Young aspen trees in Yellowstone are doing something they have not done in almost 100 years. Rather than sprouting and being eaten back to nubs by elk and bison, they're actually growing into tall, adult forest trees rising up towards the canopy.



This matters more than it might seem, because it shows what happens when a missing piece of an ecosystem returns.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-yellowstone-aspens-and-elk">Yellowstone, aspens, and elk</h2>



In the 1920s, people <a href="https://www.yellowstone.org/wolf-project/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">eliminated wolves in Yellowstone</a>. At the time, with limited scientific knowledge, managers believed it was the right thing to do.



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/from-wolves-to-dogs-did-domestication-begin-without-human-help/">Without wolves</a>, elk herds grew very large. Elk love to eat aspen shoots - the tender young growth is highly palatable to them.



For roughly 70 years, elk browsed aspen sprouts down to stub height, and the trees couldn't grow. 



If you had walked through Yellowstone in the 1980s, you would have seen many tiny aspen shoots covering the ground, but almost no young trees gaining height. 



The forest's regeneration was stalled. Old trees died, and no new ones replaced them.



In 1995 and 1996, park managers reintroduced wolves into the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/yellowstone-supervolcano-eruption-study-sparks-new-debate-on-where-and-when-it-will-erupt/">Yellowstone Park ecosystem</a>. Scientists hoped and wondered whether this would change anything for the trees.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-aspen-matter-to-yellowstone">Why aspen matter to Yellowstone</h2>



Aspen groves provide habitat for many species. Birds nest in them. Beavers eat the bark and use the wood for dams. Butterflies and moths lay eggs on the leaves. 



Their canopy admits enough light for wildflowers and shrubs to grow beneath. When it rains, aspen groves hold water in the soil better than some other forest types.



In short, when aspen return, dozens of other species benefit. More trees support more insects, which in turn support more birds, enriching the ecosystem.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-checking-the-trees-three-decades-later">Checking the trees three decades later</h2>



<a href="https://fwcs.oregonstate.edu/users/luke-painter" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Luke Painter</a>, an ecologist at <a href="https://oregonstate.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Oregon State University</a>, sought clear answers. His team returned to 87 aspen stands across Yellowstone that scientists had previously surveyed. 



They measured thousands of young trees, looked for bite marks, and counted how many stems were tall enough that elk could no longer reach the tips.



About a third of these stands now have many tall young aspens pushing toward the canopy. 



"About 26 of the 87 aspen stands we examined had large numbers of tall saplings throughout, a remarkable change from the 1990s when surveys found none at all," Painter said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-wolves-matter-to-yellowstone-aspens">Why wolves matter to Yellowstone aspens</h2>



Breaking it all down, the conclusions of this study are pretty simple. 



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/wolves-move-pups-across-mountains-to-adapt-to-climate-pressure/">Wolves hunt elk</a>. When wolves came back, two things happened. First, elk numbers declined from unusually high levels. Second, elk changed their behavior. They spent less time in the same areas feeding.



With fewer elk and shorter feeding bouts, more aspen shoots survived long enough to exceed the browsing zone - about six to seven feet high. 



Once a sapling reaches that height, elk cannot easily reach the growing tip. The tree continues to grow.



"The reintroduction of large carnivores has initiated a recovery process that had been shut down for decades," Painter explained.



Scientists call this a <a href="https://www.nature.com/scitable/knowledge/library/trophic-cascades-across-diverse-plant-ecosystems-80060347/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">trophic cascade</a> - when adding or removing one species causes changes that ripple through the whole system.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-some-places-recover-others-don-t">Some places recover, others don't</h2>



Unfortunately, not every aspen stand has recovered yet. Some valleys still have many short, heavily browsed shoots, because it's not only elk eating them anymore. 



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/yellowstones-iconic-bison-have-merged-into-a-single-herd/">Bison herds have grown</a>, and bison browse on aspen as well. They are strong enough to break young trees. 



"Increasing numbers of bison may be emerging as a new constraint to aspen in some areas," Painter confirmed.



Additionally, winter snow depth varies; droughts stress trees; bears and mountain lions also hunt elk; and hunting outside the park influences elk distribution. 



All of these factors interact, which is why some sites show strong recovery, others show moderate recovery, and a few have changed very little.



The key pattern is that places with many tall saplings experience little browsing, and aspen groves that remain popular eating grounds today stay short. 



This fact is the strongest indication that tree recovery is linked directly to wolf presence, not solely to weather or soil conditions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-proof-in-the-measurements">Proof in the measurements</h2>



Painter's team did not rely on casual observation. They used the same methods as earlier researchers, measuring the same plots. 



They counted recruitment - when young trees surpass browsing height and begin progressing toward maturity. This measure is crucial. Sprouts are insufficient if they never grow; without recruitment, the forest cannot replace itself.



The results are robust. After being stalled for most of a century, Yellowstone's aspens are increasing in height. In recovering stands today, you will see saplings - six, eight, or ten feet tall - that were not present in the 1990s.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-future-of-yellowstone-s-aspens">The future of Yellowstone's aspens</h2>



"This is a remarkable case of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/giant-viruses-found-in-yellowstones-hot-springs-may-be-near-the-root-of-all-life-on-earth/">ecological restoration</a>," Painter concluded. "Wolf reintroduction is yielding long-term ecological changes contributing to increased biodiversity and habitat diversity."



Trees grow slowly, so even with wolves restored, it will take decades for these young aspens to form a full-grown forest. 



Some areas might never fully recover if bison numbers continue to rise or if the climate becomes too hot and dry.



Thanks to the work of Painter and his team, scientists are now certain that restoring the Yellowstone predator has restarted aspen forest regeneration. Not everywhere and not perfectly, but enough to be measured, creating hope for the future.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0378112725004499?via%3Dihub" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Forest Ecology and Management</a>.



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Yellowstone's aspen trees are growing again thanks to the reintroduction of wolves

Young aspen trees in Yellowstone are doing something they have not done in almost 100 years. Rather than sprouting and being eaten back to nubs by elk and bison, they're actually growing into tall, adult forest trees rising up towards the canopy. This matters more than it might seem, because it shows what happens when a missing piece of an ecosystem returns. Yellowstone, aspens, and elk In the 1920s, people eliminated wolves in Yellowstone. At the time, with limited scientific knowledge, managers believed it was the right...

For centuries, the world forgot how to make Egyptian blue - the first synthetic pigment in human history. First used around 3100 BCE, this rich blue adorned statues, walls, and tombs across ancient Egypt and beyond. 



Despite its widespread use in antiquity, the process to create the pigment was lost for over a thousand years. What was once common in temples and mosaics became a chemical mystery.



Now, thanks to new scientific work led by Washington State University (<a href="https://wsu.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">WSU</a>), that mystery is being unraveled. The team has recreated Egyptian blue using modern tools while staying faithful to ancient methods. Their work doesn’t just recreate a color - it rebuilds part of our shared human past.



“We hope this will be a good case study in what science can bring to the study of our human <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/archaeologists-find-possible-proof-that-neanderthals-made-art-painted-rock/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">past</a>,” said John McCloy, lead author and director of WSU’s School of Mechanical and Materials Engineering.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-the-blue-pigment-was-made">How the blue pigment was made</h2>



Cuprorivaite, a copper-based mineral, gives Egyptian blue its color. But <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/study-shows-early-humans-climbed-trees-and-worked-with-stone/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ancient</a> pigments also contained silica, glass, wollastonite, and even unreacted minerals. The resulting mixture varied based on ingredients, heating time, and cooling speed.



The researchers found that pigment color changed drastically with minor tweaks. They observed that malachite yielded bright blue even after one hour of heating. 



Azurite needed longer heating to match the same hue. Adding soda (Na₂CO₃) encouraged the formation of a glass phase, often giving the pigment a greenish tint.



Microscopic analysis revealed most particles are not pure. Instead, they contain intergrown crystals and glassy blebs. Even seemingly blue grains hide complex inner structures.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cooling-speed-changed-the-final-color">Cooling speed changed the final color</h2>



The team discovered that slower cooling improved color. When cooled gradually, more cuprorivaite crystals formed, making the pigment deeper blue. In fast cooling, glass and silica dominated, leading to duller colors.



Tests showed a 70% increase in cuprorivaite when samples were slow-cooled. This shift also reduced amorphous glass by 30 percent. Such findings highlight how ancient artisans may have controlled their firing process for desired results.



“You had some people who were making the pigment and then transporting it, and then the final use was somewhere else,” said McCloy.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lab-tests-matched-ancient-artifacts">Lab tests matched ancient artifacts</h2>



The team used modern imaging and spectroscopy to analyze pigment color. They mapped light reflectance across the visible and near-infrared spectrum. The most blue-rich pigments reflected less light at 620–785 nm and emitted strongly at around 910 nm.



Measurements also showed that larger pigment particles appeared deeper blue. Finer particles reflected more light, making the color seem pale or even grayish.



The team compared their pigments to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/archaeologists-discovered-ancient-footprints-that-rewrite-the-story-of-humans-in-america/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ancient</a> artifacts: a Ptolemaic-era cartonnage and a cartouche from Amarna. These relics contained mixed grains of dark blue, light blue, and nearly colorless material.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ancient-blue-pigment-had-mixed-ingredients">Ancient blue pigment had mixed ingredients</h2>



The findings challenge the idea that Egyptian blue was a uniform substance. Instead, ancient versions were multi-phase materials. They often included silicates, cuprorivaite, and trace metal oxides.



Interestingly, cuprorivaite doesn’t need to be dominant. Even at 50% concentration, the pigment appears deeply blue. Additional cuprorivaite doesn’t significantly alter the visual result.



“It doesn’t matter what the rest of it is, which was really quite surprising to us,” said McCloy. “You can see that every single pigment particle has a bunch of stuff in it - it’s not uniform by any means.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-from-ancient-palettes-to-modern-tech">From ancient palettes to modern tech</h2>



Besides historical interest, Egyptian blue has modern uses. Its strong near-infrared luminescence could serve fields like security printing, biomedical imaging, and laser technology. 



Unlike other copper minerals, cuprorivaite’s structure creates a square-planar copper site, which causes its deep color and unique emission.



In addition, researchers found that samples with soda formed a glass phase. This phase, while reducing blue intensity, adds greenish tones and can mimic the look of turquoise or jade.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-recreation-of-the-egyptian-blue-pigment">Recreation of the Egyptian blue pigment</h2>



The synthetic samples created by the team are now on display in the <a href="https://carnegiemnh.org/explore/stories-we-keep/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Stories We Keep</a> exhibition at the Carnegie Museum of Natural History. In 2026, they will move to the museum’s long-term gallery, Egypt on the Nile.



By replicating <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/looking-to-earths-ancient-climate-to-predict-our-future/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ancient</a> recipes with scientific precision, the team brings fresh insight into how early makers crafted color. Their work helps heritage scientists match pigment colors accurately and restores appreciation for a material that once brightened temples and tombs.



Image Credit: Matt Unger, Carnegie Museum of Natural History



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Egyptian blue pigment recreated after 100 years

For centuries, the world forgot how to make Egyptian blue...

Marijuana is not just for the young anymore. In the United States, older adults are picking it up in record numbers. Some want relief from pain or better sleep, while others are simply curious. Whatever the reason, one thing is clear: cannabis use among seniors is growing fast.



A new study from the Center for Drug Use and HIV/HCV Research (<a href="https://www.cduhr.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">CDUHR</a>) and the <a href="https://publichealth.nyu.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NYU School of Global Public Health</a> shows just how big the shift in cannabis use has become. 



The researchers found that 7 percent of Americans aged 65 and older used marijuana in the past month. Just two years ago, that number was 4.8 percent.



“Our study shows that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-reveal-the-most-complete-cannabis-genome-yet/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cannabis</a> use among older adults continues to increase, although there have been major shifts in use according to demographic and socioeconomic factors,” said Dr. Joseph Palamar, the study’s senior author.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cannabis-use-now-tracked-in-older-adults">Cannabis use now tracked in older adults</h2>



This isn’t just about yearly habits. The study used recent national data, collected between 2021 and 2023, to look at who had used cannabis in the last 30 days. That kind of snapshot hadn’t been possible before.



“This is the first time we were able to examine ‘current’ use of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/cannabis-use-in-any-form-directly-linked-to-significant-risk-of-heart-damage/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cannabis</a> in this age group. Before, we were only able to look at past-year use because the numbers for current use were too small,” said Dr. Benjamin Han, the study’s first author and associate professor at the <a href="https://health.ucsd.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of California San Diego</a>.



The increase looks even bigger over time. Back in 2006 and 2007, fewer than 1 percent of seniors said they’d used cannabis in the past year. Fast forward to 2023, and 7 percent had used it in just the past month.



“If we look even further back to 2006 and 2007, less than 1 percent of older adults used cannabis in the past year. Now, we’re seeing that 7 percent have used it in the past month alone,” Han said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-who-s-using-cannabis-now">Who’s using cannabis now?</h2>



Older cannabis users today don’t look like they did 10 or 15 years ago. The typical user is now more likely to be married, college-educated, and earning a higher income. White older adults showed the biggest jump. So did women, though men still use <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dopamine-changes-from-cannabis-last-at-least-one-year/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cannabis</a> more overall.



Money matters too. Those making over $75,000 were once the least likely to use marijuana. That flipped by 2023. They became the most likely group to report recent use.



“Interestingly, with respect to income, those with the highest incomes had the lowest prevalence of cannabis use in 2021, but by 2023 this group had the highest prevalence, which may indicate who has access to medical cannabis given its costs,” said Palamar.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-older-adults-use-more-legal-cannabis">Older adults use more legal cannabis </h2>



Not all states treat <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/cbd-reduces-the-unwanted-side-effects-of-thc/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cannabis</a> the same. The study found that older adults living in places where medical marijuana is legal were more likely to use it.



“It shouldn't be surprising that use is becoming increasingly more common among people who live in states that allow medical cannabis, which could be due to increased availability or social acceptability,” Palamar said.



Where access goes up, use often follows. That makes sense, especially if people see others around them using cannabis without stigma or fear.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cannabis-and-chronic-illness">Cannabis and chronic illness</h2>



One more trend stood out. Seniors dealing with chronic diseases were also using cannabis more. People with diabetes, heart conditions, cancer, high blood pressure, or lung issues like COPD showed higher usage.



Many of these users are likely looking for relief. Living with pain or sleep problems can wear people down. For some, cannabis seems like a gentler option than more pills. But doctors warn: cannabis isn't risk-free, especially for older bodies.



“As a geriatrician, I see more and more people interested in using cannabis for treating chronic health symptoms. But cannabis can complicate the management of chronic diseases and be potentially harmful if patients are not educated on its use and potential risks,” said Han.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-doctors-must-talk-about-cannabis-risks">Doctors must talk about cannabis risks</h2>



As more seniors turn to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/medicinal-cannabis-helped-patients-feel-better-for-a-full-year/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">marijuana</a>, doctors need to catch up. Most older adults weren’t raised in a world where cannabis was legal or accepted. Now, they’re using it - and some are not telling their healthcare providers.



That’s a problem. Aging bodies process substances differently. Even small doses can cause big effects. Cannabis might interact with medications or affect balance, sleep, or memory.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cannabis-is-normal-for-older-adults">Cannabis is normal for older adults</h2>



Seniors using cannabis is no longer a fringe story. It’s becoming mainstream. As more states legalize marijuana and social attitudes shift, older Americans are embracing this option more openly.



Some want relief. Others want control. A few may just want to try something new.



Whatever the reason, the message is clear. Cannabis is no longer a taboo topic at the doctor’s office or the dinner table. It’s time healthcare providers and families talk about it - clearly, calmly, and with facts.



The research team included Kevin H. Yang of UC San Diego and Charles Cleland of the <a href="https://med.nyu.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NYU Grossman School of Medicine</a>. Funding came from the <a href="https://nida.nih.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">National Institute on Drug Abuse</a> and the UC San Diego Sam and Rose Stein Institute for Research on Aging.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jamainternalmedicine/article-abstract/2834781" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">JAMA Internal Medicine</a>.



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More older adults in the U.S. are now using cannabis

Marijuana is not just for the young anymore. In the...

Replanting the world’s forests could significantly reduce global warming, particularly in tropical regions, according to a new modeling study.



But even if every tree lost since the 19th century were replaced, the cooling impact would still fall short of reversing the full effects of human-caused <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/the-foundation-of-life-is-at-risk-from-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">climate change</a>. Emissions cuts, the authors stress, remain essential.



The study, led by researchers at the <a href="https://www.ucr.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of California, Riverside</a>, shows that restoring global forests to their preindustrial extent could lower average global temperatures by 0.34 degrees Celsius. That’s about one-quarter of the warming the planet has already experienced.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-climate-strategy-with-limits"><a></a>A climate strategy with limits</h2>



The modeling is based on a hypothetical increase in forest cover of 12 million square kilometers&nbsp;- about 135% the size of the United States. That estimate is roughly equivalent to the widely discussed goal of planting one trillion trees.



Scientists estimate that the Earth has lost nearly half of its trees - about three trillion - since the dawn of industrial society.



“<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/reforestation-cannot-offset-carbon-emissions-from-harvesting-wood/">Refores</a><a href="https://www.earth.com/news/reforestation-cannot-offset-carbon-emissions-from-harvesting-wood/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">t</a><a href="https://www.earth.com/news/reforestation-cannot-offset-carbon-emissions-from-harvesting-wood/">ation</a> is not a silver bullet,” said Robert Allen, a climate scientist at UC Riverside and the study’s lead author. “It’s a powerful strategy, but it has to be paired with serious emissions reductions.”



While earlier studies have focused mostly on how trees absorb carbon dioxide from the atmosphere, this research broadens the lens.



It accounts for chemical processes triggered by trees. These include the release of naturally occurring compounds called biogenic volatile organic compounds (BVOCs) that can enhance cooling in other ways.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-forests-help-cool-the-atmosphere">Forests help cool the atmosphere</h2>



Trees, especially those in tropical regions, release BVOCs that interact with atmospheric gases to create particles that reflect sunlight and promote <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fire-and-ice-volcanic-ash-plays-a-surprising-role-in-cloud-formation/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cloud formation</a>. Both effects have a net cooling influence on the planet’s climate. However, most climate models do not factor in these chemical interactions.



“When you include these chemical effects, the net cooling impact becomes more significant,” Allen said. “It’s a crucial part of the picture.”



The researchers found that tropical forests in particular offer a stronger cooling effect than those in other regions.



In the tropics, trees absorb more carbon, emit more BVOCs, and contribute less to the surface-darkening effect. When dark tree canopies replace snow-covered ground in high-latitude forests, this darkening effect actually increases warming.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-change-close-to-home">Climate change close to home</h2>



In addition to influencing global temperatures, planting trees has implications for local <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/wildfires-are-changing-the-quality-of-our-air/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">air quality</a> and regional climates.



The team found that their restoration scenario led to a 2.5% reduction in atmospheric dust across the Northern Hemisphere. In tropical areas, BVOC emissions produced mixed air quality results - contributing to an increase in fine particles associated with poor health outcomes, while also reducing harmful <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earths-ozone-layer-took-more-than-two-billion-years-to-stabilize/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ozone</a> levels.



These findings suggest that smaller-scale, localized reforestation efforts can still yield meaningful environmental benefits.



Antony Thomas is a graduate student in UC Riverside’s Department of Earth and Planetary Sciences and co-author of the study.



“Smaller efforts can still have a real impact on regional climates,” he said. “Restoration doesn’t have to happen everywhere at once to make a difference.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-balancing-forests-and-farmland"><a></a>Balancing forests and farmland</h2>



Despite the model’s optimistic numbers, the researchers acknowledge that reforesting all previously wooded areas is highly unlikely. Much of that land is now used for farming, ranching, or urban development, raising difficult questions about land use and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/vaccinating-plants-could-boost-global-food-security/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">food security</a>.



“There are eight billion people to feed,” Allen said. “We have to make careful decisions about where trees are planted. The best opportunities are in the tropics, but these are also the areas where deforestation continues today.”



The team cites Rwanda as a case study for how conservation can coexist with development. In Rwanda, tourism revenues tied to forest protection are reinvested in local communities, giving people a financial incentive to preserve forests instead of cutting them down.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-from-classroom-to-climate-research"><a></a>From classroom to climate research</h2>



The idea for the study began in a graduate-level climate modeling course at UC Riverside and eventually grew into a full-scale research project.



Using Earth system models and global land-use data, the team set out to evaluate just how much planting trees could move the needle on climate change.



The findings are cautiously hopeful: forest restoration is a valuable part of the climate solution, but it can’t do the job alone.



“Climate change is real,” Thomas said. “And every step toward restoration, no matter the scale, helps.”



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Trees are part of the climate solution - but not the whole answer

Replanting the world’s forests could significantly reduce global warming, particularly...

In coastal waters, hidden beneath the surface, seagrasses quietly play a vital role. They trap carbon dioxide more efficiently than tropical rainforests, acre for acre. 



Professor Ken Dunton, a marine biologist at <a href="https://www.utexas.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">UT Austin</a>, has spent decades studying these coastal meadows. He noted that most of the biomass of a seagrass plant is below ground. "That’s where all the tissues store carbon."



The carbon is stored in roots and rhizomes buried in sediment. This makes <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seagrass-plays-a-major-role-in-global-carbon-storage/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">seagrasses</a> natural carbon banks, especially useful in a world heating up from excess atmospheric carbon.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-measuring-seagrass-carbon">Measuring seagrass carbon </h2>



To harness the carbon storage power of seagrass, we need accurate ways to measure it. Right now, measuring how much carbon seagrasses trap takes time and labor. 



Researchers must dig up sediment, haul it to a lab, and analyze it. It is expensive and cannot scale easily.



But there's good reason to want that data. Knowing how much carbon each <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seagrass-meadows-still-thrive-on-floridas-nature-coast/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">seagrass</a> bed stores could influence how governments and businesses manage these ecosystems. In the future, they might even earn carbon credits for maintaining or restoring seagrass meadows.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-simpler-method-emerges">A simpler method emerges</h2>



With help from ARPA-E, Dunton and engineering professor Preston Wilson are trying something novel. They’re listening to bubbles. As seagrasses photosynthesize, they release oxygen, some of which forms bubbles. More bubbles mean more photosynthesis and more <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/natural-climate-solutions-enhancing-the-role-of-seagrass-meadows/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">carbon</a> storage.



“So just like us in air, if I breathe out… you can hear me. Well when the seagrass breathes out under water, it makes bubbles, and the bubbles make noise,” Wilson explained.



This noise offers a clue. With underwater microphones, called hydrophones, scientists can record these tiny bubble sounds. Then, they use sound levels to estimate how much carbon the seagrasses are locking away.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-collecting-mud-to-test-a-new-idea">Collecting mud to test a new idea</h2>



At East Flats near Port Aransas, Texas, the research team works waist-deep in water. They collect sediment cores using a tool called a vibracore. It takes several people to push a long plastic tube into the mud and pull it back up.



Once back at the lab, the team slices these cores into hockey puck-sized disks. Each disk undergoes detailed analysis, acoustic scanning, drying, grinding, burning, and chemical testing. These methods reveal how much carbon each layer holds.



“What we want to learn out of these cores is: ‘What are the relationships between organic <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seagrass-meadows-and-climate-change-an-uncertain-future/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">carbon</a> in the sediment and the acoustic properties of the sediment?’” said Kevin Lee, from UT’s Applied Research Laboratories.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-bubble-sounds-and-seagrass-carbon">Bubble sounds and seagrass carbon</h2>



The lab work helps link bubble sound levels to carbon content. The sound profile of each core becomes a blueprint. Over time, scientists will calibrate models that predict carbon levels from sound alone.



It is like tuning a sensor. If a certain sound intensity equals a known amount of carbon, then future recordings can be read like a meter, with no digging needed.



“And to make a market, you need a meter. We would be the meter in a future global carbon market," noted Professor Wilson.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tracking-global-carbon-storage">Tracking global carbon storage</h2>



The ultimate goal of the research is to create low-cost hydrophone systems. These can stay underwater and record data continuously. The recordings could then be sent to computers onshore.



Study co-author Megan Ballard envisions a time when no one will need to visit the site just to check data.



“The whole goal of the project is to develop a low-cost network of sensors. We imagine something that can telemeter data back to shore,” said Ballard.



This would save time, reduce costs, and open the door to tracking carbon storage on a global scale.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-seagrass-and-the-future-of-carbon-markets">Seagrass and the future of carbon markets</h2>



Imagine a future where a company restores a seagrass bed and gets credit for every ton of carbon stored. That future needs tools. Dunton, Wilson, and their team are building one, quietly listening to nature’s own signals.



The research might soon turn seagrasses into verifiable, scalable allies in the fight against climate change. Hidden under the waves, a bubbling meadow might someday power a carbon market.



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Seagrass bubble sounds can be used to measure carbon storage

In coastal waters, hidden beneath the surface, seagrasses quietly play...

Young,Woman,Drinking,Water,From,Outdoor,Stream,With,Her,Hands

Waterways support everyday activities like washing clothes or watering vegetables. Yet many of these rivers now carry a hidden burden that may influence future health crises. An international study has brought attention to antibiotic <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/human-antibiotics-detected-in-hundreds-of-rivers-worldwide/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">residues</a> that slip into river systems in massive amounts. 



These residues come from human consumption and pass through wastewater treatment or end up in the environment with minimal filtration.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-humans-antibiotics-and-river-systems">Humans, antibiotics, and river systems</h2>



“While the amounts of residues from individual antibiotics translate into only very small concentrations in most rivers, which makes them very difficult to detect, the chronic and cumulative environmental <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/carbon-in-glacier-meltwater-reveals-pollution-history/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">exposure</a> to these substances can still pose a risk to human health and aquatic ecosystems,” said Dr. Heloisa Ehalt Macedo, a postdoctoral fellow at <a href="https://www.mcgill.ca" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">McGill University</a>. 



According to new modeling data, antibiotic molecules can pass through people, slip by wastewater treatment, and arrive in rivers with the potential to affect both wildlife and communities. 



Researchers discovered that humans collectively emit thousands of tons of antibiotic residues each year. In some areas with limited wastewater treatment, levels are high enough to spark concern about resistant bacteria.



A 2018 <a href="https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.1717295115" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">publication</a> found that antibiotic consumption soared by 65% between 2000 and 2015, driven largely by growing populations and increased access to health services. 



This spike parallels the concerns raised by researchers who see patterns of resistant bacteria rising in the same period.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dangers-of-antibiotics-in-rivers">Dangers of antibiotics in rivers</h2>



“This study is not intended to warn about the use of antibiotics - we need antibiotics for global health treatments - but our results indicate that there may be unintended effects on aquatic <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earth-day-2025-our-power-our-planet/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">environments</a> and antibiotic resistance,” said Bernhard Lehner, a professor in global hydrology at McGill.



Those effects include heightened risk for local wildlife and possible spillover of resistant microbes into drinking water.



One recent worldwide <a href="https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.2113947119" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">review</a> revealed that antibiotic pollution touched rivers on every continent, with Asia showing the highest levels. Concern arises when these drugs spark bacterial survival tactics that block treatments.



<a href="https://www.nhs.uk/medicines/amoxicillin/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Amoxicillin</a> ranks among the most widely consumed antibiotics, raising alarms over its presence where treatment options are scarce. 



Streams in several nations without robust sanitation systems show elevated concentrations that may feed new waves of drug-resistant infections.



Some scientists warn that antibiotic-laden water may hamper <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/beneficial-plant-bacteria-likely-to-decline-due-to-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">beneficial microbes</a> that break down pollutants and recycle nutrients. 



Others note that once resistance genes emerge in a waterway, they can move into bacteria that infect humans or farm animals.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-antibiotic-pollution-in-rivers-threatens-health">Why antibiotic pollution in rivers threatens health</h2>



Drug-resistant bacteria can spread between humans, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dolphins-face-serious-threats-from-chemical-pollution-and-ocean-warming/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">animals</a>, and the surrounding environment, making water sources a key crossroads for these bugs. 



Repeated exposure to low levels of antibiotics in rivers may set the stage for more stubborn infections.



Some individuals rely on untreated river water for household needs, increasing their vulnerability to any resistant organisms present. 



Although advanced water systems remove or dilute many chemicals, older infrastructure can allow antibiotic residues to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/soil-plays-an-overlooked-role-in-antibiotic-resistance/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">remain in circulation</a>.



Economic strains can also mount when common treatments lose effectiveness against bacterial infections. 



Hospitals may spend more on stronger drugs, while individuals face longer recovery times and heightened risks of complications.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-can-be-done-to-control-antibiotic-pollution">What can be done to control antibiotic pollution</h2>



“Monitoring programs to detect antibiotic or other chemical contamination of waterways are therefore needed, especially in areas that our model predicts to be at risk,” said <a href="https://www.mcgill.ca/civil/jim-nicell-0" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Professor Jim Nicell</a>, an environmental engineering expert at McGill. 



He highlights that untracked residues could turn into a global hazard if left unchecked.



Researchers are now urging governments to explore stricter guidelines for wastewater disposal, along with better testing systems for emerging contaminants. 



Others point toward balanced antibiotic use in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-antibiotic-found-in-soil-has-potential-to-fight-superbugs/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">human medicine</a>, reducing unnecessary prescriptions without restricting access.



Specialized filtration systems are under development to capture antibiotic residues before they reach rivers and open water. 



Alongside these technical fixes, many experts promote antibiotic stewardship campaigns to guide proper usage in clinics and communities.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-communities-can-reduce-contamination">Communities can reduce contamination</h2>



Health authorities, including the <a href="https://www.who.int/health-topics/antimicrobial-resistance" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">World Health Organization</a>, emphasize a One Health viewpoint that ties human, animal, and environmental health together. 



This perspective encourages cooperation among various sectors to address drug resistance on multiple fronts.



Local communities can play a part by learning how to dispose of unused medications properly. 



Some researchers suggest stronger public awareness campaigns to ensure antibiotics remain effective for serious infections instead of seeping unchecked into waterways.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-steps-to-prevent-antibiotic-resistance">Steps to prevent antibiotic resistance</h2>



Public health relies on safe water, yet the steady trickle of antibiotic residues in rivers raises new challenges for everyone. 



By taking precautionary steps now, societies can reduce risks, protect river ecosystems, and keep these lifesaving drugs effective for generations.



Experts hope this new evidence sparks broad changes in how wastewater is handled and how antibiotics are prescribed. Efforts to strengthen oversight may offer a path to healthier communities and cleaner rivers.



The study is published in <a href="https://academic.oup.com/pnasnexus/article/4/4/pgaf096/8113371?login=false" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">PNAS Nexus</a>.



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Human antibiotics are polluting Earth's rivers, helping bacteria develop the resistance they need to then kill humans

Waterways support everyday activities like washing clothes or watering vegetables....

Rising heat, relentless drought, violent downpours and a steadily thickening blanket of carbon dioxide are reshaping the planet on which agriculture depends.



In a recent review, <a href="https://illinois.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign</a> plant biologist Stephen Long has surveyed that changing landscape and the research aimed at ensuring <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/critical-food-crops-are-threatened-by-rising-temperatures-globally/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">food crops</a> can still thrive.



The picture he paints is sobering, yet not without hope, pointing to genetic discoveries that could keep crops productive even as the climate veers into unfamiliar territory.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-agriculture-is-strained-by-climate-shifts">Agriculture is strained by climate shifts </h2>



Long pointed out how quickly the air around us is changing. “By 2050-60, crops will experience a significantly different environment from today,” he said.



A key driver is <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rising-carbon-dioxide-makes-crops-grow-bigger-but-less-nutritious/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">carbon dioxide</a>, whose concentration has climbed far beyond the levels in which modern agriculture evolved. From a pre-industrial baseline near 280 parts per million, “atmospheric CO2 reached 427 ppm in 2024 and is projected to be about 600 ppm by 2050.”



That shift alone would alter plant metabolism, but it arrives alongside <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/extreme-weather-is-pushing-nature-toward-a-breaking-point/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">extreme weather</a>. Intensifying heat waves can sterilize pollen or wither seedlings, while droughts cut yields outright. Swollen rivers drown fields, and storms topple grain at harvest.



Long noted that those converging stresses will reduce harvests across much of the world unless crops themselves change.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-seeds-hold-key-to-resilience">Seeds hold key to resilience</h2>



Plant breeders have responded by scouring global seed vaults and wild relatives for crop varieties already carrying some climate resilience. 



For instance, the experts identified <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-is-quietly-making-rice-more-dangerous/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">rice</a> lines that survive two weeks of total submergence, an asset in flood-prone deltas. They also found wheat strains that set grain under heat spikes that would devastate ordinary cultivars.



The underlying genes, once identified, can be bred into elite varieties or added directly with genome-editing tools.



Such work is painstaking. Researchers must link each trait to its genetic signature, cross or engineer it into agronomic lines, then test performance across years and regions. Even so, Long argued that tapping this standing diversity is one of the surest ways to buffer global harvests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-taming-the-plants-thirst"><a></a>Taming the plants’ thirst</h2>



As temperatures climb, the atmosphere’s capacity to pull water from foliage rises too, forcing plants to close tiny pores called stomata to conserve moisture. That tactic, however, also limits the intake of CO2 for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/revealing-the-secrets-of-photosynthesis-through-pep/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">photosynthesis</a>.



Several laboratories have engineered climate-resilient crops to finesse the trade-off. By boosting a sensor protein that tunes stomatal opening, field-grown tobacco cut water loss but maintained growth.



Separate experiments in rice and wheat reduced stomatal density, improving water-use efficiency by up to one-fifth without penalty to yield.



Although these demonstrations involve genetic engineering, Long noted that parallel gains might be possible through conventional breeding once the relevant genes are flagged.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-co2-fuels-growth-and-pests">CO2 fuels growth - and pests</h2>



Higher carbon dioxide, the very gas driving the crisis, can stimulate photosynthesis - up to a point. Yet it also upsets the balance of enzymes, sometimes depressing protein content or encouraging <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/pests-are-moving-to-cooler-regions-due-to-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">pest</a> outbreaks.



Scientists have begun tweaking the regulators of rubisco, the key enzyme that captures CO2, so photosynthesis keeps pace with future atmospheres without unintended side effects.



Such molecular fine-tuning illustrates how adaptation must occur on several fronts at once: shielding plants from heat and drought, refining how they handle surplus CO2, and safeguarding nutritional quality.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-funding-gaps-threaten-agriculture-gains">Funding gaps threaten agriculture gains</h2>



Long cites U.S. <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/maize-plant-genetics-shape-root-health-and-growth/">mai</a><a href="https://www.earth.com/news/maize-plant-genetics-shape-root-health-and-growth/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">z</a><a href="https://www.earth.com/news/maize-plant-genetics-shape-root-health-and-growth/">e</a> as proof that breeding investments pay off. “Between 1980 and 2024, U.S. maize yields doubled while sorghum improved just 12%,” he said.



Maize benefited from vast private-sector spending on hybrid development, biotechnology, and agronomy. Sorghum, largely a public-sector crop in lower-income countries, lacked equivalent support.



That disparity, Long warns, could repeat across other staples - rice, wheat, cassava, legumes - unless governments and philanthropies step in. 



Private companies may not devote the required resources to crops grown mainly by smallholders or in poor regions, yet those crops undergird food security for billions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-crop-innovation-vs-climate-clock">Crop innovation vs. climate clock</h2>



Even with ample funding, adapting crops is slow. A promising gene identified today may take a decade to reach farmers’ seed bags after regulatory review, field trials, and scale-up. 



That timeline collides with climate models showing sharp crop stress intensification in the 2030s and 2040s.



Long’s review thus serves as both roadmap and alarm, underscoring the urgency of accelerating research pathways and streamlining approval processes without compromising safety.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hope-inside-the-genome"><a></a>Hope inside the genome</h2>



Despite the formidable challenge, Long’s synthesis is not fatalistic. It catalogs concrete advances - heat-tolerant rice, drought-savvy <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-bread-wheat-gave-rise-to-civilization/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">wheat</a>, water-frugal tobacco prototypes - that could be transferred across crop species.



With sufficient investment and international collaboration, the same engineering mindset that transformed maize could be deployed where it is now most needed.



The task, Long concluded, is to harness biology faster than climate pressures dismantle current production systems. His review makes clear that the science exists to do so. 



The remaining question is whether society will commit the resources and political resolve to bring those discoveries to scale before the planet’s pantries feel the full heat of global change.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rstb.2024.0229">Philosophical Transactions </a><a href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rstb.2024.0229" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">o</a><a href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rstb.2024.0229">f the Royal Society B</a>.



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Genetic fixes may save crops from climate stress

Rising heat, relentless drought, violent downpours and a steadily thickening...

Several moments in Earth’s distant past help answer two fundamental questions: How did we get here? And where are we headed? These turning points reveal how life adapts to environmental changes. 



One event, known as the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/it-took-200-million-years-for-earth-to-get-its-oxygen/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Great Oxidation Event</a> (GOE), was especially significant. Over two billion years ago, oxygen began to accumulate in the atmosphere for the first time. This shift made complex life, including humans, possible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-earth-before-oxygen">The Earth before oxygen</h2>



Before the GOE, Earth’s environment was almost completely anoxic - lacking oxygen. Life was limited to anaerobic organisms that thrived without it, relying on fermentation to survive. 



Even today, similar life forms inhabit extreme places like acidic hot springs and deep-sea hydrothermal vents.



The GOE triggered a dramatic change. It transformed Earth from a planet devoid of atmospheric oxygen into one capable of supporting the diverse biosphere we know. 



Scientists have long sought to understand exactly when and how this shift happened. In a recent study, researchers from <a href="https://www.syracuse.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Syracuse University</a> and MIT uncovered new clues by examining ancient rock cores from South Africa.



The research provides a clearer timeline of how rising oxygen levels fueled biological evolution and paved the way for the first <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/tiny-microbes-may-have-given-rise-to-complex-life/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">eukaryotes</a> - organisms with complex cells.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-digging-into-the-deep-past">Digging into the deep past</h2>



The team analyzed sedimentary rocks that are between 2.2 and 2.5 billion years old. These rocks, collected from carefully chosen sites in South Africa, preserve chemical evidence from the time of the GOE. 



By studying stable isotopes embedded in these rocks, the researchers found signs of nitrate, a chemical marker that suggests more oxygen was present in ancient oceans.



The study was led by Benjamin Uveges, who earned his Ph.D. at Syracuse University and later completed the project as a postdoctoral associate at MIT. 



Uveges collaborated closely with Christopher Junium, an associate professor of Earth and environmental sciences at Syracuse University, whose lab focuses on reconstructing past environmental conditions. The chemical analyses were performed using state-of-the-art instruments housed at Syracuse.



“The rocks that we analyzed for this study had very low <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/nitrogen-was-plentiful-for-early-life-on-earth/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">nitrogen</a> concentrations in them, too low to measure with the traditional instrumentation used for this work,” said Uveges. 



“Chris has built one of only a handful of instruments in the world that can measure nitrogen isotope ratios in samples with 100 to 1,000 times less nitrogen in them than the typical minimum.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-the-research-was-conducted">How the research was conducted </h2>



In the lab, the team used an Isotope Ratio Mass Spectrometer (IRMS) to examine the nitrogen isotopes. First, they crushed the rock samples into powder and chemically treated them to extract specific elements. 



The material was then turned into gas, ionized, and separated based on mass. Measuring the ratio of nitrogen isotopes - ¹⁵N to ¹⁴N - helped reveal how microbes processed nitrogen long ago.



A key part of the IRMS is the cryotrapping/capillary-focusing module, which allowed for precise measurements even with extremely low nitrogen levels. The equipment is one of only a few of its kind and plays a vital role in studies like this.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-decoding-earth-s-oxygen-timeline">Decoding Earth's oxygen timeline</h2>



But how does nitrogen unlock secrets about ancient oxygen levels? <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/microbes-found-alive-sealed-inside-rock-after-2-billion-years/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Microbes</a> left chemical signatures in sediments that later hardened into rock. These signatures preserve a record of how nitrogen was cycled in ancient oceans. 



By tracing changes in nitrogen isotope ratios, scientists can reconstruct how oxygen levels shifted over time.



The team’s findings suggest that aerobic nitrogen cycling started about 100 million years earlier than previously thought. This means oxygen-sensitive processes in the oceans were already happening long before oxygen accumulated in the atmosphere.



“All of this fits with the emerging idea that the GOE was a protracted ordeal where organisms had to find the balance between taking advantage of the energy gains of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-investigate-the-origin-of-photosynthesis/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">oxygenic photosynthesis</a>, and the gradual adaptations to dealing with its byproduct, oxygen,” said Junium.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-rise-of-oxygen-on-earth">The rise of oxygen on Earth</h2>



The slow rise in oxygen levels set off a cascade of changes. As oxygen began to build up in the atmosphere, many anaerobic organisms were driven to extinction. In their place, organisms capable of using oxygen for respiration began to thrive. 



This process, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/oxygen-may-have-come-from-ancient-rocks-of-early-earth/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">aerobic respiration</a>, provides the energy needed for complex life processes such as muscle movement, brain function, and cell maintenance.



“For the first 2 plus billion years of Earth’s history there was exceedingly little free oxygen in the oceans or atmosphere,” said Uveges. “In contrast, today oxygen makes up one fifth of our atmosphere and essentially all complex multicellular life as we know it relies on it for respiration."



"So, in a way, studying the rise of oxygen and its chemical, geological and biological impacts is really studying how the planet and life co-evolved to arrive at the current situation.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-new-chapter-in-earth-s-story">A new chapter in Earth's story</h2>



These results reshape how we understand Earth's oxygenation. They show that the journey toward an oxygen-rich atmosphere - and the complex life it enabled - was even slower and more intricate than once believed.



“I hope our findings will inspire more research into this fascinating time period,” said Uveges. “By applying new geochemical techniques to the rock cores we studied, we can build an even more detailed picture of the GOE and its impact on life on Earth.”



The research gives us a clearer view of how life and Earth’s environment have shaped each other through deep time. It’s a reminder that big changes don't happen overnight - and that the air we breathe today is the result of billions of years of slow, steady transformation.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.2423481122" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a>.



Image Credit: Benjamin Uveges



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Rocks reveal the turning point when oxygen changed Earth forever

Several moments in Earth’s distant past help answer two fundamental...

South Florida’s sprawling mangrove forests, famed for their tangled roots, play a critical role in buffering storm surge. However, they have long been viewed as vulnerable to the growing punch of hurricanes intensified by climate change.



Yet new research from the <a href="https://environment.yale.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Yale School of the Environment</a> paints a far more optimistic picture, showing that Everglades mangroves can replace all the carbon they lose to powerful storms in just a handful of years.



The findings come from an unprecedented long-term analysis of carbon dynamics before and after Hurricane Wilma in 2005 and Hurricane Irma in 2017.



By combining ground-based sensors with satellite imagery and years of ecological field data, the research team calculated each forest’s “recovery debt.” This represents the sum of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mangroves-and-saltmarshes-are-much-better-at-storing-carbon-than-previously-believed/">car</a><a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mangroves-and-saltmarshes-are-much-better-at-storing-carbon-than-previously-believed/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">b</a><a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mangroves-and-saltmarshes-are-much-better-at-storing-carbon-than-previously-believed/">on</a> lost during a storm and the time the ecosystem needs to rebuild that stock.



The study revealed that four years after both storms, the mangroves’ carbon balance was back as it was before.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-measuring-mangrove-climate-resilience">Measuring mangrove climate resilience</h2>



“Many people frame disturbance research in terms of how much initial loss there was,” said lead author David Reed, an associate research scientist at Yale. “That’s part of the story, but it’s really about how long it takes to recover from that loss.”



The concept of recovery debt, he explained, offers a clearer gauge of resilience than raw damage totals alone. If forests regain their carbon quickly, they can keep functioning as long-term carbon sinks despite periodic hits.



The study focused on two Everglades towers measuring mangrove-atmosphere gas exchanges related to climate for nearly two decades.



Those records are “a good sign that mangroves in the Everglades are and will continue to be relatively resilient to the types of disturbances we know they’re going to experience in the future,” said co-author Sparkle Malone, an assistant professor at the <a href="https://naturalcarboncapture.yale.edu/">Yale Center for N</a><a href="https://naturalcarboncapture.yale.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">a</a><a href="https://naturalcarboncapture.yale.edu/">tural Carbon Capture</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hurricanes-carbon-and-timing"><a></a>Hurricanes, carbon, and timing</h2>



Mangroves draw CO2 from the air and store it in trunks, roots, and underlying soil. When hurricanes hit, branches break, trees topple, and carbon washes back into the atmosphere.



If another intense storm arrives before the forest has recovered, the ecosystem can slip progressively further behind.



Reed likens the cycle to a sudden financial shock. A household facing an unexpected bill might use savings but recover if its income stays stable.



Stretch that bill across multiple emergencies, however, and the family’s finances spiral. By tallying carbon in the same way, the researchers concluded Everglades mangroves need roughly four storm-free years to “earn back” the carbon they lose.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mangrove-data-and-satellite-images">Mangrove data and satellite images</h2>



Such precise accounting required long, continuous records seldom available in coastal wetlands.



In collaboration with <a href="https://www.fiu.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Florida International University</a>, the team tapped the <a href="https://fcelter.fiu.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Florida Coastal Everglades Long Term Ecological Research program</a> (FCE LTER). This program has monitored forest structure, soil chemistry, and gas fluxes in the region since 2004.



“There have been a lot of resources and instrumentation put in this area, and so you can study processes that you can't do on the landscape scale anywhere else in the world,” Malone said.



Tower data were paired with high-resolution satellite images, allowing researchers to scale their measurements across vast swaths of shoreline.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-policy-lessons-from-mangroves">Policy lessons from mangroves</h2>



The Everglades are the focus of one of the largest wetland recovery efforts on the planet, and Malone believes the new findings validate that investment.



“We know that it's in the millions, maybe even billions, of dollars of resource protection that mangrove forests provide, and so this confirms with all of the funding and effort put into Everglades restoration, that it's worth it,” she said.



Mangroves limit flooding and protect infrastructure, so their quick rebound could save public funds from storm damage. Meanwhile, the mangrove forests’ carbon storage capacity makes them a natural ally in climate mitigation.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-storm-risk-looms-ahead">Storm risk looms ahead</h2>



While the results bode well for Everglades mangroves, Reed cautions that the four-year recovery window is a threshold, not a guarantee. 



Should future <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-hurricanes-help-oceans-fight-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">hurricanes</a> strike more frequently than that, the recovery debt could start compounding.



That prospect underscores the importance of climate action, since warmer oceans can supercharge hurricanes and alter their recurrence patterns. Even resilient mangroves may falter if storm intervals shrink below their recovery debt time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-blueprint-for-other-coastlines">A blueprint for other coastlines</h2>



Although this study centered on southern Florida, the methods can be applied worldwide. With mangroves buffering coasts from Florida to Fiji, the authors hope recovery debt will become a common metric for gauging ecosystem health under climate stress.



Because it measures recovery, it could help conservationists prioritize areas for the fastest carbon payback.



For Malone, the take-home message is clear: “Mangroves have the capacity to capture carbon lost due to hurricanes relatively quickly,” she said.



Given the twin threats of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/record-heat-of-2024-triggered-a-surge-in-sea-level-rise/">sea lev</a><a href="https://www.earth.com/news/record-heat-of-2024-triggered-a-surge-in-sea-level-rise/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">e</a><a href="https://www.earth.com/news/record-heat-of-2024-triggered-a-surge-in-sea-level-rise/">l rise</a> and stronger storms, that resilience is highly important. It could be a linchpin in global strategies to protect coastlines and curb greenhouse gases - provided society gives these forests the breathing room they need between climatic shocks.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/gcb.70124" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Global Change Biology</a>.



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Mangroves can quickly recover carbon lost to climate extremes

South Florida’s sprawling mangrove forests, famed for their tangled roots,...

Inside every plant cell, an ancient struggle plays out. It is not dramatic like a predator-prey chase, but it is essential for life. DNA from chloroplasts - once free-living bacteria - still tries to sneak into the plant’s nuclear genome. Sometimes this sneaking helps evolution, but often it is dangerous.



Plants need ways to stop this intrusion. A new study from the <a href="https://www.mpimp-golm.mpg.de/2168/mpi-molecular-plant-physiology" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Max Planck Institute of Molecular Plant Physiology</a> explores this battle. It shows how rapid DNA repair guards the plant’s genome from being overwhelmed by foreign sequences. 



Led by Dr. Enrique Gonzalez-Duran and Professor Dr. Ralph Bock, the research shines a light on a quiet but powerful line of defense.



The team studied tobacco plants. They wanted to understand how breaks in nuclear DNA might open the door for unwanted genetic visitors. The results go far beyond botany, suggesting universal <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plants-use-dna-duplication-to-increase-their-resilience/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">mechanisms</a> that may apply to animals and humans too.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-dna-invades-plants">How DNA invades plants</h2>



Plants evolved from ancestors that once swallowed bacteria. Over time, those bacteria became chloroplasts and mitochondria. Some of their genes jumped to the host’s nuclear DNA. This process, called endosymbiotic gene transfer (EGT), has shaped eukaryotic evolution for billions of years.



Even today, EGT continues. Most organellar DNA transfers fail or get degraded, but sometimes they succeed. A piece of chloroplast DNA slips into the nucleus, settles in, and even becomes active. 



This can help the plant adapt, but it can also damage the host’s genome. If the insertion disrupts a vital gene or rearranges chromosomes, it can cause long-lasting harm. The researchers wanted to know how plants prevent this from happening too often.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-breaks-in-dna-invite-invasion">Breaks in DNA invite invasion</h2>



The key lies in DNA double-strand breaks (DSBs). These are serious injuries in the genome. If not repaired quickly, they become open doors for foreign DNA. 



Normally, the cell repairs the breaks using fast-acting pathways like non-homologous end joining (NHEJ) and polymerase-theta-mediated end joining (TMEJ).



To explore their role, the team disabled these two repair systems in tobacco <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/tree-of-life-created-for-flowering-plants-using-400-million-specimens/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">plants</a>. The plants still grew, though some developed slowly. But under the surface, big changes were unfolding.



Without these repair pathways, DSBs lingered longer. That gave chloroplast DNA more time to enter and integrate into the nuclear genome. When the researchers tracked more than 650,000 seedlings, they saw a dramatic increase in EGT events, up to 20 times more in some cases.



"The magnitude of the effect suggests that rapid DNA repair is essential for plants to maintain long-term genome stability," said Dr. Enrique Gonzalez-Duran.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-repairs-stop-gene-invasion">Repairs stop gene invasion</h2>



The researchers developed a clever screening system. They inserted a gene into chloroplasts that only conferred resistance to kanamycin when transferred to the nucleus. Using this setup, they could detect when EGT had occurred by seeing which <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/genetically-enhanced-crops-could-help-fight-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">plants</a> survived the antibiotic.



The team found that EGT does not just happen during plant regeneration. It occurs in real time, over weeks and months. Tobacco leaves continued to produce new gene transfer events throughout a 120-day experiment. The longer the DSBs remained unrepaired, the more EGT happened.



Unrepaired breaks give chloroplast DNA a chance to settle in. In normal cells, fast repair seals the break before foreign DNA can sneak in. In mutant cells, delays allow invasion.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-foreign-dna-changes-future-generations">Foreign DNA changes future generations</h2>



To see whether these gene transfers affected offspring, the team bred the mutant plants. They looked at how kanamycin resistance was passed down. In many cases, it followed expected patterns. But some lines showed fewer resistant seedlings than expected.



This mismatch pointed to instability. Some of the inserted genes did not last into the next generation. In a surprising twist, the researchers found that mutations in one repair pathway, NHEJ, actually made the transferred DNA more stable once it entered the nucleus.



Even more striking was what happened in the male <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/germ-cells-play-a-crucial-role-in-aging-and-lifespan/">reproductive cells</a>. When mutant plants served as pollen donors, the number of EGT events in offspring exploded. Certain mutants, like polqΔHel-4, showed a 20-fold increase in gene transfers during pollen formation.



"These DNA repair pathways are conserved in animals and fungi," noted Professor Dr. Ralph Bock. "Our findings could explain similar genome instability mechanisms in other organisms, including humans."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mutant-plants-for-genetic-research">Mutant plants for genetic research</h2>



The researchers also built a set of genetically modified tobacco plants with defects in NHEJ, TMEJ, or both. 



The mutants help study DNA integration, editing, and stress response. Some showed surprising results - unlike in Arabidopsis, POLQ loss in tobacco didn’t stop regeneration.



This reveals how repair systems may differ across species. Bleomycin tests confirmed the mutants had weaker DNA repair.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fast-repair-helps-keeps-dna-safe">Fast repair helps keeps DNA safe</h2>



Plants with faulty repair systems allowed foreign DNA to integrate at high rates. If left unchecked, these insertions could interrupt genes and cause chaos. Over time, this would reshape the genome in ways that could harm the plant’s survival.



"Our discovery provides fundamental insights into genome protection and the risks of gene transfer," said Gonzalez-Duran. "It reveals how crucial fast DNA repair is, not just to fix damage, but also to defend the integrity of the genome itself."



The researchers conclude that plants rely on rapid repair not because it is perfect, but because it limits the damage foreign DNA can cause. Even if the repair introduces small errors, it is still better than letting organellar DNA flood the nucleus.



Though done in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/tobacco-and-zinnia-can-thrive-in-polluted-land/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">tobacco</a>, the findings apply broadly. Animals and fungi share similar DNA repair systems. In humans, faulty repair can let mitochondrial DNA disrupt the genome, even triggering cancer. Studying plants shows how fast repair helps maintain stability across life.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41477-025-02005-w" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Plants</a>.



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Rapid DNA repair prevents harmful genetic intrusion in plants

Inside every plant cell, an ancient struggle plays out. It...

Although whale populations are now drastically diminished, they flourished in the distant past. Early humans living near the ocean used whales as a source of food and materials. They also used whale bones to make tools, including harpoons, which where then used to kill more whales.



It’s hard for scientists today to know exactly when humans started using whales because many of the places where early people lived along the coast have been washed away by the ocean or are underwater now. 



So instead of finding whole sites by the sea, scientists often discover whale bones and tools made from whales in caves far from the coast. These things were carried inland by people thousands of years ago.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-new-study-on-humans-and-whale-bones">New study on humans and whale bones</h2>



A recent study has revealed that humans began using whale bones as tools around 20,000 years ago. 



This discovery, based on research from<a href="https://www.uab.cat/web/icta-1345819904184.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"> ICTA-UAB</a>, <a href="https://www.cnrs.fr/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">CNRS</a>, and the University of British Columbia (<a href="https://www.ubc.ca/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">UBC</a>), uncovers new links between Paleolithic coastal humans and the marine giants.



Researchers studied over 170 bone samples found across Spain and southwestern France. These included 83 shaped tools and 90 bone fragments. 



The tools were primarily used as weapons and came from at least six whale <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ship-routes-overlap-with-92-of-whale-habitats/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">species</a>, making this the oldest evidence of whale bone tool-making ever found.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-whale-bones-as-human-tools">Whale bones as human tools</h2>



“Our study reveals that the bones came from at least five species of large whales, the oldest of which date to approximately 19,000–20,000 years ago. These represent some of the earliest known evidence of humans using whale remains as tools,” stated Jean-Marc Pétillon, the lead researcher.



The researchers employed mass spectrometry and radiocarbon dating. ZooMS, their key method, identified bone fragments from fin, sperm, gray, blue, and right/bowhead whales.



These <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/living-baby-colossal-squid-captured-on-video-for-the-first-time-ever/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">species</a> either foraged offshore or swam close to coastlines, offering different levels of accessibility to ancient humans.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-sperm-whale-bones-were-prized">Sperm whale bones were prized</h2>



“<a href="https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.2109323119" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ZooMS</a> is a powerful technique for investigating past sea mammal diversity, particularly when diagnostic morphometric elements are missing from bone remains and objects, which is often the case for bone artefacts,” noted Krista McGrath, the lead author.



“We managed to identify species such as <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/where-have-the-sperm-whales-gulf-gone-gulf-jumbo-squid-scientists-think-they-know/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">sperm</a> whales, fin whales, blue whales, all still present in the Bay of Biscay today, as well as grey whales, a species now mostly restricted to the North Pacific and Arctic Oceans.”



Most tools came from sperm whale bones. This might reflect the bone’s straight, dense structure, which is ideal for shaping into long weapon points. Sperm whale teeth were also carved, suggesting symbolic or practical use.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-feeding-behavior-and-marine-changes">Feeding behavior and marine changes</h2>



Stable isotope analysis revealed that ancient whales often fed differently than whales today.



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plastic-trash-sounds-just-like-food-to-deep-diving-whales/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Sperm whales</a> showed high nitrogen values, indicating a diet rich in squid. Fin whales had lower values, consistent with krill-based feeding. Gray whales showed carbon signatures pointing to bottom-feeding near shore.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/06/whale-bone-tools_first-human-use_infographic_credit-Uko-Gorter_1.webp" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/06/whale-bone-tools_first-human-use_infographic_credit-Uko-Gorter_1s.webp" alt="a) worked objects; b) unworked bone fragments. 1: blank, Tito Bustillo, sperm whale (#Hum1); 2: projectile point with massive base, Isturitz, blue whale (#15); 3: projectile point, Brassempouy, fin whale (#822); 4: possible foreshaft, Las Caldas, sperm whale (#982); 5: projectile point with massive base, Ermittia, gray whale (#968); 6: unidentified object, Saint-Michel, sperm whale (#799); 7–10: unworked fragments of fin whale bone, Santa Catalina (#SC B6 109 1085, SC B8 144 439, SC B8 124 1180, SC B6 135 24). Whale drawings courtesy of Uko Gorter. Black silhouettes from phylopic.org." class="wp-image-1972201"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">a) worked objects; b) unworked bone fragments. 1: blank, Tito Bustillo, sperm whale (#Hum1); 2: projectile point with massive base, Isturitz, blue whale (#15); 3: projectile point, Brassempouy, fin whale (#822); 4: possible foreshaft, Las Caldas, sperm whale (#982); 5: projectile point with massive base, Ermittia, gray whale (#968); 6: unidentified object, Saint-Michel, sperm whale (#799); 7–10: unworked fragments of fin whale bone, Santa Catalina (#SC B6 109 1085, SC B8 144 439, SC B8 124 1180, SC B6 135 24). Click image to enlarge. Whale drawings courtesy of Uko Gorter. Black silhouettes from phylopic.org.</figcaption></figure>



These variations suggest changes in marine ecosystems over time. While feeding patterns partly match those of modern whales, higher isotope values hint at broader or richer prey availability in the past.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-whale-bone-tools-mattered">Why whale bone tools mattered</h2>



At <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/figure/The-last-phase-of-Santa-Catalina-formation-showing-how-the-cave-appears-today_fig5_277715933" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Santa Catalina Cave</a>, humans had transported large, unworked whale bones from the coast, despite the cave being 70 meters above sea level and several kilometers inland.



These bones weren’t shaped into tools, yet many showed signs of percussion marks - evidence of intentional breakage. 



Researchers believe this suggests people were extracting fat or oil, much like they did with marrow from terrestrial animals.



The surrounding archaeological layer also revealed hearths and other fire-related features that indicated <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/early-humans-were-much-better-at-harnessing-fire-ice-age-than-believed/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">regular use of fire</a> at the site. 



While the whale bones showed little evidence of burning, they might have been collected as a fat-rich reserve - either to extract oil for food or warmth, or as future fire fuel.



Their transport and processing reflect the importance of whales beyond their bones as a source of tools. These animals offered vital resources during times when other materials were scarce. 



This behavior highlights the ingenuity and adaptability of Late Paleolithic coastal communities in managing marine resources.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-importance-of-bay-of-biscay">Importance of Bay of Biscay</h2>



During the Magdalenian period, the <a href="https://www.earth.com/image/desert-dust-over-the-bay-of-biscay/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Bay of Biscay</a> likely had colder waters, resembling Arctic waters today. 



Seasonal sea ice and rich marine life made it an attractive habitat. The whale bones reveal not just tool use but the wider ecology that humans depended on.



Though whale hunting likely wasn't practiced, the remains indicate familiarity with whale behaviors. Strandings and seasonal appearances created opportunities that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/stone-tool-discovery-challenges-entire-theory-of-human-evolution/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Paleolithic groups</a> recognized and used.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lasting-cultural-and-ecological-impact">Lasting cultural and ecological impact</h2>



By 16,000 years ago, the use of whale bones as tools declined. This was not due to a lack of whales or skill. Instead, changing cultural habits or the loss of coastal exchange networks may have shifted resource use.



Still, the presence of whale bones inland shows the extent to which marine life influenced inland life and mobility. Whales were more than giant beasts - they were part of Paleolithic survival and innovation.



This research offers a rare glimpse into prehistoric life. It shows how resourceful and observant our ancestors were, and how marine environments shaped their world.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-025-59486-8" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Communications</a>.



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Scientists identify time and location of first humans who made tools and harpoons out of whale bones

Although whale populations are now drastically diminished, they flourished in...

For over a century, humans have measured the universe with ever-improving tools, driven by a desire to understand where we come from and where we’re going. One of the most important numbers in cosmology is the Hubble constant, which tells us how fast the universe is expanding.



Yet, for the past decade, scientists have been deeply puzzled. Two different methods to measure this expansion gave conflicting results. If the universe could not agree with itself, perhaps our best theory of the cosmos was wrong.



Now, thanks to the power of the James Webb Space Telescope (<a href="https://science.nasa.gov/mission/webb/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">JWST</a>), the mystery of universe expansion may be unraveling. A new study led by Professor Wendy Freedman of the <a href="https://www.uchicago.edu/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Chicago</a> suggests the universe might not be at odds with itself after all. 



Freedman, a central figure in this debate, has worked for years to test the cosmic numbers from every angle. “This new evidence is suggesting that our Standard Model of the universe is holding up,” she said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-using-webb-to-test-universe-expansion">Using Webb to test universe expansion</h2>



Astronomers use two main strategies to measure how fast the universe expands. The first approach looks deep into the past. 



By studying the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/study-dark-matter-does-not-exist-and-the-universe-is-27-billion-years-old/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cosmic</a> microwave background (CMB) - radiation from just after the Big Bang - scientists can estimate the early expansion rate. This method relies on data from satellites like Planck, which gives a value of about 67.4 kilometers per second per megaparsec.



The second method focuses on the nearby universe. This is where Freedman has made her mark. Her team measures how galaxies move away from us today. 



That requires knowing how far those galaxies are. The challenge is that measuring such distances is extremely hard. It involves tracking stellar explosions called Type Ia supernovae, which serve as cosmic mileposts.



Freedman’s team spent years refining methods using supernovae and stars like red giants and Cepheids. These, aided by the Webb telescope, help anchor the cosmic distance ladder to measure universe expansion.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-viewing-distant-galaxies-in-new-light">Viewing distant galaxies in new light</h2>



In their latest work, Freedman’s team used three distinct indicators: the Tip of the Red Giant Branch (TRGB), Cepheid variables, and JAGB stars (short for carbon-rich Asymptotic Giant Branch stars). 



These stars shine at predictable brightnesses. By comparing their known brightness to how bright they appear from Earth, astronomers can calculate distances.



The JWST has made these measurements far more precise. Its infrared cameras can see through <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/astronomers-announce-evidence-suggesting-that-our-solar-system-has-nine-planets-again/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cosmic</a> dust that previously clouded observations. It also resolves individual stars in distant galaxies that once appeared as fuzzy clusters. 



These improvements significantly reduce the main sources of error that have plagued past studies.



Freedman’s team used JWST to measure ten galaxies with supernovae and anchored results to NGC 4258, improving consistency across methods.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-webb-s-data-reveals-growth">Webb's data reveals growth</h2>



Using JWST’s data, the team calculated a Hubble constant of 70.39 kilometers per second per megaparsec. The uncertainty is just ±1.22 (statistical). This number is notably consistent with the CMB value of 67.4, resolving the long-standing tension between early and late universe measurements.



“We’ve more than doubled our sample of galaxies used to calibrate the supernovae,” Freedman said. “The statistical improvement is significant. This considerably strengthens the result.”



The study also included rigorous checks. The team used a “blinding” technique, which means they analyzed the data without knowing the final result. Only after the analysis was complete did they look at the numbers. This method reduces bias and improves reliability.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-measuring-the-rate-of-expansion">Measuring the rate of expansion</h2>



One remarkable result was how closely the TRGB and JAGB methods agreed. In eight galaxies where both methods were used, the difference was less than one percent. That level of consistency boosts confidence in the accuracy of the measurements.



Combining all JWST and Hubble Space Telescope (<a href="https://science.nasa.gov/mission/hubble/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">HST</a>) TRGB data across 24 galaxies, the team again got a Hubble constant of 70.39. The full uncertainties included ±1.22 (statistical), ±1.33 (systematic), and ±0.70 (from supernova scatter). 



These overlapping results suggest that the methods are sound and the cosmic tension may have been due to earlier observational limits.



“We're really seeing how fantastic the James Webb Space Telescope is for accurately measuring distances to galaxies,” said co-author Taylor Hoyt of the <a href="https://www.lbl.gov" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory</a>.



“Using its infrared detectors, we can see through dust that has historically plagued accurate measurement of distances, and we can measure with much greater accuracy the brightnesses of stars,” added Barry Madore, of the <a href="https://carnegiescience.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Carnegie Institution for Science</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-exploring-other-cosmic-mysteries">Exploring other cosmic mysteries </h2>



While the results strengthen the Standard Model of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/cosmic-order-or-chaos-universe-expansion-may-follow-a-hidden-pattern/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cosmology</a>, Freedman isn’t declaring the mystery entirely solved. The paper emphasizes that there are still uncertainties, especially in the calibration of supernovae and the physics of distant stars.



However, the improved agreement between early and late measurements suggests that the Hubble constant may no longer be the place to search for cracks in the model.



Freedman notes that this doesn’t close the book on cosmic mysteries. Scientists still hope to understand dark energy and dark matter - two unseen forces that shape the universe. But at least for now, the tools we use to measure the universe appear more reliable than ever.



“There have been well over 1,000 papers trying to attack this problem, and it's just turned out to be extraordinarily difficult to do,” she said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-research-on-universe-expansion">Future research on universe expansion</h2>



Looking ahead, the team plans to observe the Coma cluster using JWST. This <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/titanic-galaxy-cluster-collision-defies-all-current-understanding-of-the-universe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">galaxy cluster</a> is much farther away and offers a chance to bypass supernovae entirely. 



If successful, these new measurements will provide another independent value for the Hubble constant.



“These measurements will allow us to measure the Hubble constant directly, without the additional step of needing the supernovae. I am optimistic about resolving this in the next few years, as we boost the accuracy to make these measurements,” said Freedman.



The study is published in <a href="https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.3847/1538-4357/adce78" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">The Astrophysical Journal</a>. 



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Webb telescope may reveal how fast the universe is expanding

For over a century, humans have measured the universe with...

Earth’s glaciers are shrinking, and current climate pledges are not enough to stop this. A new international study warns that even if today’s promises hold, glaciers could lose 76% of their 2020 mass.



This extent of glacier loss would come with severe consequences - a 9-inch rise in sea levels, disrupted ecosystems, and an increase in the frequency of natural hazards.



The temperature rise associated with the current pledges could push global averages to as much as 4.9 degrees Fahrenheit (2.7 degrees Centigrade) above preindustrial levels.



Alaska, which is home to the third-largest glacier mass outside of Greenland and Antarctica, would lose 69% of its glaciers under these conditions.



The research comes from a team led by scientists from the <a href="https://www.uaf.edu/uaf/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Alaska Fairbanks</a> Geophysical Institute and the University of Oslo.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-glaciers-remember-climate-change">Glaciers remember climate change</h2>



“This is the whole point: When you stop <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/alpine-glaciers-will-lose-half-of-their-volume-by-2050/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">climate change</a>, glaciers don’t stop losing mass,” said Professor Regine Hock, a co-author of the study. 



“Glaciers have a memory. They continue losing mass for tens, hundreds, or even thousands of years until they retreat to high elevations where it’s colder.”



This study takes a new approach. Previous research typically stopped at the year 2100. But glaciers don't follow calendars. Instead of an arbitrary end date, this study estimates how long it will take glaciers to reach equilibrium - the point at which gains from colder months balance losses from warmer months.



Scientists project that in Alaska, glaciers will reach this balance in about 330 years under the low-end <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/paris-agreement-which-countries-are-honoring-their-pledges/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Paris Agreement</a> target of 2.7 degrees Fahrenheit (1.5 degrees Centigrade) warming.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-wordwide-effort-to-understate-glaciers">Wordwide effort to understate glaciers</h2>



Hock emphasized the scale of the effort behind the research. "This is not a single study by one researcher; it’s an internationally coordinated effort. It was four years and brought together the entire community to work on global glacier modeling.”



The team included 21 scientists from 10 countries, using eight different glacier models. They focused on more than 200,000 glaciers, excluding the vast ice sheets of Greenland and Antarctica. 



Scientists assumed constant temperatures for thousands of years in each scenario to give a clearer picture of the long-term future of glaciers.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-warming-levels-change-the-story">How warming levels change the story</h2>



The researchers looked at various levels of warming. Even if temperatures stay at the current 2.1 degrees Fahrenheit (1.2 degrees Centigrade) above preindustrial levels, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/glacier-melt-in-alaska-is-accelerating-at-an-alarming-rate/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Alaska</a> would still lose 37% of its glacier mass. 



As average temperatures rise in the coming years, scientists expect Alaska’s glaciers to lose more mass, predicting that a 7.2-degree Fahrenheit (4-degree Centigrade) increase will cause an 80% loss in glacier mass.



For the planet as a whole, glacier mass losses are projected to reach 39% at the Paris Agreement's lower average temperature increase target (2.7 degrees Fahrenheit or 1.5 degrees Centigrade). The predicted loss reaches a staggering 86% globally if the average temperature increase reaches 9 degrees Fahrenheit (5 degrees Centigrade).



Scientists associate current <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/emissions-gap-report-paris-pledges-are-not-enough-to-avoid-catastrophe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">climate pledges</a> - aiming to restrict average temperature rise to 4.9 degrees Fahrenheit (2.7 degrees Centigrade) - with a predicted 63% loss of glacier mass globally.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-every-degree-counts">Why every degree counts</h2>



"Our study makes it painfully clear that every fraction of a degree matters,” said Harry Zekollari from Vrije Universiteit Brussel in Belgium. “The choices we make today will resonate for centuries, determining how much of our glaciers can be preserved.”



Lilian Schuster from the University of Innsbruck noted that glaciers are good indicators of climate change because their retreat allows us to see with our own eyes how climate is changing.



“However, since they adjust over longer timescales, their current size vastly understates the magnitude of climate change that has already happened. The situation for glaciers is actually far worse than visible in the mountains today," said Schuster.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-action-needed-to-save-glaciers">Action needed to save glaciers</h2>



The research highlights that glaciers are slow to respond to change, but once triggered, the losses are difficult to stop. Even ambitious efforts to limit <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/limiting-global-warming-to-1-5-degrees-celsius-would-save-billions-of-lives/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">warming</a> won’t halt glacier retreat entirely - but they can slow it down.



If nations strengthen their climate commitments, they can limit glacier loss and mitigate the worst impacts on sea level rise and biodiversity. The choice is clear: reduce emissions now, or face centuries of rising seas and shrinking ice.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.adu4675" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Science</a>.



-----



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Current climate goals aren't enough to stop massive glacier losses

Earth’s glaciers are shrinking, and current climate pledges are not...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2E0mn5mTvhQ
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">'Death Star' moon Mimas conceals a 15-million-year-old ocean that scientists never expected.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hidden-waters-beneath-ancient-craters">Hidden waters beneath ancient craters</h2>



Scientists have made a startling discovery that challenges everything we thought we knew about <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/saturn-moon-mimas-has-remarkably-young-ocean/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Saturn's moon Mimas</a>. Beneath the heavily cratered surface that earned it the nickname "Death Star" lies a global ocean that formed just 5 to 15 million years ago—a remarkably young age by cosmic standards.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cassini-data-reveals-orbital-secrets">Cassini data reveals orbital secrets</h2>



The discovery, led by Dr. Valéry Lainey of the <a href="https://observatoiredeparis.psl.eu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Observatoire de Paris</a>, emerged from careful analysis of <a href="https://www.nasa.gov" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NASA</a>'s Cassini spacecraft data. By studying subtle irregularities in Mimas's orbit around Saturn, researchers detected the gravitational signature of liquid water hidden 20 to 30 kilometers beneath the moon's icy shell.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-an-unlikely-ocean-world">An unlikely ocean world</h2>



At only 400 kilometers in diameter, Mimas seemed like the least likely candidate to harbor a subsurface ocean. Unlike other ocean moons such as Europa and Enceladus, which show clear surface signs of internal activity, Mimas displays no obvious hints of the liquid water beneath its ancient, crater-scarred exterior.



"Mimas is a small moon, and its heavily cratered surface gave no hint of the hidden ocean beneath," explained Dr. Nick Cooper from <a href="https://www.qmul.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Queen Mary University of London</a>, a study co-author.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-astrobiology">Implications for astrobiology</h2>



The ocean's recent formation makes Mimas a prime target for studying how oceans develop and potentially support life. This discovery adds another member to the exclusive club of ocean worlds in our solar system, each offering unique insights into the conditions necessary for habitability.



The research, published in <a href="https://www.nature.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature</a> journal, demonstrates how advanced orbital analysis can reveal hidden features of celestial bodies, opening new possibilities for understanding ocean formation throughout the cosmos.



—–



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Scientists discover unexpected young ocean on Saturn's cratered moon Mimas

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2E0mn5mTvhQ 'Death Star' moon Mimas conceals a 15-million-year-old ocean that...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE
</div></figure>



On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop and sunlight barely penetrates through the polar winter. It was here, however, that an international team of scientists found <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/predatory-worms-were-terror-beasts-half-a-billion-years-ago/#google_vignette" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evidence of sea monsters</a> that would change our understanding of ocean life in the past.



This video captures the discovery of Timorebestia fossils that had been hidden for more than 500 million years in the Sirius Passet formation. The "terror beasts," as they are called, are a hidden chapter in the evolutionary history of <a href="https://www.earth.com" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Earth</a>, showing that sophisticated predator-prey interactions occurred much earlier than previously envisioned.



Dr. Jakob Vinther and his research team at the <a href="https://www.bristol.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Bristol</a>, in collaboration with researchers at the <a href="https://eng.kopri.re.kr/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Korean Polar Research Institute</a>, braved extreme weather conditions at 82.5 north latitude to locate these giant creatures. Using sophisticated electron microprobe analysis, they revealed the detailed anatomy of the animals, including their muscle and nerve tissues.



The find upsets the traditional timeline of sea predators. Although we've long appreciated that Cambrian oceans were at one time ruled by <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jWI3-UgA3_o&amp;list=PL1QLQMW9MWDwpkFOnvgAmu7wT6rZmYqdJ&amp;index=19" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">arthropods</a>, these discoveries indicate that relatives of arrow worms were first to dominate the seas. These worms were building sophisticated food webs several million years before other predator groups arose.



Each fossil is a story of ancient hunger, with fossil stomach contents revealing these meter-long beasts dined on heavily armored arthropods regularly, cementing their place as the ocean's first apex predators.



-----



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Worms dominated seas before dinosaurs

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">New York is the site of the world's oldest forest.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-385-million-year-old-trees-discovered">385-million-year-old trees discovered</h2>



Scientists have uncovered something extraordinary just two hours north of New York City. The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/worlds-oldest-forest-discovered-close-to-new-york-city/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">world's oldest forest</a>, dating back 385 million years, offers a window into how Earth's first complex forests shaped our planet's atmosphere.



Located near <a href="https://townofcairo.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cairo, New York</a>, in Greene County, these weren't merely primitive plants struggling to survive. These were sophisticated trees with root systems remarkably similar to modern forests. This ancient woodland predates dinosaurs by 140 million years.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-cairo-forest-discovery">The Cairo forest discovery</h2>



385 million years ago, upstate New York was a tropical paradise near the equator. Thanks to continental drift, this ancient forest has traveled thousands of miles to its current location.



The fossil forest sits in an abandoned quarry, roughly half the size of a football field. This represents just a slice of what was likely a massive forest system stretching from New York into Pennsylvania.



Charles Ver Straeten, curator of sedimentary rocks at the <a href="https://www.nysm.nysed.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">New York State Museum</a>, made the discovery in 2009. While scouting the former highway department property, his trained eye spotted wandering patterns in the stone that looked like marine features.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-revolutionary-age-and-preservation">Revolutionary age and preservation</h2>



The site contains 385-million-year-old rocks with fossilized woody roots forming horizontal patterns up to 18 feet (5.5 meters) wide. As Christopher Berry, a paleobotanist at Cardiff University, explains: "You are walking through the roots of ancient trees."



This discovery pushes back advanced tree evolution by millions of years. The research, published in <a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/home" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Current Biology</a> in December 2019, fundamentally changes our understanding of when complex forests first emerged.



Researchers believe a massive flood buried the forest floor, creating perfect fossilization conditions. Over millions of years, sediment hardened into rock, preserving these root patterns like nature's time capsule.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-meet-archaeopteris-the-first-modern-tree">Meet Archaeopteris: the first modern tree</h2>



The star of this ancient forest is Archaeopteris – not to be confused with the feathered dinosaur Archaeopteryx. This tree was far older and more revolutionary.



William Stein from <a href="https://www.binghamton.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Binghamton University</a> describes the roots as "strikingly modern, essentially what you'd see outside in my yard right now." These weren't simple root systems you'd expect from ancient plants.



Some fossilized roots are six inches (15 centimeters) in diameter, forming 36-foot-wide (11-meter) patterns. These giants grew up to 65 feet (20 meters) tall with five-foot-diameter (1.5-meter) trunks.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-changing-impact">Climate-changing impact</h2>



These trees fundamentally changed Earth's environment. Kevin Boyce, a Stanford University geoscientist, explains how their deep roots triggered "weathering," chemical reactions that pulled carbon dioxide from the atmosphere.



This process dropped atmospheric CO2 levels from 10-15 times higher than today to roughly modern concentrations. These ancient trees helped create atmospheric conditions that made complex life possible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ancient-forest-ecosystem">Ancient forest ecosystem</h2>



The forest was remarkably diverse. Scientists identified Eospermatopteris, palm tree-like plants with short roots that reached 30 feet (9 meters) tall but lacked woody structure. The forest also housed cladoxylopsids and a mysterious third species still being studied.



All reproduced through spores rather than seeds – millions of years before seeds evolved. This tropical environment had no grass, flowers, or flying insects, just towering trees creating Earth's first complex forest canopy.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-scientific-significance">Scientific significance</h2>



Before this finding, the Gilboa forest, located 25 miles (40 kilometers) away, held the "oldest forest" title. Cairo's trees are 2-3 million years older, showing that complex forest ecosystems developed much faster than scientists believed possible.



Patricia Gensel, a <a href="https://www.unc.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of North Carolina</a> paleobotanist, notes: "The size of those root systems is really changing the picture. Even 20 years ago, researchers assumed trees with such complex root systems didn't evolve so early."



The Cairo site presents three unique root systems, suggesting Devonian period forests were diverse ecosystems with different trees occupying different environmental niches, much like today's forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-modern-preservation-efforts">Modern preservation efforts</h2>



In 2022, New York State Senator Michelle Hinchey secured a $170,000 grant for the town of Cairo to construct specialized fencing around the fossil forest site. The town plans to conduct a feasibility study exploring the possibility of creating an educational center and working lab on-site.



Joe Hasenkopf, chair of the Cairo Planning Board, hopes to partner with educational institutions to create a research facility serving scientists, students, and the public.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lessons-for-today-s-climate">Lessons for today's climate</h2>



Why does a 385-million-year-old forest matter today? It shows how dramatically forests can change Earth's climate. These ancient woodlands created the atmospheric conditions supporting complex life.



Understanding how prehistoric forests transformed the planet helps us appreciate modern forests' critical role in addressing climate change. Forests remain Earth's most effective carbon capture systems.



These prehistoric trees changed Earth's atmosphere by pulling massive amounts of carbon dioxide from the air. As we face modern climate challenges, this ancient forest reminds us of trees' incredible power to transform our planet's environment.



The next time you walk through a forest, remember you're experiencing an ecosystem whose blueprint was established 385 million years ago in upstate New York. These ancient pioneers didn't just survive – they thrived and changed the world forever.



The full study was published in the journal Current Biology.



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Earth's oldest forest found in the United States

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ New York is the site of the world's oldest...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Acid rain and a crisis solved.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-don-t-we-ever-hear-about-acid-rain-anymore-the-environmental-crisis-that-was-solved">Why don't we ever hear about "acid rain" anymore? The environmental crisis that was solved</h2>



Remember the 1980s when acid rain dominated headlines? Dire warnings about rain eating buildings, killing fish, and destroying forests filled every news cycle. Then, almost like magic, acid rain vanished from public discourse. What happened? Did we actually solve one of the late 20th century's most pressing environmental challenges?



The answer might surprise you. Unlike many environmental issues that drag on indefinitely, acid rain represents one of modern history's most successful ecological recovery stories. It's a tale of science, politics, and technology working together to tackle what seemed impossible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What was acid rain?</h2>



Acid rain isn't regular rain having a bad day – it's precipitation that became significantly more acidic due to air pollution. When power plants, factories, and vehicles burn fossil fuels, they release sulfur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides (NOx) into the atmosphere.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The science behind it</h2>



Think of acid rain as nature's chemistry experiment gone wrong. These compounds react with water, oxygen, and other chemicals to form sulfuric and nitric acids. When mixed with water vapor in clouds, they create precipitation with dangerously low pH levels.



While clean rain has a pH of about 5.6, acid rain could drop as low as 4.2 to 4.4 – roughly as acidic as tomato juice or coffee. According to US Geological Survey documentation, Scottish chemist Angus Smith first coined "acid rain" in 1872, but it didn't become a household phrase until the 1960s and 1970s when Swedish scientist Svante Odén documented its devastating effects on Scandinavian lakes and European forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The crisis at its peak</h2>



During the height of public concern, environmental damage was both widespread and visible. This wasn't some abstract future threat – people could see destruction happening in real-time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Environmental devastation</h2>



The most dramatic impacts were impossible to ignore. Research documented by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation and the New York State Department of Environmental Conservation shows that in the Adirondack Mountains, more than 200 lakes became so acidic they couldn't support fish life. The Adirondack Council reports that 409 lakes once supported brook trout, but many lost their fish populations due to acid rain.



By 1976, when scientists cataloged all acidified lakes in the Adirondack Park, researchers found that half of the lakes over 2,000 feet above sea level had no fish, according to studies published in environmental journals. The acidification process worked like a slow-motion disaster. As acid rain fell into watersheds, it gradually lowered pH levels. Fish couldn't survive in acidic water, and their food sources died off too.



Trees at high elevations showed stress directly linked to acid rain. It weakened them by leaching nutrients and making them susceptible to disease. Historical records show Germany's Black Forest saw nearly half its trees damaged by the mid-1980s.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Economic impact</h2>



Acid rain wasn't just environmental – it was expensive. Acidic precipitation corroded infrastructure, buildings, and monuments. Historic stone structures deteriorated at accelerated rates. Tourism suffered as lakes became fishless and forests declined. EPA economic analyses from the period documented repair costs mounting into billions annually.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The solution: government action and technology</h2>



Transformation from crisis to success required unprecedented cooperation between governments, industries, and environmental groups.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The Clean Air Act of 1990</h2>



The turning point came with the Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990, signed by President George H.W. Bush. This represented a fundamentally new approach to environmental regulation, as documented in EPA historical records.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Cap-and-trade success</h2>



Instead of mandating specific technologies, the 1990 amendments introduced something revolutionary: a cap-and-trade system for sulfur dioxide emissions. EPA program documentation shows this market-based approach set overall limits but allowed companies to trade emission allowances.



The genius was harnessing market forces to find cost-effective pollution reduction. Companies reducing emissions cheaply could sell excess allowances to those facing higher costs. Research published in environmental economics journals and EPA progress reports shows this resulted in dramatic SO2 reduction at a fraction of projected costs.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Technology advances</h2>



Policy provided the framework, but technology made reductions possible. Studies in atmospheric science journals document the widespread adoption of flue gas desulfurization systems ("scrubbers") that removed sulfur dioxide before it reached the atmosphere. By the 2000s, new installations could remove over 95% of SO2 emissions, according to EPA technical reports.



The push coincided with cleaner energy development. Natural gas produces fewer sulfur compounds than coal. Wind and solar, emerging in the 1990s, captured growing market share, reducing reliance on high-sulfur coal.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-we-don-t-hear-about-it-today">Why we don't hear about it today</h2>



Why did acid rain disappear from headlines? Simple: the problem was largely solved.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Success doesn't make news</h2>



There's an old journalism saying: "If it bleeds, it leads." Environmental success stories don't generate urgency like crisis reporting. Media attention shifted to other challenges: climate change, plastic pollution, and biodiversity loss. There's only so much environmental anxiety the public can absorb, and newer concerns replaced acid rain.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Mission accomplished</h2>



The primary reason is beautifully simple: interventions worked. EPA monitoring data shows sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990. Academic research published in environmental science journals confirms pH levels in formerly affected areas returned closer to normal. This represents one of history's most dramatic environmental recoveries. Studies by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation show fishless lakes now support healthy populations. Forests recovered, and building damage slowed dramatically.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-is-it-really-gone">Is it really gone?</h2>



The crisis is largely resolved, but monitoring data shows the problem isn't completely eliminated – it's managed to acceptable levels. Some areas still experience occasional events during high pollution periods. International environmental research indicates that rapidly industrializing Asian countries face similar problems to what we experienced decades ago, though they're implementing successful strategies.



EPA research shows nitrogen oxide emissions proved more challenging than sulfur dioxide, coming from vehicles and mobile sources. Climate science studies suggest changing weather patterns add complexity to how acid rain forms and falls.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What this teaches us</h2>



The acid rain experience proves that seemingly intractable environmental problems can be solved with scientific understanding, political will, and technological innovation. Environmental monitoring data shows recovery speed was remarkable – within a decade, measurable improvements appeared in air quality and ecosystem health.



Success came from bipartisan support across party lines. Policy analysis studies show the market-based approach appealed to those preferring economic incentives while achieving environmental goals. This support created lasting policy surviving political changes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Conclusion</h2>



Acid rain's disappearance from public consciousness represents environmental science's greatest success stories. Through effective regulation, technological innovation, and international cooperation, we transformed an overwhelming crisis into a manageable challenge.



Today's silence isn't because we forgot – it's because we solved it. The 1990 Clean Air Act, combined with technology and energy market changes, reduced acid rain emissions over 90%, according to comprehensive EPA data analysis.



This success offers hope for current challenges. It proves complex problems can be solved when science, policy, and technology work together. As we face climate change and plastic pollution, acid rain reminds us that dramatic positive change is possible.



Next time someone asks whether environmental regulations work, remember acid rain. It's proof that sometimes, we get it right.



<hr class="wp-block-separator has-alpha-channel-opacity"/>



Sources: This article draws from EPA official documentation and progress reports, peer-reviewed research published in environmental and atmospheric science journals, historical data from the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation, New York State Department of Environmental Conservation records, US Geological Survey publications, policy analysis studies, and environmental monitoring data collected over three decades.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Frequently Asked Questions</h2>



1. Is acid rain completely gone? No, but EPA monitoring shows it's reduced to manageable levels. US sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990, making acid rain much less severe than the 1980s crisis.



2. How long did solving take? Environmental monitoring data shows significant improvements began within 5-10 years of 1990s emission controls. Full ecosystem recovery took longer – some areas need 20-30 years for complete recovery.



3. What made the solution successful? Clear scientific understanding, visible damage motivating action, bipartisan support, available technology, and innovative market-based policies like cap-and-trade.



4. Do other countries have acid rain problems? Yes, particularly rapidly industrializing Asian countries. However, international environmental research shows many implement similar successful control strategies.



5. Could acid rain return? Potentially, if regulations weaken or we return to high-sulfur coal without controls, though effects would take years to become severe according to environmental projections.



6. Can you recommend any teaching tools on the subject of "acid rain"? The United States Environmental Protection Agency produced a wonderful teacher's guide for ages 14 and under that you can find on the EPA website here: <a href="https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf</a>



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The environmental problem we actually solved

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk Acid rain and a crisis solved. Why don't we...

Fresh,Radish,Harvest,On,Soil,In,Garden.

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://youtu.be/Fi2OeEwuzRM?si=vTyd2m9FMmtyWkex
</div></figure>







Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving fall garden, and this guide lays out the best vegetables and herbs to plant now for a fruitful autumn harvest. 



Fast-growing leafy greens such as spinach, lettuce, kale, and arugula perform especially well in the waning summer heat, with harvests beginning as soon as 30 days. 



These cool-season crops relish the transition into fall, offering repeated yields with cut-and-come-again methods.



Root vegetables like radishes, carrots, and beets also excel during this period. Radishes deliver satisfaction in under a month, while carrots and beets mature in about two months. Employing succession planting ensures a continuous stream of produce deep into the cooler months. 



For a boost of fresh flavor, herbs like cilantro, basil, dill, and chervil are excellent picks. These heat-loving varieties flourish in July’s warmth and are harvest-ready in about 30 days, especially when sown continuously.



Gardeners in zones 6 through 9 can benefit from planting bush beans and snap peas, which don’t require trellising and are ideal for compact plots. 



Maturing in 50–60 days, they’re a smart choice for quick, protein-rich harvests. For those in hotter regions, heat-tolerant crops such as okra and southern peas provide reliable yields and thrive in scorching conditions.



This guide emphasizes more than crop selection—it highlights the importance of timing, soil preparation, and ongoing sowing techniques. 



With thoughtful planning and attention to regional climate needs, even late-summer gardeners can enjoy fresh salads, hearty stews, and the satisfaction of a robust, homegrown harvest well into fall.



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What to plant in your garden in mid-July

https://youtu.be/Fi2OeEwuzRM?si=vTyd2m9FMmtyWkex Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving...

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A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that wildlife tunnels significantly reduce amphibian road mortality during seasonal migrations. 



Frogs and salamanders often cross roads to reach breeding ponds each spring, but many are killed by vehicles. 



Researchers from the <a href="https://www.uvm.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Vermont</a>, in collaboration with local citizens and the Vermont Agency of Natural Resources, installed two underpass tunnels in 2015. 



Over a 12-year monitoring period, they observed an 80.2% reduction in amphibian deaths, and up to 94% for non-climbing species like salamanders. 



The study used a before-after-control-impact design and documented more than 5,200 amphibians, highlighting the tunnels’ effectiveness even in nearby buffer zones.



Funded at $342,397 - far cheaper than wildlife crossings for large mammals - the project showcased the power of community-led conservation.



Local groups initiated the effort after observing mass amphibian deaths. Wildlife cameras later captured over 2,200 amphibians using a tunnel in just one spring, along with other species like raccoons and bobcats, indicating wider ecosystem benefits.



This marks the first peer-reviewed, long-term data set in the northeastern U.S. confirming amphibian-specific underpasses work. 



The study urges transportation departments to incorporate these designs into road planning and highlights how community action, thoughtful infrastructure, and persistence can make a real difference for biodiversity.



The full study was published in the <a href="https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1617138125000780" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal for Nature Conservation</a>.



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Wildlife tunnels save millions of amphibians

https://youtu.be/XYgiPzmNBTU?si=eFYY7gPHU1JznLvU A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that...

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing it with probiotics and prebiotics, aiming to create a treat that satisfies cravings while supporting gut health. 



The challenge lies in maintaining chocolate's beloved texture and flavor while adding health benefits.



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Probiotics - beneficial microbes that balance gut bacteria and aid digestion - are typically fragile and can be destroyed by stomach acid or processing. 



Prebiotics act as food for these microbes, helping them thrive. Together, they form "synbiotics," a powerful health combination.



Researchers Smriti Gaur and Shubhi Singh from India's Jaypee Institute of Information Technology took an innovative approach, using natural prebiotics like corn and honey instead of complex processing methods. 



They created five chocolate varieties: a control and four synbiotic versions containing different combinations of prebiotics, probiotics (Lactobacillus strains), and flavor enhancers (cinnamon or orange).



Laboratory simulations of human digestion showed the probiotics remained viable for over five hours, suggesting they could survive long enough to benefit gut health.



Taste tests were positive, with researchers particularly enjoying the orange-flavored variety, describing it as having "vibrant citrus notes" complementing the "rich cocoa" with a "luxurious" texture.



This research represents just the beginning. With further refinement of strains, textures, and flavors, chocolate could evolve beyond mere indulgence to become a functional food that nourishes while it delights.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.4c00741" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ACS Food Science &amp; Technology</a>.

Is chocolate the next nutritional powerhouse?

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

[sendtonews key="G9bUoxcjr4-2511624-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

[sendtonews key="3upvlAaHgO-2256633-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

[sendtonews key="LvS8v8bp9z-2564889-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How does salt makes things taste better?

[sendtonews key="X0f6OHYoI4-2310561-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Santiago, Chile in South America

[sendtonews key="JRaP49ISmm-2357509-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

[sendtonews key="e4ZG0Jawp3-2374785-12187" type="single"] Astronomers at Johns Hopkins University have created...

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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.



According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."



Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;



ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. 



Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

[sendtonews key="uV9Lh2fQbV-1760058-12187" type="single"] Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

[sendtonews key="qjvhBOBnY8-2426650-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

[sendtonews key="oL4FnPTGCV-2384527-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

[sendtonews key="0879czfG3k-1785905-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from NASA...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

[sendtonews key="6HyfrAJTBI-1831843-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

Earth,Like,Exoplanet,3d,Render

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

[sendtonews key="QIoVYJqRBi-2434608-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from NASA...

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