Young aspen trees in Yellowstone are doing something they have not done in almost 100 years. Rather than sprouting and being eaten back to nubs by elk and bison, they're actually growing into tall, adult forest trees rising up towards the canopy.



This matters more than it might seem, because it shows what happens when a missing piece of an ecosystem returns.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-yellowstone-aspens-and-elk">Yellowstone, aspens, and elk</h2>



In the 1920s, people <a href="https://www.yellowstone.org/wolf-project/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">eliminated wolves in Yellowstone</a>. At the time, with limited scientific knowledge, managers believed it was the right thing to do.



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/from-wolves-to-dogs-did-domestication-begin-without-human-help/">Without wolves</a>, elk herds grew very large. Elk love to eat aspen shoots - the tender young growth is highly palatable to them.



For roughly 70 years, elk browsed aspen sprouts down to stub height, and the trees couldn't grow. 



If you had walked through Yellowstone in the 1980s, you would have seen many tiny aspen shoots covering the ground, but almost no young trees gaining height. 



The forest's regeneration was stalled. Old trees died, and no new ones replaced them.



In 1995 and 1996, park managers reintroduced wolves into the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/yellowstone-supervolcano-eruption-study-sparks-new-debate-on-where-and-when-it-will-erupt/">Yellowstone Park ecosystem</a>. Scientists hoped and wondered whether this would change anything for the trees.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-aspen-matter-to-yellowstone">Why aspen matter to Yellowstone</h2>



Aspen groves provide habitat for many species. Birds nest in them. Beavers eat the bark and use the wood for dams. Butterflies and moths lay eggs on the leaves. 



Their canopy admits enough light for wildflowers and shrubs to grow beneath. When it rains, aspen groves hold water in the soil better than some other forest types.



In short, when aspen return, dozens of other species benefit. More trees support more insects, which in turn support more birds, enriching the ecosystem.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-checking-the-trees-three-decades-later">Checking the trees three decades later</h2>



<a href="https://fwcs.oregonstate.edu/users/luke-painter" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Luke Painter</a>, an ecologist at <a href="https://oregonstate.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Oregon State University</a>, sought clear answers. His team returned to 87 aspen stands across Yellowstone that scientists had previously surveyed. 



They measured thousands of young trees, looked for bite marks, and counted how many stems were tall enough that elk could no longer reach the tips.



About a third of these stands now have many tall young aspens pushing toward the canopy. 



"About 26 of the 87 aspen stands we examined had large numbers of tall saplings throughout, a remarkable change from the 1990s when surveys found none at all," Painter said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-wolves-matter-to-yellowstone-aspens">Why wolves matter to Yellowstone aspens</h2>



Breaking it all down, the conclusions of this study are pretty simple. 



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/wolves-move-pups-across-mountains-to-adapt-to-climate-pressure/">Wolves hunt elk</a>. When wolves came back, two things happened. First, elk numbers declined from unusually high levels. Second, elk changed their behavior. They spent less time in the same areas feeding.



With fewer elk and shorter feeding bouts, more aspen shoots survived long enough to exceed the browsing zone - about six to seven feet high. 



Once a sapling reaches that height, elk cannot easily reach the growing tip. The tree continues to grow.



"The reintroduction of large carnivores has initiated a recovery process that had been shut down for decades," Painter explained.



Scientists call this a <a href="https://www.nature.com/scitable/knowledge/library/trophic-cascades-across-diverse-plant-ecosystems-80060347/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">trophic cascade</a> - when adding or removing one species causes changes that ripple through the whole system.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-some-places-recover-others-don-t">Some places recover, others don't</h2>



Unfortunately, not every aspen stand has recovered yet. Some valleys still have many short, heavily browsed shoots, because it's not only elk eating them anymore. 



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/yellowstones-iconic-bison-have-merged-into-a-single-herd/">Bison herds have grown</a>, and bison browse on aspen as well. They are strong enough to break young trees. 



"Increasing numbers of bison may be emerging as a new constraint to aspen in some areas," Painter confirmed.



Additionally, winter snow depth varies; droughts stress trees; bears and mountain lions also hunt elk; and hunting outside the park influences elk distribution. 



All of these factors interact, which is why some sites show strong recovery, others show moderate recovery, and a few have changed very little.



The key pattern is that places with many tall saplings experience little browsing, and aspen groves that remain popular eating grounds today stay short. 



This fact is the strongest indication that tree recovery is linked directly to wolf presence, not solely to weather or soil conditions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-proof-in-the-measurements">Proof in the measurements</h2>



Painter's team did not rely on casual observation. They used the same methods as earlier researchers, measuring the same plots. 



They counted recruitment - when young trees surpass browsing height and begin progressing toward maturity. This measure is crucial. Sprouts are insufficient if they never grow; without recruitment, the forest cannot replace itself.



The results are robust. After being stalled for most of a century, Yellowstone's aspens are increasing in height. In recovering stands today, you will see saplings - six, eight, or ten feet tall - that were not present in the 1990s.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-future-of-yellowstone-s-aspens">The future of Yellowstone's aspens</h2>



"This is a remarkable case of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/giant-viruses-found-in-yellowstones-hot-springs-may-be-near-the-root-of-all-life-on-earth/">ecological restoration</a>," Painter concluded. "Wolf reintroduction is yielding long-term ecological changes contributing to increased biodiversity and habitat diversity."



Trees grow slowly, so even with wolves restored, it will take decades for these young aspens to form a full-grown forest. 



Some areas might never fully recover if bison numbers continue to rise or if the climate becomes too hot and dry.



Thanks to the work of Painter and his team, scientists are now certain that restoring the Yellowstone predator has restarted aspen forest regeneration. Not everywhere and not perfectly, but enough to be measured, creating hope for the future.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0378112725004499?via%3Dihub" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Forest Ecology and Management</a>.



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Yellowstone's aspen trees are growing again thanks to the reintroduction of wolves

Young aspen trees in Yellowstone are doing something they have not done in almost 100 years. Rather than sprouting and being eaten back to nubs by elk and bison, they're actually growing into tall, adult forest trees rising up towards the canopy. This matters more than it might seem, because it shows what happens when a missing piece of an ecosystem returns. Yellowstone, aspens, and elk In the 1920s, people eliminated wolves in Yellowstone. At the time, with limited scientific knowledge, managers believed it was the right...

In the wild, group living offers animals many advantages, from protection to shared knowledge. But it also brings complexity. Who goes first? Who follows? And why? For decades, scientists have tried to explain why animals like baboons walk in organized lines called "progressions." 



Some believed it was about defense. Others thought it had to do with food. But a new study from <a href="https://www.swansea.ac.uk" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Swansea University</a> reveals a different truth. Baboons, it turns out, may just want to walk with their friends.



This insight emerged from one of the most detailed baboon movement studies to date. The team tracked 13 chacma baboons using high-resolution GPS collars. These baboons lived in the Da Gama Park area of South Africa’s Cape Peninsula.



Over 36 days, the team recorded 78 coordinated group movements. Each one showed the animals lining up in a consistent, non-random way. But instead of a tactical plan, social ties seemed to shape this order.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-testing-old-baboon-movement-theories">Testing old baboon movement theories</h2>



Previous ideas about baboon movement suggested clear strategies. The “risk hypothesis” argued that strong individuals like males took positions at the front or rear to shield weaker members.



The “competition hypothesis” suggested subordinates moved up front to access food before dominants arrived. And the “decision-making hypothesis” claimed that leaders guided the troop from the front. All these theories aimed to explain baboon lines as evolved survival tools.



But the Swansea team’s results didn’t match those expectations. Their GPS data revealed no strong link between position in the line and safety, food access, or leadership.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-social-bonds-shape-movement">Social bonds shape movement</h2>



In fact, dominant baboons often appeared in the center rather than the front. Subordinates moved toward the edges, not because of strategy, but due to social positioning.



“Surprisingly, the consistent order we see for the baboons we studied isn’t about avoiding danger like we see in prey animals when they position themselves in the middle of their social group, or for better access to food or water like we see in the movements of plains zebra,” noted Dr. Andrew King, associate professor at Swansea University.



Their movement is guided by <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/social-bonds-can-ease-stress-among-elephants/">social bonds</a> rather than individual choices, creating a consistent pattern.



“In the baboon group we studied, the more socially connected, higher-ranking individuals usually walk in the middle of the group, while lower-ranking baboons are often out in front or at the rear," Dr. King said. 



"During these group movements, like heading to a familiar sleeping spot, it’s likely that the group already knows where they’re going. So, the baboons at the front aren’t really leading; they’re just out ahead.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-baboon-walks-reflect-friendship">How baboon walks reflect friendship</h2>



This unexpected discovery led the researchers to apply the concept of a “social spandrel.” In architecture, a spandrel is a space that arises between two arches. 



It wasn’t designed on purpose. It just appears as a side effect. In <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-rule-of-biology-instability-key-to-evolution-life/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">biology</a>, the term refers to traits that emerge not from direct evolutionary pressure, but as by-products of other forces.



In the case of baboons, social relationships were the hidden architects. Friends stayed close together, and these pairs naturally formed repeatable line formations. The travel order was not the result of strategy, but a side effect of close companionship.



Over time, this created what looked like an organized pattern, but it was just friendship in motion.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-stable-movement-of-baboons">Stable movement of baboons</h2>



To reach these conclusions, the researchers collected 13.87 hours of data using collars fitted to adult baboons. They tracked the animals from morning until evening.



The team defined a progression only when the group moved together in a tight, aligned formation. Progressions happened throughout the day, but many occurred in the late afternoon when baboons returned to their sleeping site.



Interestingly, the baboons’ movement speed, group shape, and order remained stable across different times of day. 



Whether they were heading to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dietary-shift-to-forage-fish-could-prevent-millions-of-deaths/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">forage</a> or returning to rest, the travel line followed the same structure. This consistency further ruled out time-sensitive strategies like racing for food or responding to risk.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-friends-shape-movement">Friends shape movement</h2>



The researchers compared how close baboons stayed to each other during progressions and during casual group activity.



The same pairs that spent time together while resting also stuck close while walking. Dominant baboons were more central in the group, not because they pushed others aside, but because others naturally gathered near them.



This pattern suggests a kind of social gravity. Baboons with stronger social bonds pull others toward them. Dominant individuals had more neighbors, but their neighbors changed often. 



Subordinates had fewer companions, which often left them at the edges. Over time, these patterns led to consistent line positions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-no-strategy-just-bonds">No strategy, just bonds</h2>



The data showed no link between position and benefits like food or safety. Even near risky <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/thousands-of-animal-species-will-soon-vanish-from-cities/">urban areas</a>, the order stayed the same.



This questions the idea of baboon lines as tactical formations. Instead, movement reflected social bonds.



If strategy mattered, dominant baboons might lead or guard the rear. But they stayed central. These results suggest social ties, not tactics, shape group travel.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-baboons-walk-in-familiar-lines">Baboons walk in familiar lines</h2>



“We know that strong social bonds are important for baboons - they’re linked to longer lives and greater reproductive success," said Marco Fele, the study’s lead author and PhD student at Swansea University.



"But in this context, those bonds aren’t serving a specific purpose. The travel order we see is simply a by-product of those relationships, not a strategy with immediate benefits. Our study highlights the potential for these kinds of spandrels in collective animal behavior.”



This view encourages scientists to rethink wild behavior. Not all group actions are strategic or useful. Sometimes, they reflect social bonds. In baboons, these ties shape both grooming and walking order.



In the end, this study reminds us that friendship may be one of nature’s most powerful organizing forces. Even in the wilderness, when it comes to walking through life, we often choose to do it side by side with those we know best.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://academic.oup.com/beheco/advance-article/doi/10.1093/beheco/araf022/8071582" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Behavioral Ecology</a>.



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Baboons walk in lines just to stay near their friends

In the wild, group living offers animals many advantages, from...

A new study has revealed that carbon stored deep in Earth’s landscapes for thousands - or even millions - of years is making its way back into the atmosphere as carbon dioxide released from river surfaces.



This discovery changes our understanding of the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/tiny-plankton-play-a-big-role-in-the-global-carbon-cycle/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">global carbon cycle</a> and suggests that plants and soils are playing an even bigger role in removing carbon from the air than previously believed.



Led by scientists at the <a href="https://www.bristol.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Bristol</a>, the international research team found that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/global-warming-is-disrupting-the-seasonal-flow-of-rivers/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">rivers</a> across the world are releasing carbon not just from recent organic material but also from much older sources. This ancient carbon comes from deep soil layers and even weathered rock.



“The results took us by surprise because it turns out that old carbon stores are leaking out much more into the atmosphere than previous estimates suggested,” said lead author Josh Dean, an associate professor of biogeochemistry at Bristol.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-deep-carbon-emerges-unexpectedly">Deep carbon emerges unexpectedly</h2>



Previously, scientists assumed that the gases released from rivers - <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/surprising-sources-of-methane-emissions-from-rivers-and-streams/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">methane</a> and carbon dioxide - mostly came from recent plant matter that had decayed and washed into the water within the last 70 years.



But this study found something different. More than half - around 60% - of the CO2 released by rivers actually comes from carbon that has been buried underground for centuries to millennia.



“The implications are potentially huge for our understanding of global carbon emissions," Dean said. "<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plants-may-stop-absorbing-carbon-if-temperatures-continue-to-rise/">P</a><a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plants-may-stop-absorbing-carbon-if-temperatures-continue-to-rise/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">l</a><a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plants-may-stop-absorbing-carbon-if-temperatures-continue-to-rise/">ants</a> and trees take up CO2 from the atmosphere and can then lock this carbon away in soils for thousands of years.”



“Our findings show some of this old carbon, as well as ancient carbon from rocks, is leaking sideways into rivers and making its way back to the atmosphere.”



Although it's unclear how human activity influences the release of ancient carbon, researchers found that plants and trees are currently absorbing more atmospheric carbon to offset this unrecognized release.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-global-river-investigation">A global river investigation</h2>



The research team examined over 700 river reaches from 26 countries across every continent except Antarctica.



Using advanced radiocarbon dating techniques, they measured the age of carbon dioxide and methane released from rivers.



By analyzing the amount of carbon-14, an isotope that helps scientists determine how old a sample is, they were able to distinguish between “young” carbon and ancient sources.



“We discovered that around half of the emissions are young, while the other half are much older, released from deep soil layers and rock weathering that were formed thousands and even millions of years ago,” said co-author Bob Hilton, a professor of sedimentary geography at the <a href="https://www.ox.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Oxford</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hidden-carbon-changes-climate-math">Hidden carbon changes climate math</h2>



Rivers are often overlooked in climate discussions, but they play a critical role in the carbon cycle.



Globally, rivers release about two gigatons of carbon each year. In comparison, human activity emits around 10 to 15 gigatons annually.



This makes river emissions a significant part of the natural carbon flow - one that scientists are now realizing is more dynamic than previously believed.



“These river emissions are significant at a global scale, and we’re showing that over half of these emissions may be coming from carbon stores we considered relatively stable," said co-author Gemma Coxon, an associate professor of hydrology at Bristol. "This means we need to re-evaluate these crucial parts of the global carbon cycle.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-old-carbon-emissions-need-review">Old carbon emissions need review</h2>



The discovery opens up several new questions. If ancient carbon is routinely leaking back into the atmosphere through rivers, how might that flow change over time - especially as the climate warms and human activity reshapes the land?



The team plans to continue its research by investigating how the age of river carbon emissions varies in areas not captured in the current study, and whether those patterns have shifted historically.



By reshaping our understanding of where carbon emissions originate, this study also underscores the vital role of natural ecosystems in counterbalancing those emissions.



According to the researchers, plants and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/global-warming-may-trigger-rapid-release-of-soil-carbon/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">soils</a> may already be compensating for this unexpected source by pulling roughly one extra gigaton of CO2 out of the atmosphere every year.



The findings highlight the need for more accurate carbon budgets as policymakers and scientists work to address climate change. 



Understanding the hidden sources and sinks of carbon in the environment isn’t just a scientific activity - it’s essential for building effective strategies to reduce <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/melting-glaciers-are-hidden-sources-of-greenhouse-gases/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">greenhouse gases</a> and protect our planet’s future.



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Rivers are releasing a massive amount of carbon dioxide into the air

A new study has revealed that carbon stored deep in...

Flooding has become an unwelcome visitor to many coastal neighborhoods. For a long time, official records suggested these floods were rare. But new research shows they are happening much more often than previously believed - and we may have been measuring them incorrectly.



The risks extend beyond storm surges and times of heavy rain. Even calm, sunny days can bring rising water into streets and homes.



Scientists from <a href="https://www.ncsu.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">North Carolina State University</a> and UNC Chapel Hill have taken a closer look. The study reveals that relying on marine water-level data - the standard method for tracking floods - misses a big part of the story.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-flood-data-under-scrutiny">Flood data under scrutiny</h2>



Miyuki Hino is a corresponding author of the study and an assistant professor of city and regional planning at UNC.



“Government agencies and researchers use data from tide gauges to measure water levels in coastal areas, then use that data to estimate flood frequency in the region,” said Hino. “Those estimates are used both to assess how often flooding has taken place and to predict how often it may take place in the future."



The study reveals that current flood assessments underestimate both the frequency and duration of flooding events. This matters now more than ever. 



“Due to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/coastal-cities-will-spend-over-3-trillion-dollars-damages-from-sea-level-rise/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">sea-level rise</a>, we’re now seeing flooding in coastal areas outside of extreme storms like hurricanes,” said Katherine Anarde, assistant professor of coastal engineering at NC State.



“There can be flooding during everyday rain showers or at <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/high-tide-flooding-will-rapidly-increase-along-the-u-s-coastline/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">high tide</a> on sunny days. It’s important that the methodology we use to monitor and predict flooding reflects this reality, since sea-level rise means these flooding events are going to become even more common."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-better-tools-for-flooding">Better tools for flooding</h2>



Tide gauges have been the backbone of flood measurement in coastal areas. Agencies often rely on thresholds from the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) and the National Weather Service (NWS) to infer inundation based on water levels. 



However, these measurements are made offshore - not where people live, work, and drive. The researchers, part of the Sunny Day Flooding Project, wanted to change that. They built a network of land-based sensors that can detect floods on roads.



These new sensors were placed across three North Carolina communities: Beaufort, Carolina Beach, and Sea Level. Over the course of a year, the sensors picked up a surprising number of high-water events: 26 days in Beaufort, 65 days in Carolina Beach, and a striking 128 days in Sea Level.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-numbers-don-t-add-up">The numbers don't add up</h2>



“These numbers were very different from what the HTF and NWS thresholds tell us based on water levels at tide gauges,” said Anarde. “In general, the thresholds drastically underestimated the number of floods."



"For example, when you subtract floods associated with <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/once-in-a-thousand-years-extreme-storms-are-becoming-much-more-frequent/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">extreme storms</a>, we recorded flooding on 122 days in Sea Level."



Professor Anarde noted that tidal gauge data significantly underestimated flood days, showing just 31 (NWS threshold) and 9 (HTF threshold).



The results were inconsistent. The NWS threshold sometimes overestimated the number of flood days as at Carolina Beach, for example. The researchers recorded 65 days of flooding using their system, while the NWS data from the closest tidal gauge identified 120 days of potential flooding.



But it’s not just about how often this happens. The duration of these events was also longer than is captured by the HTF and NWS thresholds. “Essentially, the thresholds don’t adequately account for how long it takes water to drain off of land,” explained Hino.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-better-data-helps-protect-coasts">Better data helps protect coasts</h2>



When communities are left with poor information, they can’t plan effectively. 



“More accurate information on <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/coastal-flooding-will-soon-be-common-in-the-u-s/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">coastal</a> flooding can inform where and how we invest resources in building more resilient communities,” said Anarde. “It’s hard to design an efficient solution when you don’t know the scope of the problem.”



“Every community is unique, so there’s no one-size-fits-all solution,” added Hino. “But with more accurate data, we can help communities assess what <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/is-migration-a-good-response-to-climate-change-the-answer-is-complicated/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">response strategy</a> is best for them, now and in the future.”



With a clearer understanding of the risks, towns can make smarter choices about infrastructure upgrades and emergency planning. It also helps residents better understand the changes happening around them. 



In the long run, having the right information can mean stronger, safer communities for generations to come.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s43247-025-02326-w">Communications Earth &amp; Environment</a>.



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Coastal flooding is happening far more often than we thought

Flooding has become an unwelcome visitor to many coastal neighborhoods....

Untitled design - 1

Typical devices for measuring mental effort can feel bulky and awkward. Traditional headsets with sticky gels or tangled cables might interfere with performance instead of helping it. 



A new lightweight forehead gadget aims to make mental load tracking more comfortable. It sticks to the skin like a temporary sticker and wirelessly scans <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/your-brain-literally-changes-based-on-daily-activities-and-lifestyle/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">brain</a> signals to figure out when your mind is getting maxed out. 



“Technology is developing faster than human evolution," explained <a href="https://www.ae.utexas.edu/people/faculty/faculty-directory/lu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nanshu Lu</a> from The University of Texas at Austin (<a href="https://www.utexas.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">UT Austin</a>) who guided the research behind this so-called e-tattoo. 



"Our brain capacity cannot keep up and can easily get overloaded. There is an optimal mental workload for optimal performance, which differs from person to person.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-real-time-mental-strain-seen-with-e-tattoo">Real-time mental strain seen with e-tattoo</h2>



“Being low cost makes the device accessible. One of my wishes is to turn the e-tattoo into a product we can wear at home,” said author <a href="https://www.ae.utexas.edu/people/faculty/faculty-directory/sentis" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Luis Sentis</a> from UT Austin. 



This sticker pairs up with an ultra-thin battery unit, which together cost around $200. Single-use sensors are about $20 each. 



Scientists tested six volunteers with a memory game that pushed their <a href="https://www.mcw.edu/-/media/MCW/Education/Academic-Affairs/OEI/Faculty-Quick-Guides/Cognitive-Load-Theory.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cognitive load</a>. 



As the tasks became more demanding, the theta and delta <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/big-changes-in-the-brain-between-the-ages-of-11-25-and-how-it-influence-our-decisions/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">brain</a> signals rose in intensity, hinting that the brain was struggling. Meanwhile, changes in alpha and beta activity suggested mental fatigue.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-e-tattoo-replaces-bulky-headgear">E-tattoo replaces bulky headgear</h2>



Surveys such as NASA’s Task Load Index help gauge <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/cells-called-astrocytes-help-human-brains-store-massive-amounts-of-information/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">mental</a> strain but rely on subjective opinions, which might miss subtle shifts in attention or overload. 



Studies indicate that measuring electroencephalography (<a href="https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC3206198/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EEG</a>) can tap into genuine signs of effort or fatigue, yet standard EEG equipment can cost $15,000 or more. The e-tattoo offers a real-time alternative without the heavy hardware.



Researchers also added electrooculography (<a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31277871/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EOG</a>) to track blink and eye-movement patterns. These signals add context to the EEG reading. 



That combination can pick up quick lapses in focus, a serious concern for jobs like air traffic control or long-haul truck driving.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-flexible-design-works-during-movement-nbsp">Flexible design works during movement&nbsp;</h2>



Wires and gel electrodes often slip out of place when people walk or turn their heads. The e-tattoo avoids this by conforming closely to the skin. 



It works best on hairless areas such as the forehead, though the team is exploring ink-based sensors for coverage on the scalp. The goal is to keep everything comfortable so that natural movements and daily tasks remain uninterrupted.



The sticker syncs with a small computer model that crunches the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-does-the-human-brain-create-retrieve-memories-engram-cells-connections/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">signals</a>. It noticed rises in mental load before the subject even realized they were swamped. 



That prediction step could prove useful for scheduling breaks or adjusting tasks if it senses high demand.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-does-any-of-this-matter">Why does any of this matter?</h2>



“Now we have the ability to monitor mental strain, which hasn’t been tracked. This could fundamentally change how organizations ensure the overall well-being of their workforce,” said Sentis. 



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sleep-can-boost-memory-in-a-surprising-way/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Memory tests</a> are a start, but the applications may expand to any fast-paced environment. Workers like air traffic controllers and truck drivers can benefit from a heads-up when focus levels dip. 



Cost barriers shrink with this design. The e-tattoo is comfortable, wireless, and individualized to each face. The hope is that it will allow people to catch overload warnings early. 



Each user’s optimal effort window differs, so an objective gauge might reduce oversights when juggling deadlines, safety checks, or other high-stakes demands.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-e-tattoos-show-how-brains-respond">E-tattoos show how brains respond</h2>



Experts mention that devices like this could strengthen personalized research on focus and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dna-changes-supercharged-the-human-brain-but-at-a-cost/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">productivity</a>. Some individuals might thrive under intense challenge, while others prefer moderate tasks. 



By measuring actual brain signals, the e-tattoo could provide objective feedback instead of waiting for people to recall their experience.



Studies on the <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0165017398000563" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">alpha wave link</a> it to alertness and retention. Meanwhile, increases in <a href="https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.1103228108">theta activity</a> have been connected to deep working memory processes. 



The new e-tattoo captures these details, which might help identify an ideal zone between boredom and overexertion. Many standard measures happen only after tasks wrap up. This sticker-like sensor collects information in real time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-plans-aim-for-better-coverage">Future plans aim for better coverage</h2>



Researchers plan to fine-tune the design for hair-covered regions so that a more complete <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/brain-mapping-research-mouse-neurons-revolutionary-advance/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">map of the brain</a> can be monitored. 



As robotics and automated systems become commonplace, the team foresees broader use of advanced mental load tracking. 



Early predictions of fatigue or reduced attention could boost safety and performance without big, clunky headsets.



Practical details such as sweat resistance, battery life, and everyday comfort will likely improve with further work. Specialists see promise in wearables that read signals straight from the skin. 



If the reading is reliable and the cost stays modest, routine mental load checks might someday be as normal as wearing a smartwatch.



The study is published in <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2666998625000948" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Device</a>.



Image Credit: DEVICE/HUH ET AL.



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Wireless e-tattoo detects when your brain gets overloaded

Typical devices for measuring mental effort can feel bulky and...

If you were an animal living through a mass extinction, your best chance of survival might depend on finding a unique way to make a living. 



New research into species that either survived or perished after the asteroid impact that wiped out the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/nuclear-winter-dinosaurs-were-likely-killed-by-dust/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dinosaurs</a> is reshaping what we thought we knew about mass extinctions. 



A team of scientists set out to understand how life bounces back after such catastrophic events - and what they found was both unexpected and a little unsettling. 



The study was conducted by experts from <a href="https://www.uchicago.edu/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">the University of Chicago</a>, the Smithsonian Institution, and the Natural History Museum in London.



The research was focused on the aftermath of the end-Cretaceous extinction, 66 million years ago. This event killed off about three-quarters of all species, including iconic creatures like Tyranosaurus rex. 



Yet, despite this enormous loss, the ecosystems in the ocean held on to their structure in surprising ways.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-life-before-and-after-extinction">Life before and after extinction</h2>



The team built a detailed catalog of fossilized clams, mussels, oysters, and other marine <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bivalve-mollusks-may-hold-the-secrets-of-longevity/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">mollusks</a>. These animals, with their durable shells, left behind an abundant fossil record. That made it possible to reconstruct a vivid picture of marine life both before and after the extinction event.



“What we wanted to do was not just count species, but count ways of life,” explained paleobiologist Stewart Edie. “How do they make their living? For example, some cement themselves to rocks; others tunnel into sand or mud; some are even carnivorous.”



With this information, the researchers mapped out the ecological landscape, comparing the period before the disaster to what followed. The results were startling.



Even though a vast number of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/homo-juluensis-new-human-species-vanished-just-fifty-thousand-years-ago/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">species vanished</a>, nearly all the different ecological niches - the particular ways species survive and interact with their environment - remained intact.



“That’s extremely statistically unlikely,” said Katie Collins, co-author of the study. “If 75% of the species died out, you would expect at least some of the ways of life to be lost completely - some of those niches only had one or two species in them. But that’s not what we see.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rethinking-how-ecosystems-recover">Rethinking how ecosystems recover</h2>



The findings challenge two major ideas about <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-forests-rose-again-after-the-planets-most-extreme-extinction/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">extinction recovery</a>. For a long time, some scientists believed that mass extinctions simply sped up natural evolutionary processes. 



Dinosaurs, for instance, might have eventually been outcompeted by mammals, and the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/study-claims-that-dinosaurs-thrived-until-the-asteroid-hit-debunks-decades-of-beliefs/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">asteroid</a> just fast-tracked that outcome.



Others argued that mass extinctions were like a biological reset button, clearing the stage for new life to evolve and fill empty niches.



But neither explanation fits what the researchers observed. Instead, the ecosystem's structure - the ways of life that species employed - seemed remarkably resilient despite the massive loss of individual species.



David Jablonski is the William R. Kenan Jr. Distinguished Service Professor of Geophysical Sciences at UChicago and one of the study's authors. 



“It’s a really interesting, and slightly disquieting finding,” he said. “How ecosystems recover from mass extinctions is a huge question for the field at the moment, given that we’re pushing towards one right now.”



“We don’t understand how loss of functional groups relates to loss of biological diversity,” Jablonski added.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-extinction-s-surprising-aftermath">Extinction’s surprising aftermath</h2>



The team also uncovered another surprising twist. They found that the survivors of the mass extinction event didn’t necessarily dictate the shape of the post-extinction ecosystem.



“We thought the survival pool would lay the foundation for the modern world, it would all just flow from who got through the extinction, but that wasn’t the case,” said Edie. “It gets scrambled. A genus that had many species survive the extinction doesn’t necessarily wind up on top later on.”



And just because a particular way of life had a lot of survivors didn’t mean it stayed dominant in the long run.



Many scientists have long assumed that mass extinctions level the playing field. Survivors should theoretically have an open field to diversify and dominate. This seemed to be the case for mammals on land. But in the marine ecosystems, the story was much more complex.



“That may have been what happened with mammals, but in the marine ecosystem, it didn’t work that way,” said Jablonski.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-mass-extinctions-matter-now">Why mass extinctions matter now</h2>



These findings carry important implications for today’s <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/effective-conservation-efforts-key-to-saving-biodiversity/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">conservation efforts</a>. Modern oceans face a host of threats - acidification, pollution, overfishing, and climate change among them. 



Understanding how past ecosystems and life responded to mass extinction could provide valuable insights into how today’s oceans might fare.



“This is something we really want to understand if we’re thinking about modern extinction and rebound in oceans, and how to manage it,”  Jablonski explained. 



“Billions of people depend on the ocean for food, and we can see that reserves and management policies need to take into account the larger ecological structure of the biota, rather than just the individual species.”



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/sciadv.adv1171" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Science Advances</a>.



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What fossils tell us about life after mass extinction

If you were an animal living through a mass extinction,...

Music lives in every culture and in every person. Long before recorded sound, our ancestors drummed, clapped, and sang - and movement followed. From ceremonial dances to casual tapping, rhythm has always stirred the human body.



Today, the world dances not just to new beats, but also to familiar <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/our-brain-doesnt-just-hear-music-it-becomes-the-rhythm/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">songs</a> from the past. That mix of melody, memory, and motion is called groove. But what truly makes us get up and dance? Recent research points to an unexpected player: nostalgia.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-we-groove-to-music">Why we groove to music</h2>



Groove is more than just enjoying a catchy beat. It is a psychological and physical urge to move. When groove hits, the body responds. You tap your foot, nod your head, or start dancing. Scientists describe it as a pleasurable urge to move to music. 



“Groove is the pleasurable urge to move to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/experts-reveal-how-music-can-heal-the-brain/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">music</a>. When we are studying the motor system in people with and without movement disorders, the brain spontaneously lights up when they listen to music. It really does seem to be about the rhythmic aspects of it,” explained Professor Jessica Grahn.



Until now, most research has focused on rhythm, beat complexity, and familiarity. But a new study from Western University shows that groove is not just about patterns. It is also about emotion, particularly the warm, bittersweet feeling of nostalgia.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-link-between-nostalgia-and-dance">Link between nostalgia and dance</h2>



The study involved 102 participants aged 23 to 28, a group chosen to capture peak nostalgia. The researchers selected 40 pop songs. 



Twenty of the songs were chart-toppers from 2010 to 2015, a time linked to participants' adolescence. The other songs, from 2018 to 2021, served as modern but familiar control tracks. Each <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/live-music-connects-people-emotionally-and-physically/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">song</a> clip lasted 25 seconds and included the chorus to boost recognition.



Participants rated how much they wanted to tap, move, and dance to each song. They also rated how much they liked the song, how familiar it was, and how nostalgic it felt. 



The team collected data on each person's musical and dance background. That included dance training and general musical exposure, using validated scales like the Goldsmiths Musical Sophistication Index.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-nostalgic-songs-boost-the-urge-to-dance">Nostalgic songs boost the urge to dance</h2>



The results revealed something fascinating. Both familiarity and nostalgia were linked to higher ratings for tapping and moving. But only nostalgia predicted the urge to dance. 



Songs from the earlier period triggered stronger feelings across all categories. Still, nostalgia stood out with the biggest jump, a 32-point average difference between early and late songs.



“The more familiar you are with a song, the more likely you are to enjoy it. And familiarity and nostalgia are inherently very tied to each other, because the more you know a song, and the more it makes you feel, the more it’s going to take you back to a special place and make you want to move,” noted study lead author Riya Sidhu.



Ke$ha’s&nbsp;<a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=iP6XpLQM2Cs" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">TiK ToK</a>, which ruled the Billboard Hot 100 for nine weeks in 2009, topped the list in dance desirability. Other high scorers included&nbsp;<a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=OPf0YbXqDm0" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Uptown Funk</a>&nbsp;and&nbsp;<a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=KQ6zr6kCPj8" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Party Rock Anthem</a>. 



More recent songs like&nbsp;<a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=DyDfgMOUjCI" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Bad Guy</a>&nbsp;by Billie Eilish and&nbsp;<a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=oygrmJFKYZY" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Don’t Start Now</a>&nbsp;by Dua Lipa were familiar, but they lacked the emotional punch of nostalgia.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dancing-feels-different-from-tapping">Dancing feels different from tapping</h2>



The study made another important discovery. Tapping, moving, and dancing are not equal in how they connect to groove. Tapping had the highest average score, followed by general movement. Dancing scored lowest, which surprised the researchers at first. 



But dancing might demand more social or emotional readiness. Some participants may have felt self-conscious about dancing, even in a private setting.



When the researchers ran statistical models, nostalgia again showed a strong link. Familiarity explained tapping and moving. But it failed to predict dancing once nostalgia was included. 



That means the emotional content of a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/some-people-are-born-to-enjoy-music-more-than-others/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">song</a>, how much it recalls personal memories, plays a unique role in making people want to dance.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-nostalgic-songs-feel-powerful">Why nostalgic songs feel powerful</h2>



One explanation is arousal. Nostalgic songs activate the brain’s reward and emotion centers. This boost in emotional arousal might make people more likely to get up and move. Previous studies have shown that music and memory are tightly connected. 



Music can trigger vivid recollections, sometimes even in people with memory loss. When a song reminds someone of their teenage years, it does more than sound good. It reawakens a feeling, a time, a version of themselves.



This emotional layering seems to amplify groove. It is not just that we recognize the beat. We recognize who we were when we first heard it. That deep sense of self in the music might be why dancing feels easier with older, meaningful songs.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-dance-experience-changes-groove">How dance experience changes groove</h2>



Interestingly, musical training had no real impact on groove ratings in this study. Dance training, however, did. 



Participants with dance experience reported a stronger urge to move and dance to music. This suggests that people comfortable with dancing are more receptive to music’s emotional cues.



Dance training might reduce social anxiety tied to movement. It might also improve motor coordination, making spontaneous dancing feel more natural. Those with no dance background may tap along but hesitate to take that next step into full-body motion.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-nostalgic-songs-turn-memories-into-moves">Nostalgic songs turn memories into moves</h2>



The implications of this research go beyond the dance floor. Music-based therapy is already in use for conditions like Parkinson’s disease, where rhythm can help guide motor function. 



This study adds a new layer. By choosing songs with personal emotional significance, therapists might improve outcomes. Nostalgic music could help patients re-engage their motor systems more effectively than unfamiliar tracks.



The study focused on young adults, but nostalgia deepens with age. Older adults may experience even stronger responses to music from their youth. Future research could explore these age-related differences, especially in clinical settings.



Ultimately, groove is not just about a catchy beat. It is about who we were when we first heard it. This study reveals that nostalgia holds a powerful key to unlocking movement. It stirs memories, triggers emotions, and gets our bodies moving in a way that newer music cannot always match.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0318766" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">PLOS One</a>.



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Nostalgic songs light up your brain - and get you moving

Music lives in every culture and in every person. Long...

While AI has already transformed fields like image recognition and translation, researchers are now exploring its potential in discovery-driven tasks, exploring how different drugs interact with cancer cells.



One of the most exciting applications is hypothesis generation, something that was once thought to be the domain of human curiosity alone.



A recent study, led by researchers from the <a href="https://www.cam.ac.uk" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Cambridge</a> in partnership with <a href="https://www.kcl.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">King’s College London</a> and Arctoris Ltd, tested this idea. 



Could AI suggest <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ai-is-transforming-pollen-science-and-health-planning/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">treatments</a> for breast cancer using drugs not originally meant to fight cancer? Could those suggestions lead to real, testable breakthroughs in the lab? The results suggest the answer might be yes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ai-finds-new-drug-ideas-for-cancer">AI finds new drug ideas for cancer</h2>



The research focused on GPT-4, a large language model (LLM) that is trained on vast amounts of internet text. The team designed prompts that asked GPT-4 to generate pairs of drugs that could work against MCF7 breast cancer cells but not harm healthy cells (<a href="https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4493126/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">MCF10A</a>). 



They also restricted the model from using known cancer drugs and instructed it to prioritize options that were affordable and already approved for use in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ai-shows-better-emotional-intelligence-than-humans/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">humans</a>.



“This is not automation replacing scientists, but a new kind of collaboration,” said Dr. Hector Zenil from King’s College London. 



“Guided by expert prompts and experimental feedback, the AI functioned like a tireless research partner, rapidly navigating an immense hypothesis space and proposing ideas that would take humans alone far longer to reach.”



In its first round, GPT-4 proposed 12 unique drug combinations. Interestingly, all combinations included drugs not traditionally associated with cancer therapy. 



These included medications for conditions like high cholesterol, parasitic infections, and alcohol dependence.



Even so, these combinations were not arbitrary. GPT-4 provided rationales for each pairing, often tying together biological pathways in unexpected ways.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-some-combos-work-well">Some combos work well</h2>



The next step was to test the drug pairs in the lab. Scientists measured two things: how well each combination attacked MCF7 cells and how much damage was caused to MCF10A cells. 



They also evaluated whether the drug pairs worked better together than separately, a property known as synergy.



Three combinations stood out for having better results than standard cancer therapies. One involved simvastatin and disulfiram. 



Another paired dipyridamole with mebendazole. A third involved itraconazole and atenolol. These drug pairs were not only effective against MCF7 cells, but they worked without overly harming healthy cells.



“Supervised LLMs offer a scalable, imaginative layer of scientific exploration, and can help us as human scientists explore new paths that we hadn’t thought of before,” said Professor Ross King from Cambridge’s Department of Chemical Engineering and Biotechnology, who led the research.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ai-and-humans-improve-ideas-together">AI and humans improve ideas together</h2>



Following the first set of results, the researchers asked GPT-4 to analyze what had worked and suggest new ideas. 



They shared summaries of the lab findings and prompted the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ai-helps-humans-have-20-minute-conversation-with-humpback-whale-named-twain/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">AI</a> to propose four more drug combinations, including some involving known cancer drugs like fulvestrant.



This time, the AI returned combinations such as disulfiram with quinacrine and mebendazole with quinacrine. Three of the four new suggestions again showed promising synergy scores. 



One of the most effective combinations was disulfiram with simvastatin, which achieved the highest synergy score of the entire study at over 10 on the HSA scale.



The feedback loop, AI suggesting ideas, humans testing them, then feeding results back to the AI, represents a novel way of conducting science. 



The process no longer moves in one direction. Instead, it cycles, with both machine and human adjusting and improving as they learn from each iteration.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ai-found-surprising-cancer-combos">AI found surprising cancer combos</h2>



Among the twelve original combinations, six showed positive synergy scores for MCF7 cancer cells. These included unusual pairings like furosemide and mebendazole or disulfiram and hydroxychloroquine. 



Importantly, eight of these twelve combinations had greater effects on MCF7 cells than on MCF10A cells, indicating good specificity.



Some of the most toxic drugs to MCF7 cells included disulfiram, quinacrine, niclosamide, and dipyridamole. Disulfiram had the lowest IC50 value, meaning it required only a small dose to reduce cell viability. 



GPT-4’s ability to find such effective non-cancer drugs and pair them meaningfully surprised even the researchers.



“This study demonstrates how AI can be woven directly into the iterative loop of scientific discovery, enabling adaptive, data-informed hypothesis generation and validation in real time,” said Zenil.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hallucinations-as-creative-leaps">Hallucinations as creative leaps</h2>



GPT-4 sometimes makes mistakes. These are called hallucinations, statements not supported by its training data. In most cases, hallucinations are flaws. But in hypothesis generation, they can be productive.



In this study, one such hallucination involved the claim that itraconazole affects cell membrane integrity in human cells. 



While this is true for fungi, human cells do not use the same biological pathway. Yet, this flawed idea still led to successful experiments.



“The capacity of supervised LLMs to propose hypotheses across disciplines, incorporate prior results, and collaborate across iterations marks a new frontier in scientific research,” said King.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ai-may-help-tailor-cancer-treatments">AI may help tailor cancer treatments</h2>



The research team believes that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ai-can-alert-doctors-when-patients-might-get-sicker/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">AI</a> and lab automation could eventually reduce the cost of personalized medicine. 



Cancer treatment might one day involve a custom research project for each patient. Instead of general prescriptions, therapies could be tested and tailored in near real time.



The cost of running a lab remains high, but AI like GPT-4 drastically cuts down the time and effort required to generate useful hypotheses. With further advances in robotics, the physical testing process might also become cheaper.



“Our empirical results demonstrate that the GPT-4 succeeded in its primary task of forming novel and useful hypotheses,” the authors concluded.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-this-means-for-future-science">What this means for future science</h2>



This study shows that AI can do more than summarize or analyze. It can take part in generating new scientific knowledge. 



GPT-4 didn’t just crunch numbers. It offered unexpected ideas, learned from outcomes, and improved its suggestions.



The combinations it proposed still need clinical trials. They are far from becoming approved treatments. But their success in lab settings highlights the potential of repurposing safe, existing drugs for new uses, something that could save years of development time.



The study is published in the <a href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rsif.2024.0674" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal of The Royal Society Interface</a> and <a href="https://arxiv.org/abs/2405.12258" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">arXiv</a>.



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'AI scientist' discovers that common non-cancer drugs, when combined, can kill cancer cells

While AI has already transformed fields like image recognition and...

Warm nights and clear skies make June a perfect month for stargazing. Whether you’re an early riser or a night owl, the sky offers something special this month.



According to NASA's <a href="https://science.nasa.gov/solar-system/skywatching/whats-up-june-2025-skywatching-tips-from-nasa/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">skywatching tips</a>, this month will present ancient stars, a solstice, and our Milky Way galaxy in all its glory. June brings not just astronomical sights, but moments that echo through human history.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-june-sky-planets-before-sunrise">June sky: Planets before sunrise</h2>



Start your morning under the stars. This month, Saturn and Venus both grace the eastern sky before dawn. Their slow movement offers a chance to track their position day by day. Saturn rises higher as the month progresses, offering clearer views each morning.



On June 19, the third quarter moon sits beside Saturn. This pairing gives the early <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/march-2025-stargazing-a-red-moon-and-a-vanishing-planet/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">sky</a> a graceful look. By June 22, a slender crescent moon appears next to Venus - a planet that often shines brightly but remains close to the horizon.



If you’re an early riser, the view is well worth it. Watching the planets drift across the dawn sky offers a powerful reminder of the cosmic rhythms of the universe.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rare-appearance-from-mercury">Rare appearance from Mercury</h2>



Mercury joins the show toward the end of June. It appears low in the western <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/january-2025-stargazing-a-parade-of-bright-planets/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">sky</a> after sunset. Timing is key - catch it just as the light fades and twilight begins. Though Mercury usually hides in sunlight’s glare, this month gives you a brief window to view it.



The best day to spot Mercury is June 27. That evening, it reaches its highest point and becomes most visible, especially with a clear view of the horizon. Mercury’s appearance, although fleeting, offers another reason to look west as day turns to night.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mars-and-regulus-light-up-june-skies">Mars and Regulus light up June skies</h2>



Mars remains visible after sunset, still glowing faintly in the western <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/tonights-flower-moon-completes-2025s-micromoon-trilogy/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">sky</a>. It’s not as bright as in May, but still worth observing. 



In mid-June, something special happens - Mars moves close to Regulus, a star known as the heart of Leo, the lion.



Regulus has long captured human imagination. As Mars passes nearby, the sky offers a scene rich with symbolism and history.



On June 16 and 17, Mars and Regulus will appear close together - no farther apart than the width of the full moon. Use binoculars or a small telescope for a better view. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-milky-way-season-begins">Milky Way season begins</h2>



June also marks the start of Milky Way “Core Season.” For those away from city lights, this is your chance to view our galaxy’s glowing center. The Milky Way appears as a hazy arch stretching across the night <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/astronomers-announce-evidence-suggesting-that-our-solar-system-has-nine-planets-again/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">sky</a>.



What we see with our eyes is just the beginning. The glowing band shows the galaxy's center, seen edge-on from Earth. With long-exposure photography, the structure becomes even more vivid. Dark dust lanes, bright stars, and subtle colors appear.



NASA uses powerful telescopes to see beyond visible light. These tools reveal how the galaxy formed and evolved, uncovering features that are hidden to the naked eye.



Still, there’s something magical about simply standing outside under a dark sky. You don’t need gear or data - just a moment of quiet to witness the galaxy overhead.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-june-sky-marks-earth-s-longest-day">June sky marks Earth’s longest day</h2>



June brings one of the year’s biggest astronomical events: the solstice. It marks the moment when Earth’s tilt reaches its maximum toward or away from the Sun. 



In the Northern Hemisphere, this is the beginning of summer. The days are long and the Sun climbs higher.



In the Southern Hemisphere, the opposite occurs. Winter starts, days shorten, and the Sun stays low. This happens because Earth’s axis always points in the same direction - toward Polaris, the North Star.



People have watched this turning point for ages, using it to mark time, harvests, and ceremonies. The solstice has served as a calendar marker and ritual signal for communities across the world.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-strawberry-moon">The Strawberry Moon</h2>



The full moon in June 2025, known as the Strawberry Moon, will reach its peak illumination on June 11 at 3:44 a.m. Eastern Time. However, the best time to see it will be when the moon rises on the evening of June 10.



The name originates from Native American tribes - such as the Algonquin, Ojibwe, and Dakota - who associated this time of year with the ripening of wild strawberries. 



The Strawberry Moon is the final full moon of spring in the Northern Hemisphere. When viewed from these northern latitudes, it is also the lowest full moon of the year.



June's full moon appears to hang low because it occurs near the summer solstice - when the Sun is at its highest point in the sky. The full moon is always opposite the Sun, so it follows the Sun’s lowest path across the sky. 



Since the Strawberry Moon rises and stays close to the horizon during the night, it often appears with a golden glow that can make it look unusually large - a visual effect known as the “moon illusion."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-participating-in-an-ancient-tradition">Participating in an ancient tradition</h2>



Ancient structures like Stonehenge and Chichén Itzá align with the Sun on the solstice. They show that skywatching connects all people, across continents and generations.



The solstice invites you to pause and reflect. The Sun, the Earth, and time itself come together in a single moment.



You can follow updates on planetary science, space missions, and more on the <a href="https://science.nasa.gov" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NASA</a> website. Look up this month, and feel time stretch across space and centuries.



<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=X25OGdciJOQ
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Skywatching tips for June 2025 from NASA.</figcaption></figure>



Video Credit: <a href="https://www.nasa.gov" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NASA</a>



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Under the June sky: The solstice, Milky Way, and ancient alignments

Warm nights and clear skies make June a perfect month...

Amphibians, the class of cold-blooded vertebrates that includes frogs, salamanders, and caecilians, are facing a troubling forecast in many habitats across the planet.



The <a href="https://iucn.org/our-union/commissions/group/iucn-ssc-amphibian-specialist-group" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">IUCN</a> (International Union for Conservation of Nature) estimates that more than 40% of amphibian species are in danger of extinction due to climate change.



Amphibians endure pressures from habitat destruction, pollution, and disease. These concerns are combining with thermal shifts and rainfall disruptions that threaten to shrink amphibian <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/world-frog-day-2025-protecting-natures-tiny-guardians/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">populations</a> even further.



At the <a href="https://www.goethe-university-frankfurt.de/45907464/Institute_of_Ecology__Diversity_and_Evolution" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Institute for Ecology, Evolution and Diversity</a>, Dr. Evan Twomey and his team have been examining the impact of rising temperatures on these creatures. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-pollution-habitat-loss-and-stress">Pollution, habitat loss and stress</h2>



The global investigation compared weather patterns of the last four decades with the vulnerability of more than 7,000 amphibian species.



Research confirms that environmental changes compromise amphibian habitats and set the stage for reduced breeding success and rising mortality rates, especially in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/saving-amphibians-wildlife-tunnels-prevent-road-deaths/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">species</a> that rely on short-lived water bodies.



Small wetlands and <a href="https://www.epa.gov/wetlands/vernal-pools" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">vernal pools</a> offer sites for egg-laying, but <a href="https://conbio.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/cobi.70074" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">minor shifts</a> in rainfall can leave these patches drained before tadpoles develop. This leaves fewer surviving offspring and upsets local amphibian populations.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-hurts-amphibians-breeding">Climate hurts amphibians’ breeding</h2>



“Amphibians’ dependence on temporary wetlands for breeding makes them particularly vulnerable to droughts and temperature shifts that causes their breeding grounds to dry prematurely," explained Dr. Twomey.&nbsp;



"Our analyses show the direct connection between the increase in extreme weather events and the decline of amphibian <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/amphibians-are-being-pushed-beyond-their-heat-limits/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">populations</a>."



Hotter days can affect the skin of frogs and the respiration patterns of amphibian larvae, potentially reducing survival rates. 



Severe cold spells in certain locales may push animals beyond their physiological limits and increase susceptibility to pathogens like <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/11838218/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">chytrid fungus</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-threats-vary-by-region-and-species">Threats vary by region and species</h2>



Rising temperatures in tropical forests have coincided with alarming declines in frogs throughout South America. Increased drought in European habitats has made life difficult for true salamanders (the family Salamandridae), which are closely tied to specific wetlands for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-amphibians-survived-earths-deadliest-mass-extinction/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">breeding</a>.



 Professor Lisa Schulte is the head of the Department of Wildlife-Zoo-Animal-Biology and Systematics at <a href="https://www.uni-frankfurt.de/de" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Goethe University in Frankfurt</a>. 



“Already half of the true salamanders native to Central Europe are exposed to increasing droughts today, and this will likely get worse in the future,” she said.



Madagascar, home to many frogs found nowhere else, is also recording stronger <a href="https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4009861/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">heat waves</a> that may leave less moisture in forest ecosystems. Some areas of the Southern Cone are seeing more cold spells that could pose an unexpected threat to local frog communities.&nbsp;



Whether it’s droughts, heat waves, or cooler conditions, researchers note that climate change in certain years may enable fungi to invade amphibian tissues, further hastening population drops.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-change-hits-amphibians">Climate change hits amphibians</h2>



Climate change rarely works alone. Amphibians already face threats from pollution, land development, invasive species, and disease. Now, extreme weather is amplifying those risks in places already under stress.



Species exposed to both heat waves and droughts were far more likely to experience a worsening conservation status. 



In some South American families like <a href="https://amphibiaweb.org/lists/Aromobatidae.shtml" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Aromobatidae</a> and <a href="https://amphibiaweb.org/lists/Odontophrynidae.shtml" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Odontophrynidae</a>, over a third of the species face both threats. This double burden makes recovery harder, especially when conservation efforts focus on just one danger at a time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-can-help-survival">What can help survival</h2>



Small ponds and protected breeding spots can improve amphibians’ chances of producing stable new generations. 



Temporary shelters, such as PVC tubes or shady boards, may offer humidity and a barrier against scorching sun or extended drought.



Land managers in some regions have restored wetlands in ways that provide extra weeks of water retention. This small extension of wet conditions is often enough for tadpoles to grow and metamorphose, so these approaches may be one way to protect sensitive species.



Clear steps matter because amphibians help control insect numbers and serve as an indicator of environmental health. Without them, food webs lose a key piece, and ecosystems shift in unpredictable ways.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-helping-amphibians-face-climate-change">Helping amphibians face climate change</h2>



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/skydiving-salamanders-can-fully-control-blood-flow-in-their-toes/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Salamanders</a> play a quiet but crucial role in many ecosystems. They help control insect populations and serve as prey for larger animals, keeping food webs balanced.



Because they breathe partly through their skin, they're highly sensitive to environmental change.



This means that salamanders are reliable indicators of deeper ecological problems that may affect other species, including humans.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://conbio.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/cobi.70074" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Conservation Biology</a>.



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Amphibians are vanishing as climate and drought worsen globally

Amphibians, the class of cold-blooded vertebrates that includes frogs, salamanders,...

A new study suggests that early humans may have used fire not primarily for cooking, but to protect their hard-earned meat from predators and preserve it through smoking and drying.



This theory offers a fresh explanation for why fire was first adopted long before it became a common part of daily life.



Researchers from <a href="https://english.tau.ac.il/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Tel Aviv University</a> argue that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/study-shows-early-humans-climbed-trees-and-worked-with-stone/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">early humans</a>, especially Homo erectus, likely used fire as a practical tool to guard and store large quantities of meat. Instead of cooking, fire may have served to smoke and dry meat from massive animals like elephants or hippos.



This, they propose, was a key survival strategy that let humans make the most of rare and valuable kills.



The research was conducted by Dr. Miki Ben-Dor and Professor Ran Barkai from the university’s Alkow Department of Archaeology and Ancient Near Eastern Cultures. The study is part of a broader theory that connects prehistoric developments to the decline of large game over time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-early-uses-of-fire">Early uses of fire</h2>



Evidence of fire use becomes common in human habitats only after about 400,000 years ago. Before that, signs of fire are much rarer.



“The origins of fire use is a ‘burning’ topic among prehistory researchers around the world," Barkai said. "It is generally agreed that by 400,000 years ago, fire use was common in domestic contexts - most likely for roasting meat, and perhaps also for lighting and heating.” 



“But there is controversy regarding the preceding million years, and various hypotheses have been put forward to explain why early humans began using fire. In this study, we sought to explore a new perspective on the issue.”



Ben-Dor emphasized that early humans didn’t use fire on a regular basis. “At a number of early sites there are clear signs that fire was used, but without burnt bones or evidence of meat roasting," he said. 



The researchers suggest that ancient people needed a compelling, energy-efficient reason to invest time and effort in maintaining a fire.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-patterns-across-ancient-sites"><a></a>Patterns across ancient sites</h2>



To support their theory, the researchers analyzed nine early sites - 1.8 million to 800,000 years old - with fire evidence. These sites span Africa, Israel, and Spain. The team also drew on ethnographic data from present-day <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/our-hunter-gatherer-ancestors-did-much-more-gathering-than-hunting/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">hunter-gatherers</a> to help interpret ancient behavior.



“We examined what the nine ancient sites had in common, and found that all contained large quantities of bones from large animals - mostly <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-ancient-humans-hunted-elephants-with-stone-tools/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">elephants</a>, but also hippopotamuses, rhinoceroses, and others,” Ben-Dor said.



Previous studies show these animals were crucial for early human diets, supplying most of the necessary calories. "The meat and fat of a single elephant contain millions of calories, enough to feed a group of 20–30 people for a month or more,” he said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fire-and-smoke-protects-food">Fire and smoke protects food</h2>



From this, the researchers concluded that early humans used fire to guard valuable meat from other animals and to prevent spoilage by smoking it.



“A hunted elephant or hippopotamus was thus a real treasure - a kind of meat and fat ‘bank’ that needed to be protected and preserved for many days, since it was coveted not only by predators but also by bacteria,” Ben-Dor said.



This dual use made fire-building worthwhile, even before it became a standard domestic tool, they argue. It also explains why some early sites have evidence of fire without signs of cooked meat.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-wider-prehistoric-picture">A wider prehistoric picture</h2>



Barkai sees this idea as part of a larger shift in how we understand early human behavior. “In this study, we propose a new understanding of the factors that motivated early humans to begin using fire," he explained. "The need to safeguard large hunted animals from other predators, and to preserve the vast quantity of meat over time.”



“It is likely that once fire was produced for these purposes, it was also occasionally used for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/what-bedrock-can-tell-us-about-ancient-cooking-and-culture/">coo</a><a href="https://www.earth.com/news/what-bedrock-can-tell-us-about-ancient-cooking-and-culture/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">k</a><a href="https://www.earth.com/news/what-bedrock-can-tell-us-about-ancient-cooking-and-culture/">ing</a> - at zero marginal energetic cost. Such use may explain evidence of fish roasting from around 800,000 years ago at Gesher Benot Ya'aqov.”



The researchers' approach aligns with their broader theory that prehistoric hunting and consumption of large animals drove human evolution. When those large animals disappeared, humans adapted by exploiting smaller prey.



In this view, fire wasn’t simply a tool for comfort or cuisine. It was a strategic response to ecological and survival pressures - a way for early humans to make the most of their greatest food sources before those sources became scarce.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/nutrition/articles/10.3389/fnut.2025.1585182/full">Fron</a><a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/nutrition/articles/10.3389/fnut.2025.1585182/full" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">t</a><a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/nutrition/articles/10.3389/fnut.2025.1585182/full">iers in Nutrition</a>.



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Early humans first used fire to preserve meat instead of cooking

A new study suggests that early humans may have used...

Ancient tooth enamel proteins have provided powerful clues for researchers studying our very early relatives - Paranthropus robustus, in this instance - and their role in human evolution. 



This hard outer layer of teeth, once dismissed as too durable to hold molecular secrets, is now offering unexpected insights into a lineage that scientists used to consider fairly straightforward.



A new study, led by Palesa Madupe of the <a href="https://globe.ku.dk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Globe Institute</a> at the University of Copenhagen, has revealed protein-based evidence of hidden genetic variation within Paranthropus robustus. 



This suggests that the prehistoric humans may not have been a single, uniform species after all.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-protein-points-to-new-species">Protein points to new species</h2>



Paranthropus robustus, dating back to between 2.8 and 1 million years ago, was long grouped under a single evolutionary umbrella.



Many findings initially supported the view that these distant cousins of ours were a single, stable <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/primitive-tools-discovery-reveals-human-life-in-jungle-150000-years-ago/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">population</a> that coexisted in parts of southern Africa alongside other hominins.



Some researchers noticed that P. robustus shared features with <a href="https://humanorigins.si.edu/evidence/human-fossils/species/australopithecus-africanus" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Australopithecus africanus</a>. 



In particular, dental traits hinted at overlaps that seemed too close for comfort. Those overlaps eventually led to questions about the possibility of multiple branching lines rather than a solitary lineage.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-ancient-dna-fades">Why ancient DNA fades</h2>



The study of ancient DNA (aDNA) has offered breakthroughs in unraveling <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30135579/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">hominin relationships</a> in material that is under 20,000 years old.



Beyond that threshold, much of the fragile genetic material degrades and disappears. In older African fossils, those precious genetic codes are usually gone.



This limitation prompted investigators to look elsewhere for molecular clues. Instead of aDNA, they turned to sturdier molecules that can remain intact in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/first-tools-ever-made-on-earth-hominins-3-million-years-ago-cradle-of-humankind/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">fossils</a> for far longer, and would allow a fresh window into the biology of extinct species.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-paranthropus-robustus-tooth-enamel">Paranthropus robustus tooth enamel</h2>



A field called <a href="https://www.nautilus.bio/blog/paleoproteomics-unleashing-the-proteome-of-the-ancient-world/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">paleoproteomics</a> now makes it possible to detect and characterize proteins in ancient remains.



Using high-resolution mass spectrometry, researchers analyzed tooth enamel from fossils dated to roughly 1.8-2.2 million years ago. They hoped to find distinct protein signatures that might add to existing skeletal observations.



The tooth enamel, excavated from <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S004724842100052X" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Swartkrans cave</a> in South Africa, included four separate P. robustus specimens. 



Each sample was painstakingly checked for molecular markers, opening the door to a deeper understanding of how these individuals might have varied.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-proteins-fix-fossil-sex-labels">Proteins fix fossil sex labels</h2>



One of the central findings involved <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-021-85402-3" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">sexual dimorphism</a>, the physical differences between males and females of the same species. 



Older assessments of P. robustus relied on tooth size to guess whether a specimen was male or female. Protein evidence now showed that some specimens were mislabeled when judged solely by tooth size.



Researchers identified key <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/37232204/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">enamel peptides</a> that mark male or female biology, which led to a more precise determination of each fossil’s sex. 



This approach indicated that tooth size alone does not fully explain the range of variability seen in these individuals.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hints-of-multiple-species">Hints of multiple species</h2>



Proteins revealed more than just sex-based differences. One specimen displayed a unique sequence pattern that set it apart from the others, prompting the idea that P. robustus might not be a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-early-humans-learned-to-walk-from-an-ancestor-called-lufengpithecus/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">one-size-fits-all species</a>.



Some experts now wonder if this clue supports the proposed species P. capensis, though confirmation would require further study.



Morphological signals had hinted at something unusual, including tooth-enamel thicknesses that vary more than expected within a single population. 



These protein-based observations align with fossil-based research that suggests more taxonomic <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/hidden-chapter-in-human-evolution-revealed-through-genetics/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">complexity</a> in the group than previously assumed.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-shared-ancestry-or-parallel-evolution">Shared ancestry or parallel evolution?</h2>



Scientists once tried to connect P. robustus directly to Australopithecus africanus, given their overlapping features. The new enamel data raise questions about whether these similarities represent shared ancestry or parallel evolution.



It’s also possible that distinct Paranthropus groups arose and coexisted, each adapted to specific niches <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/humans-lived-in-rainforests-80000-years-earlier-than-we-thought/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">across different landscapes</a>.



This scenario would help explain the range of dental and skeletal traits seen in fossils assigned to this genus, and suggests they should not be forced into a single, rigid category.



“Paleoanthropology has a history of being dominated by scholars from predominantly White, Western institutions,” said study lead author Palesa Madupe. 



Beyond the science, the study reflects a shift in how paleoanthropological work is conducted. 



She and her collaborators aim to change that by involving local experts in every stage of investigation. 



Their hope is to share findings more equitably and promote broad participation among African researchers, whose regions hold many key prehistoric sites.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-broader-lessons-from-enamel-proteins">Broader lessons from enamel proteins</h2>



Enamel proteins are now essential to discussions about ancient hominin diversity. They allow us to tell males from females with greater certainty, and they might even pinpoint local or regional distinctions within a species. 



This approach could be the key to unlocking stories where <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/hidden-chapter-in-human-evolution-revealed-through-genetics/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">DNA</a> is no longer an option.



Paleoproteomics also reduces reliance on external morphological markers, which can vary or overlap. 



In earlier studies, hominin classification sometimes rested on subtle skeletal traits that led to confusion. Protein-based data may help researchers avoid those pitfalls and distinguish genuine differences.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-p-robustus-tooth-enamel-and-evolution">P. robustus, tooth enamel, and evolution</h2>



These findings encourage scientists to reevaluate established frameworks on early human evolution. 



By comparing protein sequences from multiple specimens, researchers will move closer to clarifying the number of species that once roamed the same landscapes, millions of years ago.



They also show how including diverse voices and regions can enrich our view of the past. This is particularly important for discoveries made on the African continent, which holds so many clues to our collective origins.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.adt9539" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Science</a>.



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Tooth fossil analysis upends current theory of prehistoric human evolution

Ancient tooth enamel proteins have provided powerful clues for researchers...

Every year, June 5 marks World Environment Day. It's a moment to step back and ask ourselves: What kind of Earth are we leaving behind? It is not just about recycling a bottle or switching off a light - it's about recognizing the deep ties between us and the living planet. 



World Environment Day began in 1972, launched by the United Nations during the Stockholm Conference. Since then, it has become the world’s largest platform for environmental <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earth-day-2025-our-power-our-planet/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">awareness</a>. 



Each year, the campaign takes on a new theme and a new host country. This year, the Republic of Korea leads the campaign with a focus on ending the plastic crisis under the powerful slogan: “Beat Plastic Pollution.”



As we witness floods, wildfires, and droughts with increasing regularity, it becomes clear: the environment is not an isolated issue. It is the foundation of our health, food, safety, and survival.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ending-plastic-pollution-is-urgent">Ending plastic pollution is urgent</h2>



Plastic pollution has become one of the most pressing environmental <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earth-day-2025-innovation-takes-the-lead-in-environmental-action/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">challenges</a> of our time. Every year, millions of tons of plastic waste end up in our oceans, rivers, and landscapes. 



Beyond harming wildlife and ecosystems, microplastics have been found in the food we eat, the water we drink, and even the air we breathe.



The United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) emphasizes that plastic pollution is not just an environmental issue but also a health and economic concern. The costs associated with plastic pollution, including cleanup efforts and health impacts, are staggering.



“Plastic pollution is choking our planet - harming ecosystems, well-being, and the climate. Yet there is a movement for urgent change,” noted Inger Andersen, Executive Director of UNEP.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-link-between-plastic-and-climate">The link between plastic and climate</h2>



Plastic production and disposal contribute significantly to greenhouse gas emissions. From the extraction of fossil fuels to the manufacturing process and eventual incineration or degradation, plastics release harmful pollutants into the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earth-day-2025-what-were-really-fighting-for/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">atmosphere</a>.



Moreover, plastic waste in oceans disrupts marine ecosystems, affecting the ocean's ability to sequester carbon dioxide. This disruption exacerbates climate change effects, creating a feedback loop that further harms the environment.



World Environment Day&nbsp;highlights that addressing plastic pollution is a critical step in combating climate change and preserving biodiversity.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-take-action-on-world-environment-day">Take action on World Environment Day </h2>



While policy changes and corporate responsibility are vital, individual actions play a crucial role in reducing plastic pollution. Simple steps like carrying reusable bags, avoiding single-use plastics, and supporting products with sustainable packaging can collectively make a significant <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/world-turtle-day-2025-ancient-creatures-with-modern-challenges/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">impact</a>.



Education and awareness are also key. By informing others about the dangers of plastic pollution and advocating for sustainable practices, individuals can drive community-level change.



“No one can do everything, but everyone can do something,” says <a href="https://www.unccd.int/convention/who-is-who/executive-secretary" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Ibrahim Thiaw</a>, executive secretary of the UNCCD. His words highlight a key truth: restoration is not about grand gestures. It is about daily habits, done with care and purpose.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-global-movements-driving-local-change">Global movements driving local change</h2>



World Environment Day is not a one-day affair. It energizes thousands of grassroots movements, public campaigns, and international collaborations. 



Initiatives like the UN Decade on Ecosystem Restoration aim to revive one billion hectares of degraded land by 2030. This ambitious target covers forests, farmlands, wetlands, savannahs, and coastlines.



In Africa, countries are planting trees under the Great Green Wall initiative. In Asia, farmers are restoring rice paddies that absorb carbon. In Latin America, indigenous communities are reviving ancestral water systems. These projects show that environmental change is already underway. It just needs more momentum.



Digital platforms like <a href="https://www.youth4nature.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Youth4Nature</a> are helping young people become restoration stewards. At the same time, institutes like the <a href="https://www.wri.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">World Resources Institute</a> and <a href="https://www.unep.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">UNEP</a> support policy shifts and data-driven strategies. Together, they create a global network of local solutions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hope-not-fear-will-restore-the-planet">Hope, not fear, will restore the planet</h2>



Many people feel overwhelmed by the scale of the environmental crisis. That fear is understandable. Fear cannot rebuild soil or plant trees, but hope can. The beauty of restoration is that it begins with simple acts. It is not about undoing the past - it's about shaping the future.



Nature knows how to heal. We just need to give it space, time, and respect. When we restore land, we restore life. We bring back insects that pollinate. Birds that spread seeds. Microbes that make soil fertile. These quiet helpers create a web of resilience. Humans are part of that web.



World Environment Day 2025 urges us to see land not as property but as kin. It breathes when forests sway, feeds when crops ripen, and listens when raindrops fall. When we give back to the land, it gives back in abundance.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-world-environment-day-hope-and-renewal">World Environment Day: Hope and renewal</h2>



Marking World Environment Day is not enough. What matters is what we do after June 5. Will we let the momentum fade, or will we keep it alive in our homes, schools, and workplaces? The answer shapes our shared destiny.



We must build a culture of restoration. One that honors nature not as a resource but as a relative. One that recognizes care as strength, not weakness. In this culture, every act of restoration, no matter how small, becomes an act of resistance, hope, and renewal.



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World Environment Day 2025: Plastic pollution is choking our planet

Every year, June 5 marks World Environment Day. It's a...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2E0mn5mTvhQ
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">'Death Star' moon Mimas conceals a 15-million-year-old ocean that scientists never expected.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hidden-waters-beneath-ancient-craters">Hidden waters beneath ancient craters</h2>



Scientists have made a startling discovery that challenges everything we thought we knew about <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/saturn-moon-mimas-has-remarkably-young-ocean/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Saturn's moon Mimas</a>. Beneath the heavily cratered surface that earned it the nickname "Death Star" lies a global ocean that formed just 5 to 15 million years ago—a remarkably young age by cosmic standards.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cassini-data-reveals-orbital-secrets">Cassini data reveals orbital secrets</h2>



The discovery, led by Dr. Valéry Lainey of the <a href="https://observatoiredeparis.psl.eu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Observatoire de Paris</a>, emerged from careful analysis of <a href="https://www.nasa.gov" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NASA</a>'s Cassini spacecraft data. By studying subtle irregularities in Mimas's orbit around Saturn, researchers detected the gravitational signature of liquid water hidden 20 to 30 kilometers beneath the moon's icy shell.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-an-unlikely-ocean-world">An unlikely ocean world</h2>



At only 400 kilometers in diameter, Mimas seemed like the least likely candidate to harbor a subsurface ocean. Unlike other ocean moons such as Europa and Enceladus, which show clear surface signs of internal activity, Mimas displays no obvious hints of the liquid water beneath its ancient, crater-scarred exterior.



"Mimas is a small moon, and its heavily cratered surface gave no hint of the hidden ocean beneath," explained Dr. Nick Cooper from <a href="https://www.qmul.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Queen Mary University of London</a>, a study co-author.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-astrobiology">Implications for astrobiology</h2>



The ocean's recent formation makes Mimas a prime target for studying how oceans develop and potentially support life. This discovery adds another member to the exclusive club of ocean worlds in our solar system, each offering unique insights into the conditions necessary for habitability.



The research, published in <a href="https://www.nature.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature</a> journal, demonstrates how advanced orbital analysis can reveal hidden features of celestial bodies, opening new possibilities for understanding ocean formation throughout the cosmos.



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Scientists discover unexpected young ocean on Saturn's cratered moon Mimas

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2E0mn5mTvhQ 'Death Star' moon Mimas conceals a 15-million-year-old ocean that...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE
</div></figure>



On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop and sunlight barely penetrates through the polar winter. It was here, however, that an international team of scientists found <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/predatory-worms-were-terror-beasts-half-a-billion-years-ago/#google_vignette" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evidence of sea monsters</a> that would change our understanding of ocean life in the past.



This video captures the discovery of Timorebestia fossils that had been hidden for more than 500 million years in the Sirius Passet formation. The "terror beasts," as they are called, are a hidden chapter in the evolutionary history of <a href="https://www.earth.com" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Earth</a>, showing that sophisticated predator-prey interactions occurred much earlier than previously envisioned.



Dr. Jakob Vinther and his research team at the <a href="https://www.bristol.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Bristol</a>, in collaboration with researchers at the <a href="https://eng.kopri.re.kr/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Korean Polar Research Institute</a>, braved extreme weather conditions at 82.5 north latitude to locate these giant creatures. Using sophisticated electron microprobe analysis, they revealed the detailed anatomy of the animals, including their muscle and nerve tissues.



The find upsets the traditional timeline of sea predators. Although we've long appreciated that Cambrian oceans were at one time ruled by <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jWI3-UgA3_o&amp;list=PL1QLQMW9MWDwpkFOnvgAmu7wT6rZmYqdJ&amp;index=19" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">arthropods</a>, these discoveries indicate that relatives of arrow worms were first to dominate the seas. These worms were building sophisticated food webs several million years before other predator groups arose.



Each fossil is a story of ancient hunger, with fossil stomach contents revealing these meter-long beasts dined on heavily armored arthropods regularly, cementing their place as the ocean's first apex predators.



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Worms dominated seas before dinosaurs

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">New York is the site of the world's oldest forest.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-385-million-year-old-trees-discovered">385-million-year-old trees discovered</h2>



Scientists have uncovered something extraordinary just two hours north of New York City. The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/worlds-oldest-forest-discovered-close-to-new-york-city/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">world's oldest forest</a>, dating back 385 million years, offers a window into how Earth's first complex forests shaped our planet's atmosphere.



Located near <a href="https://townofcairo.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cairo, New York</a>, in Greene County, these weren't merely primitive plants struggling to survive. These were sophisticated trees with root systems remarkably similar to modern forests. This ancient woodland predates dinosaurs by 140 million years.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-cairo-forest-discovery">The Cairo forest discovery</h2>



385 million years ago, upstate New York was a tropical paradise near the equator. Thanks to continental drift, this ancient forest has traveled thousands of miles to its current location.



The fossil forest sits in an abandoned quarry, roughly half the size of a football field. This represents just a slice of what was likely a massive forest system stretching from New York into Pennsylvania.



Charles Ver Straeten, curator of sedimentary rocks at the <a href="https://www.nysm.nysed.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">New York State Museum</a>, made the discovery in 2009. While scouting the former highway department property, his trained eye spotted wandering patterns in the stone that looked like marine features.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-revolutionary-age-and-preservation">Revolutionary age and preservation</h2>



The site contains 385-million-year-old rocks with fossilized woody roots forming horizontal patterns up to 18 feet (5.5 meters) wide. As Christopher Berry, a paleobotanist at Cardiff University, explains: "You are walking through the roots of ancient trees."



This discovery pushes back advanced tree evolution by millions of years. The research, published in <a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/home" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Current Biology</a> in December 2019, fundamentally changes our understanding of when complex forests first emerged.



Researchers believe a massive flood buried the forest floor, creating perfect fossilization conditions. Over millions of years, sediment hardened into rock, preserving these root patterns like nature's time capsule.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-meet-archaeopteris-the-first-modern-tree">Meet Archaeopteris: the first modern tree</h2>



The star of this ancient forest is Archaeopteris – not to be confused with the feathered dinosaur Archaeopteryx. This tree was far older and more revolutionary.



William Stein from <a href="https://www.binghamton.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Binghamton University</a> describes the roots as "strikingly modern, essentially what you'd see outside in my yard right now." These weren't simple root systems you'd expect from ancient plants.



Some fossilized roots are six inches (15 centimeters) in diameter, forming 36-foot-wide (11-meter) patterns. These giants grew up to 65 feet (20 meters) tall with five-foot-diameter (1.5-meter) trunks.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-changing-impact">Climate-changing impact</h2>



These trees fundamentally changed Earth's environment. Kevin Boyce, a Stanford University geoscientist, explains how their deep roots triggered "weathering," chemical reactions that pulled carbon dioxide from the atmosphere.



This process dropped atmospheric CO2 levels from 10-15 times higher than today to roughly modern concentrations. These ancient trees helped create atmospheric conditions that made complex life possible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ancient-forest-ecosystem">Ancient forest ecosystem</h2>



The forest was remarkably diverse. Scientists identified Eospermatopteris, palm tree-like plants with short roots that reached 30 feet (9 meters) tall but lacked woody structure. The forest also housed cladoxylopsids and a mysterious third species still being studied.



All reproduced through spores rather than seeds – millions of years before seeds evolved. This tropical environment had no grass, flowers, or flying insects, just towering trees creating Earth's first complex forest canopy.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-scientific-significance">Scientific significance</h2>



Before this finding, the Gilboa forest, located 25 miles (40 kilometers) away, held the "oldest forest" title. Cairo's trees are 2-3 million years older, showing that complex forest ecosystems developed much faster than scientists believed possible.



Patricia Gensel, a <a href="https://www.unc.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of North Carolina</a> paleobotanist, notes: "The size of those root systems is really changing the picture. Even 20 years ago, researchers assumed trees with such complex root systems didn't evolve so early."



The Cairo site presents three unique root systems, suggesting Devonian period forests were diverse ecosystems with different trees occupying different environmental niches, much like today's forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-modern-preservation-efforts">Modern preservation efforts</h2>



In 2022, New York State Senator Michelle Hinchey secured a $170,000 grant for the town of Cairo to construct specialized fencing around the fossil forest site. The town plans to conduct a feasibility study exploring the possibility of creating an educational center and working lab on-site.



Joe Hasenkopf, chair of the Cairo Planning Board, hopes to partner with educational institutions to create a research facility serving scientists, students, and the public.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lessons-for-today-s-climate">Lessons for today's climate</h2>



Why does a 385-million-year-old forest matter today? It shows how dramatically forests can change Earth's climate. These ancient woodlands created the atmospheric conditions supporting complex life.



Understanding how prehistoric forests transformed the planet helps us appreciate modern forests' critical role in addressing climate change. Forests remain Earth's most effective carbon capture systems.



These prehistoric trees changed Earth's atmosphere by pulling massive amounts of carbon dioxide from the air. As we face modern climate challenges, this ancient forest reminds us of trees' incredible power to transform our planet's environment.



The next time you walk through a forest, remember you're experiencing an ecosystem whose blueprint was established 385 million years ago in upstate New York. These ancient pioneers didn't just survive – they thrived and changed the world forever.



The full study was published in the journal Current Biology.



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Earth's oldest forest found in the United States

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ New York is the site of the world's oldest...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Acid rain and a crisis solved.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-don-t-we-ever-hear-about-acid-rain-anymore-the-environmental-crisis-that-was-solved">Why don't we ever hear about "acid rain" anymore? The environmental crisis that was solved</h2>



Remember the 1980s when acid rain dominated headlines? Dire warnings about rain eating buildings, killing fish, and destroying forests filled every news cycle. Then, almost like magic, acid rain vanished from public discourse. What happened? Did we actually solve one of the late 20th century's most pressing environmental challenges?



The answer might surprise you. Unlike many environmental issues that drag on indefinitely, acid rain represents one of modern history's most successful ecological recovery stories. It's a tale of science, politics, and technology working together to tackle what seemed impossible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What was acid rain?</h2>



Acid rain isn't regular rain having a bad day – it's precipitation that became significantly more acidic due to air pollution. When power plants, factories, and vehicles burn fossil fuels, they release sulfur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides (NOx) into the atmosphere.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The science behind it</h2>



Think of acid rain as nature's chemistry experiment gone wrong. These compounds react with water, oxygen, and other chemicals to form sulfuric and nitric acids. When mixed with water vapor in clouds, they create precipitation with dangerously low pH levels.



While clean rain has a pH of about 5.6, acid rain could drop as low as 4.2 to 4.4 – roughly as acidic as tomato juice or coffee. According to US Geological Survey documentation, Scottish chemist Angus Smith first coined "acid rain" in 1872, but it didn't become a household phrase until the 1960s and 1970s when Swedish scientist Svante Odén documented its devastating effects on Scandinavian lakes and European forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The crisis at its peak</h2>



During the height of public concern, environmental damage was both widespread and visible. This wasn't some abstract future threat – people could see destruction happening in real-time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Environmental devastation</h2>



The most dramatic impacts were impossible to ignore. Research documented by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation and the New York State Department of Environmental Conservation shows that in the Adirondack Mountains, more than 200 lakes became so acidic they couldn't support fish life. The Adirondack Council reports that 409 lakes once supported brook trout, but many lost their fish populations due to acid rain.



By 1976, when scientists cataloged all acidified lakes in the Adirondack Park, researchers found that half of the lakes over 2,000 feet above sea level had no fish, according to studies published in environmental journals. The acidification process worked like a slow-motion disaster. As acid rain fell into watersheds, it gradually lowered pH levels. Fish couldn't survive in acidic water, and their food sources died off too.



Trees at high elevations showed stress directly linked to acid rain. It weakened them by leaching nutrients and making them susceptible to disease. Historical records show Germany's Black Forest saw nearly half its trees damaged by the mid-1980s.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Economic impact</h2>



Acid rain wasn't just environmental – it was expensive. Acidic precipitation corroded infrastructure, buildings, and monuments. Historic stone structures deteriorated at accelerated rates. Tourism suffered as lakes became fishless and forests declined. EPA economic analyses from the period documented repair costs mounting into billions annually.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The solution: government action and technology</h2>



Transformation from crisis to success required unprecedented cooperation between governments, industries, and environmental groups.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The Clean Air Act of 1990</h2>



The turning point came with the Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990, signed by President George H.W. Bush. This represented a fundamentally new approach to environmental regulation, as documented in EPA historical records.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Cap-and-trade success</h2>



Instead of mandating specific technologies, the 1990 amendments introduced something revolutionary: a cap-and-trade system for sulfur dioxide emissions. EPA program documentation shows this market-based approach set overall limits but allowed companies to trade emission allowances.



The genius was harnessing market forces to find cost-effective pollution reduction. Companies reducing emissions cheaply could sell excess allowances to those facing higher costs. Research published in environmental economics journals and EPA progress reports shows this resulted in dramatic SO2 reduction at a fraction of projected costs.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Technology advances</h2>



Policy provided the framework, but technology made reductions possible. Studies in atmospheric science journals document the widespread adoption of flue gas desulfurization systems ("scrubbers") that removed sulfur dioxide before it reached the atmosphere. By the 2000s, new installations could remove over 95% of SO2 emissions, according to EPA technical reports.



The push coincided with cleaner energy development. Natural gas produces fewer sulfur compounds than coal. Wind and solar, emerging in the 1990s, captured growing market share, reducing reliance on high-sulfur coal.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-we-don-t-hear-about-it-today">Why we don't hear about it today</h2>



Why did acid rain disappear from headlines? Simple: the problem was largely solved.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Success doesn't make news</h2>



There's an old journalism saying: "If it bleeds, it leads." Environmental success stories don't generate urgency like crisis reporting. Media attention shifted to other challenges: climate change, plastic pollution, and biodiversity loss. There's only so much environmental anxiety the public can absorb, and newer concerns replaced acid rain.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Mission accomplished</h2>



The primary reason is beautifully simple: interventions worked. EPA monitoring data shows sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990. Academic research published in environmental science journals confirms pH levels in formerly affected areas returned closer to normal. This represents one of history's most dramatic environmental recoveries. Studies by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation show fishless lakes now support healthy populations. Forests recovered, and building damage slowed dramatically.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-is-it-really-gone">Is it really gone?</h2>



The crisis is largely resolved, but monitoring data shows the problem isn't completely eliminated – it's managed to acceptable levels. Some areas still experience occasional events during high pollution periods. International environmental research indicates that rapidly industrializing Asian countries face similar problems to what we experienced decades ago, though they're implementing successful strategies.



EPA research shows nitrogen oxide emissions proved more challenging than sulfur dioxide, coming from vehicles and mobile sources. Climate science studies suggest changing weather patterns add complexity to how acid rain forms and falls.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What this teaches us</h2>



The acid rain experience proves that seemingly intractable environmental problems can be solved with scientific understanding, political will, and technological innovation. Environmental monitoring data shows recovery speed was remarkable – within a decade, measurable improvements appeared in air quality and ecosystem health.



Success came from bipartisan support across party lines. Policy analysis studies show the market-based approach appealed to those preferring economic incentives while achieving environmental goals. This support created lasting policy surviving political changes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Conclusion</h2>



Acid rain's disappearance from public consciousness represents environmental science's greatest success stories. Through effective regulation, technological innovation, and international cooperation, we transformed an overwhelming crisis into a manageable challenge.



Today's silence isn't because we forgot – it's because we solved it. The 1990 Clean Air Act, combined with technology and energy market changes, reduced acid rain emissions over 90%, according to comprehensive EPA data analysis.



This success offers hope for current challenges. It proves complex problems can be solved when science, policy, and technology work together. As we face climate change and plastic pollution, acid rain reminds us that dramatic positive change is possible.



Next time someone asks whether environmental regulations work, remember acid rain. It's proof that sometimes, we get it right.



<hr class="wp-block-separator has-alpha-channel-opacity"/>



Sources: This article draws from EPA official documentation and progress reports, peer-reviewed research published in environmental and atmospheric science journals, historical data from the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation, New York State Department of Environmental Conservation records, US Geological Survey publications, policy analysis studies, and environmental monitoring data collected over three decades.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Frequently Asked Questions</h2>



1. Is acid rain completely gone? No, but EPA monitoring shows it's reduced to manageable levels. US sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990, making acid rain much less severe than the 1980s crisis.



2. How long did solving take? Environmental monitoring data shows significant improvements began within 5-10 years of 1990s emission controls. Full ecosystem recovery took longer – some areas need 20-30 years for complete recovery.



3. What made the solution successful? Clear scientific understanding, visible damage motivating action, bipartisan support, available technology, and innovative market-based policies like cap-and-trade.



4. Do other countries have acid rain problems? Yes, particularly rapidly industrializing Asian countries. However, international environmental research shows many implement similar successful control strategies.



5. Could acid rain return? Potentially, if regulations weaken or we return to high-sulfur coal without controls, though effects would take years to become severe according to environmental projections.



6. Can you recommend any teaching tools on the subject of "acid rain"? The United States Environmental Protection Agency produced a wonderful teacher's guide for ages 14 and under that you can find on the EPA website here: <a href="https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf</a>



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The environmental problem we actually solved

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk Acid rain and a crisis solved. Why don't we...

Fresh,Radish,Harvest,On,Soil,In,Garden.

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Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving fall garden, and this guide lays out the best vegetables and herbs to plant now for a fruitful autumn harvest. 



Fast-growing leafy greens such as spinach, lettuce, kale, and arugula perform especially well in the waning summer heat, with harvests beginning as soon as 30 days. 



These cool-season crops relish the transition into fall, offering repeated yields with cut-and-come-again methods.



Root vegetables like radishes, carrots, and beets also excel during this period. Radishes deliver satisfaction in under a month, while carrots and beets mature in about two months. Employing succession planting ensures a continuous stream of produce deep into the cooler months. 



For a boost of fresh flavor, herbs like cilantro, basil, dill, and chervil are excellent picks. These heat-loving varieties flourish in July’s warmth and are harvest-ready in about 30 days, especially when sown continuously.



Gardeners in zones 6 through 9 can benefit from planting bush beans and snap peas, which don’t require trellising and are ideal for compact plots. 



Maturing in 50–60 days, they’re a smart choice for quick, protein-rich harvests. For those in hotter regions, heat-tolerant crops such as okra and southern peas provide reliable yields and thrive in scorching conditions.



This guide emphasizes more than crop selection—it highlights the importance of timing, soil preparation, and ongoing sowing techniques. 



With thoughtful planning and attention to regional climate needs, even late-summer gardeners can enjoy fresh salads, hearty stews, and the satisfaction of a robust, homegrown harvest well into fall.



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What to plant in your garden in mid-July

https://youtu.be/Fi2OeEwuzRM?si=vTyd2m9FMmtyWkex Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving...

Green,Ecoduct,Over,An,Empty,Highway,During,Sunset.

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A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that wildlife tunnels significantly reduce amphibian road mortality during seasonal migrations. 



Frogs and salamanders often cross roads to reach breeding ponds each spring, but many are killed by vehicles. 



Researchers from the <a href="https://www.uvm.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Vermont</a>, in collaboration with local citizens and the Vermont Agency of Natural Resources, installed two underpass tunnels in 2015. 



Over a 12-year monitoring period, they observed an 80.2% reduction in amphibian deaths, and up to 94% for non-climbing species like salamanders. 



The study used a before-after-control-impact design and documented more than 5,200 amphibians, highlighting the tunnels’ effectiveness even in nearby buffer zones.



Funded at $342,397 - far cheaper than wildlife crossings for large mammals - the project showcased the power of community-led conservation.



Local groups initiated the effort after observing mass amphibian deaths. Wildlife cameras later captured over 2,200 amphibians using a tunnel in just one spring, along with other species like raccoons and bobcats, indicating wider ecosystem benefits.



This marks the first peer-reviewed, long-term data set in the northeastern U.S. confirming amphibian-specific underpasses work. 



The study urges transportation departments to incorporate these designs into road planning and highlights how community action, thoughtful infrastructure, and persistence can make a real difference for biodiversity.



The full study was published in the <a href="https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1617138125000780" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal for Nature Conservation</a>.



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Wildlife tunnels save millions of amphibians

https://youtu.be/XYgiPzmNBTU?si=eFYY7gPHU1JznLvU A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that...

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing it with probiotics and prebiotics, aiming to create a treat that satisfies cravings while supporting gut health. 



The challenge lies in maintaining chocolate's beloved texture and flavor while adding health benefits.



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Probiotics - beneficial microbes that balance gut bacteria and aid digestion - are typically fragile and can be destroyed by stomach acid or processing. 



Prebiotics act as food for these microbes, helping them thrive. Together, they form "synbiotics," a powerful health combination.



Researchers Smriti Gaur and Shubhi Singh from India's Jaypee Institute of Information Technology took an innovative approach, using natural prebiotics like corn and honey instead of complex processing methods. 



They created five chocolate varieties: a control and four synbiotic versions containing different combinations of prebiotics, probiotics (Lactobacillus strains), and flavor enhancers (cinnamon or orange).



Laboratory simulations of human digestion showed the probiotics remained viable for over five hours, suggesting they could survive long enough to benefit gut health.



Taste tests were positive, with researchers particularly enjoying the orange-flavored variety, describing it as having "vibrant citrus notes" complementing the "rich cocoa" with a "luxurious" texture.



This research represents just the beginning. With further refinement of strains, textures, and flavors, chocolate could evolve beyond mere indulgence to become a functional food that nourishes while it delights.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.4c00741" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ACS Food Science &amp; Technology</a>.

Is chocolate the next nutritional powerhouse?

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

[sendtonews key="G9bUoxcjr4-2511624-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

[sendtonews key="3upvlAaHgO-2256633-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

[sendtonews key="LvS8v8bp9z-2564889-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How does salt makes things taste better?

[sendtonews key="X0f6OHYoI4-2310561-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Santiago, Chile in South America

[sendtonews key="JRaP49ISmm-2357509-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

[sendtonews key="e4ZG0Jawp3-2374785-12187" type="single"] Astronomers at Johns Hopkins University have created...

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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.



According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."



Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;



ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. 



Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

[sendtonews key="uV9Lh2fQbV-1760058-12187" type="single"] Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

[sendtonews key="qjvhBOBnY8-2426650-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

[sendtonews key="oL4FnPTGCV-2384527-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

[sendtonews key="0879czfG3k-1785905-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from NASA...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

[sendtonews key="6HyfrAJTBI-1831843-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

Earth,Like,Exoplanet,3d,Render

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

[sendtonews key="QIoVYJqRBi-2434608-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from NASA...

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