Humans often learn by watching two other people interact and then copying what fits the moment. A new study shows blue-throated macaws can do the same thing.



This ability, known as third-party imitation, suggests a more flexible kind of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/chimpanzees-and-bees-are-capable-of-complex-social-learning/">learning</a> than simple mimicry. It points to social knowledge that spreads without direct teaching.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-parrots-learn">How parrots learn</h2>



The work was led by Esha Haldar at the Max Planck Institute for Biological Intelligence (<a href="https://www.bi.mpg.de/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">MPIB</a>) in Germany. She and colleagues tested whether parrots can learn by watching a conspecific, meaning a member of the same species, interact with a person.



Researchers define intransitive actions as movements that are not aimed at an object - for example, lifting a leg or fluffing feathers. This focus is important because it rules out shortcuts, ensuring the birds copy the movement itself rather than just the end goal.



Earlier tests in domestic dogs found no evidence of third-party imitation for such goal-less movements. The contrast helps frame what makes the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ecuadors-rare-red-faced-parrot-gets-a-new-home/">macaw</a> results notable.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-macaws-are-masters-of-imitation">Macaws are masters of imitation </h2>



Two groups of blue-throated macaws took part and none had been trained to imitate on command. In total, the researchers ran 462 sessions of 10 trials each, which equals 4,620 trials.



Birds in the test group watched a trained macaw respond to human hand signals with one of five movements, including fluff, spin, vocalize, lift leg, and flap wings. After a brief pause, the observer bird received the same hand signal for up to 12 seconds.



Birds in the control group received the identical signals but saw no other bird perform the actions. Rewards were given only when the subject produced the correct movement after the signal.



Across the five possible actions, the test group learned more responses than the control group. They also reached the criterion faster and with greater accuracy.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-imitation-in-birds">Imitation in birds</h2>



The test birds learned an average of 4.16 actions, while the control birds averaged 2.20. This difference was statistically significant and was matched by higher response accuracy and quicker learning in the observers that had watched the interaction.



“Our findings show that third-party imitation, even for intransitive actions, exists outside humans, allowing for rapid adaption to group specific behaviors and possibly cultural conventions in parrots,” noted Haldar. 



The control birds never mastered the flap wings movement, and the observers learned it last, indicating how unlikely that action was without demonstrations.



Some observers even copied an action briefly before receiving any signal or reward. Those spontaneous moments appeared for spin, fluff, or vocalize and were not reinforced.



Because the target movements were goal-less, explanations like goal copying or object enhancement fit poorly. The design therefore supports imitation of movement patterns within a social context.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-adapting-to-local-routines">Adapting to local routines</h2>



Parrots are not only vocal mimics. A large <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-022-24335-x" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">survey</a> shows many species keep learning new vocalizations across their lives, and they use those sounds in rich social settings.



Training research also shows that parrots can learn by observing people interact with each other. The model rival <a href="https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8469950/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">technique</a> uses two human trainers to teach labels and concepts to African grey parrots, making observational learning a practical tool in the lab.



Wild parrots <a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371%2Fjournal.pone.0049747" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">display</a> flexible social communication too. Orange fronted conures can address specific flock mates by imitating their contact calls, which shows how imitation can serve precise social goals.



The macaw experiment fits that broader picture of social minds. Learning from two others may help newcomers adapt to local routines quickly.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-parrots-must-learn-fast">Parrots must learn fast</h2>



In third-party tests with intransitive actions, household dogs did not copy the model. Those studies suggest dogs may rely more on objects or explicit training in such tasks, which makes intransitive movements harder to match without prior practice.



Parrots face different pressures in the wild, including frequent regrouping and shifting partners. Under those conditions, rapidly matching another bird’s movements could aid coordination and affiliation.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-research-directions">Future research directions </h2>



The sample was small and the action set was limited to five movements. That means follow up studies should scale up both the number of birds and the diversity of actions.



Related work points to another piece of the puzzle. <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/saving-parrots-in-the-illegal-wildlife-trade-with-dna-technology/">Macaws</a> also show automatic imitation in a separate experiment, where seeing a movement makes the same movement more likely even when it is not helpful.



Future tests can separate motivation from mechanism by varying the reward schedule or by using two birds as the interacting pair. Researchers can also probe whether observers track the human cue, the demonstrator, or both.



If third-party imitation helps birds synchronize with new partners, it could shape how social traditions form and stick. That is a strong reason to look for similar abilities in other parrots and then in wild settings.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-025-11665-9" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Scientific Reports</a>.



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Parrots that learn like people: Macaws copy without being taught

Humans often learn by watching two other people interact and then copying what fits the moment. A new study shows blue-throated macaws can do the same thing. This ability, known as third-party imitation, suggests a more flexible kind of learning than simple mimicry. It points to social knowledge that spreads without direct teaching. How parrots learn The work was led by Esha Haldar at the Max Planck Institute for Biological Intelligence (MPIB) in Germany. She and colleagues tested whether parrots can learn by watching a conspecific, meaning...

Using a technique known as gene knockout, researchers altered the genetic code in the DNA of seven species of butterflies. This led to a breakthrough discovery that a single gene, the WntA gene, is responsible for the incredible diversity of butterfly wing patterns.

Owen McMillan is a staff scientist at the <a href="http://www.stri.si.edu/">Smithsonian Tropical Research Institute</a> and co-author of the study.

"Butterfly wing patterns are amazing: a true evolutionary novelty, highly diverse and strongly shaped by natural and sexual selection,” said McMillan. “By genetically engineering individuals from different species, we are quickly coming to grips with how this diversity is generated. Surprisingly, a single gene, and one that is used repeatedly throughout development, can have huge effects." 

The WntA gene is part of a small family of genes that influence body plans and other patterns during insect development. WntA is a protein molecule that seems to act as a morphogen, a chemical agent that is capable of causing the development of morphological characteristics. 

"Imagine a paint-by-number image of a butterfly," said McMillan "The instructions for coloring the wing are written in the genetic code. By deleting some of the instructions, we can infer which part says 'paint the number two's red' or 'paint the number one's black. Of course, it is a lot more complicated than this because what is actually changing are networks of genes that have a cascading effect on pattern and color."

According to researcher Carolina Concha, the team injected <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/storm-monarch-butterfly-colonies/">butterfly</a> eggs with an RNA probe that attached to the WntA gene, which they suspected played some role in the expression of color.

"After knocking out the gene, we let the butterflies grow up and compared the wing patterns of the knockout mutants with the original wing patterns," said co-author Richard Wallbank.

The scientists repeated this same procedure in seven different butterfly species. The results of the study revealed that the WntA gene influences wing pattern in ways that the researchers had not expected.

"Going back to the paint-by-number analogy, 'Number one' can move around the wing in different butterflies species, and even in different color pattern variants of the same species,” said McMillan. “In Monarchs, for example, the gene is expressed with fine precision along the wing veins. In contrast, in Heliconius, a group known for vivid wing patterns, the gene is expressed in bold brush strokes from essentially the tip to the base of the wing.” 

McMillan added, “And it gets even crazier, because the color of 'Number one' can change depending on context, shifting between different colored pigments and even changing how light is reflected. In butterflies, color is a function of both pigment and the structural properties of the scales cells that cover the wing.”

The research is published in the <a href="http://www.pnas.org/">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a> early online edition.

--

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Scientists can now alter butterfly wing patterns

Using a technique known as gene knockout, researchers altered the...

Researchers developed a global study to take a closer look at the sizes of endangered vertebrate animal species. An analysis of the body masses of thousands of animals revealed that the largest and smallest species of animals are at a higher risk of extinction than those in between.

"Knowing how animal body size correlates with the likelihood of a species being threatened provides us with a tool to assess extinction risk for the many species we know very little about," said lead author William Ripple of <a href="http://oregonstate.edu/">Oregon State University</a>.

The research team scrutinized over 27,000 vertebrate animals that had been assessed for the Red List of Threatened Species. <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/otter-fossil-mammals-migrated-america/">Mammals</a>, birds, reptiles, amphibians, bony fishes, and cartilaginous fishes were all evaluated for the study. Approximately 4,400 of the animals observed are threatened with extinction.

"Many of the larger species are being killed and consumed by humans, and about 90 percent of all threatened species larger than 2.2 pounds in size are being threatened by harvesting," said Ripple.

"Harvesting of these larger animals takes a variety of forms including regulated and unregulated fishing, hunting and trapping for meat consumption, the use of body parts as medicine and killing due to unintentional bycatch," explained the authors of the study.

The researchers believe that the risks faced by the smallest species are greatly underestimated. The smallest species with high extinction risk consist of tiny vertebrate animals generally less than about 3 ounces in body weight. They are mostly threatened by loss or modification of habitat, and small species that require freshwater habitats are the most at risk.

Some of the smaller species that are threatened include the Clarke's banana frog, sapphire-bellied hummingbird, gray gecko, hog-nosed bat and the waterfall climbing cave fish.

The authors said that different conservation strategies will be needed to face the threats to the largest and smallest animals. While some large mammals such as whales, elephants, rhinos, and lions are well known and get more attention, conservation is also needed for large-bodied species that are not mammals such as large fish, birds, amphibians and reptiles.

The research is published in the <a href="http://www.pnas.org/">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a>.

--

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Largest and smallest animals at the highest risk of extinction

Researchers developed a global study to take a closer look...

Plants and insects have an ancient defense against viruses coded into their DNA. But according to scientists, humans and other vertebrates don’t have this genetic defense – at least, not anymore.

A team of researchers from the <a href="https://www.kuleuven.be/english">University of Leuven</a> in Belgium have found that vertebrates may have once had a genetic defense against viral illnesses like other organisms, but it was lost during the process of evolution.

The difference is a mechanism called RNA interference, which can suppress the expression of certain genes. Insects and plants use RNAI to protect themselves against certain viruses. Scientists have even found that bugs and plants can be made resistant to some diseases using the same mechanism – hence the rise of genetically modified crops.

But scientists hoping to protect humans against diseases in the same way have run into a roadblock: we don’t have the same genetic defense that plants and insects do. 

The key lies with three different types of the Argonautes protein. By looking at 40 varied organisms, including humans, the Belgian scientists discovered the problem.

"Two out of these three types [of Argonautes] are especially important for our research: AGO1 and AGO2. The AGO1 family plays a role in regulating its own gene expression. These proteins help to determine which characteristics encoded in the DNA are actually expressed,” Dr. Niels Wynant of the University of Leuven said in a press release. “The AGO2 family takes care of the defense against viruses. However, we didn't find these AGO2 proteins in vertebrates."

So the researchers started working backward, taking a look at jellyfish and sponges, both ancient animal species that share a common ancestor with humans and other vertebrates – albeit, very far back. Like insects and plants, they had the AGO2 proteins.

"In invertebrates, we noticed that AGO2 proteins indeed evolved much faster than their AGO1 counterparts. We didn't see this rapidly evolving group in the vertebrates,” Wynant said.

The research is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-017-08043-5">Scientific Reports</a>. 

—

By <a href="mailto:kcathey@earth.com">Kyla Cathey</a>, <a href="http://www.earth.com">Earth.com</a> staff writer

Humans have lost an ancient genetic defense against viruses

Plants and insects have an ancient defense against viruses coded...

According to a new study, giraffes have evolved such disproportionate neck and legs in order to manage body heat, in hot, dry climates.

The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/long-necked-reptiles-tanystropheus-were-easily-decapitated-by-dinosaur-predators/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">long neck</a> also likely developed to allow the giraffe access to better food higher up, but scientists are still unclear about why the giraffe evolved such a long neck. 

Researchers from the <a href="http://www.uwyo.edu/">University of Wyoming</a> and the <a href="http://web.up.ac.za/">University of Pretoria </a>conducted the study, published in the Journal of Arid Environments. At first, the team hypothesized that giraffes evolved such a shape to efficiently lose excess heat due high surface area to mass ratio. The more surface area on an animal, the easier it is to dissipate excess heat. 

To tackle this theory, the team measured the surface area of the head, neck, trunk, and legs of 60 giraffes from south eastern Zimbabwe, both male and female. 

The results of the analysis showed no real difference in surface area between giraffes and mammals of similar size. 

This means that the giraffe does not possess an evolutionary advantage through a larger surface area on their bodies. Instead, the researchers found that the giraffe's shape and stature boost heat loss and even reduce solar radiation. 

“Their shape confers other thermoregulatory benefits that have advantages for survival in the arid habitat they prefer,” the researchers reported. 

Giraffe populations are declining rapidly, through habitat loss and poaching. As we reported last December, giraffes have been placed on the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/giraffes-extinction-watchlist/">extinction watchlist</a>.

--

By <a href="mailto:kayvandette@gmail.com">Kay Vandette</a>,<a href="https://www.earth.com/"> Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Why giraffes have such long necks

According to a new study, giraffes have evolved such disproportionate...

In March 2016, a storm in Mexico caused irreparable damage to monarch butterfly colonies who were staying there for the winter. 

According to a study from the <a href="http://www.entsoc.org/">Entomological Society of America</a>, led by Lincoln Brower, a research professor of biology at <a href="http://sbc.edu/">Sweet Briar College</a>, the storm killed a significantly higher number of butterflies than initially thought. 

Originally, after the storm, the media reported mortality rates of 7 percent among the overwintering monarch colonies. But Brower estimates that 30 to 38 percent of the butterflies died from storm and the logging efforts that occurred after. 

To measure just how many monarchs were killed, the researchers tallied dead butterflies in random plots in the overwintering sites to get an idea of the total devastation caused. 

Brower argues that logging operations that removed debris and downed trees after the storm also greatly impacted the monarch colonies. The Mexican government allowed a salvage logging operation to take place to reduce the risk of wildfires, and the equivalent of several thousand trees was approved for removal. 

Overwintering sites, like the Oyamel forest in Mexico, produce a sort of “microclimate” that protects monarchs from freezing temperatures and unfavorable conditions. 

The March storm, however, downed so many trees that the monarchs were exposed to rain, snow, and sleet, causing many to die. 

“The prolonged severe storm destroyed the normal microclimatic protection provided by the intact Oyamel forest and led to freezing in all the colonies. This awakened us to the realization that the forest surrounding the butterfly colonies also needs to be protected, as a generalized wind buffer,” said Brower. 

Monarchs are already <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/western-monarch-butterflies-extinct/">nearing threatened status</a> as a species, and fewer and fewer return from overwintering sites each year. Misreported information, like the original reports of the monarchs affected by the storm, is detrimental to conservation efforts that require an accurate tallies.

--

By <a href="mailto:kayvandette@gmail.com">Kay Vandette</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/">Earth.com </a>Staff Writer

How one winter storm devastated monarch butterfly colonies

In March 2016, a storm in Mexico caused irreparable damage...

OLYMPUS DIGITAL CAMERA

A new study from the <a href="http://www.washington.edu/">University of Washington</a> has found that older fish are rapidly depleting due to overfishing.

Older fish are an important part of the ecosystem, similar to older <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/tropical-trees-weapon-climate-change/">trees</a>, because fish who have aged longer might occupy a different geographical area, might try a different food source, and may become a more dominant predator in some cases. 

“More age complexity among species can contribute to the overall stability of a community. If you trim away that diversity, you're probably reducing the marine food web's ability to buffer against change,” said Lewis Barnett, lead author and a UW postdoctoral researcher at the School of Aquatic and Fishery Sciences and the <a href="http://jisao.washington.edu/">Joint Institute for the Study of the Atmosphere and Ocean</a>.

Older fish also help keep the food chain fresh and can reproduce more over their lifetime. 

“I think of old fish as an insurance policy -- they get you through those periods of bad reproduction by consistently producing eggs,” said Trevor Branch, co-author and a UW associate professor. 

Fishing operations  have regulations on the volume of fish they can catch, but don’t have any regulations on age or size. As a result, most fish aren’t allowed to go through a natural life cycle. The longer a fish lives, the more likely it will be caught. 

There also certain environmental factors at play, like disease and pollution, that can contribute to the decrease in older fish. 

The researchers gathered data from commercial and recreational fisheries that detailed the status of changing fish populations over the years. The results show that of the 63 populations of fish analyzed, the proportions of fish in the older age brackets had declined from 79 percent to 97 percent. 

The surprising results will hopefully help dictate future policy for fisheries and fishing operations. 

The researchers suggested several methods for changing fishing operations to help balance out fish populations, including barring fish of a certain size or age from being caught and closing off certain areas to fishing permanently. 

--

By <a href="mailto:kayvandette@gmail.com">Kay Vandette</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Image Credit: Victoria O'Connell

Older fish are rapidly disappearing due to overfishing

A new study from the University of Washington has found...

Allowing yourself to be shocked by electric eels in the name of science might seem foolhardy, but that’s just what Kenneth Catania from <a href="https://www.vanderbilt.edu/">Vanderbilt University</a> did to measure the electric current that an eel produces out of the water. 

Catania has been researching eels for years and had reported on their ability to deliver twice as much electric discharge by wrapping themselves around their prey. But Catania soon noticed that the eels in his lab often jumped out of the water to deliver a shock to perceived threats and predators. 

Cantina observed this behavior while attempting to scoop up eels in an electrically conductive metal net. The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/decision-expected-soon-on-endangered-status-of-american-eels/">eels</a>, noticing the threat, would jump out of the water to attack the net. 

At first this behavior confused Catania, but then he hypothesized that this was a way for the eel to protect itself and amp the power of its electric shock, because the current would unaffected by the water. 

“They aren't just simple animals that go around shocking stuff. They've evolved to produce stronger and stronger electrical discharges, and in concert they've evolved these behaviors to more efficiently use them,” said Catania. 

To better understand the dynamics of the electric circuit created by an eel while shocking another animal, Catania willingly allowed himself to be shocked by a relatively small eel in a contained setting. 

Catania created an apparatus that measured the intensity and strength of the electric current as the eel leapt out of the water and made contact with his arm. 

The shock produced wasn’t enough to do any real damage, but did deliver a lot of pain. Catania’s device recorded a peak of 40-50 milliamps in the eels’ electrical current. 

“It's impressive that a little eel could deliver that much electricity. We don't know the main driver of the behavior, but they need to deter predators, and I can tell you it's really good at that. I can't imagine an animal that had received this [jolt] sticking around,” said Catania.

Catania’s research can now be used to measure the power of an electric shock delivered by differing sized eels. While this is useful information for scientists, it also provides a good reminder to the rest of us: don’t mess with electric eels!

--

By <a href="mailto:kayvandette@gmail.com">Kay Vandette</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Electric eels leap out of the water to deliver a stronger shock

Allowing yourself to be shocked by electric eels in the...

Octopuses are incredibly intelligent, remarkable creatures whose brains work in completely different ways than other animals. They shift color and change shape to camouflage with their surroundings, they can open jars, and are known to be Houdini-like escape artists for their ability to fit through almost any space as long as the opening can accommodate their beak. 

Until recently, scientists were sure octopuses were solitary creatures, only coming together to mate and then spending the majority of their life alone. But now, a team of researchers have found two separate colonies of congregated octopuses in the same area. 

The sites, called Octopolis and Octlantis, were discovered off the east coast of Australia. Octopolis, a settlement of 16 octopuses was first found in 2009, while Octlantis is just a few hundred meters away with fifteen octopuses. 

The divers who recorded footage of the octopuses found that the cephalopods communicated with each other, built dens from old shells, and would sometimes defend their territory or show aggression to warn other octopuses to stay away. 

The researchers studying the groupings think that their congregating is due in part to the geological makeup of the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plastic-ocean-floor/">seafloor</a> where they were found. 

“At both sites, there were features that we think may have made the congregation possible – namely several seafloor rock outcroppings dotting an otherwise flat and featureless area,” said Stephanie Chancellor, a Ph.D. student from the <a href="https://www.uic.edu/">University of Illinois,Chicago</a> and an author of the study.

The researchers concluded that under the right circumstances, octopuses might come together and be more social than ever expected. Further observations of these octopus settlements could help scientists better understand behavioral patterns and communication among certain cephalopods. 

--

By <a href="mailto:kayvandette@gmail.com">Kay Vandette</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Octopuses are more social than we thought, but sometimes fight

Octopuses are incredibly intelligent, remarkable creatures whose brains work in...

Millions of years ago, a dramatic transition from <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/link-herbivorous-carnivorous-dinosaurs/">dinosaurs</a> to birds occurred in reptiles, marked by significant structural changes in the brain and skull. Researchers have now tracked this evolution, revealing how bird skull formation evolved and how the brain controls skull growth. 

The study, published in the journal Nature Ecology and Evolution, was performed by a team of researchers led by Bhart-Anjan Singh Bhullar, assistant professor of geology and geophysics at <a href="https://www.yale.edu/">Yale University</a>, and Matteo Fabbri, Yale graduate student.

The team discovered that most reptile brains and skull shapes were similar, but dinosaurs closely related to birds and the birds themselves had larger brains and skulls that grew around them. 

“Across the dinosaur-bird transition, the skull transforms enormously and the brain enlarges. We were surprised that no one had directly addressed the idea that the underlying parts of the brain -- the forebrain and midbrain -- are correlated or somehow developmentally related to the overlying frontal and parietal bones,” said Bhullar. 

The formation of the skull is dependent on the brain, but the research shows a distinct relationship between the development of the brain and the development of roof of the skull. 

According to the study, the brain signals the formation of the cranium in all vertebrates with bony skulls. 

“What this implies is that the brain produces molecular signals that instruct the skeleton to form around it, although we understand relatively little about the precise nature of that patterning,” said Bhullar. 

This research not only sheds light on how birds transitioned from dinosaurs, but could also have larger implications in understanding the relationship between skull formation and brain growth.

--

By <a href="mailto:kayvandette@gmail.com">Kay Vandette</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/">Earth.com </a>Staff Writer

Transition from dinosaurs to birds altered brain, skull growth

Millions of years ago, a dramatic transition from dinosaurs to...

New research shows that monkey fights spread like a disease, with one fight causing another, which prompts another, and so on. In fact, the fighting typically won’t stop until the original first pair resolve their issues. The findings have led scientists to believe that the fighting is based on collective memory. 

Researchers from <a href="https://www.cornell.edu/">Cornell University </a>and the <a href="https://www.santafe.edu/">Santa Fe Institute</a> conducted a study observing captive pigtailed macaques at the <a href="http://www.yerkes.emory.edu/">Yerkes National Primate Center</a> in Georgia. 

<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/monkey-brain-explain-human-thinking/">Macaques</a> are widely studied in the scientific community because of their similar neural networking to humans. The researchers used macaques to better understand conflict variations, such as size and duration, to see if there existed any patterns that could better explain social behaviors. 

While observing the macaques, the team found that there were conflicts in the group, but that there were also distinct restful periods without fighting. When a fight was started, one macaque would threaten or attack another. The fighting would then spread through the macaque group and would not stop until the original conflict was resolved.

“The duration of the conflict is not just determined by individuals independently deciding whether to continue fighting or drop out, but through their joint memory for the past and subsequent collective decision-making,” said Jessica Flack from the Santa Fe Institute.

The researchers feel a similar model could explain human aggressions and fights.

By understanding how long a fight will last among macaques, and knowing that the original conflict is the source of spreading monkey aggression, future research can predict and determine quantifiers for conflicts that break out, and also help to manage conflicts. 

--

By <a href="mailto:kayvandette@gmail.com">Kay Vandette</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/">Earth.com </a>Staff Writer

Fighting is infectious among groups of monkeys

New research shows that monkey fights spread like a disease,...

Western monarch butterflies are reaching unprecedented levels of endangerment, and their populations are much lower than previously realized. Eastern monarch conservation has been a subject for many environmentalists, policy makers, and scientists, but now, according to new research, the western monarch is doing much worse. 

Monarch population decline can be traced to habitat degradation, pesticide use, and climate change, but the exact cause of why the western monarchs are dying off is uncertain. 

Cheryl Shultz, an associate professor at <a href="https://www.vancouver.wsu.edu/">Washington State University, Vancouver</a> and the lead author of the study, found that there just 300,000 Western monarchs who winter in California, where before, in the 1980’s, there were millions of them. 

“This study doesn't just show that there are fewer monarchs now than 35 years ago. It also tells us that, if things stay the same, western monarchs probably won't be around as we know them in another 35 years,” said Schultz. 

The western monarch risks <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dinosaur-extinction-event-darkness/">extinction</a> over the next few decades if policies and conservation efforts are not put into place soon. 

Western monarchs spend winter in forested groves in coastal California and spend spring and summer in Arizona, California, Nevada, Oregon, Washington, Idaho and Utah, and then return back to California in the fall. 

It was California residents who first noticed that monarch butterfly populations were diminishing, as fewer and fewer were recorded in their traditional overwintering sites. 

Schultz gathered data from monarch butterfly counts going back to the 1980’s. The counts came from volunteers, from butterfly enthusiasts, and from the Xerces Society's Western Monarch Thanksgiving Count. 

The research confirmed what the California residents feared and found that the butterflies were declining in population levels. 

The decline is so extreme that the U.S Fish and Wildlife service is debating whether to list the monarch butterfly as a threatened species. 

“The hard part of being a conservation biologist is documenting species declines. The exciting part is figuring out how to help declining species recover. In the 20th century, we brought bald eagles back from the brink of extinction by limiting use of DDT. If we start now, we can make the 21st century the era in which monarchs return to our landscapes,” said Elizabeth Crone, a <a href="https://www.tufts.edu/">Tufts University</a> professor and co-author on the study. 

These findings will hopefully help preserve and revive western monarch populations, as well as shed further light on the effects of climate change and habitat degradation through man-made infrastructure and pesticide use. 

--

By <a href="mailto:kayvandette@gmail.com">Kay Vandette</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Western monarch butterflies could soon go extinct

Western monarch butterflies are reaching unprecedented levels of endangerment, and...

Ticks are major harbingers of diseases for humans and animals that spread Lyme disease and other sicknesses. Like all parasites, ticks are also an important part of the ecosystem, and balance is the key. But according to a new study, climate change affecting host animals could cause tick populations to soar with devastating consequences. 

The study was conducted by <a href="https://www.ucsb.edu/">University of California, Santa Barbara</a> researchers and found that both tick populations and tick-borne diseases could increase in the coming years due to both climate change and decreasing wildlife populations

“Our research suggests that large mammal conservation may prevent increases in tick abundance and tick-borne disease risk. These results are timely and relevant in light of widespread wildlife declines and unpredictable regional climatic shifts in a steadily warming world,” said Georgia Titcomb, the study’s lead author and a graduate student from the UC Santa Barbara Department of Ecology, Evolution, and Marine Biology. 

The researchers used a long term exclosure experiment to study how <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/protect-bees-managing-ticks/">tick</a> populations would fare in environments with differing herbivore animal numbers. Exclosure can refer to any area that is fenced in or isolated to avoid the entry of certain animals. 

The researchers isolated four different plots in the <a href="http://www.mpala.org/">Mpala Research Centre in Kenya</a> for their experiment. The first plot excluded most herbivores except rodents, the second plot allowed small and medium sized herbivores like hares, and the third excluded only giant herbivores like giraffes and elephants, the fourth was the control plot and had no exclusions. 

For a little over a year, the researchers monitored each plot and conducted monthly hour long tick drags. 

In the plots where there were fewer herbivores, there were more ticks. Some months even showed an increase of 360 percent in tick populations where all large wildlife were excluded from the area. 

Climate change continues to threaten habitats and animal populations, especially large herbivores who are necessary for keeping tick populations in check. And an increase in tick populations means an increase in tick borne pathogens. 

The study highlights the necessity of conservation efforts specifically targeted to hinder the effects of wildlife loss due to climate change. 

--

By <a href="mailto:kayvandette@gmail.com">Kay Vandette</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Tick populations set to increase with climate change

Ticks are major harbingers of diseases for humans and animals...

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On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop and sunlight barely penetrates through the polar winter. It was here, however, that an international team of scientists found <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/predatory-worms-were-terror-beasts-half-a-billion-years-ago/#google_vignette" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evidence of sea monsters</a> that would change our understanding of ocean life in the past.



This video captures the discovery of Timorebestia fossils that had been hidden for more than 500 million years in the Sirius Passet formation. The "terror beasts," as they are called, are a hidden chapter in the evolutionary history of <a href="https://www.earth.com" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Earth</a>, showing that sophisticated predator-prey interactions occurred much earlier than previously envisioned.



Dr. Jakob Vinther and his research team at the <a href="https://www.bristol.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Bristol</a>, in collaboration with researchers at the <a href="https://eng.kopri.re.kr/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Korean Polar Research Institute</a>, braved extreme weather conditions at 82.5 north latitude to locate these giant creatures. Using sophisticated electron microprobe analysis, they revealed the detailed anatomy of the animals, including their muscle and nerve tissues.



The find upsets the traditional timeline of sea predators. Although we've long appreciated that Cambrian oceans were at one time ruled by <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jWI3-UgA3_o&amp;list=PL1QLQMW9MWDwpkFOnvgAmu7wT6rZmYqdJ&amp;index=19" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">arthropods</a>, these discoveries indicate that relatives of arrow worms were first to dominate the seas. These worms were building sophisticated food webs several million years before other predator groups arose.



Each fossil is a story of ancient hunger, with fossil stomach contents revealing these meter-long beasts dined on heavily armored arthropods regularly, cementing their place as the ocean's first apex predators.



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Worms dominated seas before dinosaurs

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop...

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</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">New York is the site of the world's oldest forest.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-385-million-year-old-trees-discovered">385-million-year-old trees discovered</h2>



Scientists have uncovered something extraordinary just two hours north of New York City. The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/worlds-oldest-forest-discovered-close-to-new-york-city/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">world's oldest forest</a>, dating back 385 million years, offers a window into how Earth's first complex forests shaped our planet's atmosphere.



Located near <a href="https://townofcairo.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cairo, New York</a>, in Greene County, these weren't merely primitive plants struggling to survive. These were sophisticated trees with root systems remarkably similar to modern forests. This ancient woodland predates dinosaurs by 140 million years.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-cairo-forest-discovery">The Cairo forest discovery</h2>



385 million years ago, upstate New York was a tropical paradise near the equator. Thanks to continental drift, this ancient forest has traveled thousands of miles to its current location.



The fossil forest sits in an abandoned quarry, roughly half the size of a football field. This represents just a slice of what was likely a massive forest system stretching from New York into Pennsylvania.



Charles Ver Straeten, curator of sedimentary rocks at the <a href="https://www.nysm.nysed.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">New York State Museum</a>, made the discovery in 2009. While scouting the former highway department property, his trained eye spotted wandering patterns in the stone that looked like marine features.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-revolutionary-age-and-preservation">Revolutionary age and preservation</h2>



The site contains 385-million-year-old rocks with fossilized woody roots forming horizontal patterns up to 18 feet (5.5 meters) wide. As Christopher Berry, a paleobotanist at Cardiff University, explains: "You are walking through the roots of ancient trees."



This discovery pushes back advanced tree evolution by millions of years. The research, published in <a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/home" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Current Biology</a> in December 2019, fundamentally changes our understanding of when complex forests first emerged.



Researchers believe a massive flood buried the forest floor, creating perfect fossilization conditions. Over millions of years, sediment hardened into rock, preserving these root patterns like nature's time capsule.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-meet-archaeopteris-the-first-modern-tree">Meet Archaeopteris: the first modern tree</h2>



The star of this ancient forest is Archaeopteris – not to be confused with the feathered dinosaur Archaeopteryx. This tree was far older and more revolutionary.



William Stein from <a href="https://www.binghamton.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Binghamton University</a> describes the roots as "strikingly modern, essentially what you'd see outside in my yard right now." These weren't simple root systems you'd expect from ancient plants.



Some fossilized roots are six inches (15 centimeters) in diameter, forming 36-foot-wide (11-meter) patterns. These giants grew up to 65 feet (20 meters) tall with five-foot-diameter (1.5-meter) trunks.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-changing-impact">Climate-changing impact</h2>



These trees fundamentally changed Earth's environment. Kevin Boyce, a Stanford University geoscientist, explains how their deep roots triggered "weathering," chemical reactions that pulled carbon dioxide from the atmosphere.



This process dropped atmospheric CO2 levels from 10-15 times higher than today to roughly modern concentrations. These ancient trees helped create atmospheric conditions that made complex life possible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ancient-forest-ecosystem">Ancient forest ecosystem</h2>



The forest was remarkably diverse. Scientists identified Eospermatopteris, palm tree-like plants with short roots that reached 30 feet (9 meters) tall but lacked woody structure. The forest also housed cladoxylopsids and a mysterious third species still being studied.



All reproduced through spores rather than seeds – millions of years before seeds evolved. This tropical environment had no grass, flowers, or flying insects, just towering trees creating Earth's first complex forest canopy.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-scientific-significance">Scientific significance</h2>



Before this finding, the Gilboa forest, located 25 miles (40 kilometers) away, held the "oldest forest" title. Cairo's trees are 2-3 million years older, showing that complex forest ecosystems developed much faster than scientists believed possible.



Patricia Gensel, a <a href="https://www.unc.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of North Carolina</a> paleobotanist, notes: "The size of those root systems is really changing the picture. Even 20 years ago, researchers assumed trees with such complex root systems didn't evolve so early."



The Cairo site presents three unique root systems, suggesting Devonian period forests were diverse ecosystems with different trees occupying different environmental niches, much like today's forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-modern-preservation-efforts">Modern preservation efforts</h2>



In 2022, New York State Senator Michelle Hinchey secured a $170,000 grant for the town of Cairo to construct specialized fencing around the fossil forest site. The town plans to conduct a feasibility study exploring the possibility of creating an educational center and working lab on-site.



Joe Hasenkopf, chair of the Cairo Planning Board, hopes to partner with educational institutions to create a research facility serving scientists, students, and the public.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lessons-for-today-s-climate">Lessons for today's climate</h2>



Why does a 385-million-year-old forest matter today? It shows how dramatically forests can change Earth's climate. These ancient woodlands created the atmospheric conditions supporting complex life.



Understanding how prehistoric forests transformed the planet helps us appreciate modern forests' critical role in addressing climate change. Forests remain Earth's most effective carbon capture systems.



These prehistoric trees changed Earth's atmosphere by pulling massive amounts of carbon dioxide from the air. As we face modern climate challenges, this ancient forest reminds us of trees' incredible power to transform our planet's environment.



The next time you walk through a forest, remember you're experiencing an ecosystem whose blueprint was established 385 million years ago in upstate New York. These ancient pioneers didn't just survive – they thrived and changed the world forever.



The full study was published in the journal Current Biology.



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Earth's oldest forest found in the United States

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ New York is the site of the world's oldest...

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https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Acid rain and a crisis solved.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-don-t-we-ever-hear-about-acid-rain-anymore-the-environmental-crisis-that-was-solved">Why don't we ever hear about "acid rain" anymore? The environmental crisis that was solved</h2>



Remember the 1980s when acid rain dominated headlines? Dire warnings about rain eating buildings, killing fish, and destroying forests filled every news cycle. Then, almost like magic, acid rain vanished from public discourse. What happened? Did we actually solve one of the late 20th century's most pressing environmental challenges?



The answer might surprise you. Unlike many environmental issues that drag on indefinitely, acid rain represents one of modern history's most successful ecological recovery stories. It's a tale of science, politics, and technology working together to tackle what seemed impossible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What was acid rain?</h2>



Acid rain isn't regular rain having a bad day – it's precipitation that became significantly more acidic due to air pollution. When power plants, factories, and vehicles burn fossil fuels, they release sulfur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides (NOx) into the atmosphere.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The science behind it</h2>



Think of acid rain as nature's chemistry experiment gone wrong. These compounds react with water, oxygen, and other chemicals to form sulfuric and nitric acids. When mixed with water vapor in clouds, they create precipitation with dangerously low pH levels.



While clean rain has a pH of about 5.6, acid rain could drop as low as 4.2 to 4.4 – roughly as acidic as tomato juice or coffee. According to US Geological Survey documentation, Scottish chemist Angus Smith first coined "acid rain" in 1872, but it didn't become a household phrase until the 1960s and 1970s when Swedish scientist Svante Odén documented its devastating effects on Scandinavian lakes and European forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The crisis at its peak</h2>



During the height of public concern, environmental damage was both widespread and visible. This wasn't some abstract future threat – people could see destruction happening in real-time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Environmental devastation</h2>



The most dramatic impacts were impossible to ignore. Research documented by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation and the New York State Department of Environmental Conservation shows that in the Adirondack Mountains, more than 200 lakes became so acidic they couldn't support fish life. The Adirondack Council reports that 409 lakes once supported brook trout, but many lost their fish populations due to acid rain.



By 1976, when scientists cataloged all acidified lakes in the Adirondack Park, researchers found that half of the lakes over 2,000 feet above sea level had no fish, according to studies published in environmental journals. The acidification process worked like a slow-motion disaster. As acid rain fell into watersheds, it gradually lowered pH levels. Fish couldn't survive in acidic water, and their food sources died off too.



Trees at high elevations showed stress directly linked to acid rain. It weakened them by leaching nutrients and making them susceptible to disease. Historical records show Germany's Black Forest saw nearly half its trees damaged by the mid-1980s.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Economic impact</h2>



Acid rain wasn't just environmental – it was expensive. Acidic precipitation corroded infrastructure, buildings, and monuments. Historic stone structures deteriorated at accelerated rates. Tourism suffered as lakes became fishless and forests declined. EPA economic analyses from the period documented repair costs mounting into billions annually.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The solution: government action and technology</h2>



Transformation from crisis to success required unprecedented cooperation between governments, industries, and environmental groups.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The Clean Air Act of 1990</h2>



The turning point came with the Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990, signed by President George H.W. Bush. This represented a fundamentally new approach to environmental regulation, as documented in EPA historical records.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Cap-and-trade success</h2>



Instead of mandating specific technologies, the 1990 amendments introduced something revolutionary: a cap-and-trade system for sulfur dioxide emissions. EPA program documentation shows this market-based approach set overall limits but allowed companies to trade emission allowances.



The genius was harnessing market forces to find cost-effective pollution reduction. Companies reducing emissions cheaply could sell excess allowances to those facing higher costs. Research published in environmental economics journals and EPA progress reports shows this resulted in dramatic SO2 reduction at a fraction of projected costs.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Technology advances</h2>



Policy provided the framework, but technology made reductions possible. Studies in atmospheric science journals document the widespread adoption of flue gas desulfurization systems ("scrubbers") that removed sulfur dioxide before it reached the atmosphere. By the 2000s, new installations could remove over 95% of SO2 emissions, according to EPA technical reports.



The push coincided with cleaner energy development. Natural gas produces fewer sulfur compounds than coal. Wind and solar, emerging in the 1990s, captured growing market share, reducing reliance on high-sulfur coal.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-we-don-t-hear-about-it-today">Why we don't hear about it today</h2>



Why did acid rain disappear from headlines? Simple: the problem was largely solved.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Success doesn't make news</h2>



There's an old journalism saying: "If it bleeds, it leads." Environmental success stories don't generate urgency like crisis reporting. Media attention shifted to other challenges: climate change, plastic pollution, and biodiversity loss. There's only so much environmental anxiety the public can absorb, and newer concerns replaced acid rain.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Mission accomplished</h2>



The primary reason is beautifully simple: interventions worked. EPA monitoring data shows sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990. Academic research published in environmental science journals confirms pH levels in formerly affected areas returned closer to normal. This represents one of history's most dramatic environmental recoveries. Studies by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation show fishless lakes now support healthy populations. Forests recovered, and building damage slowed dramatically.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-is-it-really-gone">Is it really gone?</h2>



The crisis is largely resolved, but monitoring data shows the problem isn't completely eliminated – it's managed to acceptable levels. Some areas still experience occasional events during high pollution periods. International environmental research indicates that rapidly industrializing Asian countries face similar problems to what we experienced decades ago, though they're implementing successful strategies.



EPA research shows nitrogen oxide emissions proved more challenging than sulfur dioxide, coming from vehicles and mobile sources. Climate science studies suggest changing weather patterns add complexity to how acid rain forms and falls.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What this teaches us</h2>



The acid rain experience proves that seemingly intractable environmental problems can be solved with scientific understanding, political will, and technological innovation. Environmental monitoring data shows recovery speed was remarkable – within a decade, measurable improvements appeared in air quality and ecosystem health.



Success came from bipartisan support across party lines. Policy analysis studies show the market-based approach appealed to those preferring economic incentives while achieving environmental goals. This support created lasting policy surviving political changes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Conclusion</h2>



Acid rain's disappearance from public consciousness represents environmental science's greatest success stories. Through effective regulation, technological innovation, and international cooperation, we transformed an overwhelming crisis into a manageable challenge.



Today's silence isn't because we forgot – it's because we solved it. The 1990 Clean Air Act, combined with technology and energy market changes, reduced acid rain emissions over 90%, according to comprehensive EPA data analysis.



This success offers hope for current challenges. It proves complex problems can be solved when science, policy, and technology work together. As we face climate change and plastic pollution, acid rain reminds us that dramatic positive change is possible.



Next time someone asks whether environmental regulations work, remember acid rain. It's proof that sometimes, we get it right.



<hr class="wp-block-separator has-alpha-channel-opacity"/>



Sources: This article draws from EPA official documentation and progress reports, peer-reviewed research published in environmental and atmospheric science journals, historical data from the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation, New York State Department of Environmental Conservation records, US Geological Survey publications, policy analysis studies, and environmental monitoring data collected over three decades.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Frequently Asked Questions</h2>



1. Is acid rain completely gone? No, but EPA monitoring shows it's reduced to manageable levels. US sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990, making acid rain much less severe than the 1980s crisis.



2. How long did solving take? Environmental monitoring data shows significant improvements began within 5-10 years of 1990s emission controls. Full ecosystem recovery took longer – some areas need 20-30 years for complete recovery.



3. What made the solution successful? Clear scientific understanding, visible damage motivating action, bipartisan support, available technology, and innovative market-based policies like cap-and-trade.



4. Do other countries have acid rain problems? Yes, particularly rapidly industrializing Asian countries. However, international environmental research shows many implement similar successful control strategies.



5. Could acid rain return? Potentially, if regulations weaken or we return to high-sulfur coal without controls, though effects would take years to become severe according to environmental projections.



6. Can you recommend any teaching tools on the subject of "acid rain"? The United States Environmental Protection Agency produced a wonderful teacher's guide for ages 14 and under that you can find on the EPA website here: <a href="https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf</a>



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The environmental problem we actually solved

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk Acid rain and a crisis solved. Why don't we...

Fresh,Radish,Harvest,On,Soil,In,Garden.

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Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving fall garden, and this guide lays out the best vegetables and herbs to plant now for a fruitful autumn harvest. 



Fast-growing leafy greens such as spinach, lettuce, kale, and arugula perform especially well in the waning summer heat, with harvests beginning as soon as 30 days. 



These cool-season crops relish the transition into fall, offering repeated yields with cut-and-come-again methods.



Root vegetables like radishes, carrots, and beets also excel during this period. Radishes deliver satisfaction in under a month, while carrots and beets mature in about two months. Employing succession planting ensures a continuous stream of produce deep into the cooler months. 



For a boost of fresh flavor, herbs like cilantro, basil, dill, and chervil are excellent picks. These heat-loving varieties flourish in July’s warmth and are harvest-ready in about 30 days, especially when sown continuously.



Gardeners in zones 6 through 9 can benefit from planting bush beans and snap peas, which don’t require trellising and are ideal for compact plots. 



Maturing in 50–60 days, they’re a smart choice for quick, protein-rich harvests. For those in hotter regions, heat-tolerant crops such as okra and southern peas provide reliable yields and thrive in scorching conditions.



This guide emphasizes more than crop selection—it highlights the importance of timing, soil preparation, and ongoing sowing techniques. 



With thoughtful planning and attention to regional climate needs, even late-summer gardeners can enjoy fresh salads, hearty stews, and the satisfaction of a robust, homegrown harvest well into fall.



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What to plant in your garden in mid-July

https://youtu.be/Fi2OeEwuzRM?si=vTyd2m9FMmtyWkex Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving...

Green,Ecoduct,Over,An,Empty,Highway,During,Sunset.

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https://youtu.be/XYgiPzmNBTU?si=eFYY7gPHU1JznLvU
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A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that wildlife tunnels significantly reduce amphibian road mortality during seasonal migrations. 



Frogs and salamanders often cross roads to reach breeding ponds each spring, but many are killed by vehicles. 



Researchers from the <a href="https://www.uvm.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Vermont</a>, in collaboration with local citizens and the Vermont Agency of Natural Resources, installed two underpass tunnels in 2015. 



Over a 12-year monitoring period, they observed an 80.2% reduction in amphibian deaths, and up to 94% for non-climbing species like salamanders. 



The study used a before-after-control-impact design and documented more than 5,200 amphibians, highlighting the tunnels’ effectiveness even in nearby buffer zones.



Funded at $342,397 - far cheaper than wildlife crossings for large mammals - the project showcased the power of community-led conservation.



Local groups initiated the effort after observing mass amphibian deaths. Wildlife cameras later captured over 2,200 amphibians using a tunnel in just one spring, along with other species like raccoons and bobcats, indicating wider ecosystem benefits.



This marks the first peer-reviewed, long-term data set in the northeastern U.S. confirming amphibian-specific underpasses work. 



The study urges transportation departments to incorporate these designs into road planning and highlights how community action, thoughtful infrastructure, and persistence can make a real difference for biodiversity.



The full study was published in the <a href="https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1617138125000780" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal for Nature Conservation</a>.



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Wildlife tunnels save millions of amphibians

https://youtu.be/XYgiPzmNBTU?si=eFYY7gPHU1JznLvU A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that...

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing it with probiotics and prebiotics, aiming to create a treat that satisfies cravings while supporting gut health. 



The challenge lies in maintaining chocolate's beloved texture and flavor while adding health benefits.



<figure class="wp-block-embed aligncenter is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://youtu.be/Ug657J67iEo?si=w96YjGMsg939LD_3
</div></figure>



Probiotics - beneficial microbes that balance gut bacteria and aid digestion - are typically fragile and can be destroyed by stomach acid or processing. 



Prebiotics act as food for these microbes, helping them thrive. Together, they form "synbiotics," a powerful health combination.



Researchers Smriti Gaur and Shubhi Singh from India's Jaypee Institute of Information Technology took an innovative approach, using natural prebiotics like corn and honey instead of complex processing methods. 



They created five chocolate varieties: a control and four synbiotic versions containing different combinations of prebiotics, probiotics (Lactobacillus strains), and flavor enhancers (cinnamon or orange).



Laboratory simulations of human digestion showed the probiotics remained viable for over five hours, suggesting they could survive long enough to benefit gut health.



Taste tests were positive, with researchers particularly enjoying the orange-flavored variety, describing it as having "vibrant citrus notes" complementing the "rich cocoa" with a "luxurious" texture.



This research represents just the beginning. With further refinement of strains, textures, and flavors, chocolate could evolve beyond mere indulgence to become a functional food that nourishes while it delights.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.4c00741" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ACS Food Science &amp; Technology</a>.

Is chocolate the next nutritional powerhouse?

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How does salt makes things taste better?

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Santiago, Chile in South America

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Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.



According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."



Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;



ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. 



Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

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Earth,Like,Exoplanet,3d,Render

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

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Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes Earth’s interconnected systems, and how this network is affected by rising temperatures.&nbsp;



During 2020, average global temperatures matched the hottest year on record. The hurricane season was also record-breaking, with many of the storms intensifying at extraordinary speeds. Hot water in the ocean is fuel for hurricanes. The satellite data shows that it's all one interconnected system showing how Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected.



According to NASA, dust swept up from Northern Africa plays a major role in the formation of hurricanes, and is also a key source of fertilization in the Amazon rainforest. As a result of<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seagrass-wasting-disease-is-fueled-by-climate-change/"> climate</a> change, dust plumes are expected to decline, which will have an effect on vegetation far away.&nbsp;



Images from Earth-observing satellites show how the world’s plant life is affected by natural disasters, fires, and deforestation. Satellites also reveal how widespread changes in vegetation impact waterways,&nbsp; the climate, air quality. Satellites communicate by using radio waves to send signals to the antennas on the Earth. "Earth From Space" is a groundbreaking two-hour special that reveals a spectacular new space-based vision of our planet. 



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected

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