Before there were dinosaurs, before trees covered the land, fish were already hard at work shaping Earth’s future. They did this with a single powerful innovation: jaws.



Jaws weren’t just for biting. Fish used them for all sorts of tasks - cracking shells, digging into the seafloor, defending themselves, and even carrying their young.



This one tool gave early vertebrates - including our distant ancestors - a huge advantage. But not all fish jaws evolved the same way.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-surprising-twist-in-fish-jaw-evolution">Surprising twist in fish jaw evolution</h2>



Roughly 400 million years ago, fish ruled the seas. Two big groups stood out: <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/coelacanth-ngamugawi-wirngarri-new-species-living-fossil-fish-survived-over-400-million-years/">lobe-finned fishes</a> and ray-finned fishes. 



Lobe-finned fishes had fleshy, muscular fins that helped them move in different ways. <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/319-million-year-old-fish-holds-clues-about-brain-evolution/">Ray-finned fishes</a> had lighter, more flexible fins supported by thin spines.



Today, ray-finned fishes dominate the oceans, rivers, and lakes. They include about 33,000 species - from goldfish to tuna. 



Lobe-finned fishes, on the other hand, are nearly extinct. Only eight species are known to exist today, including the coelacanth and the lungfish. But a new study from the <a href="https://umich.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Michigan</a> flips the story.



The research shows that between 359 and 423 million years ago, lobe-finned fishes were the ones leading the evolutionary race. 



Their jaws were changing fast, adapting in all sorts of new ways. Meanwhile, the ray-finned fishes were evolving far more slowly.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-finding-answers-in-ancient-jaw-bones">Finding answers in ancient jaw bones</h2>



The researchers used CT scans to create 3D models of 86 fossilized fish jaws from the Silurian and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/at-least-two-of-earths-mass-extinctions-caused-by-massive-supernova-explosions/">Devonian Periods</a> - dating back to around 443 million years ago. That’s older than the first forests.



The team digitally mapped these jaws to study both their shape and how they worked. To measure the strength of a fish's bite, they calculated something called mechanical advantage.



Emily Troyer is a postdoctoral researcher at the University of Michigan and lead author of the study. She explained that essentially, the higher the mechanical advantage of the jaw, the stronger the bite force.



The results showed something no one expected. "This is a really striking result, primarily because <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/lungfish-genome-discovery-explains-how-fish-first-walked-onto-land/">lungfish</a> and coelacanths today are represented by only eight living species, with not much jaw diversity going on," Troyer said. 



"However, if we look back in time 400 or so million years, we see this striking inversion. During the Devonian, we have a lot more species and a lot more innovation within their jaws." 



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/09/Dipterus-fish_whole-skeleton_credit-Troyer-UMichigan_1m.jpg"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/09/Dipterus-fish_whole-skeleton_credit-Troyer-UMichigan_1s.webp" alt="Whole skeleton of Dipterus, an extinct lungfish from the middle Devonian period. Specimen (UMMP 16140) from the University of Michigan Museum of Paleontology. Credit: E.M. Troyer/UMichigan" class="wp-image-1984595"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Whole skeleton of Dipterus, an extinct lungfish from the middle Devonian period. Specimen (UMMP 16140) from the University of Michigan Museum of Paleontology. Click image to enlarge. Credit: E.M. Troyer/UMichigan</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lungfish-jaws-lead-the-way">Lungfish jaws lead the way</h2>



Lungfish jaws, in particular, went through a major shift during the Devonian Period. Their jaws became larger, thicker, and packed with powerful muscles. This likely helped them crush hard-shelled prey, like early clams and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/tiny-crustaceans-have-what-it-takes-to-survive-climate-change/">crustaceans</a>.



"With their really hefty jaws, they were able to eat really hard food," Troyer said. "We think these new feeding strategies might be causing jaws to need to be shaped like this, and that some of these major innovations are associated with their ecosystems during this time."



Rafael Rivero-Vega, co-first author of the study and a recent doctoral graduate, scanned nearly every complete lobe-finned fish jaw fossil available. 



He mapped out their key features to study something called adaptive radiation. That’s when animals quickly evolve into many different forms because their environment pushes them to adapt.



Rivero-Vega saw clear patterns. "Some fishes were diversifying their jaws rapidly in shape and size, only later to stay essentially unchanged once they filled a specialized niche," he said. 



"Others had similar characteristics but a wider variety of shapes and sizes, and yet others had similar form but wouldn't change until after they had already transitioned onto land."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fish-jaw-innovation-changed-the-future">Fish jaw innovation changed the future</h2>



This research shows that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/discovery-evolution-not-random-can-be-predicted-pangenome-genetic-history/">evolution</a> doesn’t follow a straight line. Just because a group is successful now doesn’t mean it always was. 



Lobe-finned fishes once led the way in jaw innovation, helping set the stage for major changes in vertebrate life - including the eventual rise of amphibians, reptiles, birds, and mammals.



"When you're looking at evolution, you can learn so much from looking at the past," Troyer said. "Without the fossil record, we would have no idea of this inverted role reversal."



The study also highlights the importance of old bones. Even though only a few lobe-finned fishes are still around, their ancient fossils tell a story that would otherwise have been be lost.



"It's a great example of how innovations in shape, form, and function can be explored by different fish groups at their own pace, as long as they experience the appropriate evolutionary pressures," said Rivero-Vega. 



"All of this happened hundreds of millions of years before the dinosaurs. Fishes are awesome."



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0960982225010395" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Current Biology</a>.



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How ancient fish jaws built the path to modern land animals

Before there were dinosaurs, before trees covered the land, fish were already hard at work shaping Earth’s future. They did this with a single powerful innovation: jaws. Jaws weren’t just for biting. Fish used them for all sorts of tasks - cracking shells, digging into the seafloor, defending themselves, and even carrying their young. This one tool gave early vertebrates - including our distant ancestors - a huge advantage. But not all fish jaws evolved the same way. Surprising twist in fish jaw evolution Roughly 400 million...

It has been well-known for years that elephants are one of the most intelligent species of animal sharing this planet with us today – and scientists may have discovered new evidence showing just how smart they really are.

Researchers from the <a href="https://www.cam.ac.uk/">University of Cambridge</a> found that Asian elephants are able to recognize their bodies as obstacles impeding their success in problem-solving tasks. They postulate that their findings are new evidence supporting elephants’ heightened intelligence and self-awareness.

We know of very few species that have been found to be capable of self-recognition – including great apes, dolphins, magpies, and elephants. This is an uncommon trait, which scientists believe can be linked to more complex forms of perspective taking and empathy.

Dr. Josh Plotnik, a visiting researcher at the <a href="https://www.cam.ac.uk/">University of Cambridge</a> and founder of <a href="http://thinkelephants.org/">Think Elephants International</a>, along with his colleague Rachel Dale came up with a new test for body and self-awareness. “Elephants are well regarded as one of the most intelligent animals on the planet, but we still need more empirical, scientific evidence to support this belief,” says Dale.

The test was adapted from an established study where human <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/children-notice-adults-dont/">children</a> were asked to push a shopping cart, but the cart was attached to a mat on which they were standing.

In devising this test for elephants, the researchers attached a stick to a rubber mat using a rope. Individual elephants were then asked to walk onto the mat, pick up the stick, and pass it to a human standing in front of them. This task was designed to demonstrate the elephant’s understanding of its body in relation to its physical environment.

If the elephant recognized the mat as an obstacle to success in the task, they would step off the mat in order to pass along the stick. Intriguingly, Plotnik and Dale observed elephants doing just that more than 87% of the time.

“This is a deceptively simple test, but its implications are quite profound,” explains Plotnik. “The elephants understood that their bodies were getting in the way, so they stepped aside to enable themselves to complete the task. In a similar test, this is something that young children are unable to understand until they are about two years old.”

The researchers believe the results show that elephants are able to recognize themselves as separate from objects and their environment – a rare ability in the animal kingdom. This may further imply that they have the capacity for self-understanding.

In the past, species that have demonstrated a capacity for self-recognition all show varying levels of cooperative problem-solving as well. They also tend to exhibit perspective taking and empathy, which leads scientists to believe that self-awareness may be related to effective cooperative living in socially intelligent animals. Furthermore, the identification of self-awareness and body awareness can help scientists better understand how an animal’s understanding of self and of its place in the environment may impact their social decision-making in the wild. 

Plotnik believes that by furthering our understanding of elephant behavior, we can have more success in areas where human-elephant conflicts are commonplace. Humans and elephants are competing for land in places like Thailand and India, requiring long-term solutions that studies such as this may lead to.

“The more we can understand about elephants’ behavior, the more we can understand what their needs are, how they think, and the strains they face in their social relationships,” says Plotnik. “This will help us if we are going to try to come up with viable long term solutions to the problems that these animals face in the wild, especially those that bring them into regular conflict with humans.”

More information on this study can be found in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/srep/">Scientific Reports</a>.

--

By <a href="mailto:certz@earth.com">Connor Ertz</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Source: <a href="https://www.cam.ac.uk/">University of Cambridge</a>

Despite their large size, elephants are very body conscious

It has been well-known for years that elephants are one...

Scientists have found that many social insects tend to have an “every insect for themselves” understanding, where if you get left behind or injured, it’s unlikely you’ll receive any help or sympathy. This attitude makes sense, as there are generally so many individuals that it would simply be a waste of resources to provide excess care to just one. However, a German research team from the <a href="http://www.biozentrum.uni-wuerzburg.de/en/start/">University of Würzburg’s Biocenter</a> has recently discovered a clear rescue behavior in African Matabele ants (Megaponera analis). This ant species strictly preys on termites and is widespread south of the Saharan Desert.

These ants go out and hunt termites about two to four times per day. Marching in long, organized columns, M. analis raid termites at their foraging sites, killing as many workers as they can before hauling the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sharks-hear-preys-heartbeat-important/">prey</a> back to their nest. 

During these attacks, the soldier termites will often fight back – clamping onto the ants with their sharp, powerful jaws. Not surprisingly, some ants can get injured or killed in these battles. 

Researchers observed that when an ant is injured in a fight, it may excrete chemical substances that serve as a “call” for help to its ant brethren. Other ants then come to its rescue, carrying it back to the nest so it can recover and receive treatment. Since no ant operating rooms or therapy centers were observed, it appears that “treatment” involves other ants simply removing the termites still clinging to the wounded party.

Although it may not seem like much, this discovery is novel in the insect world. Erik Frank, a Ph.D. student at the <a href="https://www.uni-wuerzburg.de/en/ueber/university/">University of Würzburg</a>, explains, “We have observed helping behavior vis-à-vis injured animals for the first time in invertebrates.”

Although it is rare to see this helping behavior in the insect world, it’s likely that there are other species out there – perhaps undiscovered – that exhibit similar behaviors to the African Matabele ant. 

More information on this study can be found in the journal Science Advances.

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By <a href="mailto:certz@earth.com">Connor Ertz</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Source: <a href="https://www.uni-wuerzburg.de/en/ueber/university/">University of Würzburg</a>

Image Credit: Erik Frank

Ants have each other’s backs and rescue their injured

Scientists have found that many social insects tend to have...

A study published in the open access journal <a href="http://journals.plos.org/plosbiology/">PLOS Biology</a> has combined genetic analysis with an ambitious 19-year-long selection experiment in order to follow the evolution of a single color-vision gene in fish. The findings show that the mechanisms of adaptive evolution may actually be more predictable than previously thought.

For over 12,000 years, species of three-spined stickleback fish have flourished in the hundreds of freshwater lakes off the coast of British Columbia. Interestingly, these fish have branched out and formed independently evolving populations within their <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/road-salt-runoff-killing-twin-city-lakes/">lakes</a>.

All of these lakes can be broadly classified as either “clearwater” or “blackwater.” In clearwater lakes, full spectrum light is able to pass through the water relatively unimpeded, making visibility much easier for eyes such as our own. In blackwater lakes, most of the visible light is absorbed, creating an almost nocturnal environment where only dim, red-shifted light is able to get through.

The opsin protein SWS2 is sensitive to blue light, and can be found in the cone cells responsible for color vision in stickleback retina. Previous studies have show that amino acids changes in this protein allow it to be “tuned” to make it more sensitive to either the blue or red end of the light spectrum.

In this study, researchers compared the genetic sequences of SWS2 from marine, clearwater, and blackwater sticklebacks. Included in this group was a population of blackwater fish that the scientists had transplanted into an empty clearwater lake 19 years before, leaving them there to evolve.

Through genetic analysis, they found that the pattern of genetic changes in SWS2 in blackwater sticklebacks showed there had been a very strong selection for red-shift tuning. This means blackwater sticklebacks quickly evolved to see better in dark water. Not surprisingly, this adaption was not seen in clearwater sticklebacks.

The research team also found that the blackwater fish they had transplanted to a clearwater lake 19 years prior actually expressed a similar natural selection – except this time with the SWS2 becoming more sensitive to the abundant blue light in the clearwater lake. After only 13 generations, a significant portion of the population contained alternative versions of the gene that shifted to blue light sensitivity. These results show how remarkably fast this selective pressure can work.

Finally, the researchers also compared their stickleback results to other studies on the opsin genes of two related species of fish. The Bluefin killifish and black bream are distantly related to sticklebacks – separating on the evolutionary tree millions of years ago. These fish had also adapted to both blackwater and clearwater habitats.

Despite their distant relation, the researchers found two of the same genetic changes seen in stickleback SWS2 also show up in the SWS2 genes of these fish species. Because these same genetic changes occurred separately in their ancestor and in the sticklebacks, this is a perfect example of convergent evolution occurring over vastly different time scales (19 years versus millions of years).

David Marques of the <a href="http://www.uvic.ca/">University of Victoria</a> believes that the data “show that evolutionary ‘tinkering’ with a limited set of tools can lead to convergent ‘solutions’ to common problems both within species and between widely separated groups.” In other words, evolution may occur more predictably than we ever imagined.

--

By <a href="mailto:certz@earth.com">Connor Ertz</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Source: <a href="https://www.plos.org/">PLOS</a>

Image Credit: Thomas E. Reimchen

Fish converge in evolution to assimilate to dark water

A study published in the open access journal PLOS Biology...

Polar bears are solitary and often elusive hunters. Their white-on-white camouflage into the snowy background of the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/idea-tackle-arctic-ice-melt/">Arctic</a> can make it hard for prey to spot them, as well as for scientists to research them.

Despite these difficulties, researchers at the <a href="https://www.ualberta.ca/">University of Alberta</a> have recently discovered the tactics behind how polar bears hunt for ringed seals – one of their favorite prey species. Hold onto your hat because this answer may shock you: they use their sense of smell.

Although that “discovery” may seem rather obvious, it goes a little deeper than that. The researchers attained satellite telemetry data collected from more than 120 adult polar bears in Canada’s Hudson Bay over an 11-year period. They then combined the movements of these polar bears with wind patterns in order to see how the two matched up.

“Predators search for prey using odors in the air, and their success depends on how they move relative to the wind,” says Ron Togunov, <a href="https://www.ualberta.ca/">University of Alberta</a> alumnus and lead author on the study. Before beginning the study, the researchers had hypothesized that when a bear smells prey, it moves up-wind to find it. But they were left wondering what a polar bear might do before it even catches on to a smell.

As Togunov explains, “Travelling crosswind gives the bears a steady supply of new air streams and maximizes the area they can sense through smell.” This behavior was suspected in many animals, but this is the first time scientists have been able to quantify it in mammals.

The researchers found that the best conditions for this type of hunting usually occur at night in the Arctic winter. "Crosswind search was most frequent when winds were slow, when it is easier to localize the source of a certain smell, and at night when bears are relatively active and when vision is less effective, so bears rely more heavily on their sense of smell,” explains <a href="https://www.ualberta.ca/">University of Alberta</a> professor Andrew Derocher.

Like most studies done in the Arctic these days, the findings also gave scientists pause about the implications of climate change on these polar bears. “Wind speeds in the Arctic are projected to increase, potentially making olfaction more difficult,” explained Togunov. “It is important to understand how polar bear hunting success will be affected by these changing conditions.”

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By <a href="mailto:certz@earth.com">Connor Ertz</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Source: <a href="https://www.ualberta.ca/">University of Alberta</a>

The secret weapon behind the hunting tactics of polar bears

Polar bears are solitary and often elusive hunters. Their white-on-white...

Imagine an earthquake this powerful: “The ground would be moving up and down and sideways like a ship in a strong storm.” You’d certainly get tossed around, but there’d be no building damage whatsoever. That’s because there would have been no buildings. In describing this particular quake, Norm Sleep, a professor of geophysics at <a href="https://www.stanford.edu/">Stanford University</a>, is setting the scene 65 million years ago. The place is present-day Trinidad Lakes State Park in Colorado and he’s describing a visible fault line that his team feels was created by the impact of a horribly lethal asteroid in present-day Yucatan Peninsula, Mexico.

In the theory laid out by Sleep and his colleagues, the impact was powerful enough to generated massive seismic waves that triggered a Magnitude 6 earthquake as far away as Colorado, in the center of a tectonic plate where no previous fault had existed. That quake, in turn, contributed to the end of the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dinosaur-species-similarities-humans/">dinosaur</a> reign on Earth.

Sleep and his colleagues found evidence for the fault in two areas in Colorado's Trinidad Lakes State Park, where a layer of iridium generated by the asteroid impact clearly marks the boundary between Cretaceous and Tertiary-age rocks, at the time of the dinosaurs' extinction about 65 million years ago.

At the two roadcuts, said Sleep, “there is a fault that slipped about a meter at the time of the impact. It offset the material below the impact layer but not above, but it's not something that would be obvious to the casual observer.”

The team feels that it would have taken such a massive jolt as the asteroid strike to trigger an earthquake in the middle of a tectonic plate with no previous faults.

<a href="http://news.nationalgeographic.com/2016/06/what-happened-day-dinosaurs-died-chicxulub-drilling-asteroid-science/">National Geographic paints an apocalyptic picture</a> of the event itself. The magazine says that the killer asteroid might have been the size of a mountain and slammed home with the force of 100 million tons of TNT. Depending on distance from impact, death would have come by vaporization, thermal radiation, tsunami winds, floods, earthquakes or starvation through years of lost sunlight from grit and soil thrown into the atmosphere.

-- 

By <a href="mailto:dsearls@earth.com">David Searls</a>,<a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/"> Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Source:<a href="https://eurekalert.org/pub_releases/2017-04/ssoa-cac041117.php"> Seismological Society of America</a>,<a href="http://news.nationalgeographic.com/2016/06/what-happened-day-dinosaurs-died-chicxulub-drilling-asteroid-science/"> National Geographic</a>

Is Colorado fault line evidence of dino extinction asteroid hit?

Imagine an earthquake this powerful: “The ground would be moving...

It has been a long time since most humans have had to think about hunting animals for food – at least out of necessity, and given that you’re reading this on the internet that probably applies to you. Because of this, it’s easy to forget the dangers of hunting certain types of game. It’s also likely you’ve never been faced with a decision of which game to hunt for, unless you count standing amongst all the packaged meats at your local grocery store. So the phenomenon known as “prey switching” has likely never been a factor in many of our lives.

Prey switching has been observed amongst predacious species for a long time. It’s the tactic of changing the pursuit of one prey species for another, and can occur for a variety of reasons. One of those reasons is that a prey species may become less plentiful, so the predator switches to another, more abundant prey. For this reason alone, prey switching is ecologically important, as it helps stabilize wildlife populations.

But there are certain circumstances where a predator would rather hunt a scarce species than go after one that is abundant. 

<a href="https://www.usu.edu/">Utah State University</a> researchers Aimee Tallian and Dan MacNulty observed this exact circumstance play out amongst the wolves in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/yellowstone-wild-bison-slaughter/">Yellowstone National Park</a>. The researchers found that Yellowstone wolves seldom hunt bison and instead pursue elk, even though the later is much more scarce.

“Prey switching has been observed in natural systems, where prey are small and generally helpless when attacked by a predator,” says Tallian. This, however, is not the case in Yellowstone. 

The researchers discovered the “data [revealed] wolves maintained a strong preference against bison, even when bison were twice as abundant as elk.” The reason for this: bison are incredibly dangerous game. An adult bull bison can weigh almost a ton.

“Hunting is hazardous business for wolves,” explains MacNulty. The researchers have observed wolves being kicked, gored, and stomped to death in the pursuit of large bison and other prey. “Wolves minimize the risk of injury by focusing on more vulnerable prey, which are generally rare.”

The study also revealed that wolves became increasingly resistant to hunting bison as the bison population increased. This is likely due to the fact that hunting bison becomes easier when the herd is smaller and wolves are able to target the more vulnerable and less dangerous calves.

Rather than hunting live bison, most wolves stuck to scavenging on bison carrion, which became more frequent as bison populations increased. Tallian believes an increase in bison carrion consumption also helps stabilize elk population dynamics, saying, “The ability of wolves and other predators to shift between hunting and scavenging is an under-appreciated behavior that may play an important role in the dynamics of ecological communities with dangerous prey.” 

Observations like the ones made in this study help us better understand the hunting behaviors and strategies of these predators, as well as how they impact the ecosystem as a whole.

--

By <a href="mailto:certz@earth.com">Connor Ertz</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Source: <a href="https://www.usu.edu/">Utah State University</a>

Image: Daniel Stahler, NPS

Yellowstone wolves avoid hunting bison as a means of self-preservation

It has been a long time since most humans have...

Try not to worry about this too much as you check into a hotel or motel, but <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ancient-remains-bed-bug/">bed bugs</a> are becoming ever-more resistant to insecticides – and the main cause is world travel. That’s according to a study conducted at <a href="http://www.purdue.edu/">Purdue University</a> and published this month in the Journal of Economic Entomology.

The researchers used bed bugs contributed from the field and found significantly reduced susceptibility to the treatment chemical chlorfenapyr among three of the ten bed bug populations, and to bifenthrin among half of the populations. Reduced susceptibility was defined as when more than 25 percent of the bugs had survived after seven days’ exposure to the insecticide.

This is in addition to the already noted significant resistance shown by the common bed bug to the chemical deltamethrin and some other pyrethroid-based insecticides.

Organisms can develop resistance to chemical treatments after generations of exposure, so it takes continuous development of new chemicals to control a pest population. One factor to the bed bugs’ advantage is that their eggs aren’t vulnerable to the insecticides, according to the <a href="https://www.epa.gov/">Environmental Protection Agency</a>.

Travelers can pick up bed bugs in hotels and inadvertently take them home in shoes, clothing or luggage.

<a href="https://www.epa.gov/bedbugs/do-it-yourself-bed-bug-control">The EPA offers this advice</a> on how to attempt to control the pests with and without insecticides, but be warned in advance – it ain’t fast or easy.

“There is a plethora of research that has shown that if insecticides are integrated with additional control measures such as vacuuming, steam or heat, mattress encasements, traps, and desiccant dusts, effective bed bug control can be accomplished and theoretically this should reduce the risk of resistance build-up in populations,” said Ameya D. Gondhalekar, Ph.D., research assistant professor at <a href="https://extension.entm.purdue.edu/urban/">Purdue's Center for Urban and Industrial Pest Management</a> and a member of the research team.

-- 

By <a href="mailto:dsearls@earth.com">David Searls</a>,<a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/"> Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Source:<a href="https://academic.oup.com/jee/article-abstract/110/2/i5/3574029/Journal-of-Economic-Entomology-April-2017-Volume?redirectedFrom=fulltext"> Journal of Economic Entomology</a>

Bed bugs becoming increasingly resistant to insecticides

Try not to worry about this too much as you...

Reef fish play a critical role in their environment by eating algae that may kill <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dead-zones-coral-reefs/">coral</a> or overtake a reef if left unchecked. This means that the more algae a fish eats, the more a fragile ecosystem like a coral reef can flourish and thrive.

A study from the <a href="https://www.ucdavis.edu/">University of California, Davis</a> analyzed the social feeding behavior of reef fish and found that overfishing not only devastates the populations of algae-eaters, but also may cause the fish left behind to consume less algae.

The research team, led by Mike Gil, a <a href="https://www.nsf.gov">National Science Foundation</a> postdoctoral research fellow at <a href="https://www.ucdavis.edu/">UC Davis</a>, conducted the study off the island of Mo’orea in French Polynesia. They remotely monitored reef fish through mounted arrays of video cameras in large stands that were placed inside the coral reef. From the video footage, they measured how fish responded to one another in both the presence and absence of predators.

The team found that fish actually react to social situations similar to humans. Fish tend to copy the behaviors of others, such as swimming to a particular area of the reef to eat algae or quickly fleeing from a predator. These observations lead scientists to believe that the feeding behavior of the reef fish community may be more complex than once thought.

“Even though these fish don’t swim in schools, our study shows that they’re influencing one another,” says Gil. “They eat more algae when they’re surrounded by more fish. We don’t know why that is, but it likely has to do with safety in numbers. These fish may perceive that their chances of getting killed by a predator, like a shark, are reduced when more prey are around.”

The researchers believe these results show that past predictive models, which don’t take fish social behaviors into account, could be mischaracterizing how certain reefs respond to fishing. This is an important revelation, as overfishing continues to decimate fish populations around the world. 

More information on this study can be found in the journal <a href="http://www.pnas.org/">Proceedings of the National Academy of Science.</a>

--

By <a href="mailto:certz@earth.com">Connor Ertz</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Source: <a href="https://www.ucdavis.edu/">University of California, Davis</a>

Social lives of reef fish are crucial to saving coral reefs

Reef fish play a critical role in their environment by...

Comb jellies steal title of oldest animals, sparking outrage amongst the sponge community

Although the scientific community is generally supportive of most avenues of research and forms of methodology, there are some questions that put scientists at odds. For the last decade, zoologists in particular have been arguing over the question, “what is the oldest branch of the animal family tree?” 

It has been long thought that sponges were the earliest animals, as scientists have organized the animal family tree based mostly on their judgment of the relative complexity of groups of organisms – and it doesn’t get much less complex than a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dead-zones-coral-reefs/">sponge</a>. 

However, it has been argued that a group of marine predators called comb jellies – also known as ctenophores – were actually the first members of the animal kingdom. The answer to this question could have a significant effect on how scientists’ think about the evolution of the nervous system, digestive tract, and other basic organs that are necessary to our survival today.

A team of evolutionary biologists from <a href="https://www.vanderbilt.edu/">Vanderbilt University</a> and the <a href="http://www.wisc.edu/">University of Wisconsin-Madison</a> believe they have come up with the answer. The researchers designed a new approach specifically built to settle this phylogenetic tree-of-life argument – and the comb jellies won.

In the field of phylogenomics, scientists are causing a paradigm shift due to the wealth of information provided by the DNA of every living – and non-living – organism. Genetic information can be used to define and redefine evolutionary relationships. However, in some cases the bloom of available genetic information has only intensified controversies such as the sea sponge vs. comb jelly battle royale. 

In 2008, one of the earliest phylogenomic studies pointed to the comb jelly as the earliest member of the animal kingdom, sparking a controversy that ignited the zoological community more so than if it had been doused in gasoline. 

In response to the 2008 study, a corresponding study was published last month that included a massive amount of genetic data ultimately supporting the sponge’s claim to the first animal throne.

“The current method that scientists use in phylogenomic studies is to collect large amounts of genetic data, analyze the data, build a set of relationships and then argue that their conclusions are correct because of various improvements they have made in their analysis,” says Antonis Rokas, Professor of Biological Sciences at <a href="https://www.vanderbilt.edu/">Vanderbilt University</a>. “This has worked extremely well in 95 percent of the cases, but it has led to apparently irreconcilable differences in the remaining 5 percent.”

In an effort to shine some light on these darkened battlegrounds, Rokas and his collaborators focused on 18 of these controversial relationships. They did so by comparing the individual genes of the leading contenders in each relationship.

“In these analyses, we only use genes that are shared across all organisms,” explains Rokas. “The trick is to examine the gene sequences from different organisms to figure out who they identify as their closest relatives. When you look at a particular gene in an organism, let’s call it A, we ask if it is most closely related to its counterpart in organism B? Or to its counterpart in organism C? And by how much?”

The research team would perform this analysis with hundreds of thousands of genes, comparing the results from each gene to one of the two possible hypotheses. In the end, they found that comb jellies have significantly more genes that support their “first to diverge” status in the animal lineage.

It remains to be seen if this is the final word on the comb jellies vs. sea sponges front. However, it appears to be the most comprehensive argument to date. The researchers are confident that their analysis can be used to settle disputes such as this throughout the scientific community. “We believe that our approach can help resolve many of these long-standing controversies and raise the game of phylogenetic reconstruction to a new level,” says Rokas.

More information on this study can be found in the journal Nature Ecology &amp; Evolution.

--

By <a href="mailto:certz@earth.com">Connor Ertz</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Source: <a href="https://www.vanderbilt.edu/">Vanderbilt University</a>

Marine jellies were the first animals, not sea sponges

Comb jellies steal title of oldest animals, sparking outrage amongst...

A new study from the <a href="http://www.uchicago.edu/">University of Chicago</a> finds that the sensory system in fish fins evolves in parallel to the fin shape and mechanics. This means that the fin shape is actually specifically tuned to work with the fish’s swimming technique. This connection was found across a wide range of fish species.

In their study, researchers combined measurements of fin shape from hundreds of specimens of the Labridae family with recorded fin mechanical properties and neural responses from eight Labrid species – which are commonly known as wrasses.

They then mapped these measurements on an evolutionary tree of 340 wrasses in order to determine how the mechanical properties and nervous systems of the fins evolved over time. Brett Aiello, a PhD student in the Department of Organismal Biology and Anatomy and the lead author of the study, explains: “As pectoral fins evolve different shapes, behaviors, and mechanical properties, we've shown that the sensory system is also evolving with them. This allows the sensory system to be tuned to the different stimuli relevant to the locomotor behaviors and fin mechanics of different species.”

Animals rely on sensory feedback from their limbs to control motion, it’s what helps us walk and run effectively and is the reason we feel an immediate sense of terror when we miss that last stair. In fish, the nerves in their pectoral fins detect the fin rays’ position and how much they bend as they move through the water. This helps the fish get a sense of their speed and the relative position of their fins.

The shape of a fish’s fin also affects how a fish will move. Wrasses with wing-like fins tend to flap them to maximize efficiency and thrust as they propel themselves forward. Fish with broader, paddle-like fins use more of a rowing motion to maneuver around the bottoms of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/microbes-hurting-coral-reefs/">reefs</a>.

Mark Westneat – a professor of Organismal Biology and Anatomy and co-author of the study – used DNA from living fishes to construct a family tree of relationships between Labrid species. The researchers analyzed the fin shape of each species on the phylogeny, which allowed them to map the fin evolution from their ancestral state to the current living species.

This reconstruction of the ancestral state revealed patterns of convergent evolution, meaning that wing-like fins actually originated independently at least 22 separate times.

In comparing the evolutionary paths of wing-like fins and paddle-like fins, the researchers found that the sensory systems of the wing-like fins were more sensitive. They believe it might have evolved in these fins instead of the paddle-like fins because the wing-like fins needed to be more responsive to smaller movements.

This type of research was made possible through the collaboration of a multitude of researchers and scientific disciplines. “Collaboration among scientists with different perspectives and expertise can take research in whole new directions,” said Melina Hale, professor of Organismal Biology and Anatomy and senior author of the study.

Beyond simply helping biologists better understand the swimming mechanics of these fish, the results of this study may also be useful in helping engineers develop autonomous underwater vehicles. Evolution has helped shape the fins of every fish species to their specific purpose, why not incorporate some of these mechanisms into our own mechanical designs?

“If we start to look more towards bio-inspired technology and incorporating some of the things we see in nature in our engineered devices, I think it will help advance and solve some of these problems more quickly,” remarked Aiello.

More information on this study can be found in the journal <a href="http://www.pnas.org/">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a>.

--

By <a href="mailto:certz@earth.com">Connor Ertz</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Source: <a href="http://www.uchospitals.edu/index.shtml">University of Chicago Medical Center</a>

Photo Credit: Brett Aiello, <a href="http://www.uchicago.edu/">University of Chicago</a>

Fish nervous systems evolved along with fin design

A new study from the University of Chicago finds that...

It was a heartbreaking find at the Malaysian airport in Kuala Lumpur. Authorities, relying on a tip, seized 18 rhinoceros horns in the airport’s cargo warehouse crated as art objects, according to the Associated Press. The cargo had a fake air bill and presumably came from Mozambique.

Airport customs director Hamzah Sundang said the horns transited in Doha, Qatar. No arrests were made at this time.

In a report issued last year, the wildlife trade monitoring network TRAFFIC called Malaysia a world transit hub, and a major link to Kenya and Uganda, for the flow of tons of illicit elephant <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/china-ivory-trade-ban/">ivory</a> between Africa and Asia.

There’s a significant black market for rhinoceros horns because they’re prized throughout parts of Asia where they’re said to have medicinal as well as artistic value. As a result of illegal hunting of the rare savannah mammal, the worldwide rhino population, which was at around a half million just a few decades ago, has shrunk to 30,000.

In an article published in 2013, The Atlantic said that rhino horns traffic for as much as $300,000 in Vietnam because of such healthcare myths as the horn being a cure for cancer and hangovers. At a result, the value is literally more than the per-kilogram price of gold. The article also mentioned a $650,000 armed heist of a museum in Dublin, Ireland where only the horns were taken.

Prices had fallen considerably when China and other nations froze the market for the horns, but a resurgence occurred in 2008 when the false cancer elixir rumors started in Vietnam. Today, all five remaining rhino species are officially listed as Threatened, and three of the five species are Critically Endangered.

-- 

By <a href="mailto:dsearls@earth.com">David Searls</a>,<a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/"> Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Source:<a href="https://www.apnews.com/f0da0eb77e924885a0b6ef454e66b73b/Malaysia-seizes-18-rhino-horns-from-Mozambique"> Associated Press</a>,<a href="https://www.theatlantic.com/business/archive/2013/05/why-does-a-rhino-horn-cost-300-000-because-vietnam-thinks-it-cures-cancer-and-hangovers/275881/"> The Atlantic</a>

Rhinoceros horns worth $3 million seized in Malaysian airport

It was a heartbreaking find at the Malaysian airport in...

Blackfish (2013)

“A whale has eaten one of the trainers.”

The shaky-voiced 911 call in Orlando in 2010 wasn’t accurate, but the killer whale Tilikum had indeed pulled veteran SeaWorld whale trainer Dawn Brancheau into the water and drowned her. Brancheau’s death would be the third associated with the orca, or killer whale.

As a cause-oriented documentary, Blackfish did indeed make a splash upon its 2013 release. It took on the entire SeaWorld business model of holding and training the whales for the entertainment of audiences. It made a case for the practice as being a risk to trainers and a tragedy for whales snatched from their social pods and contained in space too small for the needs of marine mammals who might travel a hundred miles or more in a single day in the wild. 

The film was certainly effective. SeaWorld stock dropped after its 2013 release, audience numbers plummeted and the entertainment company went out of its way to defend its treatment of the killer whales and the training and safety protocol of the animals’ trainers.  In 2014, SeaWorld announced that it would build larger enclosures with more natural elements for the whales. Two years later, the company announced that they were going to phase out its killer whale shows and build its first park without a killer whale presence from the start (in Abu Dhabi UAE). 

Whale hunt

Early in the film, we see 1970 footage of a heartbreaking whale capture off the coast of Washington State conducted on behalf of another orca show – not SeaWorld. Pursuers in boats and by air drop explosives into the water to drive the whales to a capture point, then separate mothers from their young. The whale show only wants the younger and lighter marine mammals to hold down shipping costs. We can hear the mother whales wailing as their panicky young are caught. Three whales are accidentally killed during the hunt. A grizzled contemporary diver who hired on for the roundup briefly loses his composure as he calls it one of the worst things he’s ever done. 

The film establishes the fact that killer <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/false-killer-whales-danger-extinction/">whales</a> are intensely social creatures who stay within visual sight of their mothers for life. Later in the film, when we learn of two instances of SeaWorld separating mother and child, and the company responds that no calves were taken away – that, in fact, the younger animals were twelve and four-and-a-half years of age – Blackfish viewers might wonder if that softens the impact.

Psychotic whale

When Washington State forbad further orca capture in its waters, the whale hunters moved to Iceland. That’s where the killer whale known as Tilikum was captured as a two-year-old in 1983. It was taken to Sealand of the Pacific, a dismal Canadian water show.

That’s where, in 1991, a trainer named Keltie Byrne was pulled into the water and drowned. There were several witnesses, but court testimony disagrees as to which of several orcas actually grabbed and drowned the trainer. However, two grown sisters who witnessed the events two decades in the past tell the camera it was definitely the male – Tilikum.

Later, when Sealand went under, Tilikum was sold to SeaWorld Orlando. Living in close quarters with two females out of his natural social pod, one of the many disdainful former SeaWorld trainers interviewed said that he was frequently bullied, his flesh raked bloody by the teeth of the others. 

In 1999, a man named Daniel Dukes apparently hid away in the park and was found dead the next morning, his nude lifeless body on Tilikum’s back. As with the previous death, it was impossible to conclusively state that the big orca had caused the fatality, but evidence pointed that way. 

The documentary points toward the capture, the training methods, the lack of freedom and unnatural social structure turning the mammal into a killer. Is that a too-easy anthropomorphic explanation – a way of attributing human characteristics to animals who can’t actually form thoughts or emotions that complex? 

SeaWorld responds

In its response to the popularity of Blackfish and the subsequent hit on its business, SeaWorld Entertainment responded to several key points. One key argument is that the critical former whale trainers hadn’t been with the company for many years, and some had little whale-training experience while with SeaWorld. 

The company also said that the scientists interviewed on-air had no captive whale experience and were active animal rights activists who brought a one-sided perspective. On the other hand, the Blackfish director said that SeaWorld refused involvement in the project.

Here’s where you can read the <a href="https://seaworldcares.com/the-facts/truth-about-blackfish/">SeaWorld rebuttal on Blackfish</a>. 

Blackfish has a definite point of view, and expresses it eloquently.  

--

By <a href="mailto:dsearls@earth.com">David Searls</a>,<a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/"> Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Earth.com Film Review, Blackfish (2013)

Blackfish (2013) “A whale has eaten one of the trainers.”...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE
</div></figure>



On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop and sunlight barely penetrates through the polar winter. It was here, however, that an international team of scientists found <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/predatory-worms-were-terror-beasts-half-a-billion-years-ago/#google_vignette" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evidence of sea monsters</a> that would change our understanding of ocean life in the past.



This video captures the discovery of Timorebestia fossils that had been hidden for more than 500 million years in the Sirius Passet formation. The "terror beasts," as they are called, are a hidden chapter in the evolutionary history of <a href="https://www.earth.com" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Earth</a>, showing that sophisticated predator-prey interactions occurred much earlier than previously envisioned.



Dr. Jakob Vinther and his research team at the <a href="https://www.bristol.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Bristol</a>, in collaboration with researchers at the <a href="https://eng.kopri.re.kr/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Korean Polar Research Institute</a>, braved extreme weather conditions at 82.5 north latitude to locate these giant creatures. Using sophisticated electron microprobe analysis, they revealed the detailed anatomy of the animals, including their muscle and nerve tissues.



The find upsets the traditional timeline of sea predators. Although we've long appreciated that Cambrian oceans were at one time ruled by <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jWI3-UgA3_o&amp;list=PL1QLQMW9MWDwpkFOnvgAmu7wT6rZmYqdJ&amp;index=19" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">arthropods</a>, these discoveries indicate that relatives of arrow worms were first to dominate the seas. These worms were building sophisticated food webs several million years before other predator groups arose.



Each fossil is a story of ancient hunger, with fossil stomach contents revealing these meter-long beasts dined on heavily armored arthropods regularly, cementing their place as the ocean's first apex predators.



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Worms dominated seas before dinosaurs

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">New York is the site of the world's oldest forest.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-385-million-year-old-trees-discovered">385-million-year-old trees discovered</h2>



Scientists have uncovered something extraordinary just two hours north of New York City. The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/worlds-oldest-forest-discovered-close-to-new-york-city/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">world's oldest forest</a>, dating back 385 million years, offers a window into how Earth's first complex forests shaped our planet's atmosphere.



Located near <a href="https://townofcairo.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cairo, New York</a>, in Greene County, these weren't merely primitive plants struggling to survive. These were sophisticated trees with root systems remarkably similar to modern forests. This ancient woodland predates dinosaurs by 140 million years.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-cairo-forest-discovery">The Cairo forest discovery</h2>



385 million years ago, upstate New York was a tropical paradise near the equator. Thanks to continental drift, this ancient forest has traveled thousands of miles to its current location.



The fossil forest sits in an abandoned quarry, roughly half the size of a football field. This represents just a slice of what was likely a massive forest system stretching from New York into Pennsylvania.



Charles Ver Straeten, curator of sedimentary rocks at the <a href="https://www.nysm.nysed.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">New York State Museum</a>, made the discovery in 2009. While scouting the former highway department property, his trained eye spotted wandering patterns in the stone that looked like marine features.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-revolutionary-age-and-preservation">Revolutionary age and preservation</h2>



The site contains 385-million-year-old rocks with fossilized woody roots forming horizontal patterns up to 18 feet (5.5 meters) wide. As Christopher Berry, a paleobotanist at Cardiff University, explains: "You are walking through the roots of ancient trees."



This discovery pushes back advanced tree evolution by millions of years. The research, published in <a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/home" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Current Biology</a> in December 2019, fundamentally changes our understanding of when complex forests first emerged.



Researchers believe a massive flood buried the forest floor, creating perfect fossilization conditions. Over millions of years, sediment hardened into rock, preserving these root patterns like nature's time capsule.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-meet-archaeopteris-the-first-modern-tree">Meet Archaeopteris: the first modern tree</h2>



The star of this ancient forest is Archaeopteris – not to be confused with the feathered dinosaur Archaeopteryx. This tree was far older and more revolutionary.



William Stein from <a href="https://www.binghamton.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Binghamton University</a> describes the roots as "strikingly modern, essentially what you'd see outside in my yard right now." These weren't simple root systems you'd expect from ancient plants.



Some fossilized roots are six inches (15 centimeters) in diameter, forming 36-foot-wide (11-meter) patterns. These giants grew up to 65 feet (20 meters) tall with five-foot-diameter (1.5-meter) trunks.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-changing-impact">Climate-changing impact</h2>



These trees fundamentally changed Earth's environment. Kevin Boyce, a Stanford University geoscientist, explains how their deep roots triggered "weathering," chemical reactions that pulled carbon dioxide from the atmosphere.



This process dropped atmospheric CO2 levels from 10-15 times higher than today to roughly modern concentrations. These ancient trees helped create atmospheric conditions that made complex life possible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ancient-forest-ecosystem">Ancient forest ecosystem</h2>



The forest was remarkably diverse. Scientists identified Eospermatopteris, palm tree-like plants with short roots that reached 30 feet (9 meters) tall but lacked woody structure. The forest also housed cladoxylopsids and a mysterious third species still being studied.



All reproduced through spores rather than seeds – millions of years before seeds evolved. This tropical environment had no grass, flowers, or flying insects, just towering trees creating Earth's first complex forest canopy.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-scientific-significance">Scientific significance</h2>



Before this finding, the Gilboa forest, located 25 miles (40 kilometers) away, held the "oldest forest" title. Cairo's trees are 2-3 million years older, showing that complex forest ecosystems developed much faster than scientists believed possible.



Patricia Gensel, a <a href="https://www.unc.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of North Carolina</a> paleobotanist, notes: "The size of those root systems is really changing the picture. Even 20 years ago, researchers assumed trees with such complex root systems didn't evolve so early."



The Cairo site presents three unique root systems, suggesting Devonian period forests were diverse ecosystems with different trees occupying different environmental niches, much like today's forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-modern-preservation-efforts">Modern preservation efforts</h2>



In 2022, New York State Senator Michelle Hinchey secured a $170,000 grant for the town of Cairo to construct specialized fencing around the fossil forest site. The town plans to conduct a feasibility study exploring the possibility of creating an educational center and working lab on-site.



Joe Hasenkopf, chair of the Cairo Planning Board, hopes to partner with educational institutions to create a research facility serving scientists, students, and the public.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lessons-for-today-s-climate">Lessons for today's climate</h2>



Why does a 385-million-year-old forest matter today? It shows how dramatically forests can change Earth's climate. These ancient woodlands created the atmospheric conditions supporting complex life.



Understanding how prehistoric forests transformed the planet helps us appreciate modern forests' critical role in addressing climate change. Forests remain Earth's most effective carbon capture systems.



These prehistoric trees changed Earth's atmosphere by pulling massive amounts of carbon dioxide from the air. As we face modern climate challenges, this ancient forest reminds us of trees' incredible power to transform our planet's environment.



The next time you walk through a forest, remember you're experiencing an ecosystem whose blueprint was established 385 million years ago in upstate New York. These ancient pioneers didn't just survive – they thrived and changed the world forever.



The full study was published in the journal Current Biology.



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Earth's oldest forest found in the United States

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ New York is the site of the world's oldest...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Acid rain and a crisis solved.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-don-t-we-ever-hear-about-acid-rain-anymore-the-environmental-crisis-that-was-solved">Why don't we ever hear about "acid rain" anymore? The environmental crisis that was solved</h2>



Remember the 1980s when acid rain dominated headlines? Dire warnings about rain eating buildings, killing fish, and destroying forests filled every news cycle. Then, almost like magic, acid rain vanished from public discourse. What happened? Did we actually solve one of the late 20th century's most pressing environmental challenges?



The answer might surprise you. Unlike many environmental issues that drag on indefinitely, acid rain represents one of modern history's most successful ecological recovery stories. It's a tale of science, politics, and technology working together to tackle what seemed impossible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What was acid rain?</h2>



Acid rain isn't regular rain having a bad day – it's precipitation that became significantly more acidic due to air pollution. When power plants, factories, and vehicles burn fossil fuels, they release sulfur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides (NOx) into the atmosphere.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The science behind it</h2>



Think of acid rain as nature's chemistry experiment gone wrong. These compounds react with water, oxygen, and other chemicals to form sulfuric and nitric acids. When mixed with water vapor in clouds, they create precipitation with dangerously low pH levels.



While clean rain has a pH of about 5.6, acid rain could drop as low as 4.2 to 4.4 – roughly as acidic as tomato juice or coffee. According to US Geological Survey documentation, Scottish chemist Angus Smith first coined "acid rain" in 1872, but it didn't become a household phrase until the 1960s and 1970s when Swedish scientist Svante Odén documented its devastating effects on Scandinavian lakes and European forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The crisis at its peak</h2>



During the height of public concern, environmental damage was both widespread and visible. This wasn't some abstract future threat – people could see destruction happening in real-time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Environmental devastation</h2>



The most dramatic impacts were impossible to ignore. Research documented by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation and the New York State Department of Environmental Conservation shows that in the Adirondack Mountains, more than 200 lakes became so acidic they couldn't support fish life. The Adirondack Council reports that 409 lakes once supported brook trout, but many lost their fish populations due to acid rain.



By 1976, when scientists cataloged all acidified lakes in the Adirondack Park, researchers found that half of the lakes over 2,000 feet above sea level had no fish, according to studies published in environmental journals. The acidification process worked like a slow-motion disaster. As acid rain fell into watersheds, it gradually lowered pH levels. Fish couldn't survive in acidic water, and their food sources died off too.



Trees at high elevations showed stress directly linked to acid rain. It weakened them by leaching nutrients and making them susceptible to disease. Historical records show Germany's Black Forest saw nearly half its trees damaged by the mid-1980s.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Economic impact</h2>



Acid rain wasn't just environmental – it was expensive. Acidic precipitation corroded infrastructure, buildings, and monuments. Historic stone structures deteriorated at accelerated rates. Tourism suffered as lakes became fishless and forests declined. EPA economic analyses from the period documented repair costs mounting into billions annually.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The solution: government action and technology</h2>



Transformation from crisis to success required unprecedented cooperation between governments, industries, and environmental groups.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The Clean Air Act of 1990</h2>



The turning point came with the Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990, signed by President George H.W. Bush. This represented a fundamentally new approach to environmental regulation, as documented in EPA historical records.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Cap-and-trade success</h2>



Instead of mandating specific technologies, the 1990 amendments introduced something revolutionary: a cap-and-trade system for sulfur dioxide emissions. EPA program documentation shows this market-based approach set overall limits but allowed companies to trade emission allowances.



The genius was harnessing market forces to find cost-effective pollution reduction. Companies reducing emissions cheaply could sell excess allowances to those facing higher costs. Research published in environmental economics journals and EPA progress reports shows this resulted in dramatic SO2 reduction at a fraction of projected costs.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Technology advances</h2>



Policy provided the framework, but technology made reductions possible. Studies in atmospheric science journals document the widespread adoption of flue gas desulfurization systems ("scrubbers") that removed sulfur dioxide before it reached the atmosphere. By the 2000s, new installations could remove over 95% of SO2 emissions, according to EPA technical reports.



The push coincided with cleaner energy development. Natural gas produces fewer sulfur compounds than coal. Wind and solar, emerging in the 1990s, captured growing market share, reducing reliance on high-sulfur coal.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-we-don-t-hear-about-it-today">Why we don't hear about it today</h2>



Why did acid rain disappear from headlines? Simple: the problem was largely solved.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Success doesn't make news</h2>



There's an old journalism saying: "If it bleeds, it leads." Environmental success stories don't generate urgency like crisis reporting. Media attention shifted to other challenges: climate change, plastic pollution, and biodiversity loss. There's only so much environmental anxiety the public can absorb, and newer concerns replaced acid rain.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Mission accomplished</h2>



The primary reason is beautifully simple: interventions worked. EPA monitoring data shows sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990. Academic research published in environmental science journals confirms pH levels in formerly affected areas returned closer to normal. This represents one of history's most dramatic environmental recoveries. Studies by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation show fishless lakes now support healthy populations. Forests recovered, and building damage slowed dramatically.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-is-it-really-gone">Is it really gone?</h2>



The crisis is largely resolved, but monitoring data shows the problem isn't completely eliminated – it's managed to acceptable levels. Some areas still experience occasional events during high pollution periods. International environmental research indicates that rapidly industrializing Asian countries face similar problems to what we experienced decades ago, though they're implementing successful strategies.



EPA research shows nitrogen oxide emissions proved more challenging than sulfur dioxide, coming from vehicles and mobile sources. Climate science studies suggest changing weather patterns add complexity to how acid rain forms and falls.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What this teaches us</h2>



The acid rain experience proves that seemingly intractable environmental problems can be solved with scientific understanding, political will, and technological innovation. Environmental monitoring data shows recovery speed was remarkable – within a decade, measurable improvements appeared in air quality and ecosystem health.



Success came from bipartisan support across party lines. Policy analysis studies show the market-based approach appealed to those preferring economic incentives while achieving environmental goals. This support created lasting policy surviving political changes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Conclusion</h2>



Acid rain's disappearance from public consciousness represents environmental science's greatest success stories. Through effective regulation, technological innovation, and international cooperation, we transformed an overwhelming crisis into a manageable challenge.



Today's silence isn't because we forgot – it's because we solved it. The 1990 Clean Air Act, combined with technology and energy market changes, reduced acid rain emissions over 90%, according to comprehensive EPA data analysis.



This success offers hope for current challenges. It proves complex problems can be solved when science, policy, and technology work together. As we face climate change and plastic pollution, acid rain reminds us that dramatic positive change is possible.



Next time someone asks whether environmental regulations work, remember acid rain. It's proof that sometimes, we get it right.



<hr class="wp-block-separator has-alpha-channel-opacity"/>



Sources: This article draws from EPA official documentation and progress reports, peer-reviewed research published in environmental and atmospheric science journals, historical data from the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation, New York State Department of Environmental Conservation records, US Geological Survey publications, policy analysis studies, and environmental monitoring data collected over three decades.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Frequently Asked Questions</h2>



1. Is acid rain completely gone? No, but EPA monitoring shows it's reduced to manageable levels. US sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990, making acid rain much less severe than the 1980s crisis.



2. How long did solving take? Environmental monitoring data shows significant improvements began within 5-10 years of 1990s emission controls. Full ecosystem recovery took longer – some areas need 20-30 years for complete recovery.



3. What made the solution successful? Clear scientific understanding, visible damage motivating action, bipartisan support, available technology, and innovative market-based policies like cap-and-trade.



4. Do other countries have acid rain problems? Yes, particularly rapidly industrializing Asian countries. However, international environmental research shows many implement similar successful control strategies.



5. Could acid rain return? Potentially, if regulations weaken or we return to high-sulfur coal without controls, though effects would take years to become severe according to environmental projections.



6. Can you recommend any teaching tools on the subject of "acid rain"? The United States Environmental Protection Agency produced a wonderful teacher's guide for ages 14 and under that you can find on the EPA website here: <a href="https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf</a>



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The environmental problem we actually solved

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk Acid rain and a crisis solved. Why don't we...

Fresh,Radish,Harvest,On,Soil,In,Garden.

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Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving fall garden, and this guide lays out the best vegetables and herbs to plant now for a fruitful autumn harvest. 



Fast-growing leafy greens such as spinach, lettuce, kale, and arugula perform especially well in the waning summer heat, with harvests beginning as soon as 30 days. 



These cool-season crops relish the transition into fall, offering repeated yields with cut-and-come-again methods.



Root vegetables like radishes, carrots, and beets also excel during this period. Radishes deliver satisfaction in under a month, while carrots and beets mature in about two months. Employing succession planting ensures a continuous stream of produce deep into the cooler months. 



For a boost of fresh flavor, herbs like cilantro, basil, dill, and chervil are excellent picks. These heat-loving varieties flourish in July’s warmth and are harvest-ready in about 30 days, especially when sown continuously.



Gardeners in zones 6 through 9 can benefit from planting bush beans and snap peas, which don’t require trellising and are ideal for compact plots. 



Maturing in 50–60 days, they’re a smart choice for quick, protein-rich harvests. For those in hotter regions, heat-tolerant crops such as okra and southern peas provide reliable yields and thrive in scorching conditions.



This guide emphasizes more than crop selection—it highlights the importance of timing, soil preparation, and ongoing sowing techniques. 



With thoughtful planning and attention to regional climate needs, even late-summer gardeners can enjoy fresh salads, hearty stews, and the satisfaction of a robust, homegrown harvest well into fall.



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What to plant in your garden in mid-July

https://youtu.be/Fi2OeEwuzRM?si=vTyd2m9FMmtyWkex Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving...

Green,Ecoduct,Over,An,Empty,Highway,During,Sunset.

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A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that wildlife tunnels significantly reduce amphibian road mortality during seasonal migrations. 



Frogs and salamanders often cross roads to reach breeding ponds each spring, but many are killed by vehicles. 



Researchers from the <a href="https://www.uvm.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Vermont</a>, in collaboration with local citizens and the Vermont Agency of Natural Resources, installed two underpass tunnels in 2015. 



Over a 12-year monitoring period, they observed an 80.2% reduction in amphibian deaths, and up to 94% for non-climbing species like salamanders. 



The study used a before-after-control-impact design and documented more than 5,200 amphibians, highlighting the tunnels’ effectiveness even in nearby buffer zones.



Funded at $342,397 - far cheaper than wildlife crossings for large mammals - the project showcased the power of community-led conservation.



Local groups initiated the effort after observing mass amphibian deaths. Wildlife cameras later captured over 2,200 amphibians using a tunnel in just one spring, along with other species like raccoons and bobcats, indicating wider ecosystem benefits.



This marks the first peer-reviewed, long-term data set in the northeastern U.S. confirming amphibian-specific underpasses work. 



The study urges transportation departments to incorporate these designs into road planning and highlights how community action, thoughtful infrastructure, and persistence can make a real difference for biodiversity.



The full study was published in the <a href="https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1617138125000780" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal for Nature Conservation</a>.



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Wildlife tunnels save millions of amphibians

https://youtu.be/XYgiPzmNBTU?si=eFYY7gPHU1JznLvU A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that...

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing it with probiotics and prebiotics, aiming to create a treat that satisfies cravings while supporting gut health. 



The challenge lies in maintaining chocolate's beloved texture and flavor while adding health benefits.



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https://youtu.be/Ug657J67iEo?si=w96YjGMsg939LD_3
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Probiotics - beneficial microbes that balance gut bacteria and aid digestion - are typically fragile and can be destroyed by stomach acid or processing. 



Prebiotics act as food for these microbes, helping them thrive. Together, they form "synbiotics," a powerful health combination.



Researchers Smriti Gaur and Shubhi Singh from India's Jaypee Institute of Information Technology took an innovative approach, using natural prebiotics like corn and honey instead of complex processing methods. 



They created five chocolate varieties: a control and four synbiotic versions containing different combinations of prebiotics, probiotics (Lactobacillus strains), and flavor enhancers (cinnamon or orange).



Laboratory simulations of human digestion showed the probiotics remained viable for over five hours, suggesting they could survive long enough to benefit gut health.



Taste tests were positive, with researchers particularly enjoying the orange-flavored variety, describing it as having "vibrant citrus notes" complementing the "rich cocoa" with a "luxurious" texture.



This research represents just the beginning. With further refinement of strains, textures, and flavors, chocolate could evolve beyond mere indulgence to become a functional food that nourishes while it delights.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.4c00741" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ACS Food Science &amp; Technology</a>.

Is chocolate the next nutritional powerhouse?

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

[sendtonews key="0ynNMYkMKa-2340414-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

[sendtonews key="G9bUoxcjr4-2511624-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

[sendtonews key="3upvlAaHgO-2256633-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

[sendtonews key="LvS8v8bp9z-2564889-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How does salt makes things taste better?

[sendtonews key="X0f6OHYoI4-2310561-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Santiago, Chile in South America

[sendtonews key="JRaP49ISmm-2357509-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

[sendtonews key="e4ZG0Jawp3-2374785-12187" type="single"] Astronomers at Johns Hopkins University have created...

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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.



According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."



Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;



ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. 



Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

[sendtonews key="uV9Lh2fQbV-1760058-12187" type="single"] Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

[sendtonews key="qjvhBOBnY8-2426650-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

[sendtonews key="oL4FnPTGCV-2384527-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

[sendtonews key="0879czfG3k-1785905-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from NASA...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

[sendtonews key="6HyfrAJTBI-1831843-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

Earth,Like,Exoplanet,3d,Render

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

[sendtonews key="QIoVYJqRBi-2434608-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from NASA...

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Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes Earth’s interconnected systems, and how this network is affected by rising temperatures.&nbsp;



During 2020, average global temperatures matched the hottest year on record. The hurricane season was also record-breaking, with many of the storms intensifying at extraordinary speeds. Hot water in the ocean is fuel for hurricanes. The satellite data shows that it's all one interconnected system showing how Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected.



According to NASA, dust swept up from Northern Africa plays a major role in the formation of hurricanes, and is also a key source of fertilization in the Amazon rainforest. As a result of<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seagrass-wasting-disease-is-fueled-by-climate-change/"> climate</a> change, dust plumes are expected to decline, which will have an effect on vegetation far away.&nbsp;



Images from Earth-observing satellites show how the world’s plant life is affected by natural disasters, fires, and deforestation. Satellites also reveal how widespread changes in vegetation impact waterways,&nbsp; the climate, air quality. Satellites communicate by using radio waves to send signals to the antennas on the Earth. "Earth From Space" is a groundbreaking two-hour special that reveals a spectacular new space-based vision of our planet. 



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected

[sendtonews key="JbW4VsY53O-1632195-12187" type="single"] Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected...

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