Native American support. So, in a way the symbol of the Bison was given, not taken. I would argue it was given in the same way a treaty may be signed by the defeated: with no other option viable.

Before the Bison could be thought of as a symbol of the United States by officials, it had to be stripped of the original mythological trappings. For centuries, before white settlers set foot on American shore, bison were fraught with symbolic power. Bison were literally life to many Native American tribes. Beyond being a source of food, shelter and materials, Bison nourished Native American spirit. Tatanka is the Lakota word for Bison or Bison bull. A literal translation of Tatanka is more like, ‘He who owns us’. Tankafund.org elaborates, saying that for traditional Lakota, you cannot say what you own because the Bison owns you.

The deep cultural and ecological connection between Bison and many Native Americans is what lead to near annihilation of the Bison. If the US could smash the Bison, they could smash the plains Indians. Eventually of course a sort of peace was reached between the federal government and native peoples. Native American groups were pushed into small reservations and fed with rations from the government. Bison for a while were forgotten.

Over time things changed, the actually history of hatred and destruction was forgotten. Things were romanticized. Native Americans became a romantic, noble race who fought valiantly for freedom. Native Americans became a symbol of a west that never was to a people who have never had any love for them. Bison too became something different. With the destruction of most of what could be called wilderness imminent across North America, we became nostalgic. Bison had been tamed, herded up and redistributed into fenced parks. Why not make them a national symbol?

The problem is that by making the Bison the national symbol of the US, we declared a unity between the federal government and the enemies of the government. The US and state governments within it are still rather ambivalent about wolves, which play their own important role in Bison ecology. The same is true of bears, mountain lions, coyotes, prairie dogs and many, many more. The government still leases out prime bison habitat for cattle ranching.

The <a href="https://www.earth.com/animals/american-bison-bison-bison/">Bison</a> as official symbol, like many American promises is one that still must be kept. Equality was an American byword for a long time before women could vote, before African Americans and Native Americans could vote. I hope as a symbol the bison with a shake of shaggy head can lead us to a place where the Bison can be what it’s really always been: a wild animal.

<a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2017/12/bison.png"><img class="aligncenter wp-image-988061 size-full" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2017/12/bison.png" alt="" width="536" height="355" /></a>

--

By <a href="zachfitzner@yahoo.com">Zach Fitzner</a>, <a href="earth.com">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Bison: An American survival story

We felt the truck rocking and looked at each other,...

There were only an estimated 200 Sumatran rhinoceroses living in the wild by 2011, making this species one of the most endangered on the planet. After sequencing the first-ever genome of a Sumatran rhinoceros, an international team of researchers has found that the threat of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/small-island-nations-climate-change/">extinction</a> to this species began nearly one million years ago.

The new analysis suggests that Sumatran rhinoceroses have been endangered since around the middle of the Pleistocene. The researchers explain that this insight is useful in placing the current status of the species’ population into a broader ecological and evolutionary context.

"Our genome sequence data revealed that the Pleistocene was a roller-coaster ride for Sumatran rhinoceros populations," said study co-author Herman Mays, Jr., of <a href="http://www.marshall.edu/">Marshall University</a>.

By the end of the Pleistocene, many large mammals had suffered from the invasion of continental mammals into Southeast Asia, and from rising sea levels that swallowed much of mainland Asia. The Sumatran rhinoceros population peaked at the onset of the mammal invasion, approximately 900,000 years back.

"Their population bottomed out and never showed signs of recovery," said Mays.

As their habitats were fragmented from rising sea levels, the Sumatran rhinoceros populations continued to shrink. Today, habitat loss and hunting are still putting pressure on the remainder of this species.

The researchers estimate that the Sumatran rhinoceros population peaked at an estimated effective population size of around 57,800 individuals about 950,000 years ago. According to the genome analysis, the effective population size was reduced to only about 700 Sumatran rhinos by 9,000 years ago. 

The findings of the study indicate a major shift in the ancient climate, which reduced the genetic diversity of Sumatran rhinos and left them more susceptible to additional strain.

"The Sumatran rhinoceros species is hanging on by a thread," said study co-author Terri Roth. "We need to do more to save it."

The study is published in the journal <a href="http://www.cell.com/current-biology/home">Current Biology</a>.

--

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Image Credit: Tom Uhlman

The Sumatran rhinoceros began its decline one million years ago

There were only an estimated 200 Sumatran rhinoceroses living in...

A newly unearthed skeleton is bringing unexpected information to light about marine reptiles known as plesiosaurs. Scientists have been examining what is thought to be the oldest known plesiosaur fossil, and have determined that these ancient reptiles may have emerged 50 million years earlier than previously realized. 

Experts believe that the earliest plesiosaurs had advanced limbs that took to the water like wings in the air. Over 200 million years ago, the reptiles foraged in the open seas using “underwater flight" similar to that of sea turtles.

The remains provide the very first evidence that plesiosaurs existed in the Triassic period, dating back around 201 million years. The fossil was discovered by paleontologists from the <a href="https://www.uni-bonn.de/the-university">University of Bonn</a> in a clay pit outside of Bonenburg, Germany.

Study co-author Professor Martin Sander told <a href="http://www.dailymail.co.uk/home/index.html">MailOnline</a>, “The beds from which the skeleton came from was dated by fossil shells and by a chemical signal as latest Triassic. I could not believe that there was a plesiosaur from the Triassic, given that these animals had been studied by paleontologist for nearly 300 years, and never was there one older than Jurassic.”


The new species was named Rhaeticosaurus mertensi by the research team. Plesiosaurs had smaller bodies with four pointed flippers and tiny heads on long necks. The new specimen was 7 feet 7 inches long, and growth marks in its bones suggested it was warm-blooded and young.

Professor Sander explained to MailOnline how the unique species of plesiosaurs may have dodged <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rare-species-persist/">extinction</a> at the end of the Triassic period.

“Plesiosaurs evolved warm-bloodedness, enabling them to live in the open ocean, removed from the bad environmental conditions that made life difficult in shallow, coastal waters at the end of the Triassic,” he said.

The study is published in the journal <a href="http://advances.sciencemag.org/">Science Advances</a>.

--

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

&nbsp;

New species of Plesiosaurs survived mass extinction event

A newly unearthed skeleton is bringing unexpected information to light...

A skylight above where I was working with dinosaur bone casts buzzed with movement. At first I assumed that an insect had strayed inside the workshop building with the summer breeze through the open doors. Looking closer I saw bright, metallic feathers. A hummingbird was flying desperately against the square of sun and sky set in glass above me. I looked around hoping to find a way to rescue the bird, not knowing exactly how to help. The hummingbird became more exhausted then I’ve ever seen another of his kind. The bird paused, sitting on the lip below the skylight, wings drooped and then flew against the glass, only to collapse again on his perch. I walked into the other room of the workshop and found an insect net leaning against the wall, undoubtedly to remove unwanted arthropods without killing them. Carefully I climbed up a ladder and quickly scooped the tiny bird into the net. I moved as fast as possible towards the door and opened the net outside, smiling as the hummingbird zipped away past the surrounding bushes.

<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/hummingbirds-pack-pounds-flying-south/">Hummingbirds</a> are a common sight in Western Colorado where I once lived but are easy to miss, zipping by before many notice them. I’m sure most Colorado residents would be greatly surprised to learn that as many as 12 species have been found in there state. Hummingbirds would surprise many by where they are and aren’t. Most people think of hummingbirds as exotic tropical animals but they’ve been found in every US State –except Hawaii. <a href="Hummingbirds.net">Hummingbirds.net</a> reports 4 species for Alaska and only three species in New York. The New York Times reported the paradox of finding more hummingbirds in highly populated parts of New York, where city parks and potted plants attract them than in more rural areas.

Still, the tropics are great places to encounter hummingbirds. I first saw a hummingbird nest sewn with spider silk onto the back of a leaf by a female Hermit hummingbird in the lowland rainforest of Ecuador (subfamily Phaethornithinae). In Jamaica I sat in a bird reserve holding a tiny bottle of sugar water in my hand while the delicately feathered swallow tailed hummingbird (Trochilus Polytmus) ate from it. In the Bahamas while collecting data on parrots, I occasionally saw the buzzing rush of a passing Bahama Woodstar (Calliphlox evelynae).

Later Erin, my girlfriend, and I spent three months as volunteer managers at a nature reserve in Ecuador, where part of our duties was monitoring hummingbirds. Every day we sat by hummingbird feeders and tallied up the visitors. The first few days collecting data on hummingbirds was overwhelming. For the research we had to mark the number and sex of each hummingbird visiting the feeders hung on the porch. We were baffled; Is that a male Brown Violet Ear or a Female White Necked Jacobin? Time with the birds and checking ourselves against the bird books brought more knowledge and finally some confidence. Soon we could sit eating our eggs and toast, sipping coffee and eyeing visiting hummingbirds as if they were old friends. It was in Ecuador that I learned some peculiarities about hummingbirds, not only is there an enormous diversity of hummers, there are more species in the Andes than in the Amazon rainforest. This pattern of diversity is opposite of most other organisms in South America with some exceptions, including moss, which is most diverse in higher elevation cloud forests.

A visiting European professor told us with pride of an Andean hummingbird that drops its heartbeat into a slow torpor every night to survive the horrible cold of the montane environment. Male hummingbirds compete in lekking dances to compete for females but do nothing to help in rearing the young they spawn. Female hummingbirds with babies collect more insects and less nectar to provide proper nutrition for their chicks.

I’ve watched videos of the Sword-Billed Hummingbird feeding chicks, the chicks look like carnival sword swallowers. My own videos of hummingbirds have been disappointing. Photos are small, lacking the dynamic color of moving birds, disappointing. Even seeing a Hummingbird for long unaided in the wild is a rare treat, which is why feeders are so often used. A visiting biology student from Italy told us he liked everything at the reserve except the feeders; he had a point. An old manager’s journal entry told how previous managers had left the feeders unattended for two days because of a minor emergency. Upon return, the managers found the hummingbirds lethargic, hanging around the feeders but with less speed.

In the mornings, the hummingbirds, eager to be fed would dive bomb us. Flying close with angry needle sharp beaks, they threatened, demanding sugar water. The Yellowstone Grizzly Bears come to mind. In recent history the bears fed from dumps in Yellowstone National Park. The close association between food and humans in ursine minds made the bears a dangerous nuisance. Bears were shot. Tourists were mauled. Yellowstone no longer allows bear feeding or unguarded trash. But, hummingbirds aren’t bears.

Reaching the nature reserve required a hike through forest along a muddy trail that could collapse or dissolve in a heavy rain. Puddles were everywhere, logs and rocks were laid as stepping stones through standing water. Vines, fallen branches, palm fronds covered, blocked, framed the trail. On one hike we heard a buzz of sound. Next to the trail hovered a bird we knew from books but a bird that never visited the feeders. Long thin tail feathers flared out at the end. A male Booted Racquet-Tail danced in the dappled sunlight for a moment. The hummingbird zipped away and were left in the mud, smiling.

--

By <a href="zachfitzner@yahoo.com">Zach Fitzner</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com">Earth.com</a> Contributing Writer

Earth.com exclusive: Hummingbirds appear where you’d least expect

A skylight above where I was working with dinosaur bone...

An international research group of Brazilian and American scientists has just published a unique study depicting a more focused strategy for monitoring the survival of endangered muriquis monkeys, which live in patches of forests in Brazil. Their study revolved around the “essential question” of what knowledge is needed to help preserve the muriquis. The study focused on identifying population trends and conservation priorities.

Currently, no more than 2,300 muriquis survive in the wild. The species are split into two groups, a northern and southern species. The northern species is believed to have fewer than 1,000 individuals. For the survival of the species, the researchers need an accurate picture of these two different populations. Furthermore, simply counting individuals or breeding pairs was not going to be enough to give an accurate view of the population, the researchers would need to monitor the health of the species as well.

“Population counts at particular sites and in total don’t require a big labor force,” says Karen Strier, a professor of anthropology at the <a href="https://www.wisc.edu/">University of Wisconsin – Madison</a> and first author of the study. “But we are usually interested in other factors, such as genetic uniqueness or geographic importance: Could this site be used to make a corridor linking isolated populations to enhance genetic diversity?”

Increased monitoring should help answer more of these questions, according to the researchers. Strier also asserts that knowing the sex ratio and what proportion of females are pregnant – while more time consuming – helps them determine whether a population is growing or declining. 

Strier, who has observed muriquis in Brazil for 35 years, calls them “the most amazing primates in the world. They have a very low rate of aggression, and have been called ‘hippie monkeys.’ Females are independent and promiscuous, males don’t dominate them, and there’s no real hierarchy among males or females. They spend a lot of time hugging and socializing.” 

The researchers also point out that any population monitoring plans must take feasibility into account. For example, some locations may be impossible to access due to topography or ownership. Another factor important to monitoring decisions is sites that are on the fringe of a species’ habitat. Individuals that are outliers in terms of altitude or longitude may be the first to perish as climate changes. On the other hand, a relatively cool or under populated site in the present may become an important refuge as the climate warms in the future.

With both species of muriquis listed as critically <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/endangered-animals/">endangered</a>, interest in these primate species has been increasing. In fact, some private landowners are even establishing muriqui reserves. Muriquis are also benefiting from the recovery of landscapes that used to be farms and are now abandoned, with nature taking over again. “Seeing the resilience of nature makes me more determined than ever,” says Strier. “We can’t reverse past assaults to the planet, but we can do everything we can to stop them and give the animals and plants a chance to come back.”

These focused monitoring processes detailed in this study – published in the journal <a href="http://journals.plos.org/plosone/">PLOS ONE</a> – are seen by Strier as a foundation for a new generation of scientists. “If somebody wants to know how to promote muriqui preservation, this study would be a roadmap. It gives you an idea where to start, and where to focus. We hope it will also serve as a template for scientists concerned with other endangered animals.”

--

By <a href="mailto:certz@earth.com">Connor Ertz</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

New strategies for saving an endangered species

An international research group of Brazilian and American scientists has...

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https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE
</div></figure>



On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop and sunlight barely penetrates through the polar winter. It was here, however, that an international team of scientists found <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/predatory-worms-were-terror-beasts-half-a-billion-years-ago/#google_vignette" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evidence of sea monsters</a> that would change our understanding of ocean life in the past.



This video captures the discovery of Timorebestia fossils that had been hidden for more than 500 million years in the Sirius Passet formation. The "terror beasts," as they are called, are a hidden chapter in the evolutionary history of <a href="https://www.earth.com" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Earth</a>, showing that sophisticated predator-prey interactions occurred much earlier than previously envisioned.



Dr. Jakob Vinther and his research team at the <a href="https://www.bristol.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Bristol</a>, in collaboration with researchers at the <a href="https://eng.kopri.re.kr/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Korean Polar Research Institute</a>, braved extreme weather conditions at 82.5 north latitude to locate these giant creatures. Using sophisticated electron microprobe analysis, they revealed the detailed anatomy of the animals, including their muscle and nerve tissues.



The find upsets the traditional timeline of sea predators. Although we've long appreciated that Cambrian oceans were at one time ruled by <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jWI3-UgA3_o&amp;list=PL1QLQMW9MWDwpkFOnvgAmu7wT6rZmYqdJ&amp;index=19" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">arthropods</a>, these discoveries indicate that relatives of arrow worms were first to dominate the seas. These worms were building sophisticated food webs several million years before other predator groups arose.



Each fossil is a story of ancient hunger, with fossil stomach contents revealing these meter-long beasts dined on heavily armored arthropods regularly, cementing their place as the ocean's first apex predators.



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Worms dominated seas before dinosaurs

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">New York is the site of the world's oldest forest.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-385-million-year-old-trees-discovered">385-million-year-old trees discovered</h2>



Scientists have uncovered something extraordinary just two hours north of New York City. The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/worlds-oldest-forest-discovered-close-to-new-york-city/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">world's oldest forest</a>, dating back 385 million years, offers a window into how Earth's first complex forests shaped our planet's atmosphere.



Located near <a href="https://townofcairo.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cairo, New York</a>, in Greene County, these weren't merely primitive plants struggling to survive. These were sophisticated trees with root systems remarkably similar to modern forests. This ancient woodland predates dinosaurs by 140 million years.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-cairo-forest-discovery">The Cairo forest discovery</h2>



385 million years ago, upstate New York was a tropical paradise near the equator. Thanks to continental drift, this ancient forest has traveled thousands of miles to its current location.



The fossil forest sits in an abandoned quarry, roughly half the size of a football field. This represents just a slice of what was likely a massive forest system stretching from New York into Pennsylvania.



Charles Ver Straeten, curator of sedimentary rocks at the <a href="https://www.nysm.nysed.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">New York State Museum</a>, made the discovery in 2009. While scouting the former highway department property, his trained eye spotted wandering patterns in the stone that looked like marine features.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-revolutionary-age-and-preservation">Revolutionary age and preservation</h2>



The site contains 385-million-year-old rocks with fossilized woody roots forming horizontal patterns up to 18 feet (5.5 meters) wide. As Christopher Berry, a paleobotanist at Cardiff University, explains: "You are walking through the roots of ancient trees."



This discovery pushes back advanced tree evolution by millions of years. The research, published in <a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/home" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Current Biology</a> in December 2019, fundamentally changes our understanding of when complex forests first emerged.



Researchers believe a massive flood buried the forest floor, creating perfect fossilization conditions. Over millions of years, sediment hardened into rock, preserving these root patterns like nature's time capsule.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-meet-archaeopteris-the-first-modern-tree">Meet Archaeopteris: the first modern tree</h2>



The star of this ancient forest is Archaeopteris – not to be confused with the feathered dinosaur Archaeopteryx. This tree was far older and more revolutionary.



William Stein from <a href="https://www.binghamton.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Binghamton University</a> describes the roots as "strikingly modern, essentially what you'd see outside in my yard right now." These weren't simple root systems you'd expect from ancient plants.



Some fossilized roots are six inches (15 centimeters) in diameter, forming 36-foot-wide (11-meter) patterns. These giants grew up to 65 feet (20 meters) tall with five-foot-diameter (1.5-meter) trunks.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-changing-impact">Climate-changing impact</h2>



These trees fundamentally changed Earth's environment. Kevin Boyce, a Stanford University geoscientist, explains how their deep roots triggered "weathering," chemical reactions that pulled carbon dioxide from the atmosphere.



This process dropped atmospheric CO2 levels from 10-15 times higher than today to roughly modern concentrations. These ancient trees helped create atmospheric conditions that made complex life possible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ancient-forest-ecosystem">Ancient forest ecosystem</h2>



The forest was remarkably diverse. Scientists identified Eospermatopteris, palm tree-like plants with short roots that reached 30 feet (9 meters) tall but lacked woody structure. The forest also housed cladoxylopsids and a mysterious third species still being studied.



All reproduced through spores rather than seeds – millions of years before seeds evolved. This tropical environment had no grass, flowers, or flying insects, just towering trees creating Earth's first complex forest canopy.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-scientific-significance">Scientific significance</h2>



Before this finding, the Gilboa forest, located 25 miles (40 kilometers) away, held the "oldest forest" title. Cairo's trees are 2-3 million years older, showing that complex forest ecosystems developed much faster than scientists believed possible.



Patricia Gensel, a <a href="https://www.unc.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of North Carolina</a> paleobotanist, notes: "The size of those root systems is really changing the picture. Even 20 years ago, researchers assumed trees with such complex root systems didn't evolve so early."



The Cairo site presents three unique root systems, suggesting Devonian period forests were diverse ecosystems with different trees occupying different environmental niches, much like today's forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-modern-preservation-efforts">Modern preservation efforts</h2>



In 2022, New York State Senator Michelle Hinchey secured a $170,000 grant for the town of Cairo to construct specialized fencing around the fossil forest site. The town plans to conduct a feasibility study exploring the possibility of creating an educational center and working lab on-site.



Joe Hasenkopf, chair of the Cairo Planning Board, hopes to partner with educational institutions to create a research facility serving scientists, students, and the public.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lessons-for-today-s-climate">Lessons for today's climate</h2>



Why does a 385-million-year-old forest matter today? It shows how dramatically forests can change Earth's climate. These ancient woodlands created the atmospheric conditions supporting complex life.



Understanding how prehistoric forests transformed the planet helps us appreciate modern forests' critical role in addressing climate change. Forests remain Earth's most effective carbon capture systems.



These prehistoric trees changed Earth's atmosphere by pulling massive amounts of carbon dioxide from the air. As we face modern climate challenges, this ancient forest reminds us of trees' incredible power to transform our planet's environment.



The next time you walk through a forest, remember you're experiencing an ecosystem whose blueprint was established 385 million years ago in upstate New York. These ancient pioneers didn't just survive – they thrived and changed the world forever.



The full study was published in the journal Current Biology.



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Earth's oldest forest found in the United States

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ New York is the site of the world's oldest...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Acid rain and a crisis solved.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-don-t-we-ever-hear-about-acid-rain-anymore-the-environmental-crisis-that-was-solved">Why don't we ever hear about "acid rain" anymore? The environmental crisis that was solved</h2>



Remember the 1980s when acid rain dominated headlines? Dire warnings about rain eating buildings, killing fish, and destroying forests filled every news cycle. Then, almost like magic, acid rain vanished from public discourse. What happened? Did we actually solve one of the late 20th century's most pressing environmental challenges?



The answer might surprise you. Unlike many environmental issues that drag on indefinitely, acid rain represents one of modern history's most successful ecological recovery stories. It's a tale of science, politics, and technology working together to tackle what seemed impossible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What was acid rain?</h2>



Acid rain isn't regular rain having a bad day – it's precipitation that became significantly more acidic due to air pollution. When power plants, factories, and vehicles burn fossil fuels, they release sulfur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides (NOx) into the atmosphere.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The science behind it</h2>



Think of acid rain as nature's chemistry experiment gone wrong. These compounds react with water, oxygen, and other chemicals to form sulfuric and nitric acids. When mixed with water vapor in clouds, they create precipitation with dangerously low pH levels.



While clean rain has a pH of about 5.6, acid rain could drop as low as 4.2 to 4.4 – roughly as acidic as tomato juice or coffee. According to US Geological Survey documentation, Scottish chemist Angus Smith first coined "acid rain" in 1872, but it didn't become a household phrase until the 1960s and 1970s when Swedish scientist Svante Odén documented its devastating effects on Scandinavian lakes and European forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The crisis at its peak</h2>



During the height of public concern, environmental damage was both widespread and visible. This wasn't some abstract future threat – people could see destruction happening in real-time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Environmental devastation</h2>



The most dramatic impacts were impossible to ignore. Research documented by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation and the New York State Department of Environmental Conservation shows that in the Adirondack Mountains, more than 200 lakes became so acidic they couldn't support fish life. The Adirondack Council reports that 409 lakes once supported brook trout, but many lost their fish populations due to acid rain.



By 1976, when scientists cataloged all acidified lakes in the Adirondack Park, researchers found that half of the lakes over 2,000 feet above sea level had no fish, according to studies published in environmental journals. The acidification process worked like a slow-motion disaster. As acid rain fell into watersheds, it gradually lowered pH levels. Fish couldn't survive in acidic water, and their food sources died off too.



Trees at high elevations showed stress directly linked to acid rain. It weakened them by leaching nutrients and making them susceptible to disease. Historical records show Germany's Black Forest saw nearly half its trees damaged by the mid-1980s.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Economic impact</h2>



Acid rain wasn't just environmental – it was expensive. Acidic precipitation corroded infrastructure, buildings, and monuments. Historic stone structures deteriorated at accelerated rates. Tourism suffered as lakes became fishless and forests declined. EPA economic analyses from the period documented repair costs mounting into billions annually.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The solution: government action and technology</h2>



Transformation from crisis to success required unprecedented cooperation between governments, industries, and environmental groups.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The Clean Air Act of 1990</h2>



The turning point came with the Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990, signed by President George H.W. Bush. This represented a fundamentally new approach to environmental regulation, as documented in EPA historical records.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Cap-and-trade success</h2>



Instead of mandating specific technologies, the 1990 amendments introduced something revolutionary: a cap-and-trade system for sulfur dioxide emissions. EPA program documentation shows this market-based approach set overall limits but allowed companies to trade emission allowances.



The genius was harnessing market forces to find cost-effective pollution reduction. Companies reducing emissions cheaply could sell excess allowances to those facing higher costs. Research published in environmental economics journals and EPA progress reports shows this resulted in dramatic SO2 reduction at a fraction of projected costs.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Technology advances</h2>



Policy provided the framework, but technology made reductions possible. Studies in atmospheric science journals document the widespread adoption of flue gas desulfurization systems ("scrubbers") that removed sulfur dioxide before it reached the atmosphere. By the 2000s, new installations could remove over 95% of SO2 emissions, according to EPA technical reports.



The push coincided with cleaner energy development. Natural gas produces fewer sulfur compounds than coal. Wind and solar, emerging in the 1990s, captured growing market share, reducing reliance on high-sulfur coal.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-we-don-t-hear-about-it-today">Why we don't hear about it today</h2>



Why did acid rain disappear from headlines? Simple: the problem was largely solved.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Success doesn't make news</h2>



There's an old journalism saying: "If it bleeds, it leads." Environmental success stories don't generate urgency like crisis reporting. Media attention shifted to other challenges: climate change, plastic pollution, and biodiversity loss. There's only so much environmental anxiety the public can absorb, and newer concerns replaced acid rain.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Mission accomplished</h2>



The primary reason is beautifully simple: interventions worked. EPA monitoring data shows sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990. Academic research published in environmental science journals confirms pH levels in formerly affected areas returned closer to normal. This represents one of history's most dramatic environmental recoveries. Studies by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation show fishless lakes now support healthy populations. Forests recovered, and building damage slowed dramatically.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-is-it-really-gone">Is it really gone?</h2>



The crisis is largely resolved, but monitoring data shows the problem isn't completely eliminated – it's managed to acceptable levels. Some areas still experience occasional events during high pollution periods. International environmental research indicates that rapidly industrializing Asian countries face similar problems to what we experienced decades ago, though they're implementing successful strategies.



EPA research shows nitrogen oxide emissions proved more challenging than sulfur dioxide, coming from vehicles and mobile sources. Climate science studies suggest changing weather patterns add complexity to how acid rain forms and falls.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What this teaches us</h2>



The acid rain experience proves that seemingly intractable environmental problems can be solved with scientific understanding, political will, and technological innovation. Environmental monitoring data shows recovery speed was remarkable – within a decade, measurable improvements appeared in air quality and ecosystem health.



Success came from bipartisan support across party lines. Policy analysis studies show the market-based approach appealed to those preferring economic incentives while achieving environmental goals. This support created lasting policy surviving political changes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Conclusion</h2>



Acid rain's disappearance from public consciousness represents environmental science's greatest success stories. Through effective regulation, technological innovation, and international cooperation, we transformed an overwhelming crisis into a manageable challenge.



Today's silence isn't because we forgot – it's because we solved it. The 1990 Clean Air Act, combined with technology and energy market changes, reduced acid rain emissions over 90%, according to comprehensive EPA data analysis.



This success offers hope for current challenges. It proves complex problems can be solved when science, policy, and technology work together. As we face climate change and plastic pollution, acid rain reminds us that dramatic positive change is possible.



Next time someone asks whether environmental regulations work, remember acid rain. It's proof that sometimes, we get it right.



<hr class="wp-block-separator has-alpha-channel-opacity"/>



Sources: This article draws from EPA official documentation and progress reports, peer-reviewed research published in environmental and atmospheric science journals, historical data from the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation, New York State Department of Environmental Conservation records, US Geological Survey publications, policy analysis studies, and environmental monitoring data collected over three decades.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Frequently Asked Questions</h2>



1. Is acid rain completely gone? No, but EPA monitoring shows it's reduced to manageable levels. US sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990, making acid rain much less severe than the 1980s crisis.



2. How long did solving take? Environmental monitoring data shows significant improvements began within 5-10 years of 1990s emission controls. Full ecosystem recovery took longer – some areas need 20-30 years for complete recovery.



3. What made the solution successful? Clear scientific understanding, visible damage motivating action, bipartisan support, available technology, and innovative market-based policies like cap-and-trade.



4. Do other countries have acid rain problems? Yes, particularly rapidly industrializing Asian countries. However, international environmental research shows many implement similar successful control strategies.



5. Could acid rain return? Potentially, if regulations weaken or we return to high-sulfur coal without controls, though effects would take years to become severe according to environmental projections.



6. Can you recommend any teaching tools on the subject of "acid rain"? The United States Environmental Protection Agency produced a wonderful teacher's guide for ages 14 and under that you can find on the EPA website here: <a href="https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf</a>



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The environmental problem we actually solved

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk Acid rain and a crisis solved. Why don't we...

Fresh,Radish,Harvest,On,Soil,In,Garden.

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Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving fall garden, and this guide lays out the best vegetables and herbs to plant now for a fruitful autumn harvest. 



Fast-growing leafy greens such as spinach, lettuce, kale, and arugula perform especially well in the waning summer heat, with harvests beginning as soon as 30 days. 



These cool-season crops relish the transition into fall, offering repeated yields with cut-and-come-again methods.



Root vegetables like radishes, carrots, and beets also excel during this period. Radishes deliver satisfaction in under a month, while carrots and beets mature in about two months. Employing succession planting ensures a continuous stream of produce deep into the cooler months. 



For a boost of fresh flavor, herbs like cilantro, basil, dill, and chervil are excellent picks. These heat-loving varieties flourish in July’s warmth and are harvest-ready in about 30 days, especially when sown continuously.



Gardeners in zones 6 through 9 can benefit from planting bush beans and snap peas, which don’t require trellising and are ideal for compact plots. 



Maturing in 50–60 days, they’re a smart choice for quick, protein-rich harvests. For those in hotter regions, heat-tolerant crops such as okra and southern peas provide reliable yields and thrive in scorching conditions.



This guide emphasizes more than crop selection—it highlights the importance of timing, soil preparation, and ongoing sowing techniques. 



With thoughtful planning and attention to regional climate needs, even late-summer gardeners can enjoy fresh salads, hearty stews, and the satisfaction of a robust, homegrown harvest well into fall.



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What to plant in your garden in mid-July

https://youtu.be/Fi2OeEwuzRM?si=vTyd2m9FMmtyWkex Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving...

Green,Ecoduct,Over,An,Empty,Highway,During,Sunset.

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A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that wildlife tunnels significantly reduce amphibian road mortality during seasonal migrations. 



Frogs and salamanders often cross roads to reach breeding ponds each spring, but many are killed by vehicles. 



Researchers from the <a href="https://www.uvm.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Vermont</a>, in collaboration with local citizens and the Vermont Agency of Natural Resources, installed two underpass tunnels in 2015. 



Over a 12-year monitoring period, they observed an 80.2% reduction in amphibian deaths, and up to 94% for non-climbing species like salamanders. 



The study used a before-after-control-impact design and documented more than 5,200 amphibians, highlighting the tunnels’ effectiveness even in nearby buffer zones.



Funded at $342,397 - far cheaper than wildlife crossings for large mammals - the project showcased the power of community-led conservation.



Local groups initiated the effort after observing mass amphibian deaths. Wildlife cameras later captured over 2,200 amphibians using a tunnel in just one spring, along with other species like raccoons and bobcats, indicating wider ecosystem benefits.



This marks the first peer-reviewed, long-term data set in the northeastern U.S. confirming amphibian-specific underpasses work. 



The study urges transportation departments to incorporate these designs into road planning and highlights how community action, thoughtful infrastructure, and persistence can make a real difference for biodiversity.



The full study was published in the <a href="https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1617138125000780" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal for Nature Conservation</a>.



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Wildlife tunnels save millions of amphibians

https://youtu.be/XYgiPzmNBTU?si=eFYY7gPHU1JznLvU A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that...

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing it with probiotics and prebiotics, aiming to create a treat that satisfies cravings while supporting gut health. 



The challenge lies in maintaining chocolate's beloved texture and flavor while adding health benefits.



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Probiotics - beneficial microbes that balance gut bacteria and aid digestion - are typically fragile and can be destroyed by stomach acid or processing. 



Prebiotics act as food for these microbes, helping them thrive. Together, they form "synbiotics," a powerful health combination.



Researchers Smriti Gaur and Shubhi Singh from India's Jaypee Institute of Information Technology took an innovative approach, using natural prebiotics like corn and honey instead of complex processing methods. 



They created five chocolate varieties: a control and four synbiotic versions containing different combinations of prebiotics, probiotics (Lactobacillus strains), and flavor enhancers (cinnamon or orange).



Laboratory simulations of human digestion showed the probiotics remained viable for over five hours, suggesting they could survive long enough to benefit gut health.



Taste tests were positive, with researchers particularly enjoying the orange-flavored variety, describing it as having "vibrant citrus notes" complementing the "rich cocoa" with a "luxurious" texture.



This research represents just the beginning. With further refinement of strains, textures, and flavors, chocolate could evolve beyond mere indulgence to become a functional food that nourishes while it delights.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.4c00741" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ACS Food Science &amp; Technology</a>.

Is chocolate the next nutritional powerhouse?

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

[sendtonews key="G9bUoxcjr4-2511624-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

[sendtonews key="LvS8v8bp9z-2564889-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How does salt makes things taste better?

[sendtonews key="X0f6OHYoI4-2310561-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Santiago, Chile in South America

[sendtonews key="JRaP49ISmm-2357509-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

[sendtonews key="e4ZG0Jawp3-2374785-12187" type="single"] Astronomers at Johns Hopkins University have created...

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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.



According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."



Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;



ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. 



Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

[sendtonews key="oL4FnPTGCV-2384527-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

[sendtonews key="6HyfrAJTBI-1831843-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

[sendtonews key="QIoVYJqRBi-2434608-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from NASA...

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Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes Earth’s interconnected systems, and how this network is affected by rising temperatures.&nbsp;



During 2020, average global temperatures matched the hottest year on record. The hurricane season was also record-breaking, with many of the storms intensifying at extraordinary speeds. Hot water in the ocean is fuel for hurricanes. The satellite data shows that it's all one interconnected system showing how Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected.



According to NASA, dust swept up from Northern Africa plays a major role in the formation of hurricanes, and is also a key source of fertilization in the Amazon rainforest. As a result of<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seagrass-wasting-disease-is-fueled-by-climate-change/"> climate</a> change, dust plumes are expected to decline, which will have an effect on vegetation far away.&nbsp;



Images from Earth-observing satellites show how the world’s plant life is affected by natural disasters, fires, and deforestation. Satellites also reveal how widespread changes in vegetation impact waterways,&nbsp; the climate, air quality. Satellites communicate by using radio waves to send signals to the antennas on the Earth. "Earth From Space" is a groundbreaking two-hour special that reveals a spectacular new space-based vision of our planet. 



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected

[sendtonews key="JbW4VsY53O-1632195-12187" type="single"] Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected...

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