Young aspen trees in Yellowstone are doing something they have not done in almost 100 years. Rather than sprouting and being eaten back to nubs by elk and bison, they're actually growing into tall, adult forest trees rising up towards the canopy.



This matters more than it might seem, because it shows what happens when a missing piece of an ecosystem returns.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-yellowstone-aspens-and-elk">Yellowstone, aspens, and elk</h2>



In the 1920s, people <a href="https://www.yellowstone.org/wolf-project/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">eliminated wolves in Yellowstone</a>. At the time, with limited scientific knowledge, managers believed it was the right thing to do.



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/from-wolves-to-dogs-did-domestication-begin-without-human-help/">Without wolves</a>, elk herds grew very large. Elk love to eat aspen shoots - the tender young growth is highly palatable to them.



For roughly 70 years, elk browsed aspen sprouts down to stub height, and the trees couldn't grow. 



If you had walked through Yellowstone in the 1980s, you would have seen many tiny aspen shoots covering the ground, but almost no young trees gaining height. 



The forest's regeneration was stalled. Old trees died, and no new ones replaced them.



In 1995 and 1996, park managers reintroduced wolves into the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/yellowstone-supervolcano-eruption-study-sparks-new-debate-on-where-and-when-it-will-erupt/">Yellowstone Park ecosystem</a>. Scientists hoped and wondered whether this would change anything for the trees.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-aspen-matter-to-yellowstone">Why aspen matter to Yellowstone</h2>



Aspen groves provide habitat for many species. Birds nest in them. Beavers eat the bark and use the wood for dams. Butterflies and moths lay eggs on the leaves. 



Their canopy admits enough light for wildflowers and shrubs to grow beneath. When it rains, aspen groves hold water in the soil better than some other forest types.



In short, when aspen return, dozens of other species benefit. More trees support more insects, which in turn support more birds, enriching the ecosystem.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-checking-the-trees-three-decades-later">Checking the trees three decades later</h2>



<a href="https://fwcs.oregonstate.edu/users/luke-painter" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Luke Painter</a>, an ecologist at <a href="https://oregonstate.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Oregon State University</a>, sought clear answers. His team returned to 87 aspen stands across Yellowstone that scientists had previously surveyed. 



They measured thousands of young trees, looked for bite marks, and counted how many stems were tall enough that elk could no longer reach the tips.



About a third of these stands now have many tall young aspens pushing toward the canopy. 



"About 26 of the 87 aspen stands we examined had large numbers of tall saplings throughout, a remarkable change from the 1990s when surveys found none at all," Painter said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-wolves-matter-to-yellowstone-aspens">Why wolves matter to Yellowstone aspens</h2>



Breaking it all down, the conclusions of this study are pretty simple. 



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/wolves-move-pups-across-mountains-to-adapt-to-climate-pressure/">Wolves hunt elk</a>. When wolves came back, two things happened. First, elk numbers declined from unusually high levels. Second, elk changed their behavior. They spent less time in the same areas feeding.



With fewer elk and shorter feeding bouts, more aspen shoots survived long enough to exceed the browsing zone - about six to seven feet high. 



Once a sapling reaches that height, elk cannot easily reach the growing tip. The tree continues to grow.



"The reintroduction of large carnivores has initiated a recovery process that had been shut down for decades," Painter explained.



Scientists call this a <a href="https://www.nature.com/scitable/knowledge/library/trophic-cascades-across-diverse-plant-ecosystems-80060347/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">trophic cascade</a> - when adding or removing one species causes changes that ripple through the whole system.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-some-places-recover-others-don-t">Some places recover, others don't</h2>



Unfortunately, not every aspen stand has recovered yet. Some valleys still have many short, heavily browsed shoots, because it's not only elk eating them anymore. 



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/yellowstones-iconic-bison-have-merged-into-a-single-herd/">Bison herds have grown</a>, and bison browse on aspen as well. They are strong enough to break young trees. 



"Increasing numbers of bison may be emerging as a new constraint to aspen in some areas," Painter confirmed.



Additionally, winter snow depth varies; droughts stress trees; bears and mountain lions also hunt elk; and hunting outside the park influences elk distribution. 



All of these factors interact, which is why some sites show strong recovery, others show moderate recovery, and a few have changed very little.



The key pattern is that places with many tall saplings experience little browsing, and aspen groves that remain popular eating grounds today stay short. 



This fact is the strongest indication that tree recovery is linked directly to wolf presence, not solely to weather or soil conditions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-proof-in-the-measurements">Proof in the measurements</h2>



Painter's team did not rely on casual observation. They used the same methods as earlier researchers, measuring the same plots. 



They counted recruitment - when young trees surpass browsing height and begin progressing toward maturity. This measure is crucial. Sprouts are insufficient if they never grow; without recruitment, the forest cannot replace itself.



The results are robust. After being stalled for most of a century, Yellowstone's aspens are increasing in height. In recovering stands today, you will see saplings - six, eight, or ten feet tall - that were not present in the 1990s.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-future-of-yellowstone-s-aspens">The future of Yellowstone's aspens</h2>



"This is a remarkable case of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/giant-viruses-found-in-yellowstones-hot-springs-may-be-near-the-root-of-all-life-on-earth/">ecological restoration</a>," Painter concluded. "Wolf reintroduction is yielding long-term ecological changes contributing to increased biodiversity and habitat diversity."



Trees grow slowly, so even with wolves restored, it will take decades for these young aspens to form a full-grown forest. 



Some areas might never fully recover if bison numbers continue to rise or if the climate becomes too hot and dry.



Thanks to the work of Painter and his team, scientists are now certain that restoring the Yellowstone predator has restarted aspen forest regeneration. Not everywhere and not perfectly, but enough to be measured, creating hope for the future.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0378112725004499?via%3Dihub" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Forest Ecology and Management</a>.



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Yellowstone's aspen trees are growing again thanks to the reintroduction of wolves

Young aspen trees in Yellowstone are doing something they have not done in almost 100 years. Rather than sprouting and being eaten back to nubs by elk and bison, they're actually growing into tall, adult forest trees rising up towards the canopy. This matters more than it might seem, because it shows what happens when a missing piece of an ecosystem returns. Yellowstone, aspens, and elk In the 1920s, people eliminated wolves in Yellowstone. At the time, with limited scientific knowledge, managers believed it was the right...

A striking new view from the James Webb Space Telescope captures the Sombrero galaxy glowing in near-infrared light.



The portrait exposes a brilliant central bulge while softening the famous dark dust lane that circles the disk, offering a fresh look at the galaxy’s structure and turbulent history. 



The image comes from <a href="https://science.nasa.gov/mission/webb/">Webb’s</a> NIRCam instrument and follows mid-infrared observations taken late in 2024.



Together with visible-light data from the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/35-years-of-hubble-the-telescope-that-changed-our-view-of-the-universe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Hubble Space Telescope</a>, the new frame lets researchers compare how stars, dust, and gas behave across different wavelengths.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-galaxy-dust-revealed-in-infrared">Galaxy dust revealed in infrared </h2>



In visible light, the Sombrero’s rim of dust looks like a dense, murky ring that nearly hides the galaxy’s bright center. 



Near-infrared wavelengths, however, slip through many of those grains. As a result, the lane appears thinner and the underlying <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/planet-forming-disks-surrounding-stars-often-last-much-longer-than-expected/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">stars</a> shine more clearly.



Located about 30 million light-years from Earth on the outskirts of the Virgo cluster, the Sombrero galaxy boasts a mass roughly eight hundred billion times that of the Sun.



The galaxy’s disk stretches across nearly 50,000 light-years, and its central bulge swells like a luminous pearl.



That pearl glows even brighter in the near-infrared because thousands of older, cooler stars dominate the bulge and radiate strongly at longer wavelengths.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-signs-of-a-turbulent-past"><a></a>Signs of a turbulent past</h2>



Despite the Sombrero galaxy’s serene appearance, earlier surveys uncovered evidence that it has endured violent mergers.



A subtle warp in the inner disk, odd twists in the dust lane, and unexpected chemical patterns in surrounding star clusters all point to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ancient-galaxy-collision-reveals-a-quasar-shutting-down-star-birth/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">collisions</a> with at least one sizable companion in the distant past.



Webb’s sharp resolution reveals this warp in greater detail: the inner disk tilts inward like the shallow mouth of a funnel rather than lying flat. Simulations show similar patterns when two galaxies collide and then settle into a single system.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-clues-from-2-000-globular-clusters">Clues from 2,000 globular clusters</h2>



Roughly 2,000 globular clusters - spherical swarms of hundreds of thousands of ancient stars - orbit the Sombrero.



Spectroscopic studies reveal that those stars do not share identical chemical fingerprints. Instead, the amounts of oxygen, neon, and heavier elements vary more than expected if all the clusters formed in one burst.



A series of mergers provides a neat explanation: each infalling galaxy contributed its own population of clusters, mixing their distinct chemistries into the halo we see today.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-edge-on-view-with-a-twist"><a></a>Edge-on view with a twist</h2>



From Earth we see the Sombrero almost edge on, but not perfectly so. Our vantage point sits about six degrees above the galaxy’s true equator, letting astronomers peek slightly over the rim.



That modest tilt is crucial. It lets light from the bulge leak through gaps in the dust and exposes the warped inner disk that hints at past turmoil. 



If the galaxy were perfectly edge on, that interior twist would remain hidden behind the rim.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-giants-glow-dwarfs-fade">Giants glow, dwarfs fade</h2>



Near-infrared light favors large, cool stars. In Webb’s frame, red giants - stellar elders that have swelled to enormous size - dot the scene like crimson embers.



Smaller, hotter blue stars emit more strongly at shorter wavelengths, so they fade in the near-infrared and almost vanish in the mid-infrared.



That spectral filtering helps astronomers separate different stellar populations and trace how <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fluffy-molecular-clouds-may-change-our-understanding-of-star-formation/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">star formation</a> shifted over billions of years.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-galaxy-colors-and-cosmic-expansion">Galaxy colors and cosmic expansion </h2>



The Sombrero is not alone in the new image. Dozens of background galaxies speckle the black canvas, each tinted by distance and composition.



Pale blue spirals likely sit closer to us, their young stars still blazing in ultraviolet and visible light that stretches only slightly into the infrared.



Deep-red smudges probably lie billions of light-years farther away; their light has traveled so long that cosmic expansion has stretched their spectra deep into the infrared.



By sampling those color clues, researchers can estimate distances and ages for thousands of remote systems in a single field.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-multiple-wavelengths-matter">Why multiple wavelengths matter</h2>



Combining Webb’s near- and mid-infrared data with Hubble’s visible-light images is like slicing the galaxy into overlapping transparencies.



One layer reveals hidden stars behind the dust, another traces the dust itself, and a third shows where shorter wavelengths are completely blocked.



Together these layers chart how gas cooled, where dust condensed, and how gravitational encounters reshaped the entire structure. Without multi-wavelength coverage, many of those details would remain invisible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-complex-life-cycles-of-galaxies">Complex life cycles of galaxies</h2>



The Sombrero portrait demonstrates Webb’s ability to probe the universe on every scale - from <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mays-full-moon-will-eclipse-a-giant-red-star/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">red giants</a> glowing in a nearby galaxy to faint smudges at the cosmic horizon.



By resolving individual stars, mapping chemical fingerprints, and spotting structural ripples, Webb helps astronomers untangle the complex life cycles of galaxies.



Its infrared eyes also complement Hubble’s vision, ensuring that discoveries flow from one observatory to the next.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-peering-into-the-future">Peering into the future</h2>



Future Webb campaigns will target other “edge-on” disks to test whether similar warps point to hidden mergers. Spectroscopy will break the Sombrero’s light into elemental signatures, refining mass estimates and tracking star-formation bursts through cosmic time.



Each new dataset will feed into computer simulations that replay a galaxy’s past, revealing how quiet spirals can mask dramatic histories.



The Sombrero’s near-infrared glow thus serves as both a snapshot and a clue. It shows the galaxy as it exists today - luminous, dusty, and slightly warped. It also hints at collisions long ago that seeded its halo with diverse clusters and bent its inner disk.



Thanks to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/webb-telescope-may-reveal-how-fast-the-universe-is-expanding/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Webb</a>’s sharp vision, astronomers now hold a more complete record of that journey and a clearer path toward understanding how galaxies everywhere live, collide, and evolve.



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, CSA, STScI



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Sombrero galaxy’s turbulent past unveiled by Webb telescope

A striking new view from the James Webb Space Telescope...

Beyond the lively music and familiar clink of pint glasses, the air in Dublin carries something far less visible: fragments of DNA.



A new study has revealed that genetic material from plants, animals, microbes - and even traces of illicit drugs like cannabis and poppy - can be found drifting through the city’s atmosphere.



This discovery showcases the expanding possibilities of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dna-fishing-helps-scientists-survey-marine-life-in-the-deep-ocean/">environmental DNA</a>, or eDNA - genetic material collected not from an animal or plant itself, but from the surrounding environment.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-airborne-dna-holds-clues-to-life">Airborne DNA holds clues to life</h2>



The new research shows that even the air we breathe contains enough stray DNA to map out species in the area, track disease <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plant-pandemic-looms-as-pathogens-move-from-wild-plants-to-crops/">pathogens</a>, and detect chemical signatures from human activity.



David Duffy is a professor of wildlife disease genomics at the <a href="https://www.ufl.edu/">University of Florida</a>. Professor Duffy and his team originally developed their eDNA tools to study sea <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/world-turtle-day-2025-ancient-creatures-with-modern-challenges/">turtle</a> populations by analyzing samples from water, sand, and soil.



“The level of information that’s available in environmental DNA is such that we’re only starting to consider what the potential applications can be, from humans, to wildlife, to other species that have implications for human health,” said Professor Duffy.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-airborne-dna-can-reveal">What airborne DNA can reveal</h2>



Housed at the University of Florida, the <a href="https://www.whitney.ufl.edu/">Whitney Laboratory for Marine Bioscience</a> has since broadened its methods to extract and analyze DNA from nearly any environment - including air.



This DNA, invisible to the naked eye, doesn't just rest on surfaces or float downstream. It also exists freely in the air. The researchers discovered that simple air filters, run for hours or days, could collect large amounts of informative genetic material.



“When we started, it seemed like it would be hard to get intact large fragments of DNA from the air. But that’s not the case. We’re actually finding a lot of informative DNA,” said Professor Duffy.



“That means you can study species without directly having to disturb them, without ever having to see them. It opens up huge possibilities to study all the species in an area simultaneously, from microbes and viruses all the way up to vertebrates like bobcats and humans.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tracking-pathogens-to-pollen">Tracking pathogens to pollen</h2>



As a real-world test, Duffy’s lab set up airborne DNA collection devices in Dublin. The filters picked up traces of hundreds of human pathogens - including viruses and bacteria - floating in the city’s air.



Such monitoring could prove crucial in early detection of disease outbreaks or understanding how infections spread through populations.



The same method can also detect environmental allergens more precisely than current technologies. From pollen to peanut particles, the ability to pinpoint <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-is-making-allergy-season-worse-and-longer-lasting/">allergens</a> could transform how doctors advise patients or how public health agencies issue warnings.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-wildlife-monitoring-without-disturbance"><a></a>Wildlife monitoring without disturbance</h2>



Beyond the urban setting, Duffy’s team also tested their approach in the wilds of Florida. There, air filters collected DNA from animals as elusive as bobcats and as small as spiders.



Remarkably, the DNA revealed not only the presence of these animals, but also where they came from - providing location data without relying on sighting reports, camera traps, or scat samples.



Such precision could be a game-changer for conservation. When trying to protect endangered species, knowing their geographic origin can be as critical as knowing their current location.



By tracking this data through the air, scientists can study animals that are rare, shy, or difficult to observe - without ever disturbing them.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-speed-simplicity-and-global-access"><a></a>Speed, simplicity, and global access</h2>



Perhaps just as impressive as the scope of detection is the speed and affordability of the technique. Duffy’s team showed that a single researcher could analyze all the DNA in an air sample in about a day. 



The process uses compact lab equipment and cloud-based software, lowering the barriers for researchers around the world.



This accessibility makes it possible to deploy eDNA monitoring across ecosystems and cities without requiring vast scientific infrastructure. But with that power comes responsibility. 



Since airborne DNA includes fragments from humans, researchers have urged the creation of ethical standards to guide how this data is handled and shared.



“It seems like science fiction, but it’s becoming science fact,” Duffy said. “The technology is finally matching the scale of environmental problems.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-new-frontier-for-science"><a></a>A new frontier for science</h2>



As climate change and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-action-and-biodiversity-striking-the-right-balance/">biodiversity</a> loss pose growing threats, tools like airborne eDNA offer a powerful way to keep track of both wildlife and public health. 



By analyzing one sample, scientists can detect pathogens, pollutants, invasive species, and endangered animals - accelerating environmental responses.



Dublin may be the first city to offer proof of concept. But this approach could soon be used globally - to monitor disease, study ecosystems, or even map how human activity shapes the microscopic life around us. With every breath of air, there’s now a new window into the world we live in.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41559-025-02711-w">Nature Ecology &amp; Evolution</a>.



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Airborne DNA can track wildlife, diseases - and even drugs

Beyond the lively music and familiar clink of pint glasses,...

We often connect learning with patience and steady improvement. Yet, new experiments suggest that our brains may catch on to new challenges in less time than expected.



More than 7 million people in the United States are affected by neurodegenerative diseases such as Alzheimer’s, incurring an estimated $384 billion in annual health expenses.



Experts hope that pinpointing where and how brain cells build new knowledge may eventually improve medical approaches for dementia therapy and symptom control.



The research was led by Kishore Kuchibhotla, an assistant professor at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Johns Hopkins University</a>. The study addresses how behavior changes can appear deceptively delayed, even though the nervous system might have already absorbed the necessary associations.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-brain-learns-before-behavior">Brain learns before behavior</h2>



The researchers used brain imaging in mice to investigate how certain tasks became familiar. They found that correct responses appeared relatively soon, even though outward <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/cells-called-astrocytes-help-human-brains-store-massive-amounts-of-information/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">behavior</a> seemed to catch up at a slower pace.



The experts also saw something unexpected in the <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/medicine-and-dentistry/sensory-cortex" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">sensory cortex</a>, an area that typically helps us process inputs like sounds or sights. Instead of playing a purely observational role, it seemed to be active in guiding the animals’ actions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cortex-directs-behavior">Cortex directs behavior</h2>



The idea that the sensory cortex can not only interpret incoming signals but also shape decision-making is drawing fresh attention to what some call the <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/neuroscience/association-cortex" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">associative cortex</a>.



Researchers propose that this area may do double duty, weaving sensory details and newly learned rules into a single framework.



The separation between trial-and-error mistakes and legitimate attempts to apply new rules was visible in neural recordings. Scientists noticed specific changes in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dna-changes-supercharged-the-human-brain-but-at-a-cost/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cell</a> activity that signaled when a mouse was merely guessing versus when it was truly testing its newfound knowledge.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-learning-ties-brain-to-action">Learning ties brain to action</h2>



“Identifying how the brain actually forms new connections and learns is a question at the frontier of neuroscience," said Paul Forlano, program officer in the <a href="https://www.nsf.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NSF</a> Directorate for Biological Sciences.



"Knowing that influences our understanding of how we interact with our environment and pick up on and respond to cues, which opens the door to a range of new fundamental and applied research.” 



That perspective resonates with many <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/27403450/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">neurologists</a> who suspect that mental processes unfold behind the scenes before they become visible in everyday actions. Observing that hidden phase of knowledge could prompt more effective therapy plans for disorders marked by memory loss.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-impact-on-dementia-research">Impact on dementia research</h2>



Because <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/big-brains-and-wide-ranges-cant-save-birds-from-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">neurodegenerative</a> diseases can weaken learning and recall, clearer insight into how fast connections form may guide better interventions.



New therapies could aim to strengthen these early neural adjustments and keep them from fading.



Some <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29669100/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">scientists</a> suggest that mapping how tasks embed themselves in cortical circuits might be the key to interrupting certain forms of memory decline. They hope to uncover ways to preserve the swift initial learning responses that help form stable skills.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mistakes-help-learning">Mistakes help learning</h2>



The mice that persisted in making errors were not stuck in a learning rut. Instead, they were checking which moves might still fit the situation. This difference shows that repeating mistakes is not always a lack of progress.



It also highlights how complex learning can be. Even when an action seems wrong, it might represent active testing of new possibilities rather than an ongoing misunderstanding.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-brain-research-inspires-ai">Brain research inspires AI</h2>



Modern <a href="https://news.mit.edu/2017/explained-neural-networks-deep-learning-0414" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">neural networks</a> in computer science try to replicate how neurons function when they adapt to data. The fresh findings from these mouse studies might point to better ways of designing artificial systems that learn as fast as biological brains.



Engineers could look at how the associative cortex organizes sensory details, then implement similar strategies to help machines master tasks more fluidly.



That could mean faster, more accurate adaptations to changing conditions without long periods of trial and error.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-these-results-matter">Why these results matter</h2>



Investigators think that once an individual becomes an expert at a task, certain cortical areas can go offline without disrupting the performance.



This suggestion came from experiments where silencing the auditory cortex no longer hindered well-practiced actions.



Following those clues could reveal practical interventions for people who struggle to hold onto newfound skills. Keeping the brain engaged in this learning window might protect or extend that short-lived but critical period of rapid improvement.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fast-learning-guides-therapy">Fast learning guides therapy</h2>



Several fields stand to gain from these reports of quick knowledge uptake. Therapists might tweak training exercises for patients with memory issues, aiming to capitalize on this hidden phase of learning.



Technical developers could adapt algorithms for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/our-brains-are-constantly-working-to-predict-what-comes-next/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">pattern recognition</a> software. They may focus on capturing the fast, behind-the-scenes processes that seem to jump-start accurate performance even before it’s obvious on the surface.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-new-perspective-on-learning">A new perspective on learning</h2>



For a long time, scientists believed that acquiring a skill involved slow shaping of sensory signals. These new insights show that the mind might adopt a fresh rule set sooner than expected, even though outward actions can lag.



This realization may reshape how we define “learning” in both education and clinical fields. It opens a conversation about how quickly the body can know something, long before that knowledge appears fully in daily practice.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-reward-signals-lock-in-skills">Reward signals lock in skills</h2>



Investigators suggest that a <a href="https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC3899024/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">reward-prediction</a> signal in the sensory cortex fades in expert performers. Its initial presence is believed to help link a stimulus to an eventual outcome, which is vital in forming stable knowledge.



Neuroscientists wonder if boosting this signal could lock in skills for people with memory troubles. They also see potential in training the brain to keep drawing from these neural patterns for advanced learning tasks.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-025-08730-8#Sec13" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature</a>.



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Our brain can learn new skills much faster than expected

We often connect learning with patience and steady improvement. Yet,...

For the first time, scientists have created genetically modified fruit flies that can develop an addiction to cocaine.



Given the option, these flies will self-administer the drug. This new model may offer a faster way to develop therapies aimed at preventing and treating cocaine use disorder, a serious condition affecting about 1.5 million people in the United States.



Cocaine use disorder has a strong hereditary component. Many genes play a role in addiction risk, but finding the best targets for treatment has been challenging.



With this new fruit fly model, researchers believe they can study the biology of addiction in a simpler system and speed up the search for better therapies.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="block-0d325108-be54-4853-a7d3-097a783fba6b">Studying flies and cocaine addiction </h2>



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/flies-respond-to-danger-like-humans/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Flies and humans</a> respond to cocaine in strikingly similar ways. "At low doses, they start running around, just like people," said Dr. Adrian Rothenfluh, associate professor of psychiatry at <a href="https://eccles.utah.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">the University of Utah</a>. "At very high doses, they get incapacitated, which is also true in people."



When it comes to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rosemary-compound-offers-hope-in-combating-cocaine-addiction/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">addiction</a>, humans and flies share more than just behavior. Flies carry about 75% of the human genes known to be involved in diseases. They have already helped scientists uncover the basic biology behind other forms of substance dependence.



Because fruit flies grow quickly and are easy to manipulate genetically, they could become a key tool for studying cocaine addiction. But there was a major problem standing in the way.



"Flies do not like cocaine one bit," noted Dr. Rothenfluh. When given a choice, flies always preferred sugar water without cocaine, even after prior cocaine exposure. This resistance needed to be overcome to build an effective addiction model.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="block-6fa727da-b3e9-4759-9756-dd109a568a5d">Bitter taste blocks cocaine</h2>



The breakthrough came when the research team, led by Dr. Travis Philyaw, looked more closely at the flies' sense of taste.



"Insects are evolutionarily primed to avoid <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/study-reveals-how-pollinators-evade-plant-toxins/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">plant toxins</a>, and cocaine is a plant toxin," said Dr. Philyaw, who is now a research scientist at the University of Washington. 



"They have taste receptors on their ‘arms’ - their tarsal segments - so they can put their hand in something before it goes in their mouth and decide, 'I’m not going to touch that.'"



By studying the sensory nerves in the flies’ legs, the researchers found that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-cocaine-tricks-and-hijacks-the-brain/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cocaine</a> strongly activates the bitter-sensing taste receptors. To see what would happen without this barrier, they muted the bitter-sensing nerves. 



Once the experts blocked the flies' ability to taste bitter substances, something remarkable occurred. 



The flies started choosing the cocaine-laced sugar water over the plain version. They would only do so at low cocaine concentrations, but they developed this preference quickly - within just 16 hours of first exposure.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="block-a2a5de6d-69b4-4b24-a83d-ef589eaffb0c">Mechanisms of cocaine choice</h2>



Now that flies can model cocaine addiction, researchers have a powerful tool to study the genes involved. 



Fruit flies offer the advantage of speed. Scientists can test hundreds of genes in a fraction of the time it would take in more complex animals.



"We can scale research so quickly in flies," noted Dr. Philyaw. "We can identify risk genes that might be difficult to uncover in more complex organisms, and then we pass that information to researchers who work with mammalian models."



"Then, they’re able to uncover treatment targets that facilitate the jump from studying <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/animals-share-hidden-behavior-patterns-across-continents/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">animal behavior</a> to developing human therapeutics."



Dr. Rothenfluh sees this model as an important step forward. "We can really start to understand the mechanisms of cocaine choice," he said. "The more you understand about the mechanism, the more you have a chance to find a therapeutic that might act on that mechanism."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="block-dd785a1a-3c14-4d0e-ab30-1593362bfb97">Flies sheds light on human minds</h2>



Beyond addiction studies, this research highlights the value of basic science. Understanding the fly brain, simple as it is, can lead to insights about the human mind.



"Just trying to understand the simple little fly brain can give us insights that you cannot anticipate," Rothenfluh said. "Basic science is important, and you never know what exciting things you might find that turn out to be impactful for understanding the human condition."



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.jneurosci.org/content/early/2025/05/23/JNEUROSCI.1040-24.2025" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">JNeurosci</a>.



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Fruit flies can help us understand cocaine addiction

For the first time, scientists have created genetically modified fruit...

Concept,Nature,Reserve,Conserve,Wildlife,Reserve,Tiger,Deer,Global,Warming

Stand on any hillside on Earth and the view jumps from desert to forest to coast, with each bioregion hosting its own cast of creatures. For decades, naturalists asked why a South American rainforest hosts parrots and jaguars while an African one shelters hornbills and leopards. 



The explanation, many suspected, lies in the deep history of place, not just in climate or chance.



Fresh analysis of records for more than 30,000 species now points to a single thread that stitches those patches together. 



The work hints at clearer forecasts of how <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/natures-ecosystems-constantly-share-energy-to-achieve-balance/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ecosystems will react</a> as the planet warms, dries, and becomes more crowded, and it offers practical clues for anyone trying to keep biodiversity intact.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-nature-clusters">Why nature clusters</h2>



The project came from Rubén Bernardo-Madrid of <a href="https://www.umu.se/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Umeå University</a>, Joaquín Calatayud of <a href="https://en.urjc.es/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Rey Juan Carlos University</a>, and partners in Sweden, Spain, and the United Kingdom. 



They sliced the globe into the well-known biogeographical regions and traced amphibians, birds, dragonflies, mammals, marine rays, reptiles, and trees across them. 



Order appeared where chaos was expected. In every territory, the team found a robust center that shelters the majority of resident species. 



“In every bioregion, there is always a core area where most species live. From that core, species expand into surrounding areas, but only a subset manages to persist," Bernardo-Madrid explains.



"It seems these cores provide optimal conditions for species survival and diversification, acting as a source from which <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/biodiversity-leaks-conservation-efforts-may-shift-harm-elsewhere/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">biodiversity radiates outward</a>.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-seven-zones-per-bioregion">Seven zones per bioregion</h2>



The team then mapped seven nested zones inside each bioregion, each with its own mix of widespread residents and highly local specialists. The central belt holds many species; the outer belts hold fewer but often unique ones.



The rule stayed intact whether the subject crawled, flew, swam, or rooted. Trees and marine rays may live worlds apart, yet their distributions echoed the same lattice from the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/gold-mining-causes-long-lasting-damage-in-the-amazon-rainforest/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Amazon Basin</a> to Hudson Bay.



Each bioregion is bounded by barriers that discourage wanderers - an ocean trench, a desert interior, a frosty ridge. Over thousands of generations, those barriers steer evolution down separate paths. 



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/marsupials-are-key-to-healthy-ecosystems-in-australia/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Marsupials flourish in Australia</a> because the surrounding sea keeps placental mammals at bay. Likewise, venomous vipers fill Central America but fade near the Andean wall.



Charles Darwin and Alfred Russel Wallace drew the first <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/the-wallace-line-a-natural-border-that-no-species-crosses/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">broad outlines of these divisions</a> in the 1800s, yet their maps were blunt instruments. 



Modern databases, satellite imagery, and museum collections now let researchers slice the globe with much finer resolution, revealing hidden borders such as Wallace’s Line between Borneo and Sulawesi, where Asian and Australasian fauna still collide.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-bioregion-cores-stay-rich">How bioregion cores stay rich</h2>



Central zones usually enjoy milder temperatures, steadier rains, and larger habitat blocks - conditions that cushion populations against droughts, fires, or disease. Over time, those safe harbors spark new species, so the core doubles as nursery and archive.



Farther out, tougher climates and sharper competition thin the roster. The survivors often evolve in isolation, explaining why a corner of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mouse-lemurs-of-madagascar-are-threatened-with-extinction/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Madagascar</a> or a Panamanian ridge can host creatures found nowhere else.



Environmental filtering, long a core idea in ecology, emerged as the engine behind the seven-zone scheme. 



If an organism cannot cope with a site’s heat, salt, or altitude, it fails to gain a foothold. Global evidence for that rule had been patchy until now.



Calatayud notes, “The predictability of the pattern and its association with environmental filters can help us better understand how biodiversity may respond to global change.” 



In practice, that insight lets conservation planners model vulnerability without guessing region by region.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-conservation">Implications for conservation</h2>



Budgets for conservation are finite, and field crews often face tough choices on <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/beehive-fences-keep-elephants-from-raiding-farms/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">where to place fences</a> or patrols. Knowing that a region’s biological bank lies in its core offers a clear target. 



Guarding that nucleus secures most species, while a few carefully placed reserves at the fringes hold the irreplaceable endemics that give every landscape its distinct feel.



The Nature Ecology &amp; Evolution paper highlights how a rainforest refuge the size of a county, or a string of barrier islands, can buoy entire landscapes. Protect those pockets from mining or ill-planned sprawl, and the wider biome stands a better chance.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-humans-bioregions-and-the-future">Humans, bioregions, and the future</h2>



The new rule surfaces as <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/world-environment-day-humans-are-warming-the-planet-faster-than-ever-before/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">humans alter habitats</a> faster than many species can adjust, while warming nudges climatic bands roughly 12 miles north each decade. 



With a consistent framework, researchers can forecast which cores may shrink or shift and where fresh refuges might form. 



Some centers may have to leap uphill or poleward to survive, dragging dependent species along a gauntlet of highways, farms, and cities.



More data will sharpen those forecasts, yet the message is already clear. <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/effective-conservation-efforts-key-to-saving-biodiversity/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Biodiversity is not random</a>; it follows a sturdy, planet-wide logic. 



By working with that logic, communities can steer scarce resources toward the spots that quietly keep life thriving - and in turn secure our own future.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41559-025-02724-5" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Ecology and Evolution</a>.



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Scientists discover one simple rule that explains all life on Earth

Stand on any hillside on Earth and the view jumps...

Birds don’t just sing - they send messages, defend territory, and attract mates through their songs. But have you ever wondered how their pitch and volume work together?



When people raise their voices, the pitch usually gets higher. And while deep sounds carry farther, our voices can’t be both low and loud at the same time. That’s just how our vocal cords work.



Do birds face the same physical limits, or have some species evolved a way around them?



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-can-birds-do-what-we-can-t">Can birds do what we can’t?</h2>



For decades, scientists have debated whether birds face the same physical limits as humans when it comes to making <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/spatial-hearing-how-humans-know-where-sounds-come-from/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">sound</a>.



When a bird sings loudly, does the pitch automatically rise because of mechanical constraints? Or has evolution shaped some birds to sing low and loud, thereby helping their songs travel greater distances?



Biologists from the <a href="https://www.umass.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Massachusetts Amherst</a> decided to find out. They recently released the first large-scale, fine-grained study that compares the volume (or amplitude) of bird songs to their pitch (or frequency). 



Until now, there hasn’t been enough detailed data to tackle this question across a broad set of bird species.



So what about birds? Can they do what we can’t?



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-from-outdoor-concerts-to-forest-songs">From outdoor concerts to forest songs</h2>



You can think of this study in terms of something familiar. At an outdoor concert, if you try to shout over the crowd, your voice tends to rise in pitch. 



At the same time, you might feel the rumble of the bass notes - those low tones travel farther than the sharp, high-pitched ones.



Our <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-our-brains-manage-speaking-and-breathing-at-the-same-time/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">vocal cords</a> can’t manage both low and loud together. That’s why screams are shrill, not booming.



“The difference is between what you can do and what you want to do,” explained João C. T. Menezes, a graduate student in the Organismic and Evolutionary Biology Program and the lead author of the new study.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-one-question-two-theories">One question, two theories</h2>



“There have been two main arguments over the decades,” said Jeffrey Podos, a professor of biology and senior author of the study. 



“One camp holds that if birds sing loudly, their <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/most-people-have-a-hidden-musical-talent-for-singing-on-pitch/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">pitch</a> should increase because they are mechanically constrained.” That’s the standard prediction found in textbooks.



But there’s a second argument, based on evolution. “Since lower sounds carry farther and therefore should increase a singer’s chance of being heard, it would make sense that birds should be both loud and deep at the same time.”



The lack of solid data left the argument unresolved. Until recently, it was nearly impossible to measure a wild bird’s song volume in real-time, natural settings. 



“It’s only been in the last 10 years or so that devices capable of measuring amplitude precisely enough, in the millisecond bursts that birds sing and with the durability and portability to take out into the field, have been available,” said Podos.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hundreds-of-calls-dozens-of-species">Hundreds of calls, dozens of species</h2>



Now that the tools exist, Menezes and Podos gathered a large dataset. They recorded and analyzed the songs and calls of 53 <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/more-than-100-bird-species-have-been-lost-for-over-a-decade/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">bird species</a> - from the familiar Canada goose to the black-and-gold cotinga of Brazil. The goal was to compare volume and pitch with these precise measurements.



What they found was a mixed picture. “There’s considerable variation across species,” said Menezes. 



Out of the 53 species studied, 27 had calls that got higher in pitch as they got louder. Twelve had the opposite - calls that got lower with increased volume. And fourteen species didn’t show a clear pattern at all.



This suggests that there isn’t a one-size-fits-all rule. Both physical limits and evolutionary pressures may be at play, depending on the species.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-songbirds-show-a-talent-for-pitch">Songbirds show a talent for pitch</h2>



While other groups of birds followed no strict rule, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/songbirds-and-humans-use-similar-speech-patterns/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">songbirds</a> stood out. As they got louder, many songbirds narrowed the range of frequencies they used.



Some focused their loudest calls on higher pitches, others on lower ones - but nearly all honed in on a smaller set of frequencies as their volume increased.



“One of the specializations that songbirds have developed,” explained Podos, “is an ability to control the tension of their vocal apparatus as they ramp up and down in volume. Most birds don’t have this. It means that songbirds could, in theory, have more evolutionary freedom in evolving their songs.”



“This might be a hint that songbirds are like opera singers and can actively control their frequencies to the ones that are most amplified by their bodies for the best projection,” added Menezes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-birds-can-teach-us-about-sound">What birds can teach us about sound</h2>



So, the answer to the original question isn’t simple. Birds don’t all follow the same rules when it comes to pitch and volume. 



But thanks to new technology and a detailed study of many species, we now know much more about the mechanics behind their songs.



Next time you’re outside and hear birdsong, try to notice how pitch and volume shift. You might catch the sound of a songbird fine-tuning its notes - loud and clear.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rspb.2025.0781" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Proceedings B</a>.



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Some birds can sing loudly without raising the pitch, something humans can't do

Birds don’t just sing - they send messages, defend territory,...

Rising sea levels are a constant reminder of how climate change is reshaping reef ecosystems around the world. 



New research reveals that the Great Barrier Reef might be able to keep pace with rising waters alone, but when combined with other environmental pressures, its future becomes much less certain.



Scientists from the <a href="https://www.sydney.edu.au/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Sydney</a> have dug deep - literally - to understand how reefs have responded to dramatic changes in the past.



Using fossil reef cores extracted from beneath the Great Barrier Reef, they uncovered important clues. These cores, which serve as geological time capsules, show that rapid sea level rise alone did not lead to the downfall of an ancient version known as Reef 4.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rising-seas-shape-ancient-reefs">Rising seas shape ancient reefs</h2>



The study focused on how the reef ecosystem evolved from about 13,000 to 10,000 years ago. This period includes a particularly intense phase called <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/the-sea-level-rose-by-18-meters-after-the-last-ice-age/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Meltwater Pulse</a> 1B. 



During this 350-year window, sea levels rose sharply as polar ice sheets melted under warmer global temperatures.



“This 350-year period is crucial; it covers a time when global sea levels rose very rapidly,” said Professor Jody Webster from the&nbsp;School of Geosciences. 



“It’s a period when <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earths-polar-ice-sheets-cant-withstand-1-5c-warming-target/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">polar ice sheets</a> are thought to have experienced accelerated melting due to warming temperatures," he said. "Based on records from Barbados, we previously thought sea levels were rising by about 40 millimeters a year at this time."



"Our research shows the rise wasn’t so large and fast. It was more likely to have been in the order of three to five millimeters a year, comparable to what we’re experiencing today.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-learning-from-reef-four">Learning from Reef Four</h2>



The fossil reef cores tell the story of Reef Four, the so-called proto-Great Barrier Reef. Extracted from the shelf edge at depths between 40 and 50 meters, these cores revealed that Reef Four had a structure and coral community very much like today’s reef.



“Reef Four is very exciting,” said Professor Webster. “It had a similar morphology and mix of coral reef communities to the modern Great Barrier Reef."



"The types of algae and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/world-reef-awareness-day-2025-bringing-corals-back-to-life/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">corals</a>, and their growth rates, are comparable. Understanding the environmental changes that influenced it, and led to its ultimate demise, therefore offers clues on what might happen to the modern reef.”



Following its collapse, Reef Four’s ecosystem didn’t disappear altogether. Over 1,000–2,000 years, it moved landward, forming the foundation of today’s Great Barrier Reef.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-will-the-great-barrier-reef-survive">Will the Great Barrier Reef survive?</h2>



Today’s Great Barrier Reef is under mounting environmental pressure. While it has endured natural changes over thousands of years, the challenges it faces today are more complex and widespread. Scientists warn that its future could look very different if current trends continue.



“The modern reef faces <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sinking-land-will-intensify-the-effects-of-rising-sea-levels/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">rising sea levels</a>, more heat waves and extensive bleaching, along with increasing sediment and nutrient input. This combination, on top of rising sea levels, is of deep concern," Professor Webster said. 



"If the current trajectory continues, we should be concerned about whether the Great Barrier Reef will survive the next 50 to 100 years in its current state.”



“It won’t die but its characteristics may change. We will see a different collection of coral species, perhaps simpler and not as structurally complex.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-we-can-learn-from-the-past">What we can learn from the past </h2>



To carry out this research, the team used radiometric dating to precisely match fossil coral samples to the period of Meltwater Pulse 1B. The cores were collected through the International Ocean Discovery Program (IODP), a collaborative marine research initiative involving 21 countries.



“These data allow us to more precisely understand how reef and coastal ecosystems have responded to rapid environmental changes, like the rises in sea level and temperature we face today,” said Professor Webster.



The value of these ancient records is hard to overstate. Unlike modern instrumental records, which span only the past century or so, these <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/why-some-animals-become-fossils-while-others-just-disappear/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">fossil cores</a> stretch back thousands of years. They provide an irreplaceable window into how ecosystems have weathered - and sometimes failed to weather - rapid climate shifts in the past.



As the Great Barrier Reef stands at a critical point in its history, lessons from its ancient predecessor offer a sobering glimpse of what might lie ahead.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-025-59858-0" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Communications</a>.



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Ancient coral collapse may help save the Great Barrier Reef

Rising sea levels are a constant reminder of how climate...

For decades, astronomers believed the Milky Way was on a definitive collision course with its cosmic neighbor, the Andromeda Galaxy. This collision would eventually obliterate both galaxies and form a massive elliptical galaxy. 



However, a new study suggests this catastrophic fate may not be as certain as once thought.



A team of scientists led by Durham University used data from NASA’s <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/35-years-of-hubble-the-telescope-that-changed-our-view-of-the-universe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Hubble Space Telescope</a> and the European Space Agency’s <a href="https://www.esa.int/Science_Exploration/Space_Science/Gaia" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Gaia Observatory</a> to simulate the dynamic future of the Milky Way and Andromeda galaxies.



The results revise our understanding of galactic evolution, suggesting that the merger may happen much later than previously estimated - and, in fact, may not happen at all.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-shift-in-galactic-destiny"><a></a>A shift in galactic destiny</h2>



The new study challenges a long-held assumption: that the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/milky-ways-black-hole-unleashes-mysterious-flares/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Milky Way</a> and Andromeda, traveling toward each other at about 100 kilometers per second, were destined to collide in about five billion years.



Instead, after running 100,000 simulations based on updated observations, the team found there is only a 2% chance of a collision within that timeframe.



In just over half of the simulations, the galaxies experienced at least one close encounter. However, astronomers now project a complete merger to occur in eight to ten billion years.



In many other scenarios, the galaxies merely passed each other at great distances and continued on their paths, relatively undisturbed. Moreover, by then, the Sun will have burned out, making any merger irrelevant to life on Earth.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-satellite-galaxy-alters-the-collision-course">Satellite galaxy alters the collision course</h2>



A key factor in the updated forecast is the inclusion of the Large Magellanic Cloud (LMC), the most massive satellite galaxy of the Milky Way. 



For the first time, researchers factored in its gravitational influence in a statistically meaningful way. Till Sawala is the study's lead author and an astrophysicist at the University of Helsinki.



“Although its mass is only around 15% of the Milky Way’s, its gravitational pull directed perpendicular to the orbit with <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/andromeda-galaxy-the-violent-history-of-our-closest-cosmic-neighbor/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Andromeda</a> perturbs the Milky Way’s motion enough to significantly reduce the chance of a merger with the Andromeda Galaxy,” said Sawala.



In previous models, researchers often relied on single “best guess” values for key variables. This new work used a far broader and more robust method, factoring in the full range of observational uncertainties.



“We’ve simply been able to explore a much larger space of possibilities, taking advantage of new data,” Sawala said. “When we tried to start from the same assumptions as previous researchers, we recovered the same results.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-revised-prediction-for-our-galaxy">A revised prediction for our galaxy</h2>



The findings imply a significant rethinking of what lies ahead for the Milky Way. “These results are significant for the fate of our galaxy,” said study co-author Alis Deason, a professor at <a href="https://www.dur.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Durham University</a>.



“It used to appear destined to merge with Andromeda forming a colossal ‘Milkomeda.’ Now, there is a chance that we could avoid this fate entirely.” The research builds on our growing ability to model vast galactic systems with increasing precision.



“We see external galaxies often colliding and merging with other galaxies, sometimes producing the equivalent of cosmic fireworks,” said co-author Carlos Frenk, a cosmologist at Durham University.



“Until now, we thought this was the fate that awaited our Milky Way galaxy. We now know there is a very good chance that we may avoid that scary destiny.”



Frenk emphasized the extraordinary nature of these findings. He said it was astonishing that his team was able to simulate the evolution of gigantic collections of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/interstellar-tunnel-found-that-connects-our-solar-system-to-other-stars/">stars</a> over billions of years with such precision and figure out their ultimate fate. 



"This is a testimony to the power of physics allied to the power of large supercomputers," noted Frenk.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-galaxy-collisions-remain-a-reality">Galaxy collisions remain a reality</h2>



Despite the more optimistic forecast, the authors caution that the future still holds uncertainties. Key variables - such as the transverse motion of Andromeda - are difficult to measure precisely, though upcoming Gaia data releases are expected to refine these measurements.



The researchers plan to continue their investigations with more detailed scenarios as observational data improves. The simulations were the most comprehensive of their kind to date, but even these powerful models have limits.



Still, the implications of the study are clear: while <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/galaxy-collision-2-million-mph-stephans-quintet-captured-unprecedented-detail/">galactic collisions</a> remain a reality in the cosmos, the fate of our own galaxy is no longer set in stone.



As our tools and observations become more sophisticated, the story of the Milky Way is being rewritten - one simulation at a time.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41550-025-02563-1" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Astronomy</a>.



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Is the Milky Way on a collision course? New clues from Hubble

For decades, astronomers believed the Milky Way was on a...

Over the past few decades, a section of the Amazon rainforest has experienced conditions far drier than usual. Scientists launched a project to understand how reduced rainfall might change this green stronghold.



Lucy Rowland, a researcher at the <a href="https://www.exeter.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Exeter</a>, is part of the team that has monitored this forest region for more than 20 years. The efforts are closely tied to an international collaboration aimed at <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41559-025-02702-x" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">documenting</a> the rainforest’s response to stress.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-the-amazon-stores-carbon">How the Amazon stores carbon </h2>



Much of the Amazon serves as a critical buffer against rising <a href="https://www.climate.gov/ghg/what-are-greenhouse-gases-and-why-do-they-matter" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">greenhouse gases</a>. This status is due to the enormous amount of carbon dioxide the rainforest can hold, as supported by prior <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.1164033" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">findings</a> on tree mortality patterns. 



The forests soak up carbon and help regulate global temperatures. For years, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/traditional-forest-farming-is-an-overlooked-climate-solution/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">climate</a> researchers have wondered what prolonged dryness might mean for this natural reservoir. 



In previous studies, experts at NASA's <a href="https://www.jpl.nasa.gov/news/nasa-led-project-tracking-changes-to-water-ecosystems-land-surface/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Jet Propulsion Laboratory</a> used satellites to track vegetation and water content. Together, the data provides a clearer picture of the interplay between ground-level forest conditions and broader atmospheric cycles.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-drought-changed-the-forest-canopy">Drought changed the forest canopy</h2>



The <a href="https://www.esecaflor.ufpa.br/index_eng.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Esecaflor project</a>, located in the Caxiuana National Forest, set out to examine how lower soil moisture affects tree growth and overall forest vitality. 



To make sense of long-term trends, instruments were placed on living trunks, in the soil, and on tall metal towers overlooking the canopy. Regular measurements helped gauge tree health by tracking sap flow, leaf water status, and other key markers.



“We saw a really big decline in biomass, big losses and mortality of the largest trees,” said Professor Rowland.



Early observations showed that mature <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/protecting-forests-helps-birds-and-humans-in-many-ways/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">trees</a> could keep growing, but many eventually showed signs of water stress. Their absence made light and heat more noticeable in spots that had once been shaded by leafy crowns.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-the-amazon-balanced-its-carbon-role">How the Amazon balanced its carbon role</h2>



Over time, the thinning canopy led to new conditions for surviving vegetation. Younger stands, with different rooting strategies, began to flourish. 



The researchers discovered that when big, older trunks no longer competed for water, the rest of the forest slowly reached a new balance.



To interpret these patterns, investigators gathered data on how much water remained in the top layers of soil. Seasonal rainfall could not keep moisture levels high enough for every plant, but it proved sufficient for those that adapted to drier conditions. 



Eventually, the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/forest-carbon-credits-are-failing-so-what-needs-to-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">forest</a> patch held a steady balance instead of losing more vegetation - indicating a move toward stability.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-next-steps-for-forest-recovery">Next steps for forest recovery</h2>



“The forest has already adapted. Now we want to understand what happens next,” said meteorologist João de Athaydes, study co-author and professor at the <a href="https://ufpa.br/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Federal University of Para</a>. 



“The idea is to see whether the forest can regenerate and return to the baseline from when we started the project.”



Many plastic covers were pulled from the ground to see how the site responds when rain returns to typical levels.



Teams are watching the root growth beneath the soil, the air’s temperature, and the steady change in soil moisture. Researchers hope to learn if the forest can regain enough dense foliage to restart substantial carbon uptake. 



An even bigger question is whether the site might reach a state similar to its early days before rainfall was reduced.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-amazon-carbon-loss-matters">Why Amazon carbon loss matters</h2>



Environmental scientists worry about widespread drought events in the Amazon. Extended dryness, triggered by El Niño patterns, has been documented over many years. 



The implications include stress on wildlife, changes in local climates, and potential spikes in greenhouse gases if too many large trees succumb.



The Esecaflor experiment highlights how a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/forests-are-still-fighting-climate-change-against-all-odds/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">forest</a> ecosystem might transform under drier circumstances. Though parts of this tract survived with reduced canopy cover, that survival came with lower capacity to store carbon. 



If the broader Amazon faces similarly harsh conditions, the global climate picture could shift considerably.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-amazon-has-its-carbon-limits">The Amazon has its carbon limits</h2>



The findings from this <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41559-025-02702-x" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">project</a> suggest that some resilience remains in tropical rainforests. Yet, the results serve as a reminder that even these robust ecosystems have limits when faced with less rainfall. 



The years of dryness in this experiment did not convert the area into grassland, which offers a sign of hope.



Scientists involved in this research will continue to share data with policymakers and other academic institutions. Discussions at international gatherings demonstrate the urgency of protecting vital carbon sinks and reinforcing conservation efforts. 



In places like the Amazon, practical measures that support forest health can be pivotal in stabilizing our changing climate.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41559-025-02702-x" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Ecology &amp; Evolution</a>.



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Dry spells weaken the Amazon's ability to store carbon

Over the past few decades, a section of the Amazon...

World Seaweed Day, celebrated on June 4, shines a spotlight on a vital yet often overlooked marine plant. Seaweed plays a key role in ocean ecosystems, supports diverse marine life, and benefits a wide range of human industries - from nutrition and agriculture to scientific research and climate solutions.



The day aims to boost awareness and inspire greater investment in this valuable <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seaweed-farming-could-boost-food-security-slow-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">resource</a>. As seaweed farming expands, so too does global interest in its wide-ranging potential.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-world-seaweed-day-needs-global-attention">World Seaweed Day needs global attention</h2>



Seaweed forms the base of many <a href="https://www.seaweed.ie" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">coastal ecosystems</a>. One of the most important types is kelp - a large brown seaweed that grows in cold, nutrient-rich waters. It attaches to rocks on the seafloor and rises toward the surface, forming thick underwater forests.



Kelp forests support high biodiversity. Fish, crabs, sea urchins, and sea otters all live, hunt, or breed among the kelp. Juvenile fish use the dense fronds as shelter from predators. Many invertebrates feed directly on the kelp or on the microorganisms living on its surface.



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/kelp-forests-in-crisis-how-toxic-turf-algae-are-taking-over/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Kelp</a> grows quickly - some species grow up to half a meter per day. As it grows, kelp absorbs carbon dioxide from seawater and produces oxygen. This helps reduce local ocean acidification. Kelp also slows water movement, which protects shorelines from erosion.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-indicators-of-ocean-health">Indicators of ocean health</h2>



In regions like California, Tasmania, and British Columbia, kelp forests are key parts of the coastal food web. They also support commercial fisheries and ecotourism. 



When kelp declines due to warming waters or sea urchin overgrazing, the entire ecosystem feels the impact. That’s why scientists monitor kelp closely as an indicator of ocean health.



Seaweed also protects coasts. It stabilizes sediment and slows wave action. These functions reduce coastal erosion. Seaweed adapts better than coral to temperature shifts and acidic waters. That makes it a useful tool in marine conservation.



Researchers continue to study how seaweed interacts with other <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sargassum-seaweed-a-growing-problem-could-become-a-sustainable-solution/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">species</a> and how it might reduce ocean acidification.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-traditional-and-modern-food">A traditional and modern food</h2>



In many countries, people have eaten seaweed for centuries. It is part of everyday diets in Japan, Korea, China, and parts of India. It offers key nutrients such as iodine, calcium, iron, and vitamin K. It also adds natural flavor, especially umami.



Now, global markets are adopting seaweed as a food product. It appears in snacks, sauces, and health supplements. It is low in calories and high in fiber. It also suits vegan and gluten-free diets.



Seaweed farming does not use soil or fresh water, which makes it more sustainable than many land crops. As global food systems face pressure, seaweed provides an efficient and low-impact option.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-seaweed-farming-and-local-economies">Seaweed farming and local economies</h2>



Seaweed farming is simple and low-cost. Farmers tie seaweed to ropes and let it grow in coastal waters. In countries like Indonesia, India, and the Philippines, these farms create jobs, often for women.



Besides supporting income, seaweed farms improve the environment. Seaweed absorbs excess nutrients such as nitrogen and phosphorus. These nutrients cause algae blooms in polluted waters. Seaweed helps reduce that risk and restore balance.



Governments and NGOs are working to scale seaweed production. The goal is to improve both rural incomes and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/study-reveals-the-evolutionary-adaptations-of-seagrasses/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">marine health</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-world-seaweed-day-and-climate-action">World Seaweed Day and climate action</h2>



Seaweed absorbs carbon while growing. Some researchers suggest that large-scale seaweed farms could help remove carbon from the atmosphere. This process is still being studied. One idea involves sinking harvested seaweed deep into the ocean to store carbon long-term.



Another tested solution involves livestock. Adding small amounts of red seaweed to cattle feed reduces their methane emissions. Trials show up to 80 percent reduction in some cases.



Seaweed will not solve climate change alone. But it can support broader strategies through carbon capture and reduced agricultural emissions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-industrial-uses-and-new-research">Industrial uses and new research</h2>



Seaweed has applications far beyond food. It appears in cosmetics, fertilizers, packaging, and pharmaceuticals. Extracts from seaweed act as thickeners, antioxidants, and anti-inflammatory agents.



Researchers also study seaweed-based materials for biodegradable plastics and fabric. In construction, seaweed-derived products may improve insulation. Interest is growing because seaweed is renewable, versatile, and relatively easy to grow.



Innovation in this field depends on research funding, fair supply chains, and environmental monitoring.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-challenges-of-seaweed-farming">Challenges of seaweed farming</h2>



Despite its benefits, seaweed farming still faces challenges. Many farmers lack secure access to coastal waters. In some regions, laws are unclear or missing. Infrastructure is often weak, and small producers have limited market access.



Uncontrolled harvesting also poses a threat. Some regions cut seaweed from wild stocks without considering long-term impact. Poor practices can damage ecosystems.



To avoid these risks, governments must support training, regulations, and monitoring. A balance is needed between industry growth and environmental protection.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-take-action-on-world-seaweed-day">Take action on World Seaweed Day </h2>



Taking action on World Seaweed Day can start with something as simple as learning more about the role seaweed plays in ocean health and climate solutions. 



You can support sustainable seaweed products by choosing foods, cosmetics, or packaging made with responsibly harvested or farmed seaweed. 



Sharing what you learn on social media or with friends helps spread awareness and encourage others to take interest. 



If you live near a coast, you might look into local seaweed farming initiatives or marine conservation programs to volunteer with or support. 



Even small actions like asking for more seaweed-based options at your grocery store can help drive change. You can also donate to organizations that support seaweed and ocean sustainability, such as the <a href="https://www.kelpforestfoundation.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Kelp Forest Foundation</a>.



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World Seaweed Day 2025: Saving the ocean’s sustainable powerhouse

World Seaweed Day, celebrated on June 4, shines a spotlight...

It started with a single clay device found at an old settlement in northwestern Saudi Arabia that contained a small residue - hinting at a plant that might reveal medical or sensory secrets.



Scientists soon identified a psychoactive herb that people apparently burned and inhaled over two millennia ago. Peganum harmala is a desert shrub locally known as harmal.



The study, led by Dr. Barbara Huber and Professor Marta Luciani of the Max Planck Institute of Geoanthropology and the <a href="https://www.univie.ac.at/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Vienna</a>, was based on careful chemical analysis.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-where-harmal-was-burned">Where harmal was burned</h2>



<a href="https://whitelevy.fas.harvard.edu/unearthing-qurayyah-i-report-2015-2019-excavation-seasons" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Qurayyah</a> was a major oasis settlement during the Bronze and Iron Ages, located in what is now northwestern Saudi Arabia. It’s known for its distinctive pottery style called Qurayyah Painted Ware and for its long-term human occupation.



The discovery of multiple fumigation devices within homes - not temples or tombs - suggests that burning <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/pharmacology-toxicology-and-pharmaceutical-science/peganum-harmala" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Peganum harmala</a> was a routine part of domestic life. 



The plant is a perennial herbaceous species with a woody underground rootstock. It is known for its antibacterial, psychoactive, and therapeutic properties, and not just reserved for ceremonial use.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-harmal-in-daily-life">Harmal in daily life</h2>



The researchers focused on residue inside pottery from the site known as Qurayyah and used advanced techniques to see what ancient people might have been inhaling.



“Our findings represent chemical evidence for the earliest known burning of harmal, not just in Arabia, but globally,” said Barbara Huber. 



Another team member highlighted the plant’s possible antibacterial, anti-inflammatory, and mood-altering <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fruits-and-plants-are-powerful-allies-for-disease-prevention/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">effects</a>. The settlement context suggests people chose harmal for both practical and personal reasons.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-harmal-burning-was-deliberate">Harmal burning was deliberate</h2>



To identify the burned substance, the team used high-performance liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (<a href="https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC2359828/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">HPLC-MS/MS</a>). This method allowed them to detect specific chemical markers left behind, even in tiny, degraded samples.



The technique zeroed in on two key compounds (<a href="https://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/compound/Harmine" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">harmine</a> and <a href="https://www.acslab.com/research-development/harmane-guide-effects-benefits-risks-and-legality" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">harmane</a>) that are known hallmarks of Peganum harmala. Their presence confirmed that the plant was intentionally used, not just accidentally present.



The researchers believe that harmal seeds were probably collected, dried, and stored before being burned. The high oil content in the seeds made them ideal for slow, consistent combustion.



The presence of specialized burners in domestic spaces suggests that harmal use was organized and intentional, not a random act. These devices were likely handled with care to avoid overexposure or waste.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-harmal-is-still-used-today">Harmal is still used today</h2>



The seeds of this shrub contain active <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18523842/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">alkaloids</a> that can affect serotonin and other chemicals in the brain. This can bring on mild to strong reactions, depending on the amount and the method of use.



Modern users in some regions burn harmal in homes. The harmal smoke is known for its pungent scent and is said to clear out negative <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/herbal-remedies-are-raising-new-concerns/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">influences</a> and pests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ancient-healing-role">Ancient healing role</h2>



Traditionally, harmal has been used in folk remedies for toothaches, headaches, and other types of pain. It has been brewed as tea or burned for direct inhalation.



Because of its antibacterial <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-identify-medicinal-fungi-with-potential-to-slow-down-nervous-system-diseases/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">qualities</a>, this plant might have served as a rudimentary disinfectant. That approach makes sense in a busy oasis settlement that needed consistent hygiene.



Unlike drinking or eating harmal, inhaling the smoke delivers its active compounds through the lungs. This can change how quickly and how strongly people feel the effects.



Fumigation may have offered a milder, controlled experience, useful for treating symptoms without the risks tied to higher oral doses or hallucinations.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dosage-effect-on-mood-pain">Dosage effect on mood, pain</h2>



Harmal smoke can trigger sensations that border on hallucinogenic. Experts say heavy doses may produce a unique mental state, while mild inhalation often brings relief from minor aches.



Some ancient communities may have used this practice for emotional wellness. The environment at Qurayyah probably fostered a need for both spiritual comfort and everyday health support.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-burning-plants-in-ancient-rituals">Burning plants in ancient rituals</h2>



Across many ancient cultures, fumigation wasn’t just about scent or sanitation. Burning certain plants played a role in rituals, healing, and warding off misfortune.



The use of harmal smoke at Qurayyah may have mirrored practices seen elsewhere, where plant-burning served both spiritual and protective functions in daily life.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tools-unlock-ancient-practices">Tools unlock ancient practices</h2>



Archaeologists see these findings as a reminder that local communities often identify and develop complex plant uses. Everyday objects, such as simple burners, can hold chemical data that bring hidden practices to light.



“We’re preserving not only objects, but the intangible cultural heritage of ancient knowledge that still holds relevance in local communities today,” said Ahmed M. Abualhassan, co-director of the Qurayyah project.



The possibilities stretch beyond archaeology, resonating with ethnobotany, anthropology, and heritage studies.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-insights-into-natural-medicine">Insights into natural medicine </h2>



Traditional healing methods using plants like harmal are still practiced in parts of the Middle East. But with modernization and urbanization, much of this knowledge is fading fast.



By tracing the deep history of these practices, researchers are helping preserve cultural memory and open doors for new insights in natural medicine.



The study is published in <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s42003-025-08096-7" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Communications Biology</a>.



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Ancient Arabians used psychoactive herbs to heal and protect

It started with a single clay device found at an...

The Atlantic meridional overturning circulation, or AMOC, is a giant system of ocean currents that shuttles warm surface water northward and returns cold, dense water to the south at depth. 



For years, climate scientists have worried that rising greenhouse-gas emissions could cripple this "conveyor belt" in the Atlantic Ocean.



A shutdown of the AMOC is prominently featured in worst-case climate scenarios, raising the specter of abrupt cooling in Europe, shifts in African and South Asian monsoons, and faster regional sea-level rise.



However, a new study led by the <a href="https://www.caltech.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">California Institute of Technology</a> (Caltech) suggests that while the AMOC is indeed poised to weaken, it is unlikely to experience the dramatic near-collapse forecast by some computer models.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-atlantic-models-re-examined">Atlantic models re-examined</h2>



The study combines a streamlined physical model of ocean circulation with two decades of direct observations collected by trans-Atlantic monitoring arrays.



Lead author Dave Bonan, who completed the work as a Caltech doctoral student, explains that standard climate models differ wildly in how they simulate today’s AMOC and therefore in how they project its future.



Instead of attempting to reconcile all of those complex simulations, Bonan’s team identified a single - but crucial - physical relationship: the link between the current’s strength, its depth, and its sensitivity to surface warming and freshening.



The analysis concludes that by 2100, the AMOC will slow by roughly 18 to 43 percent, depending on <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/2023-climate-change-report-record-high-temperatures-greenhouse-gases-sea-level-rise/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">greenhouse-gas emissions</a>. That is a significant reduction, but far short of the 60–80 percent declines, or near-total collapses, that some earlier studies implied.



“Our results imply that, rather than a substantial decline, the AMOC is more likely to experience a limited decline over the 21st century - still some weakening, but less drastic than previous projections suggest,” Bonan said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-establishing-the-depth-of-the-amoc">Establishing the depth of the AMOC</h2>



The researchers discovered that present-day model biases stem largely from how deep each model’s AMOC extends.



A stronger, deeper overturning cell allows climatic changes at the surface - warmer temperatures and an influx of freshwater from <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/shrinking-arctic-ice-changing-global-climate-warm-arctic-cold-eurasia/">melting</a><a href="https://www.earth.com/news/shrinking-arctic-ice-changing-global-climate-warm-arctic-cold-eurasia/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"> </a><a href="https://www.earth.com/news/shrinking-arctic-ice-changing-global-climate-warm-arctic-cold-eurasia/">ice</a> - to penetrate farther downward. That penetration erodes the density contrasts that power the circulation, leading to a bigger slowdown.



Models that start with a shallower AMOC simulate less surface-driven change and therefore a milder weakening. Because real-world observations show that the actual AMOC lies somewhere in between those extremes, the team’s new estimate falls in the mid-range as well.



To anchor their model, the scientists drew on 20 years of data from moored instruments that continuously measure temperature, salinity, and current speed along 26.5° N and other latitudes in the Atlantic. 



The records provided a reality check for the model’s present-day state and narrowed the plausible range of future outcomes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-capturing-the-ocean-s-structure">Capturing the ocean's structure </h2>



A weakening of roughly one-fifth to two-fifths still has consequences. Slower heat transport would cool parts of northern Europe, raise regional <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-much-did-sea-levels-rise-after-the-last-ice-age-alarming-new-clues-revealed/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">sea levels</a> along the U.S. East Coast, and alter precipitation patterns in the tropics.



Yet the new forecast suggests those effects will be less abrupt than feared, giving societies more time to adapt. It also refocuses scientific attention on model fidelity: improving how models capture today’s ocean structure may be as important as tweaking how they respond to greenhouse gases.



Study co-author Andrew Thompson, a professor of environmental science and engineering at Caltech, argued that the work provides a “road map” for testing next-generation, higher-resolution <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/global-temperature-increase-2023-blew-past-all-climate-models/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">climate models</a>.



Those AMOC models resolve smaller eddies and better represent how winds, mixing, and ice melt influence the circulation. The team’s framework can now be used to gauge whether added complexity brings projections closer to observation-anchored reality.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-uncertainties-in-climate-simulations">Uncertainties in climate simulations</h2>



Bonan credits the freedom afforded by the <a href="https://www.nsf.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">National Science Foundation</a>’s Graduate Research Fellowship Program for allowing him to pursue a question that sits at the intersection of theory and observation.



“The NSF-GFRP gave me the freedom to tinker and explore,” he said. By stripping the problem to its physics and cross-checking with real measurements, the team could sidestep many of the uncertainties that plague full-scale climate simulations.



Tapio Schneider, a professor of environmental science and engineering and senior author of the study, notes that fundamental research of this kind complements, rather than contradicts, traditional modeling.



Understanding why models diverge could let us improve them. It also helps policymakers see that while the AMOC is vulnerable, a catastrophic <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-tipping-points-how-close-are-we-to-irreversible-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">tipping point</a> is not the likeliest outcome this century.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-of-the-atlantic-ocean-current-system">Future of the Atlantic ocean current system</h2>



The authors emphasize that their findings do not reduce the urgency of cutting emissions. A 20–40 percent slowdown in the AMOC would still amplify coastal flooding risks and disrupt weather patterns that billions of people rely on.



Moreover, other climate tipping elements - from West Antarctic ice shelves to Amazon rainforests - remain sensitive to continued warming.



“There is immense value in doing basic research - it can give us a better indication of what the future might look like, as our study shows,” Bonan said.



In short, the Atlantic ocean current system appears sturdier than some dire forecast models suggested, but it is far from immune to the mounting pressure of greenhouse gases.



Better models, grounded in real-world data, now paint a clearer picture of what lies ahead - and underscore the stakes of curbing global warming while there is still time.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41561-025-01709-0" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Geoscience</a>.



Image Credit: NOAA



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Atlantic ocean current system will weaken, but is unlikely to collapse

The Atlantic meridional overturning circulation, or AMOC, is a giant...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2E0mn5mTvhQ
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">'Death Star' moon Mimas conceals a 15-million-year-old ocean that scientists never expected.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hidden-waters-beneath-ancient-craters">Hidden waters beneath ancient craters</h2>



Scientists have made a startling discovery that challenges everything we thought we knew about <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/saturn-moon-mimas-has-remarkably-young-ocean/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Saturn's moon Mimas</a>. Beneath the heavily cratered surface that earned it the nickname "Death Star" lies a global ocean that formed just 5 to 15 million years ago—a remarkably young age by cosmic standards.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cassini-data-reveals-orbital-secrets">Cassini data reveals orbital secrets</h2>



The discovery, led by Dr. Valéry Lainey of the <a href="https://observatoiredeparis.psl.eu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Observatoire de Paris</a>, emerged from careful analysis of <a href="https://www.nasa.gov" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NASA</a>'s Cassini spacecraft data. By studying subtle irregularities in Mimas's orbit around Saturn, researchers detected the gravitational signature of liquid water hidden 20 to 30 kilometers beneath the moon's icy shell.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-an-unlikely-ocean-world">An unlikely ocean world</h2>



At only 400 kilometers in diameter, Mimas seemed like the least likely candidate to harbor a subsurface ocean. Unlike other ocean moons such as Europa and Enceladus, which show clear surface signs of internal activity, Mimas displays no obvious hints of the liquid water beneath its ancient, crater-scarred exterior.



"Mimas is a small moon, and its heavily cratered surface gave no hint of the hidden ocean beneath," explained Dr. Nick Cooper from <a href="https://www.qmul.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Queen Mary University of London</a>, a study co-author.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-astrobiology">Implications for astrobiology</h2>



The ocean's recent formation makes Mimas a prime target for studying how oceans develop and potentially support life. This discovery adds another member to the exclusive club of ocean worlds in our solar system, each offering unique insights into the conditions necessary for habitability.



The research, published in <a href="https://www.nature.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature</a> journal, demonstrates how advanced orbital analysis can reveal hidden features of celestial bodies, opening new possibilities for understanding ocean formation throughout the cosmos.



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Scientists discover unexpected young ocean on Saturn's cratered moon Mimas

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2E0mn5mTvhQ 'Death Star' moon Mimas conceals a 15-million-year-old ocean that...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE
</div></figure>



On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop and sunlight barely penetrates through the polar winter. It was here, however, that an international team of scientists found <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/predatory-worms-were-terror-beasts-half-a-billion-years-ago/#google_vignette" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evidence of sea monsters</a> that would change our understanding of ocean life in the past.



This video captures the discovery of Timorebestia fossils that had been hidden for more than 500 million years in the Sirius Passet formation. The "terror beasts," as they are called, are a hidden chapter in the evolutionary history of <a href="https://www.earth.com" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Earth</a>, showing that sophisticated predator-prey interactions occurred much earlier than previously envisioned.



Dr. Jakob Vinther and his research team at the <a href="https://www.bristol.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Bristol</a>, in collaboration with researchers at the <a href="https://eng.kopri.re.kr/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Korean Polar Research Institute</a>, braved extreme weather conditions at 82.5 north latitude to locate these giant creatures. Using sophisticated electron microprobe analysis, they revealed the detailed anatomy of the animals, including their muscle and nerve tissues.



The find upsets the traditional timeline of sea predators. Although we've long appreciated that Cambrian oceans were at one time ruled by <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jWI3-UgA3_o&amp;list=PL1QLQMW9MWDwpkFOnvgAmu7wT6rZmYqdJ&amp;index=19" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">arthropods</a>, these discoveries indicate that relatives of arrow worms were first to dominate the seas. These worms were building sophisticated food webs several million years before other predator groups arose.



Each fossil is a story of ancient hunger, with fossil stomach contents revealing these meter-long beasts dined on heavily armored arthropods regularly, cementing their place as the ocean's first apex predators.



-----



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Worms dominated seas before dinosaurs

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">New York is the site of the world's oldest forest.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-385-million-year-old-trees-discovered">385-million-year-old trees discovered</h2>



Scientists have uncovered something extraordinary just two hours north of New York City. The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/worlds-oldest-forest-discovered-close-to-new-york-city/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">world's oldest forest</a>, dating back 385 million years, offers a window into how Earth's first complex forests shaped our planet's atmosphere.



Located near <a href="https://townofcairo.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cairo, New York</a>, in Greene County, these weren't merely primitive plants struggling to survive. These were sophisticated trees with root systems remarkably similar to modern forests. This ancient woodland predates dinosaurs by 140 million years.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-cairo-forest-discovery">The Cairo forest discovery</h2>



385 million years ago, upstate New York was a tropical paradise near the equator. Thanks to continental drift, this ancient forest has traveled thousands of miles to its current location.



The fossil forest sits in an abandoned quarry, roughly half the size of a football field. This represents just a slice of what was likely a massive forest system stretching from New York into Pennsylvania.



Charles Ver Straeten, curator of sedimentary rocks at the <a href="https://www.nysm.nysed.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">New York State Museum</a>, made the discovery in 2009. While scouting the former highway department property, his trained eye spotted wandering patterns in the stone that looked like marine features.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-revolutionary-age-and-preservation">Revolutionary age and preservation</h2>



The site contains 385-million-year-old rocks with fossilized woody roots forming horizontal patterns up to 18 feet (5.5 meters) wide. As Christopher Berry, a paleobotanist at Cardiff University, explains: "You are walking through the roots of ancient trees."



This discovery pushes back advanced tree evolution by millions of years. The research, published in <a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/home" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Current Biology</a> in December 2019, fundamentally changes our understanding of when complex forests first emerged.



Researchers believe a massive flood buried the forest floor, creating perfect fossilization conditions. Over millions of years, sediment hardened into rock, preserving these root patterns like nature's time capsule.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-meet-archaeopteris-the-first-modern-tree">Meet Archaeopteris: the first modern tree</h2>



The star of this ancient forest is Archaeopteris – not to be confused with the feathered dinosaur Archaeopteryx. This tree was far older and more revolutionary.



William Stein from <a href="https://www.binghamton.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Binghamton University</a> describes the roots as "strikingly modern, essentially what you'd see outside in my yard right now." These weren't simple root systems you'd expect from ancient plants.



Some fossilized roots are six inches (15 centimeters) in diameter, forming 36-foot-wide (11-meter) patterns. These giants grew up to 65 feet (20 meters) tall with five-foot-diameter (1.5-meter) trunks.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-changing-impact">Climate-changing impact</h2>



These trees fundamentally changed Earth's environment. Kevin Boyce, a Stanford University geoscientist, explains how their deep roots triggered "weathering," chemical reactions that pulled carbon dioxide from the atmosphere.



This process dropped atmospheric CO2 levels from 10-15 times higher than today to roughly modern concentrations. These ancient trees helped create atmospheric conditions that made complex life possible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ancient-forest-ecosystem">Ancient forest ecosystem</h2>



The forest was remarkably diverse. Scientists identified Eospermatopteris, palm tree-like plants with short roots that reached 30 feet (9 meters) tall but lacked woody structure. The forest also housed cladoxylopsids and a mysterious third species still being studied.



All reproduced through spores rather than seeds – millions of years before seeds evolved. This tropical environment had no grass, flowers, or flying insects, just towering trees creating Earth's first complex forest canopy.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-scientific-significance">Scientific significance</h2>



Before this finding, the Gilboa forest, located 25 miles (40 kilometers) away, held the "oldest forest" title. Cairo's trees are 2-3 million years older, showing that complex forest ecosystems developed much faster than scientists believed possible.



Patricia Gensel, a <a href="https://www.unc.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of North Carolina</a> paleobotanist, notes: "The size of those root systems is really changing the picture. Even 20 years ago, researchers assumed trees with such complex root systems didn't evolve so early."



The Cairo site presents three unique root systems, suggesting Devonian period forests were diverse ecosystems with different trees occupying different environmental niches, much like today's forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-modern-preservation-efforts">Modern preservation efforts</h2>



In 2022, New York State Senator Michelle Hinchey secured a $170,000 grant for the town of Cairo to construct specialized fencing around the fossil forest site. The town plans to conduct a feasibility study exploring the possibility of creating an educational center and working lab on-site.



Joe Hasenkopf, chair of the Cairo Planning Board, hopes to partner with educational institutions to create a research facility serving scientists, students, and the public.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lessons-for-today-s-climate">Lessons for today's climate</h2>



Why does a 385-million-year-old forest matter today? It shows how dramatically forests can change Earth's climate. These ancient woodlands created the atmospheric conditions supporting complex life.



Understanding how prehistoric forests transformed the planet helps us appreciate modern forests' critical role in addressing climate change. Forests remain Earth's most effective carbon capture systems.



These prehistoric trees changed Earth's atmosphere by pulling massive amounts of carbon dioxide from the air. As we face modern climate challenges, this ancient forest reminds us of trees' incredible power to transform our planet's environment.



The next time you walk through a forest, remember you're experiencing an ecosystem whose blueprint was established 385 million years ago in upstate New York. These ancient pioneers didn't just survive – they thrived and changed the world forever.



The full study was published in the journal Current Biology.



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Earth's oldest forest found in the United States

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ New York is the site of the world's oldest...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Acid rain and a crisis solved.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-don-t-we-ever-hear-about-acid-rain-anymore-the-environmental-crisis-that-was-solved">Why don't we ever hear about "acid rain" anymore? The environmental crisis that was solved</h2>



Remember the 1980s when acid rain dominated headlines? Dire warnings about rain eating buildings, killing fish, and destroying forests filled every news cycle. Then, almost like magic, acid rain vanished from public discourse. What happened? Did we actually solve one of the late 20th century's most pressing environmental challenges?



The answer might surprise you. Unlike many environmental issues that drag on indefinitely, acid rain represents one of modern history's most successful ecological recovery stories. It's a tale of science, politics, and technology working together to tackle what seemed impossible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What was acid rain?</h2>



Acid rain isn't regular rain having a bad day – it's precipitation that became significantly more acidic due to air pollution. When power plants, factories, and vehicles burn fossil fuels, they release sulfur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides (NOx) into the atmosphere.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The science behind it</h2>



Think of acid rain as nature's chemistry experiment gone wrong. These compounds react with water, oxygen, and other chemicals to form sulfuric and nitric acids. When mixed with water vapor in clouds, they create precipitation with dangerously low pH levels.



While clean rain has a pH of about 5.6, acid rain could drop as low as 4.2 to 4.4 – roughly as acidic as tomato juice or coffee. According to US Geological Survey documentation, Scottish chemist Angus Smith first coined "acid rain" in 1872, but it didn't become a household phrase until the 1960s and 1970s when Swedish scientist Svante Odén documented its devastating effects on Scandinavian lakes and European forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The crisis at its peak</h2>



During the height of public concern, environmental damage was both widespread and visible. This wasn't some abstract future threat – people could see destruction happening in real-time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Environmental devastation</h2>



The most dramatic impacts were impossible to ignore. Research documented by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation and the New York State Department of Environmental Conservation shows that in the Adirondack Mountains, more than 200 lakes became so acidic they couldn't support fish life. The Adirondack Council reports that 409 lakes once supported brook trout, but many lost their fish populations due to acid rain.



By 1976, when scientists cataloged all acidified lakes in the Adirondack Park, researchers found that half of the lakes over 2,000 feet above sea level had no fish, according to studies published in environmental journals. The acidification process worked like a slow-motion disaster. As acid rain fell into watersheds, it gradually lowered pH levels. Fish couldn't survive in acidic water, and their food sources died off too.



Trees at high elevations showed stress directly linked to acid rain. It weakened them by leaching nutrients and making them susceptible to disease. Historical records show Germany's Black Forest saw nearly half its trees damaged by the mid-1980s.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Economic impact</h2>



Acid rain wasn't just environmental – it was expensive. Acidic precipitation corroded infrastructure, buildings, and monuments. Historic stone structures deteriorated at accelerated rates. Tourism suffered as lakes became fishless and forests declined. EPA economic analyses from the period documented repair costs mounting into billions annually.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The solution: government action and technology</h2>



Transformation from crisis to success required unprecedented cooperation between governments, industries, and environmental groups.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The Clean Air Act of 1990</h2>



The turning point came with the Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990, signed by President George H.W. Bush. This represented a fundamentally new approach to environmental regulation, as documented in EPA historical records.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Cap-and-trade success</h2>



Instead of mandating specific technologies, the 1990 amendments introduced something revolutionary: a cap-and-trade system for sulfur dioxide emissions. EPA program documentation shows this market-based approach set overall limits but allowed companies to trade emission allowances.



The genius was harnessing market forces to find cost-effective pollution reduction. Companies reducing emissions cheaply could sell excess allowances to those facing higher costs. Research published in environmental economics journals and EPA progress reports shows this resulted in dramatic SO2 reduction at a fraction of projected costs.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Technology advances</h2>



Policy provided the framework, but technology made reductions possible. Studies in atmospheric science journals document the widespread adoption of flue gas desulfurization systems ("scrubbers") that removed sulfur dioxide before it reached the atmosphere. By the 2000s, new installations could remove over 95% of SO2 emissions, according to EPA technical reports.



The push coincided with cleaner energy development. Natural gas produces fewer sulfur compounds than coal. Wind and solar, emerging in the 1990s, captured growing market share, reducing reliance on high-sulfur coal.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-we-don-t-hear-about-it-today">Why we don't hear about it today</h2>



Why did acid rain disappear from headlines? Simple: the problem was largely solved.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Success doesn't make news</h2>



There's an old journalism saying: "If it bleeds, it leads." Environmental success stories don't generate urgency like crisis reporting. Media attention shifted to other challenges: climate change, plastic pollution, and biodiversity loss. There's only so much environmental anxiety the public can absorb, and newer concerns replaced acid rain.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Mission accomplished</h2>



The primary reason is beautifully simple: interventions worked. EPA monitoring data shows sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990. Academic research published in environmental science journals confirms pH levels in formerly affected areas returned closer to normal. This represents one of history's most dramatic environmental recoveries. Studies by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation show fishless lakes now support healthy populations. Forests recovered, and building damage slowed dramatically.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-is-it-really-gone">Is it really gone?</h2>



The crisis is largely resolved, but monitoring data shows the problem isn't completely eliminated – it's managed to acceptable levels. Some areas still experience occasional events during high pollution periods. International environmental research indicates that rapidly industrializing Asian countries face similar problems to what we experienced decades ago, though they're implementing successful strategies.



EPA research shows nitrogen oxide emissions proved more challenging than sulfur dioxide, coming from vehicles and mobile sources. Climate science studies suggest changing weather patterns add complexity to how acid rain forms and falls.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What this teaches us</h2>



The acid rain experience proves that seemingly intractable environmental problems can be solved with scientific understanding, political will, and technological innovation. Environmental monitoring data shows recovery speed was remarkable – within a decade, measurable improvements appeared in air quality and ecosystem health.



Success came from bipartisan support across party lines. Policy analysis studies show the market-based approach appealed to those preferring economic incentives while achieving environmental goals. This support created lasting policy surviving political changes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Conclusion</h2>



Acid rain's disappearance from public consciousness represents environmental science's greatest success stories. Through effective regulation, technological innovation, and international cooperation, we transformed an overwhelming crisis into a manageable challenge.



Today's silence isn't because we forgot – it's because we solved it. The 1990 Clean Air Act, combined with technology and energy market changes, reduced acid rain emissions over 90%, according to comprehensive EPA data analysis.



This success offers hope for current challenges. It proves complex problems can be solved when science, policy, and technology work together. As we face climate change and plastic pollution, acid rain reminds us that dramatic positive change is possible.



Next time someone asks whether environmental regulations work, remember acid rain. It's proof that sometimes, we get it right.



<hr class="wp-block-separator has-alpha-channel-opacity"/>



Sources: This article draws from EPA official documentation and progress reports, peer-reviewed research published in environmental and atmospheric science journals, historical data from the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation, New York State Department of Environmental Conservation records, US Geological Survey publications, policy analysis studies, and environmental monitoring data collected over three decades.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Frequently Asked Questions</h2>



1. Is acid rain completely gone? No, but EPA monitoring shows it's reduced to manageable levels. US sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990, making acid rain much less severe than the 1980s crisis.



2. How long did solving take? Environmental monitoring data shows significant improvements began within 5-10 years of 1990s emission controls. Full ecosystem recovery took longer – some areas need 20-30 years for complete recovery.



3. What made the solution successful? Clear scientific understanding, visible damage motivating action, bipartisan support, available technology, and innovative market-based policies like cap-and-trade.



4. Do other countries have acid rain problems? Yes, particularly rapidly industrializing Asian countries. However, international environmental research shows many implement similar successful control strategies.



5. Could acid rain return? Potentially, if regulations weaken or we return to high-sulfur coal without controls, though effects would take years to become severe according to environmental projections.



6. Can you recommend any teaching tools on the subject of "acid rain"? The United States Environmental Protection Agency produced a wonderful teacher's guide for ages 14 and under that you can find on the EPA website here: <a href="https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf</a>



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The environmental problem we actually solved

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk Acid rain and a crisis solved. Why don't we...

Fresh,Radish,Harvest,On,Soil,In,Garden.

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://youtu.be/Fi2OeEwuzRM?si=vTyd2m9FMmtyWkex
</div></figure>







Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving fall garden, and this guide lays out the best vegetables and herbs to plant now for a fruitful autumn harvest. 



Fast-growing leafy greens such as spinach, lettuce, kale, and arugula perform especially well in the waning summer heat, with harvests beginning as soon as 30 days. 



These cool-season crops relish the transition into fall, offering repeated yields with cut-and-come-again methods.



Root vegetables like radishes, carrots, and beets also excel during this period. Radishes deliver satisfaction in under a month, while carrots and beets mature in about two months. Employing succession planting ensures a continuous stream of produce deep into the cooler months. 



For a boost of fresh flavor, herbs like cilantro, basil, dill, and chervil are excellent picks. These heat-loving varieties flourish in July’s warmth and are harvest-ready in about 30 days, especially when sown continuously.



Gardeners in zones 6 through 9 can benefit from planting bush beans and snap peas, which don’t require trellising and are ideal for compact plots. 



Maturing in 50–60 days, they’re a smart choice for quick, protein-rich harvests. For those in hotter regions, heat-tolerant crops such as okra and southern peas provide reliable yields and thrive in scorching conditions.



This guide emphasizes more than crop selection—it highlights the importance of timing, soil preparation, and ongoing sowing techniques. 



With thoughtful planning and attention to regional climate needs, even late-summer gardeners can enjoy fresh salads, hearty stews, and the satisfaction of a robust, homegrown harvest well into fall.



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What to plant in your garden in mid-July

https://youtu.be/Fi2OeEwuzRM?si=vTyd2m9FMmtyWkex Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving...

Green,Ecoduct,Over,An,Empty,Highway,During,Sunset.

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://youtu.be/XYgiPzmNBTU?si=eFYY7gPHU1JznLvU
</div></figure>



A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that wildlife tunnels significantly reduce amphibian road mortality during seasonal migrations. 



Frogs and salamanders often cross roads to reach breeding ponds each spring, but many are killed by vehicles. 



Researchers from the <a href="https://www.uvm.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Vermont</a>, in collaboration with local citizens and the Vermont Agency of Natural Resources, installed two underpass tunnels in 2015. 



Over a 12-year monitoring period, they observed an 80.2% reduction in amphibian deaths, and up to 94% for non-climbing species like salamanders. 



The study used a before-after-control-impact design and documented more than 5,200 amphibians, highlighting the tunnels’ effectiveness even in nearby buffer zones.



Funded at $342,397 - far cheaper than wildlife crossings for large mammals - the project showcased the power of community-led conservation.



Local groups initiated the effort after observing mass amphibian deaths. Wildlife cameras later captured over 2,200 amphibians using a tunnel in just one spring, along with other species like raccoons and bobcats, indicating wider ecosystem benefits.



This marks the first peer-reviewed, long-term data set in the northeastern U.S. confirming amphibian-specific underpasses work. 



The study urges transportation departments to incorporate these designs into road planning and highlights how community action, thoughtful infrastructure, and persistence can make a real difference for biodiversity.



The full study was published in the <a href="https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1617138125000780" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal for Nature Conservation</a>.



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Wildlife tunnels save millions of amphibians

https://youtu.be/XYgiPzmNBTU?si=eFYY7gPHU1JznLvU A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that...

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing it with probiotics and prebiotics, aiming to create a treat that satisfies cravings while supporting gut health. 



The challenge lies in maintaining chocolate's beloved texture and flavor while adding health benefits.



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Probiotics - beneficial microbes that balance gut bacteria and aid digestion - are typically fragile and can be destroyed by stomach acid or processing. 



Prebiotics act as food for these microbes, helping them thrive. Together, they form "synbiotics," a powerful health combination.



Researchers Smriti Gaur and Shubhi Singh from India's Jaypee Institute of Information Technology took an innovative approach, using natural prebiotics like corn and honey instead of complex processing methods. 



They created five chocolate varieties: a control and four synbiotic versions containing different combinations of prebiotics, probiotics (Lactobacillus strains), and flavor enhancers (cinnamon or orange).



Laboratory simulations of human digestion showed the probiotics remained viable for over five hours, suggesting they could survive long enough to benefit gut health.



Taste tests were positive, with researchers particularly enjoying the orange-flavored variety, describing it as having "vibrant citrus notes" complementing the "rich cocoa" with a "luxurious" texture.



This research represents just the beginning. With further refinement of strains, textures, and flavors, chocolate could evolve beyond mere indulgence to become a functional food that nourishes while it delights.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.4c00741" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ACS Food Science &amp; Technology</a>.

Is chocolate the next nutritional powerhouse?

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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How does salt makes things taste better?

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Santiago, Chile in South America

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Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.



According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."



Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;



ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. 



Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

[sendtonews key="oL4FnPTGCV-2384527-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

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Earth,Like,Exoplanet,3d,Render

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

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