Young aspen trees in Yellowstone are doing something they have not done in almost 100 years. Rather than sprouting and being eaten back to nubs by elk and bison, they're actually growing into tall, adult forest trees rising up towards the canopy.



This matters more than it might seem, because it shows what happens when a missing piece of an ecosystem returns.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-yellowstone-aspens-and-elk">Yellowstone, aspens, and elk</h2>



In the 1920s, people <a href="https://www.yellowstone.org/wolf-project/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">eliminated wolves in Yellowstone</a>. At the time, with limited scientific knowledge, managers believed it was the right thing to do.



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/from-wolves-to-dogs-did-domestication-begin-without-human-help/">Without wolves</a>, elk herds grew very large. Elk love to eat aspen shoots - the tender young growth is highly palatable to them.



For roughly 70 years, elk browsed aspen sprouts down to stub height, and the trees couldn't grow. 



If you had walked through Yellowstone in the 1980s, you would have seen many tiny aspen shoots covering the ground, but almost no young trees gaining height. 



The forest's regeneration was stalled. Old trees died, and no new ones replaced them.



In 1995 and 1996, park managers reintroduced wolves into the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/yellowstone-supervolcano-eruption-study-sparks-new-debate-on-where-and-when-it-will-erupt/">Yellowstone Park ecosystem</a>. Scientists hoped and wondered whether this would change anything for the trees.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-aspen-matter-to-yellowstone">Why aspen matter to Yellowstone</h2>



Aspen groves provide habitat for many species. Birds nest in them. Beavers eat the bark and use the wood for dams. Butterflies and moths lay eggs on the leaves. 



Their canopy admits enough light for wildflowers and shrubs to grow beneath. When it rains, aspen groves hold water in the soil better than some other forest types.



In short, when aspen return, dozens of other species benefit. More trees support more insects, which in turn support more birds, enriching the ecosystem.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-checking-the-trees-three-decades-later">Checking the trees three decades later</h2>



<a href="https://fwcs.oregonstate.edu/users/luke-painter" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Luke Painter</a>, an ecologist at <a href="https://oregonstate.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Oregon State University</a>, sought clear answers. His team returned to 87 aspen stands across Yellowstone that scientists had previously surveyed. 



They measured thousands of young trees, looked for bite marks, and counted how many stems were tall enough that elk could no longer reach the tips.



About a third of these stands now have many tall young aspens pushing toward the canopy. 



"About 26 of the 87 aspen stands we examined had large numbers of tall saplings throughout, a remarkable change from the 1990s when surveys found none at all," Painter said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-wolves-matter-to-yellowstone-aspens">Why wolves matter to Yellowstone aspens</h2>



Breaking it all down, the conclusions of this study are pretty simple. 



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/wolves-move-pups-across-mountains-to-adapt-to-climate-pressure/">Wolves hunt elk</a>. When wolves came back, two things happened. First, elk numbers declined from unusually high levels. Second, elk changed their behavior. They spent less time in the same areas feeding.



With fewer elk and shorter feeding bouts, more aspen shoots survived long enough to exceed the browsing zone - about six to seven feet high. 



Once a sapling reaches that height, elk cannot easily reach the growing tip. The tree continues to grow.



"The reintroduction of large carnivores has initiated a recovery process that had been shut down for decades," Painter explained.



Scientists call this a <a href="https://www.nature.com/scitable/knowledge/library/trophic-cascades-across-diverse-plant-ecosystems-80060347/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">trophic cascade</a> - when adding or removing one species causes changes that ripple through the whole system.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-some-places-recover-others-don-t">Some places recover, others don't</h2>



Unfortunately, not every aspen stand has recovered yet. Some valleys still have many short, heavily browsed shoots, because it's not only elk eating them anymore. 



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/yellowstones-iconic-bison-have-merged-into-a-single-herd/">Bison herds have grown</a>, and bison browse on aspen as well. They are strong enough to break young trees. 



"Increasing numbers of bison may be emerging as a new constraint to aspen in some areas," Painter confirmed.



Additionally, winter snow depth varies; droughts stress trees; bears and mountain lions also hunt elk; and hunting outside the park influences elk distribution. 



All of these factors interact, which is why some sites show strong recovery, others show moderate recovery, and a few have changed very little.



The key pattern is that places with many tall saplings experience little browsing, and aspen groves that remain popular eating grounds today stay short. 



This fact is the strongest indication that tree recovery is linked directly to wolf presence, not solely to weather or soil conditions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-proof-in-the-measurements">Proof in the measurements</h2>



Painter's team did not rely on casual observation. They used the same methods as earlier researchers, measuring the same plots. 



They counted recruitment - when young trees surpass browsing height and begin progressing toward maturity. This measure is crucial. Sprouts are insufficient if they never grow; without recruitment, the forest cannot replace itself.



The results are robust. After being stalled for most of a century, Yellowstone's aspens are increasing in height. In recovering stands today, you will see saplings - six, eight, or ten feet tall - that were not present in the 1990s.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-future-of-yellowstone-s-aspens">The future of Yellowstone's aspens</h2>



"This is a remarkable case of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/giant-viruses-found-in-yellowstones-hot-springs-may-be-near-the-root-of-all-life-on-earth/">ecological restoration</a>," Painter concluded. "Wolf reintroduction is yielding long-term ecological changes contributing to increased biodiversity and habitat diversity."



Trees grow slowly, so even with wolves restored, it will take decades for these young aspens to form a full-grown forest. 



Some areas might never fully recover if bison numbers continue to rise or if the climate becomes too hot and dry.



Thanks to the work of Painter and his team, scientists are now certain that restoring the Yellowstone predator has restarted aspen forest regeneration. Not everywhere and not perfectly, but enough to be measured, creating hope for the future.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0378112725004499?via%3Dihub" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Forest Ecology and Management</a>.



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Yellowstone's aspen trees are growing again thanks to the reintroduction of wolves

Young aspen trees in Yellowstone are doing something they have not done in almost 100 years. Rather than sprouting and being eaten back to nubs by elk and bison, they're actually growing into tall, adult forest trees rising up towards the canopy. This matters more than it might seem, because it shows what happens when a missing piece of an ecosystem returns. Yellowstone, aspens, and elk In the 1920s, people eliminated wolves in Yellowstone. At the time, with limited scientific knowledge, managers believed it was the right...

Current climate policies could allow global temperatures to rise by 2.7°C (4.9°F) by the end of this century. That level of warming would reshape coastlines, threaten ecosystems, and disrupt freshwater supplies. 



Scientists emphasize the importance of limiting warming to 1.5°C (2.7°F) to protect glacier-dependent regions.



In a recent study published in the journal Science, experts modeled over 200,000 glaciers outside of the Greenland and Antarctic Ice Sheets.



"Using eight glacier models, we simulated global glacier evolution over multicentennial timescales, allowing glaciers to equilibrate with climate under various constant global temperature scenarios," noted the researchers. 



The results showed that even if global temperatures stopped rising today, 39% of glacier <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/melting-glaciers-are-reshaping-landscapes-and-national-borders-around-the-world/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">mass</a> would still vanish, raising sea levels by over four inches. However, strong climate policy could save twice as much ice as current warming paths allow.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-locked-into-significant-glacier-loss">Locked into significant glacier loss</h2>



Glaciers don’t react instantly. Instead, they adjust slowly, over centuries. That lag means today’s glacier retreat reflects past emissions, not just current warming. 



“The glacier melt we’re seeing today reflects warming from decades ago,” said study co-author David Rounce of <a href="https://www.cmu.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Carnegie Mellon University</a>.



Even with no more warming, we are locked into significant glacier loss. This “committed” loss arises because glaciers are out of balance with today’s climate. According to the study, 113 mm of sea-level rise will occur even if current <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mountain-glaciers-face-centuries-of-irreversible-loss-if-warming-surpasses-1-5c/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">conditions</a> hold steady.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-each-fraction-of-a-degree-counts">Each fraction of a degree counts</h2>



The study found a steep cost for every bit of extra <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/world-water-day-2025-preserving-glaciers-protecting-our-future/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">warming</a>. For each 0.1°C (0.18°F) rise, we lose another 2% of glacier ice and gain 6.5 mm (0.26 inches) in sea-level rise. 



Under a 2.7°C (4.9°F) scenario, 76% of glacier mass would be lost. Sea levels would rise by 230 mm (9.1 inches). By contrast, staying within 1.5°C (2.7°F) preserves 53% of global glacier mass. 



“Decisions we make now will determine the future of our water, coastlines, and ecosystems around the world,” said Rounce. The message is clear: small policy shifts today shape glacier survival centuries ahead.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-where-glaciers-will-disappear-first">Where glaciers will disappear first</h2>



Not all glaciers face the same risk. Regions like Arctic Canada South, Western Canada, and Scandinavia could lose over 65% of their mass - even if warming stopped.



In contrast, South Asia West and New Zealand show lower losses under current temperatures, but they are more vulnerable to future warming.



Why? Glacier elevation range matters. Wide elevation ranges allow glaciers to retreat upward and persist. In flatter regions, that’s not possible. 



For example, Arctic Canada South is warming 2.2 times faster than the global average. It’s home to relic glaciers from the last Ice Age that can’t survive current <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/artificial-glaciers-are-helping-farmers-survive-a-water-crisis/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">warming</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-policy-and-glacier-timelines">Climate policy and glacier timelines</h2>



How long do glaciers take to respond? The answer: centuries. Some regions, like the Subantarctic Islands, need 800 years to lose 80% of their committed ice under a 1.5°C (2.7°F) scenario. Others, like New Zealand or the Caucasus, react in just a few decades.



This time lag means glacier changes we see in the next 100 years are only part of the story. Some glaciers that seem safe today may still vanish in the long run if <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/melting-glaciers-are-hidden-sources-of-greenhouse-gases/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">warming</a> continues.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-happens-in-a-5-c-warmer-world">What happens in a 5°C warmer world</h2>



At 5°C (9°F) above pre-industrial levels - an extreme possibility - only 9% of glacier mass would remain. That would raise sea levels by 282 mm (11.1 inches). Many mid-latitude regions would completely deglaciate, losing almost all their ice.



Though this scenario may seem distant, the difference between it and the 1.5°C (2.7°F) target is huge. That’s why every 0.1°C (0.18°F) matters. 



The study shows the most glacier-sensitive regions are also the ones with the most to lose from small policy failures.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-action-to-protect-glaciers">Climate action to protect glaciers </h2>



The <a href="https://www.un.org/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">United Nations</a> has named 2025 the&nbsp;International Year of Glacier Preservation, highlighting the urgent need to protect glaciers worldwide. 



The Carnegie Mellon study has revealed a key insight: glaciers take centuries to fully adjust to new climate conditions. That means we haven’t yet seen the full impact of past emissions - and what we do now will shape glacier survival far into the future.



Glacier loss is not a short-term crisis with quick fixes. It's a slow-moving disaster that builds over generations. Even if we stabilize temperatures today, many glaciers are still committed to melting. 



But with strong climate action, much of that loss can be avoided. The line “not just for ice, but for life” captures the stakes. Glaciers provide freshwater, prevent flooding, and support ecosystems. 



Letting them vanish means risking vital resources for millions. This year, more than ever, climate pledges must be treated seriously. 



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.adu4675" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Science</a>.



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Half of the world's glaciers can be saved with strong climate action

Current climate policies could allow global temperatures to rise by...

Across the globe, the fight against climate change has sparked a movement. One of the most common strategies is tree planting. Rows of trees lining empty fields have become a symbol of hope. While this practice does help trap carbon, a new study urges us to look deeper - into the forests themselves.



The research highlights the potential of forest-based agroforestry (FAF), which nurtures existing forests and supports climate stability, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/large-undisturbed-forests-support-greater-biodiversity/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">biodiversity</a>, traditions, and local economies.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tree-planting-vs-forest-management">Tree planting vs. forest management</h2>



Tree planting is straightforward. You plant new <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/forests-provide-different-health-benefits-based-on-their-structure/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">trees</a> where there were none before. This approach works best on treeless lands like empty farms. These new trees absorb carbon and cool the environment. But forests already serve as massive carbon reservoirs. The key lies in how we manage them.



Forest-based agroforestry offers a different path. Instead of planting trees in bare spaces, it introduces crops into living forests. This method encourages sustainable interaction. It enhances both forest health and productivity. Unlike industrial agriculture, it does not remove existing <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/many-forests-that-benefit-people-also-shelter-endangered-birds/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">trees</a> or disrupt ecosystems. It adds to them.



“We want to make sure that we clarify that forest-based agroforestry (FAF) can achieve similar climate benefits as tree planting in fields,” said Karam Sheban, the study's lead author at <a href="https://www.yale.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Yale University</a>.



“The big takeaway is that human management of forests can result in better outcomes for forests, for people, and for the climate. It is not a zero-sum game.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-forest-farming-works">How forest farming works</h2>



Agroforestry is not a new idea. For generations, communities have grown food alongside trees. However, most modern programs focus on combining trees with open farmlands or pastures. FAF flips that model. It introduces agricultural activities within standing forests, not at their edges or in cleared sections.



This forest farming practice draws heavily from Indigenous and traditional knowledge systems. It doesn’t separate people from nature. Instead, it respects forests as living systems. 



People grow crops beneath forest canopies, harvest fruits or medicinal plants, and maintain biodiversity. The forest stays alive, and so does the human connection to it.



The study revealed that FAF promotes <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/tropical-forests-are-struggling-to-keep-pace-with-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">carbon storage</a>, soil health, and wildlife diversity. It also creates economic opportunities. Forest dwellers can earn by collecting forest products like berries, herbs, or nuts. Unlike clear-cutting or monoculture farming, this model does not exhaust the land.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-looking-beyond-tree-planting">Looking beyond tree planting </h2>



Despite its promise, FAF does not receive the attention it deserves. Most agroforestry investments go toward tree-planting campaigns. These are often easier to fund, measure, and promote. A sapling in a field is a visible success. A managed forest, full of life and complexity, is harder to capture in a report.



The authors identified two major misconceptions holding FAF back. First, people often mistake it for industrial agroforestry. These systems focus on mass production of cash crops like coffee or cacao. 



In contrast, FAF supports ecological balance. Second, they wrongly apply lessons from tropical forests to temperate or boreal forests. This leads to flawed assumptions and missed opportunities.



“There’s a narrative that human activity in forests causes degradation, and that we really should leave forests untouched to maximize climate benefits. But humans living in and around forests have been supporting forest health for thousands of years and continue to do so now,” Sheban said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-changing-the-climate-narrative">Changing the climate narrative</h2>



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/planting-too-many-trees-could-spoil-the-planet/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Tree planting</a> and forest preservation are not mutually exclusive. We can maintain forests and still use them wisely. The idea that humans and forests must be kept apart is outdated. Forest farming offers a middle ground - neither full exploitation nor untouched isolation.



The researchers argue for thoughtful policies. They want FAF recognized in agroforestry discussions and separated from harmful industrial practices. They urge more research in cooler forest regions. 



Currently, most data comes from tropical zones. But boreal and temperate forests also have potential. Understanding how FAF works in these regions could reshape land-use policies.



“For natural climate solutions involving trees, everyone is currently focused on removal of carbon from the atmosphere through tree planting. In the right place, this can be an effective strategy and the idea that removing a tree through forest management might be beneficial seems counter-intuitive to people, especially given how people develop attachments to individual trees,” said study co-author Mark Bradford. 



“Yet, forest management often necessitates removing some trees for the collective benefit of the forest. As people start to become aware of forest-based agriculture, we need to get that message out that effective forest management can achieve multiple services.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-forest-farming-a-path-to-resilience">Forest farming: A path to resilience </h2>



The future of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/forests-are-still-fighting-climate-change-against-all-odds/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">climate</a> action lies not just in creating new landscapes but in renewing old ones. Forest-based agroforestry can reduce emissions, sustain livelihoods, and honor long-standing human relationships with nature. It deserves a stronger place in our conversations, budgets, and policies.



By shifting how we think about forests - from untouched reserves to living, working ecosystems - we can unlock new paths toward resilience. This means empowering local communities, respecting traditional knowledge, and investing in management systems that do more than just look good on paper.



The climate conversation is changing. And as this study shows, forests are not just part of the background. They may be central to our solutions - if we choose to manage them with care and purpose.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41558-025-02344-8" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Climate Change</a>.



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Traditional forest farming is an overlooked climate solution

Across the globe, the fight against climate change has sparked...

Lovely,Young,Happy,Couple,Sitting,In,The,Back,Of,Their

Births are steadily dropping in many parts of the world, while dogs are taking center stage in households that once prioritized children. Families everywhere say their pets feel like children, and it sparks questions about how we view families, caring, and belonging.



At the heart of this conversation is the idea that some people use <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/are-dogs-replacing-children-how-modern-society-is-changing/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dogs</a> to satisfy a nurturing need without the commitments that come with raising human children. 



Research from <a href="https://www.elte.hu/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eötvös Loránd University</a> shines a light on these evolving roles.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-we-treat-pets-like-children">Why we treat pets like children</h2>



This review was led by PhD student, <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=wAduFK4AAAAJ&amp;hl=en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Ms. Laura Gillet</a>, and senior author, <a href="https://enikokubinyi.elte.hu/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Ms. Enikő Kubinyi</a>, of the MTA-ELTE ‘Momentum’ Companion Animals Research Group at Eötvös Loránd University. 



Their work offers a fresh perspective on why people may treat their <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-people-treat-their-dogs-is-directly-tied-to-their-own-childhood/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dogs</a> as dear family members, even calling them furry children.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-many-see-pets-as-easier-than-kids">Many see pets as easier than kids</h2>



“Despite the high dependency and attachment of dogs to their caregivers, in the eyes of many, commitments coming with dog ownership remain less burdensome than child parenting” explained Ms. Gillet.&nbsp;



Households vary widely when it comes to pets. Some folks see their <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/family-dogs-boost-physical-activity-levels-among-children/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">canine companions</a> as children in all but name. Others embrace the idea that dogs are simply easier to manage than human kids.&nbsp;



Individuals who decide to adopt dogs say it meets their desire to look after another living being. 



Some appreciate the freedom of having a friendly companion without the lengthy financial and emotional investment that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/parents-treat-their-children-differently-but-do-they-have-a-favorite/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">raising a human child</a> often demands.



This shift in how we welcome dogs into our daily routines partly explains why people across different cultures now place their pets in roles once held only by children.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dogs-have-needs-similar-to-toddlers">Dogs have needs similar to toddlers</h2>



Dog and owner relationships often show strong attachment features. <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23224364/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Studies</a> using separation and reunion tasks found that dogs are more at ease with their primary caregiver than with strangers. 



Dogs also look to their owners for comfort during stressful situations, which adds to the idea that canines naturally bond with people in ways that mirror child-parent attachments.



Despite these similarities, dogs will not grow into independent adults who leave home. They stay reliant on their caregivers for food, walks, and social outings, and this ongoing dependence can make them feel like permanent toddlers. 



Many owners find it heartwarming to remain in that caregiver role, though there can be questions about whether the dog’s own <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/children-get-a-rush-of-the-love-hormone-by-playing-with-dogs/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">needs</a> are fully understood or respected.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-does-any-of-this-matter">Why does any of this matter?</h2>



“We would like to point out that, contrary to popular belief, only a small minority of dog owners actually treat their pets like human children” said Ms. Kubinyi, head of the <a href="https://www.liverpool.ac.uk/veterinary-science/research/companion-animal-research/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Companion Animals Research Group</a>, senior author of the review. 



Some people view dog care as a way to fill time or emotional space. Others juggle raising dogs alongside actual children, seeing them as separate bonds. Those with no children may prefer dogs for a sense of closeness and routine that is less daunting.



Still, cultural norms play a big part. In places where human births are dropping or delayed, it is easier to focus resources on pets and treat them with child-like <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/national-dog-day-honoring-mans-best-friend/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">affection</a>. 



The Internet and social media also encourage this trend by highlighting stories and pictures of so-called pet parenting, which can reinforce the idea that dogs fit perfectly into a modern household.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-pets-children-and-health">Pets, children, and health</h2>



Many <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31323057/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">experts</a> worry that the intense focus on adorable dog breeds with round faces and short muzzles can lead to health problems. 



When a dog looks <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/lost-in-translation-how-we-misread-our-dogs-emotions/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">extremely childlike</a>, it may come with breathing issues or other complications linked to breeding. If owners favor an “infant look,” they might ignore the fact that these animals still require robust exercise and proper medical care.



Others point out that lavishing dogs with constant attention can create behavioral problems. It is easy to misread signs that a dog needs more personal space or is uneasy. 



Overprotective owners could even cause <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dogs-can-feel-our-emotions-through-our-heart-rate/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">stress for their pet</a>, especially if they hold it to human child standards.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-modern-family-dynamics-are-changing">Modern family dynamics are changing</h2>



For some, dogs may serve as “pre-children,” fitting in before a couple welcomes a human baby. Later, that same dog might be a sibling figure once an infant arrives. 



In other cases, a dog might stand in for a child permanently, offering a sense of purpose and affection. Each setup reflects personal choices, finances, and local customs, and it reveals how family can expand to include pets in new ways.



Though dogs do not replace children, they can ease the universal desire to nurture and connect. As modern life changes, it will be interesting to see how these bonds evolve and whether dog parenting continues to reshape what we think of as family.



The study is published in <a href="https://econtent.hogrefe.com/doi/10.1027/1016-9040/a000552" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">European Psychologist</a>.



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More couples are calling their pets 'kids,' redefining the concepts of family and parenting

Births are steadily dropping in many parts of the world,...

When you dive into cloudy water, vision often fails. You might only see a few centimeters ahead. But harbor seals (Phoca vitulina) don’t struggle. These animals glide confidently through turbid seas. They use many senses, including touch via their whiskers. Yet scientists asked: Can seals also rely on sight?



“We wanted to know whether harbor seals can determine their heading from optic flow fields,” said Frederike Hanke from the <a href="https://www.uni-rostock.de/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Rostock</a> in Germany. 



Optic flow is the pattern created on the retina as <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seal-pregnancies-reveal-clues-for-treating-birth-complications/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">animals</a> pass objects or particles. Hanke and her team decided to test this idea in a unique way - through gaming.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-testing-the-visual-flow-of-harbor-seals">Testing the visual flow of harbor seals</h2>



The researchers designed three virtual scenes. One scene showed dots mimicking particles in open water. Another simulation showed a seabed moving below, while the third showed surface movement above. 



The scenes replicated the visual flow a swimming <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/harbor-seals-rely-on-icebergs-for-daily-life-but-their-environment-is-changing/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">seal</a> would experience. Three harbor seals - Nick, Luca, and Miro - viewed the simulations. 



The seals were trained to identify direction (left or right) by tapping a red ball near their heads. Sprats were given as rewards. "Miro is a very open-minded seal, so coped with all new situations easily,” noted Hanke.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-harbor-seals-use-visual-flow-to-navigate">Harbor seals use visual flow to navigate</h2>



In this experiment, the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/weddell-seals-have-a-surprising-survival-strategy/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">seals</a> were shown visual simulations where the motion of dots indicated that they were "swimming" slightly to the left or right. These directional shifts, called&nbsp;heading angles, ranged from just 2 degrees to as much as 22 degrees away from the center of the screen.



The goal was to see if the seals could recognize and report whether they appeared to be moving left or right based only on how the dots flowed across the screen.



Importantly, the researchers avoided giving the animals any obvious markers to use - no crosses, no fixed lines, no cues anchored to the screen. In earlier experiments, seals used such reference points to judge direction. But the ocean doesn’t usually provide these kinds of steady visual anchors.



Objects in water move, scatter light, or disappear. So this experiment focused on pure optic flow - the natural visual motion created by swimming through a field of floating particles.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-seals-detect-angle-changes">Seals detect angle changes </h2>



The seals' performance was measured using&nbsp;heading accuracy thresholds&nbsp;(HATs). A lower threshold means better sensitivity: the seal could correctly identify its heading even with only a small angle of deviation. The results were striking.



When the simulation mimicked movement through a general cloud of particles (volume optic flow), the average HAT across the three seals was 4.61 degrees, with very little variation. 



When the dots simulated movement above the seabed (surface optic flow), the average HAT was 4.96 degrees. And when the flow came from above, imitating the water's surface moving past, the seals performed best of all, with an average HAT of 3.58 degrees.



The results demonstrate that harbor <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/elephant-seals-have-genetic-scars-from-intense-hunting/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">seals</a> can rely on very subtle visual shifts in their environment to understand which direction they are heading.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-impressively-accurate-navigation-skills">Impressively accurate navigation skills</h2>



Even without clear landmarks or bright light, the seals’ eyes and brains are tuned to detect flow patterns with impressive accuracy - enough to support real-world navigation in cloudy coastal waters.



Three human participants also took part. They had HATs around 1° for all optic flow types. While humans outperformed seals slightly, the seals’ performance still showed strong optic flow perception skills.



Interestingly, experience made a difference. Luca, an experienced seal, learned the task faster than Miro, who was new to experiments. 



But in the end, all three performed equally well. This shows that, regardless of training history, harbor seals can learn and apply visual strategies to navigate. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-learning-how-harbor-seals-navigate">Learning how harbor seals navigate </h2>



Harbor <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/elephant-seals-use-sonar-signals-to-dine-deep-underwater/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">seals</a> rarely find themselves in total darkness. They stay near shore and have sensitive eyes. 



Even dim light allows the seals to detect enough contrast to see optic flow. This ability helps with not just heading but also speed control, obstacle avoidance, and possibly distance estimation.



The optic flow fills a large portion of their field of vision, especially beneath or within the water. That could explain why their accuracy was slightly better in those conditions compared to above-water flow. Still, they performed well in all scenarios.



Future studies aim to test whether seals can use optic flow to judge how far they’ve traveled. If so, it would suggest these animals perform complex navigational tasks using vision alone.



Movement itself changes how animals sense the world. This study reminds us that studying stationary animals tells only part of the story. For seals, motion is not just travel - it is also perception.



The study is published in the <a href="https://journals.biologists.com/jeb/article/228/10/jeb250168/368089/Optic-flow-a-rich-source-of-optic-information-for" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal of Experimental Biology</a>. 



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Harbor seals rely on visual cues to navigate cloudy waters

When you dive into cloudy water, vision often fails. You...

Bed bugs and humans go way back - possibly further than most people would care to know. Around 60,000 years ago, a few adventurous bed bugs decided to latch onto <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/humans-and-neanderthals-species-face-structure-evolved-differently/" rel="nofollow">Neanderthals</a> who were emerging from caves. That moment marked the beginning of a long and successful ride alongside humans.



Meanwhile, their less curious relatives stayed behind with the bats. Those bat-associated bed bug populations didn’t fare as well. 



Since the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ice-age-data-analysis-reshapes-climate-future-lowers-warming-estimates/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Last Glacial Maximum</a>, roughly 20,000 years ago, their numbers have been decreasing. In contrast, the human-loving bed bugs have only flourished.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-understanding-bed-bugs-the-basics">Understanding bed bugs - the basics</h2>



Bed bugs are tiny, flat insects that feed on human blood, usually while people sleep. They’re reddish-brown, about the size of an apple seed, and incredibly sneaky. 



They don’t jump or fly, but they crawl quickly and hide in cracks, mattress seams, or even behind picture frames. 



Most people first notice them because of itchy bites or small rust-colored stains on sheets - left behind after the bugs feed.



These pests spread easily by hitching rides on luggage, clothes, or used furniture. Once they’re in your home, they’re tough to get rid of without persistent effort or professional help. They reproduce fast, and a single female can lay hundreds of eggs in her lifetime. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-genetics-bed-bugs-and-humans">Genetics, bed bugs, and humans</h2>



Researchers from <a href="https://www.vt.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Virginia Tech</a> recently took a closer look at this curious split. They compared the full genomes of two genetically distinct bed bug lineages - those that feed on bats and those that feed on people.



The findings show that the bugs associated with humans have a demographic history that closely mirrors our own. This might make them the world’s first true urban <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/pests-are-moving-to-cooler-regions-due-to-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">pests</a>.



“We wanted to look at changes in effective population size, which is the number of breeding individuals that are contributing to the next generation, because that can tell you what’s been happening in their past,” said Lindsay Miles, a postdoctoral fellow in the Department of Entomology.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-human-society-and-bed-bug-populations">Human society and bed bug populations</h2>



The research adds to our understanding of how pest populations might respond as human cities grow. By linking the global expansion of humans with the rise of urban pests like bed bugs, the study could help pinpoint traits that evolved in parallel with urban development.



The data includes a stairway graph showing that bed bug population growth mirrors the spread of humans across the globe. 



“Initially with both populations, we saw a general decline that is consistent with the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/humans-were-in-north-america-during-last-glacial-maximum/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Last Glacial Maximum</a>; the bat-associated lineage never bounced back, and it is still decreasing in size,” said Miles, who is also affiliated with the <a href="https://fralinlifesci.vt.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Fralin Life Sciences Institute</a>.



“The really exciting part is that the human-associated lineage did recover and their effective population increased."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-environments-where-bed-bugs-thrive">Environments where bed bugs thrive</h2>



The recovery of the human-linked group appears to line up with the early days of large <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ancient-bridge-found-inside-genovesa-cave-spain-changes-human-migration-timeline/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">human settlements</a>. 



Around 12,000 years ago, cities like Mesopotamia began to form. Humans were clustering together, creating environments where bed bugs could thrive.



“That makes sense because modern humans moved out of caves about 60,000 years ago,” said Professor Warren Booth. 



“There were bed bugs living in the caves with these humans, and when they moved out they took a subset of the population with them so there’s less genetic diversity in that human-associated lineage.”



As our communities grew, so did the bed bugs' breeding pool. Their population expanded along with ours.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-two-lineages-still-one-species">Two lineages, still one species</h2>



Using genome data, the researchers have created a base for future studies of this 245,000-year-old lineage split. 



Although the two lineages are genetically different, they haven’t evolved into two separate species. That makes the human-associated lineage a compelling case for studying recent evolutionary changes.



“What will be interesting is to look at what’s happening in the last 100 to 120 years,” said Booth. “Bed bugs were pretty common in the old world, but once <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/exposure-to-ddt-alters-sperm-putting-children-at-risk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">DDT</a> [dichloro-diphenyl-trichloroethane] was introduced for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/natural-pest-control-the-hidden-power-of-aloe-vera-peels/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">pest control</a>, populations crashed."



Although bed bugs were thought to have been eradicated at this stage, they reappeared within five years - and they had become resistant to the pesticide. 



Booth, Miles, and graduate student Camille Block previously identified a gene mutation that might explain this resistance. 



Their current research continues to explore how bed bugs evolve at the genetic level, especially when it comes to surviving chemical treatments.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-science-support-and-the-long-view">Science, support, and the long view</h2>



The project also reflects the benefits of giving researchers the time and support to follow interesting scientific questions, wherever they lead.



“It’s a great resource to have,” said Booth. “We are using it for work investigating the evolution of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/insecticides-may-be-helping-weeds-thrive/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">insecticide</a> resistance and species spread using museum specimens collected from 120 years ago to our present-day samples. I’m very lucky to have that freedom to explore.”



From cave walls to skyscrapers, bed bugs have stayed close to humanity through every major chapter in our story. And thanks to research like this, we’re finally starting to understand just how close that connection really is.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rsbl.2025.0061" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Biology Letters</a>.



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Bed bugs hitched a ride on Neanderthals and became the first human pest

Bed bugs and humans go way back - possibly further...

Wildfires are no longer rare. They’re bigger, more frequent, and far more destructive - especially in the Western United States.



But the flames themselves aren’t the only danger. The smoke they leave behind is also devastating. It fills the skies and slips into our lungs.



Scientists have been working to understand how these smoky days are changing the air we breathe, affecting our health, and even influencing the weather.



A new study from scientists at the <a href="https://www.dri.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Desert Research Institute</a> (DRI) in Nevada takes a closer look at what’s in wildfire smoke and how it impacts people and the environment. 



The research was recently published after a detailed 19-month investigation of air quality in Reno, Nevada, spanning both clear and smoky days between 2017 and 2020.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-reno-s-air-under-the-microscope">Reno's air under the microscope</h2>



Over the course of the study, Reno was affected by <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/wildfire-smoke-is-an-underestimated-threat-to-public-health/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">smoke</a> from more than 100 wildfires. 



The researchers found that on smoky days, there was a major increase in carbon monoxide and fine <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/aerosols-have-an-underestimated-effect-on-clouds-and-climate/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">aerosols</a> - known as PM2.5. These particles and gases don’t just float in the air. They’re small enough to travel deep into our lungs and affect how we breathe.



“We know that Reno is frequently impacted by wildfires in summer, so we wanted to compare smoky and non-smoky days and measure the impacts on local air quality,” said Kristine Lu, who completed the research as part of her Ph.D. work. 



“Although we focused on Reno for this study, we developed the method so that it can theoretically be applied anywhere."



To capture the data, the team set up equipment on the rooftop of DRI’s Reno campus. These instruments measured the size of airborne particles.



That size matters - not just for visibility, but for how the particles affect the body. Larger particles tend to irritate the nose and throat, while fine aerosols go deeper and reach the lungs.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-high-tech-tools-behind-wildfire-tracking">High-tech tools behind wildfire tracking</h2>



In addition to the rooftop setup, the team used an EPA monitoring station in downtown Reno that provided hourly updates on levels of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/specific-air-pollutants-linked-to-asthma-attacks-in-urban-children/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">air pollutants</a> such as PM2.5, ozone, and carbon monoxide. 



The station also measured potassium, a key marker released when trees and wood burn, which makes it a useful fingerprint for wildfire smoke.



The researchers confirmed the presence of smoke with satellite images and fire location data from NASA and NOAA. 



Using a NOAA wind-tracking tool, they were even able to trace the winds backward to see if they had passed through a fire zone before reaching Reno.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-wildfire-smoke-and-the-weather-puzzle">Wildfire smoke and the weather puzzle</h2>



What’s in the smoke also matters for weather. Some aerosols reflect sunlight and cool the atmosphere. Others, like soot, absorb heat and contribute to warming. 



The size of the particles also plays a role in cloud behavior. Larger particles help water vapor condense, forming clouds. On smoky days, Reno’s air had as much as 13 times more cloud-forming particles than usual.



“We figured out that the size of particles is quite distinct during fires from a normal day in Reno, which has implications for cloud formation and how sunlight scatters, as well as public health,” said Dr. Andrei Khlystov, research professor of chemistry at DRI.



Carbon monoxide was also found in higher amounts during wildfire events. This gas can interfere with how oxygen moves through the bloodstream, making it harder for the body to get the oxygen it needs - especially to the brain and other vital organs.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-not-all-pollutants-spike-with-smoke">Not all pollutants spike with smoke</h2>



Interestingly, the study showed that nitrogen oxides and ozone levels didn’t change much between smoky and non-smoky days. This is likely because these pollutants are also caused by everyday <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/reduced-vehicle-emissions-have-saved-thousands-of-lives/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">vehicle emissions</a> and interactions with sunlight, not just by wildfires.



“Our research offers one of the most comprehensive looks at how wildfire smoke is affecting <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-driven-wildfires-worsen-u-s-air-quality-and-health/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">air quality</a> in the Western U.S.,” Lu said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-smarter-tools-for-cleaner-air">Smarter tools for cleaner air</h2>



Lu is now developing a machine-learning tool that can detect wildfire smoke in real-time. The hope is to create an app that can automatically identify when smoke is in the air and provide up-to-date health alerts. 



This could help improve how we study air quality and how we communicate with the public when the air becomes unsafe.



As wildfires continue to reshape the landscape, studies like this show how the smoke is changing more than just the view - it’s changing our health and our skies in ways we’re only just beginning to understand.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.rsc.org/en/content/articlelanding/2025/ea/d5ea00007f" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Environmental Science Atmospheres</a>.



Photo credit: Trevor Bexton



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Wildfires are changing the quality of our air

Wildfires are no longer rare. They’re bigger, more frequent, and...

Kelp forests, once a towering and life-filled part of many temperate coastlines, are vanishing fast. In their place, low-growing mats of turf algae are taking over. 



This shift isn't just cosmetic. It’s causing steep losses in biodiversity, disrupting how energy and nutrients flow through reefs, and changing the chemistry of coastal waters in ways scientists are just beginning to understand.



Researchers from Bigelow Laboratory for Ocean Sciences in Maine and the <a href="https://www.ucr.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of California, Riverside</a> have now uncovered a surprising reason why kelp forests struggle to bounce back. 



The study shows that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-stress-causes-undetected-changes-in-marine-ecosystems/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">turf algae</a> aren't just crowding out kelp - they’re also releasing chemicals that can kill young kelp sporelings before they have a chance to grow.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-kelp-forests-aren-t-bouncing-back">Why kelp forests aren’t bouncing back</h2>



“That’s why this study is so powerful,” said Doug Rasher, Bigelow Laboratory senior research scientist and the study’s senior author. 



“It moves logically from describing a pattern in nature - the lack of recovery of kelp forests - to revealing that the chemical landscapes of kelp forests and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bleached-coral-reefs-recover-quickly-in-the-absence-of-human-influences/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">turf</a> reefs are fundamentally different, and to demonstrating that turf algae and the chemicals they exude prevent kelp recruitment.”



For years, scientists have documented the transition from kelp to turf in many temperate <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/overfishing-and-habitat-degradation-have-devastated-marine-ecosystems/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">marine ecosystems</a>. But understanding what prevents kelp from returning has remained elusive.



“This shift from kelp to turf is analogous to a terrestrial forest transitioning into a grassland,” explained Shane Farrell, a UMaine doctoral student based in Rasher’s research group. “With the loss of kelp forests, we see decreases in biodiversity, productivity, and the ecosystem services they provide to humans.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tracking-chemical-clues-in-the-ocean">Tracking chemical clues in the ocean</h2>



Earlier studies pointed out that turf algae crowd out space and often shelter small grazers that nibble on baby kelp. 



But in tropical rainforests and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/coral-reefs-could-vanish-if-temperatures-continue-to-rise/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">coral reefs</a>, chemical signals in the environment have also been shown to lock ecosystems in degraded states. No one had tested if something similar might be happening in cold-water kelp forests.



To explore this, the researchers surveyed sites across the Gulf of Maine for three years. In southern Maine, where kelp forests had collapsed, new kelp was struggling to survive. The researchers gathered seaweed and water samples for chemical analysis.



Instead of targeting known compounds, the team worked with biochemistry experts to use a technique called non-targeted metabolomics. This method looks at every small molecule in a sample - even ones that have never been catalogued - to capture the full chemical picture of a site.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-surprising-chemistry-of-turf-takeover">Surprising chemistry of turf takeover</h2>



Waterborne chemicals were isolated and analyzed by breaking them into fragments and matching them to reference libraries. But that revealed only a fraction of the story. 



According to Farrell, over 98% of the chemical signals had never been described before. So the team used computational tools to predict what those molecules might be, grouping them into chemical families.



“It is awesome to see how our non-targeted metabolomics tools can shed new light on the fascinating chemical complexity caused by shifting environments, such as invasive algae,” said Daniel Petras, assistant professor of biochemistry at UC Riverside. 



“This becomes especially powerful when we combine our chemical data with functional information, such as kelp survival.”



The result? Kelp forests and turf reefs had completely different chemical fingerprints. And the chemicals found around turf algae looked suspiciously toxic to baby kelp.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-kelp-forests-cannot-survive-turf-toxins">Kelp forests cannot survive turf toxins </h2>



To test this, researchers ran a series of lab experiments. They exposed kelp gametophytes - the early life stage of kelp - to two things: water from turf-dominated reefs, and chemicals isolated from the five most common turf algae species.



The outcome was dramatic. In some cases, the survival of the young kelp dropped by 500%. The chemicals being released by turf algae weren’t just unhelpful - they were deadly.



“Our study is the first to reveal that chemical warfare can underpin the rebound potential of cold-water kelp forests. And surprisingly, some of the same types of molecules we identified on turf reefs are involved in the recovery dynamics of tropical coral reefs too,” Rasher said. 



“It shows we have a lot to learn about chemical warfare on temperate reefs, the organisms and molecules involved, and how this process varies globally.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-reversing-ocean-warming-is-not-enough">Reversing ocean warming is not enough </h2>



The Rasher group’s earlier work showed that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/warming-oceans-intensify-viruses-that-kill-coral-reefs/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">warming oceans</a> were the main driver of kelp forest collapse in the Gulf of Maine. But this new study explains why reversing warming alone won’t be enough to bring kelp back.



“Once turf algae are established, just curbing global carbon emissions and reversing ocean warming is not going to bring Maine’s kelp forests back,” Farrell said. “Because of these feedback mechanisms, we need local interventions to remove the turf algae before kelp will actually recover.”



In other words, it’s not just about temperature anymore. To restore kelp forests, we’ll need to tackle the chemical battles happening underwater - battles that are invisible, but no less real.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.adt6788" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Science</a>.



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Kelp forests in crisis: How toxic turf algae are taking over

Kelp forests, once a towering and life-filled part of many...

Astrocytes are the brain’s star-shaped support cells, and they might be doing more than just backing up neurons.



While we usually credit neurons for storing memories and processing thoughts, astrocytes are just as abundant and far more involved than was once believed.



The human brain contains about 86 billion neurons, each firing electrical signals that help us think, feel, and remember. But alongside them, astrocytes quietly handle cleanup, deliver nutrients, and manage blood flow.



For a long time, these cells were seen as background players. Now, scientists are starting to see them in a new light. 



A recent study from the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (<a href="https://www.mit.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">MIT</a>) suggests astrocytes could play a central role in how the brain stores memories, potentially changing how we understand this process.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-astrocytes-have-unique-signals">Astrocytes have unique signals</h2>



Unlike <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/first-complete-map-of-every-neuron-in-the-brain-revealed/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">neurons</a>, astrocytes don’t generate electrical impulses. Instead, they use calcium signals to communicate. 



These signals travel through thin extensions, called processes, that can wrap around the junctions where neurons connect - known as synapses. This forms what's called a "tripartite synapse" involving a presynaptic neuron, a postsynaptic neuron, and the astrocyte process.



For years, the exact role astrocytes played in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/memory-isnt-only-stored-in-our-brains-other-cells-can-remember-too/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">memory</a> remained a mystery. But new imaging technology has revealed that calcium signaling allows astrocytes to sync their activity with neurons. 



This means they don’t just observe what’s happening - they’re actively participating by releasing chemical messengers called gliotransmitters, which affect synaptic function.



“There’s a closed circle between neuron signaling and astrocyte-to-neuron signaling,” said Leo Kozachkov, the paper's lead author. 



“The thing that is unknown is precisely what kind of computations the astrocytes can do with the information that they’re sensing from neurons.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-new-kind-of-memory-model">New kind of memory model</h2>



Inspired by this feedback loop, MIT researchers built a model to test what astrocytes might be doing with the information they receive. They based their approach on a type of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/artificial-neural-networks-learn-better-when-they-sleep/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">artificial neural network</a> called a Hopfield network. 



While useful in theory, Hopfield networks don’t have enough storage capacity to explain how the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/every-part-of-the-brain-works-together-to-support-intelligence/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">brain</a> actually works. A newer version called dense associative memory boosts this capacity by linking more than two neurons at a time.



But there’s a catch - in real life, synapses usually only connect two neurons. That’s where astrocytes come in.



“If you have a network of neurons, which couple in pairs, there’s only a very small amount of information that you can encode in those networks,” explained Dmitry Krotov, a research staff member at the MIT-IBM <a href="https://mitibmwatsonailab.mit.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Watson AI Lab</a> and IBM Research.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-coupling-neurons-with-astrocytes">Coupling neurons with astrocytes</h2>



According to Krotov, in order to build dense associative memories, you need to couple more than two neurons. 



Because a single astrocyte can connect to many neurons, and many synapses, it is tempting to hypothesize that there might exist an information transfer between synapses mediated by this biological cell.



"That was the biggest inspiration for us to look into astrocytes and led us to start thinking about how to build dense associative memories in biology,” Krotov continued.



The result? A hybrid model that treats astrocytes as computing units in their own right. 



Each process of an astrocyte is considered a unit capable of interacting with many synapses. Together, they help form a system that can store far more information than traditional neuron-only models.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-small-cells-big-storage">Small cells, big storage</h2>



One unique feature of this model is how it views astrocytes. Instead of seeing them as a single cell, it breaks them down into many processes - each one acting like its own little calculator. 



This division helps explain how the brain might pack in so much memory with relatively low energy use.



“By careful coordination of these two things - the spatial temporal pattern of calcium in the cell and then the signaling back to the neurons - you can get exactly the dynamics you need for this massively increased memory capacity,” Kozachkov explained.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-astrocytes-reach-far-and-wide">Astrocytes reach far and wide</h2>



Supporting this theory is the physical layout of astrocytes. Each one touches hundreds of thousands of synapses. 



The researchers believe that patterns in calcium flow within astrocytes could encode memories. These patterns could then influence neurons by releasing gliotransmitters at key synapses.



“By conceptualizing tripartite synaptic domains - where astrocytes interact dynamically with pre- and postsynaptic neurons - as the brain’s fundamental computational units, the authors argue that each unit can store as many memory patterns as there are neurons in the network," said Professor Maurizio De Pitta from the <a href="https://www.uhnresearch.ca/institutes/krembil" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Krembil Research Institute</a>, <a href="https://www.utoronto.ca/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Toronto</a>, who was not involved in the study.



"This leads to the striking implication that, in principle, a neuron-astrocyte network could store an arbitrarily large number of patterns, limited only by its size,” he added.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-so-are-astrocytes-the-key">So, are astrocytes the key?</h2>



To find out if this model reflects reality, researchers hope to test it by manipulating the connections between astrocyte processes and observing the impact on memory.



“We hope that one of the consequences of this work could be that experimentalists would consider this idea seriously and perform some experiments testing this hypothesis,” Krotov said.



This theory also holds promise beyond neuroscience. It could change how <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/can-ai-systems-learn-like-the-human-brain/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">artificial intelligence systems</a> are designed. By mimicking how astrocytes link various neurons together, future AI models might unlock more efficient memory storage.



“While neuroscience initially inspired key ideas in AI, the last 50 years of neuroscience research have had little influence on the field, and many modern AI algorithms have drifted away from neural analogies,” remarked Slotine. 



“In this sense, this work may be one of the first contributions to AI informed by recent neuroscience research.”



The quiet stars of the brain may hold more memory power than anyone imagined. With a better understanding of astrocytes, both brain science and artificial intelligence could be in for a rethink.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.2417788122" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a>.



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Scientists think they've learned how the human brain is able to store so much information

Astrocytes are the brain’s star-shaped support cells, and they might...

For decades, scientists assumed that birds, with their ability to fly long distances and nest in a range of habitats, would cope better with a warmer climate than most other animals.



A new study from <a href="https://www.yale.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Yale University</a> upends that optimism, showing that even the continent’s feathered high-flyers cannot relocate quickly enough to escape rising temperatures.



The researchers examined 406 <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/hundreds-of-bird-species-face-extinction-risks-in-the-neotropics/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">bird species</a> across North America. Using 20 years of sightings from thousands of volunteer birdwatchers and matched to detailed local weather records, the team asked a simple question: Can birds move far enough and fast enough to keep living in their preferred climate? The short answer is no.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-warming-on-the-rise">Climate warming on the rise</h2>



During summer, many species did exactly what textbooks predict: they edged north or climbed to higher ground. On average, populations shifted between 40 and 50 miles toward cooler latitudes, trimming about 1.3°C from the heat they would otherwise have faced.



Yet the continent warmed even faster. In their newly adopted territories, birds still endured an average summer increase of roughly 1.35°C compared with the conditions in their original range two decades earlier.



Winter was worse. Although some species crept into chillier regions, those movements reduced the warming they experienced by only 11 percent. 



Over 20 years, typical winter temperatures in the places birds actually occupied rose by a staggering 3.7 °C. Relocation shaved off barely half a degree.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-some-birds-stay-behind">Some birds stay behind</h2>



Birds that clock up marathon <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/vanishing-forests-make-bird-migration-harder-across-the-corn-belt/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">migrations</a> coped best. The blue-winged <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bird-competition-how-warblers-share-trees-without-fighting/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">warbler</a>, an energetic insect-eater, shifted its breeding range more than 100 miles north, avoiding roughly two degrees of extra heat. Even success stories may falter as birds now face warmer climates than those at the start of the millennium.



At the other end of the scale are species essentially stuck in place. The cactus wren, tied to the thorny desert scrub of the American Southwest, barely budged. 



Constrained by specialized habitat needs and competition for new territories, these birds face the full brunt of desert warming without an obvious escape route.



About three-quarters of species moved north or upslope, but their progress was limited and inconsistent. Males, females, and juveniles did not respond in lockstep. Many populations overshot suitable habitat or encountered barriers like mountains, farmland, or suburbs.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-wings-can-t-match-warming">Wings can't match warming</h2>



Lead scientist Jeremy Cohen, an associate research scientist in Yale’s Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, noted that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/birds-adapt-their-survival-strategies-to-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">climate change</a> is moving the goalposts faster than wings can follow.



Temperature zones are marching poleward at an average of 20 to 50 miles per decade in North America - comparable to the distances the birds moved over the entire twenty-year study.



 To keep up, birds would need to shift the size of a small state every few decades. That pace is hampered by geography, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-soil-moisture-can-predict-severe-storms/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">storms</a>, and the biological reality that individuals usually return to the same breeding and wintering grounds year after year.



Another complication is that climate is only one piece of a bird’s ecological puzzle. Food supply, nesting trees, and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/some-birds-use-snake-skins-in-their-nests-to-deter-predators/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">predator</a> pressures all vary unpredictably across the landscape.



A route that looks thermally comfortable may be barren of insects or overrun by competing species. As a result, many birds tolerate hotter conditions rather than gamble on unknown habitat.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-about-species-that-are-less-mobile">What about species that are less mobile?</h2>



If birds - arguably the planet’s most mobile vertebrates - struggle to match climate velocity, prospects for ground-bound animals look bleak. Reptiles, amphibians, and small mammals cannot outrun rising heat and are often hemmed in by roads or urban sprawl.



“In a uniquely well-studied continental system, we find that even a highly mobile group, such as birds, is unable to relocate quickly enough to keep up with this velocity,” said senior author Walter Jetz, a professor of ecology and evolutionary biology at Yale. 



“This raises deep concerns about the ability of all the other, less mobile species and lesser known species to persist in a warmer world."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-preventing-an-extinction-crisis">Preventing an extinction crisis</h2>



A better understanding and management of the bird species most vulnerable to a warmer climate is needed to prevent a looming extinction crisis.



The study highlights a widening mismatch between the environmental conditions species evolved to handle and the realities they now encounter.



Over thousands of years, each bird developed a “climatic niche,” a sweet spot of temperature and rainfall. Human-driven warming is shifting those niches faster than evolutionary adaptation or migration can compensate.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-saving-birds-in-hot-times">Saving birds in hot times</h2>



The findings do not mean that every species is doomed, but they shift the conservation spotlight. Efforts that focus only on protecting traditional breeding grounds may fail if those areas become too hot.



Instead, wildlife managers may need to safeguard corridors of suitable habitat that allow gradual, multi-generational range shifts. <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/colorful-urban-environments-promote-well-being/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Urban planners</a> can also help by reducing glass collisions and creating green spaces that serve as stepping-stones.



Meanwhile, the most effective long-term solution remains slowing climate change itself. The faster global emissions are curtailed, the smaller the gap between where species are and where they need to be.



For bird lovers, the takeaway is bittersweet. Spring migrants will still return, but many will arrive earlier, seek shade more often, and raise their young in warmer nests than their ancestors ever knew. Their journey north is a race they are already losing - a stark reminder that flight alone cannot lift wildlife clear of a rapidly warming planet.



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Birds are struggling to keep pace with a warming climate

For decades, scientists assumed that birds, with their ability to...

Birds don’t just fly and sing. They also molt - the process of shedding and regrowing feathers - which is as vital to survival as migration and breeding.



From insulation to attraction during mating season, the quality and timing of feather replacement can make or break a bird’s chance of survival.



A new study from <a href="https://eccles.utah.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">the University of Utah</a> highlights just how sensitive this molting process has become to climate change. 



Researchers tracked changes in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-explore-why-and-where-birds-molt-their-feathers/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">molt</a> timing - known as molt phenology - using 13 years of detailed bird-banding records gathered at the university’s Bonderman Field Station at Rio Mesa in southeastern Utah.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-bird-feathers-tell-a-new-climate-story">Bird feathers tell a new climate story</h2>



Over 22,000 birds representing 134 species were monitored between 2011 and 2024. Mist nets, set up near sunrise and checked every 30 minutes, temporarily captured birds during their spring and fall <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bird-migration-is-influenced-by-social-relationships/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">migrations</a>. 



Each bird’s age, sex, species, feather and body condition, and molt stage were recorded before release. These seasonal captures formed the foundation for an important discovery.



“In the fall, we found that birds are shifting both their body and their flight feather molt earlier over time across the 13 years at a rate of about one day earlier per year,” said lead researcher Kyle Kittelberger.



That shift suggests a response to changing climate patterns, especially related to events like <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/el-nino-event-may-push-earth-towards-its-hottest-year-ever/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">El Niño</a>. These patterns are increasingly influencing the timing of birds’ migration and breeding, indirectly prompting earlier feather molts.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-bird-molting-matters">Why bird molting matters</h2>



“Molt is a really fundamental component of a bird's lifecycle. It's one of the main elements that a bird does, one of the main activities in addition to breeding and migrating,” said Kittelberger.



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/unique-molting-patterns-may-have-saved-birds-during-dinosaur-extinction/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Molting</a> replaces old, damaged feathers, ensuring better flight performance and even helping with mate attraction. 



“If you have poor feather quality that could impact, for example, your migration. You might not be able to fly as well. It could also in the spring impact your ability to attract a mate,” he added.



But molting isn’t something birds usually do while <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/oil-and-gas-infrastructure-harms-breeding-birds-in-alaska/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">breeding</a> or migrating. Those are energy-intensive periods, and feather regrowth is equally demanding. Doing both at once would stretch a bird’s resources dangerously thin.



“Birds don't want to be actively replacing feathers in their wings when they're migrating because they're going to be putting energy into replacing those feathers that will compete with the energy that they need for those long-distance flights,” said Kittelberger.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-not-all-seasons-are-equal">Not all seasons are equal</h2>



Interestingly, no overall shift was observed in spring molt across species. “We didn't see any shift at the community level for spring body molt," said Kittelberger.



"Some of the reasons for that might be birds tend to migrate much faster in the spring because it's more of a direct shot getting back to their breeding grounds so that they can start preparing for the breeding season, whereas in the fall, it's a slower and more meandering process." 



That slower fall pace might explain why birds now molt earlier. Other studies have also found that many <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/migratory-birds-have-new-strategy-to-cope-with-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">migratory birds</a> are breeding sooner, which could lead to earlier molting after the breeding season ends.



“A lot of molting occurs after breeding. That might be why we're seeing an earlier shift in time with molt in the fall, because they could be breeding earlier,” Kittelberger said. 



“But we're also seeing that some species are delaying their migration in the fall. So that could alternatively mean that they have an opportunity to molt more of their feathers earlier before a later migration.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-following-the-bird-s-full-journey">Following the bird's full journey</h2>



The study demonstrates the importance of long-term field stations in understanding how birds adapt - or struggle to adapt - to changing environmental cues. However, this research offers just a snapshot in a single location along the Dolores River.



“To really get a clearer picture of changes in molt, we need to go to their breeding or post-breeding grounds and assess birds there,” said Kittelberger. 



“That is the next element of this kind of research, to not only look at what's going on in the summer when they're beginning to molt but to see if that overlaps with anything like breeding.”



As the climate continues to shift, so too do the rhythms of bird life. Feather by feather, birds are adapting - but how long they can keep up remains a question worth watching.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.journals.uchicago.edu/doi/10.1086/735848" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">The American Naturalist</a>.



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Birds are molting earlier in the fall as global seasons continue shifting

Birds don’t just fly and sing. They also molt -...

Most moths and butterflies eat plants when they’re caterpillars. Well, almost all of them. Out of nearly 200,000 species, barely any eat meat. But scientists found one weird exception in Hawaii: caterpillars that live in spider webs, eating the bugs that get stuck - including the spider that built the web.



Even creepier? It builds a little shelter out of silk, and then decorates its tiny home with the dead body parts of the insects and spiders it kills. It’s like the caterpillar version of a haunted house.



This strange meat-eating caterpillar has been doing its thing for over six million years - longer than the current Hawaiian islands have even existed. 



But today, scientists have only found one species left, and it lives in a tiny patch of forest on one mountain in Oʻahu - nowhere else in the world.



According to <a href="https://www.ctahr.hawaii.edu/site/Bio.aspx?ID=RUBINDAN" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Daniel Rubinoff</a> from the <a href="https://manoa.hawaii.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Hawaii at Manoa</a>, these caterpillars now teeter on the brink of vanishing from their only known habitat.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-these-caterpillars-coexist-with-spiders">How these caterpillars coexist with spiders</h2>



Most similar species, nibble on leaves, stems, or fruit throughout their larval stage. 



By contrast, this rare Hawaiian caterpillar lives in spider webs because it's a predator, placing it among the fewer than 0.13% of carnivorous caterpillars, based on the recent study.



It constructs a mobile case using silk and reinforces it with exoskeleton bits from dead insects. This camouflage seems to disguise its presence from predators while it moves around the forest.



Researchers refer to this creature as a “bone collector” because of how it gathers insect segments. The idea of a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/caterpillar-noses-can-lead-to-safer-ways-to-protect-crops/">caterpillar</a> wearing bug remains may seem outlandish, but it helps it persist in a competitive environment.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-life-as-a-tiny-camouflaged-predator">Life as a tiny, camouflaged predator</h2>



Rather than weaving its own traps, this caterpillar takes advantage of spider webs filled with unwary insects. It can consume portions of the spiders’ leftovers while hiding behind its camouflage.



“It’s like they’re literally living in the lion’s den,” said Rubinoff. Staying concealed is crucial when you share space with an <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rethinking-arachnid-evolution-the-surprising-history-of-spiders/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">arachnid</a>, especially one that could turn you into a meal if it notices you. 



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/05/bone-collecting-caterpillar_spiders-web_camouflage_credit-UHawaii_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/05/bone-collecting-caterpillar_spiders-web_camouflage_credit-UHawaii_1s.webp" alt="A bone collector caterpillar living undisrupted in a spider’s web. © Rubinoff lab, Entomology Section, University of Hawaii, Manoa" class="wp-image-1971577"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">A bone collector caterpillar living undisrupted in a spider’s web. Click image to enlarge. Credit: Rubinoff lab, Entomology Section, University of Hawaii, Manoa</figcaption></figure>



Scientists have observed that these larvae remain safe even in webs owned by introduced spider species. This knack for blending in may allow them to exploit a range of web-building hosts.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-carnivorous-caterpillars-eating-spiders">Carnivorous caterpillars eating spiders</h2>



This Hawaiian species is not alone in swapping a plant-based diet for meat. Some inchworms in the genus <a href="https://www.schweizerbart.de/papers/entomologia/detail/8/98429/Biogeography_of_the_Moth_Genus_Eupithecia_in_Oceania_and_the_Evolution_of_Ambush_Predation_in_Hawaiian_Caterpillars_Lepidoptera_Geometridae" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eupithecia</a> are known to capture insects using a sit-and-wait tactic.



Such adaptations hint that carnivory can evolve multiple times in isolated environments. Hawaii, with its remote location and diverse microclimates, is famous for producing surprising insect behaviors.



Biologists note that these unusual diets often emerge when typical plant food is limited or competition is intense. Each instance of carnivory underscores the versatility of caterpillars in responding to selective pressures.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-one-of-a-kind-and-already-endangered">One-of-a kind and already endangered</h2>



Large swaths of Hawaii’s native forests have been replaced by non-native plants and feral animals. 



The <a href="https://dlnr.hawaii.gov/hisc/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Hawaii Invasive Species Council</a> reports that these intruders can disrupt local ecosystems and push delicate species toward extinction.



This caterpillar occupies a fraction of its former territory in the <a href="https://www.tripadvisor.com/Attraction_Review-g60661-d261541-Reviews-Waianae_Mountain_Range-Waianae_Oahu_Hawaii.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Waiʻanae Mountains</a> on Oʻahu. Relentless habitat change and invasive predators leave little room for its specialized lifestyle.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/05/bone-collecting-caterpillar_insect-parts_examples_credit-UHawaii_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/05/bone-collecting-caterpillar_insect-parts_examples_credit-UHawaii_1s.webp" alt="Several cases of the bone collector caterpillar, adorned in insect parts. © Rubinoff lab, Entomology Section, University of Hawaii, Manoa" class="wp-image-1971575"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Several cases of the bone collector caterpillar, adorned in insect parts. Click image to enlarge. Credit: Rubinoff lab, Entomology Section, University of Hawaii, Manoa</figcaption></figure>



Researchers worry that a single damaging event, such as a severe storm or a sudden surge in invasive pests, could wipe out the entire population. Hawaii has already lost many endemic insects to habitat destruction.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-isolation-drives-strange-evolution">Why isolation drives strange evolution</h2>



Islands like Hawaii are natural laboratories for unusual life forms. Their isolation allows species to branch off from their ancestors and evolve in weird, specific ways.



With few predators and limited competition, even insects can carve out bizarre niches. These bone collector caterpillars, and their strange relationship with spiders, show how far evolution can stretch when a species gets the time and space to experiment.



Just the idea that a caterpillar species could live side-by-side with a spider sounds completely farfetched, but then science is always full of surprises.



Experts see this <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/caterpillars-use-their-hair-to-detect-predators-static-electricity/">caterpillar</a> as a window into the island’s evolutionary past. Its genetic blueprint could reveal how an herbivorous lineage transforms into a predator over millions of years.



“This is the last sort of holdout for this entire lineage,” said Rubinoff. He and his team describe this insect as an astounding survivor of Hawaii’s tough conditions.&nbsp;



Many scientists hope that targeted conservation efforts will preserve it. Practical steps could include safeguarding remaining habitat and restricting further spread of invasive plants.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-of-bone-collecting-caterpillars">Future of bone-collecting caterpillars</h2>



“It doesn’t do what you’d expect simply because we have these expectations that aren’t always accurate,” said Rubinoff. The team voiced an interest in decoding how these caterpillars identify and process spiders and insect remains.



The researchers suggested that a specialized metabolic pathway might allow them to handle such a heavy protein intake. Further lab work could confirm whether this species has unique enzymes or supportive gut microbes.



By studying them closely, experts can gain insights into the evolutionary leaps that set these <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/baby-caterpillars-defend-their-territory-without-a-fight/">caterpillars</a> apart. If researchers secure enough support, future generations may still marvel at an insect that blurs the line between plant-eater and predator.



Small creatures can raise big questions about natural adaptation. The ongoing struggle for survival in Hawaii’s changing environment sets the stage for new scientific discoveries.



Without sustained attention, though, this caterpillar may slip into obscurity like so many island species before it. Conservation supporters warn that every lost native insect weakens Hawaii’s ecological tapestry.



Click here to <a href="https://spaces.hightail.com/receive/c2BXtmaqCF/fi-80020a9f-074e-447e-ba19-0656c22b6afd/fv-8f7fba77-03ce-499b-ad83-fd52c0055cd6/25069%20Bone%20Collector%20Caterpillar%201080p%20VNR%20v2.mov" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">watch a video about this bone-collecting caterpillar...</a>



The study is published in <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.ads4243" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Science</a>.



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Biologists discover "bone-collecting" caterpillar species that uses dead bugs as camouflage and lives with spiders

Most moths and butterflies eat plants when they’re caterpillars. Well,...

New research indicates that tropical cyclones pose serious threats to newborns in poorer countries. Scientists studied outcomes in low- and middle-income countries over nearly two decades and discovered that weaker storms also bring grim outcomes for the youngest among us.



The investigation was led by Zachary Wagner of the <a href="https://dornsife.usc.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">USC Dornsife College of Letters, Arts and Sciences</a>.



The team focused on multiple regions of the world that frequently experience these <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/storms-like-helene-release-toxic-chemicals-from-industrial-facilities/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">weather</a> disturbances, and drew on health data from thousands of mothers and infants.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-weaker-storms-still-disrupt-services">Weaker storms still disrupt services</h2>



Even lower-intensity cyclones can trigger torrential downpours and massive flooding, which disrupt essential services in a snap. 



<a href="https://www.nejm.org/doi/full/10.1056/NEJMsa1803972" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Hurricane Maria</a> in 2017 led to an estimated 4,645 additional deaths in Puerto Rico, so it’s no surprise that any tropical system can inflict major health <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-climate-change-is-impacting-infant-growth/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">setbacks</a>.



When roads are ruined or hospitals lose power, new mothers and their babies struggle to reach critical help. These disasters can also affect sanitation systems, leading to infection risks in communities that already have limited resources.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-infant-deaths-rose-despite-storm-strength">Infant deaths rose despite storm strength</h2>



“The fact that health care use and undernutrition were not affected by tropical cyclone <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/infant-speech-is-driven-by-heart-rate-activity/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">exposure</a> suggests that the mortality effects are driven by other factors that we could not directly study,” said Wagner. 



Infant mortality rose about 11% in the areas that were analyzed, even when storms stayed below hurricane strength. 



The investigators also saw no clear link between fewer <a href="https://www.nhs.uk/pregnancy/your-pregnancy-care/your-antenatal-care/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">antenatal care</a> visits or stunting and mortality in this context. These findings imply that lesser-known influences, such as disease surges or environmental contamination, may be responsible for these deaths.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-infants-face-highest-risk-in-first-year">Infants face highest risk in first year</h2>



The researchers found that the increased risk of death was most pronounced during a baby’s first year of life. While exposure during pregnancy did raise concerns, the data showed a sharper spike in mortality for those infants who lived through a tropical storm shortly after birth.



This pattern suggests that the critical months after delivery, when babies rely most heavily on caregivers and local <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/infant-brains-are-more-organized-and-adaptable-than-we-thought/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">healthcare</a>, are when disasters hit the hardest. Disruptions to clean water, electricity, and emergency services may be especially lethal for infants during this window.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hidden-hazards-for-infants-beyond-storms">Hidden hazards for infants beyond storms</h2>



Even when a storm passes quickly, the lingering effects can quietly endanger infant health. Floodwater can carry bacteria and chemicals into homes and drinking supplies, exposing infants to dangerous pathogens long after the skies clear.



Additionally, families may lose income or food access due to damaged crops and supply routes. These ripple effects (though harder to see) can lead to increased stress, poor sanitation, and reduced care, all of which can raise the risk of early death for vulnerable newborns.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-weaker-storms-are-still-harmful">Weaker storms are still harmful</h2>



Most media coverage focuses on <a href="https://www.nhc.noaa.gov/aboutsshws.php" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Category 4 and 5 cyclones</a>, but these account for only a small slice of storm exposure in poorer countries. The study revealed that even tropical storms, which fall below hurricane strength, had nearly the same impact on infant deaths as stronger systems.



This means communities may not receive aid or attention, simply because the storm didn’t reach a certain wind speed. But for families without power, clean water, or medical help, the effects can be just as deadly, especially for newborns.



The team looked at seven countries: Bangladesh, India, Cambodia, the Philippines, the Dominican Republic, Haiti, and Madagascar. Some places showed a bigger jump in infant deaths, while others appeared more resilient.



It’s unclear whether geography or preparedness made a difference. Factors like building quality, coastal infrastructure, or underlying health problems vary widely and may shape the impact of passing storms.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-protecting-infant-lives">Protecting infant lives</h2>



“But that doesn’t mean the impact of larger storms is absent. As the planet warms, we risk more tragedies across the globe if measures aren’t taken to protect children in the poorest countries,” said Zetianyu Wang, a Ph.D. student at RAND and lead author of the study.



Rising sea surface <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/ngeo779" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">temperatures</a> could lead to stronger cyclones, increasing risk where resources are scarce.



Some experts <a href="https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10461789/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">suggest</a> early warning systems and sturdy shelters can help residents ride out extreme weather. But this new evidence indicates that even weaker storms might require a serious boost in disaster response for babies.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-research-on-storm-related-infant-death">Research on storm-related infant death</h2>



Scientists plan to explore how these storms might be causing infant deaths, without clear ties to poor nutrition or limited prenatal care. 



Possible factors include undetected infections, toxic exposures from floodwater, and the mental strain on families in the chaos following a cyclone.



Broader solutions may involve community-level health checks, reinforced clinics, and improved sanitation strategies. If crucial services stay operational, newborns might have a better shot at survival when storms arrive.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/sciadv.adt9640" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Science Advances</a>.



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Even weak storms are deadly for infants in developing nations

New research indicates that tropical cyclones pose serious threats to...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2E0mn5mTvhQ
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">'Death Star' moon Mimas conceals a 15-million-year-old ocean that scientists never expected.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hidden-waters-beneath-ancient-craters">Hidden waters beneath ancient craters</h2>



Scientists have made a startling discovery that challenges everything we thought we knew about <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/saturn-moon-mimas-has-remarkably-young-ocean/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Saturn's moon Mimas</a>. Beneath the heavily cratered surface that earned it the nickname "Death Star" lies a global ocean that formed just 5 to 15 million years ago—a remarkably young age by cosmic standards.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cassini-data-reveals-orbital-secrets">Cassini data reveals orbital secrets</h2>



The discovery, led by Dr. Valéry Lainey of the <a href="https://observatoiredeparis.psl.eu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Observatoire de Paris</a>, emerged from careful analysis of <a href="https://www.nasa.gov" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NASA</a>'s Cassini spacecraft data. By studying subtle irregularities in Mimas's orbit around Saturn, researchers detected the gravitational signature of liquid water hidden 20 to 30 kilometers beneath the moon's icy shell.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-an-unlikely-ocean-world">An unlikely ocean world</h2>



At only 400 kilometers in diameter, Mimas seemed like the least likely candidate to harbor a subsurface ocean. Unlike other ocean moons such as Europa and Enceladus, which show clear surface signs of internal activity, Mimas displays no obvious hints of the liquid water beneath its ancient, crater-scarred exterior.



"Mimas is a small moon, and its heavily cratered surface gave no hint of the hidden ocean beneath," explained Dr. Nick Cooper from <a href="https://www.qmul.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Queen Mary University of London</a>, a study co-author.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-astrobiology">Implications for astrobiology</h2>



The ocean's recent formation makes Mimas a prime target for studying how oceans develop and potentially support life. This discovery adds another member to the exclusive club of ocean worlds in our solar system, each offering unique insights into the conditions necessary for habitability.



The research, published in <a href="https://www.nature.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature</a> journal, demonstrates how advanced orbital analysis can reveal hidden features of celestial bodies, opening new possibilities for understanding ocean formation throughout the cosmos.



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Scientists discover unexpected young ocean on Saturn's cratered moon Mimas

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2E0mn5mTvhQ 'Death Star' moon Mimas conceals a 15-million-year-old ocean that...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE
</div></figure>



On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop and sunlight barely penetrates through the polar winter. It was here, however, that an international team of scientists found <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/predatory-worms-were-terror-beasts-half-a-billion-years-ago/#google_vignette" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evidence of sea monsters</a> that would change our understanding of ocean life in the past.



This video captures the discovery of Timorebestia fossils that had been hidden for more than 500 million years in the Sirius Passet formation. The "terror beasts," as they are called, are a hidden chapter in the evolutionary history of <a href="https://www.earth.com" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Earth</a>, showing that sophisticated predator-prey interactions occurred much earlier than previously envisioned.



Dr. Jakob Vinther and his research team at the <a href="https://www.bristol.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Bristol</a>, in collaboration with researchers at the <a href="https://eng.kopri.re.kr/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Korean Polar Research Institute</a>, braved extreme weather conditions at 82.5 north latitude to locate these giant creatures. Using sophisticated electron microprobe analysis, they revealed the detailed anatomy of the animals, including their muscle and nerve tissues.



The find upsets the traditional timeline of sea predators. Although we've long appreciated that Cambrian oceans were at one time ruled by <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jWI3-UgA3_o&amp;list=PL1QLQMW9MWDwpkFOnvgAmu7wT6rZmYqdJ&amp;index=19" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">arthropods</a>, these discoveries indicate that relatives of arrow worms were first to dominate the seas. These worms were building sophisticated food webs several million years before other predator groups arose.



Each fossil is a story of ancient hunger, with fossil stomach contents revealing these meter-long beasts dined on heavily armored arthropods regularly, cementing their place as the ocean's first apex predators.



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Worms dominated seas before dinosaurs

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">New York is the site of the world's oldest forest.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-385-million-year-old-trees-discovered">385-million-year-old trees discovered</h2>



Scientists have uncovered something extraordinary just two hours north of New York City. The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/worlds-oldest-forest-discovered-close-to-new-york-city/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">world's oldest forest</a>, dating back 385 million years, offers a window into how Earth's first complex forests shaped our planet's atmosphere.



Located near <a href="https://townofcairo.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cairo, New York</a>, in Greene County, these weren't merely primitive plants struggling to survive. These were sophisticated trees with root systems remarkably similar to modern forests. This ancient woodland predates dinosaurs by 140 million years.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-cairo-forest-discovery">The Cairo forest discovery</h2>



385 million years ago, upstate New York was a tropical paradise near the equator. Thanks to continental drift, this ancient forest has traveled thousands of miles to its current location.



The fossil forest sits in an abandoned quarry, roughly half the size of a football field. This represents just a slice of what was likely a massive forest system stretching from New York into Pennsylvania.



Charles Ver Straeten, curator of sedimentary rocks at the <a href="https://www.nysm.nysed.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">New York State Museum</a>, made the discovery in 2009. While scouting the former highway department property, his trained eye spotted wandering patterns in the stone that looked like marine features.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-revolutionary-age-and-preservation">Revolutionary age and preservation</h2>



The site contains 385-million-year-old rocks with fossilized woody roots forming horizontal patterns up to 18 feet (5.5 meters) wide. As Christopher Berry, a paleobotanist at Cardiff University, explains: "You are walking through the roots of ancient trees."



This discovery pushes back advanced tree evolution by millions of years. The research, published in <a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/home" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Current Biology</a> in December 2019, fundamentally changes our understanding of when complex forests first emerged.



Researchers believe a massive flood buried the forest floor, creating perfect fossilization conditions. Over millions of years, sediment hardened into rock, preserving these root patterns like nature's time capsule.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-meet-archaeopteris-the-first-modern-tree">Meet Archaeopteris: the first modern tree</h2>



The star of this ancient forest is Archaeopteris – not to be confused with the feathered dinosaur Archaeopteryx. This tree was far older and more revolutionary.



William Stein from <a href="https://www.binghamton.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Binghamton University</a> describes the roots as "strikingly modern, essentially what you'd see outside in my yard right now." These weren't simple root systems you'd expect from ancient plants.



Some fossilized roots are six inches (15 centimeters) in diameter, forming 36-foot-wide (11-meter) patterns. These giants grew up to 65 feet (20 meters) tall with five-foot-diameter (1.5-meter) trunks.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-changing-impact">Climate-changing impact</h2>



These trees fundamentally changed Earth's environment. Kevin Boyce, a Stanford University geoscientist, explains how their deep roots triggered "weathering," chemical reactions that pulled carbon dioxide from the atmosphere.



This process dropped atmospheric CO2 levels from 10-15 times higher than today to roughly modern concentrations. These ancient trees helped create atmospheric conditions that made complex life possible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ancient-forest-ecosystem">Ancient forest ecosystem</h2>



The forest was remarkably diverse. Scientists identified Eospermatopteris, palm tree-like plants with short roots that reached 30 feet (9 meters) tall but lacked woody structure. The forest also housed cladoxylopsids and a mysterious third species still being studied.



All reproduced through spores rather than seeds – millions of years before seeds evolved. This tropical environment had no grass, flowers, or flying insects, just towering trees creating Earth's first complex forest canopy.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-scientific-significance">Scientific significance</h2>



Before this finding, the Gilboa forest, located 25 miles (40 kilometers) away, held the "oldest forest" title. Cairo's trees are 2-3 million years older, showing that complex forest ecosystems developed much faster than scientists believed possible.



Patricia Gensel, a <a href="https://www.unc.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of North Carolina</a> paleobotanist, notes: "The size of those root systems is really changing the picture. Even 20 years ago, researchers assumed trees with such complex root systems didn't evolve so early."



The Cairo site presents three unique root systems, suggesting Devonian period forests were diverse ecosystems with different trees occupying different environmental niches, much like today's forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-modern-preservation-efforts">Modern preservation efforts</h2>



In 2022, New York State Senator Michelle Hinchey secured a $170,000 grant for the town of Cairo to construct specialized fencing around the fossil forest site. The town plans to conduct a feasibility study exploring the possibility of creating an educational center and working lab on-site.



Joe Hasenkopf, chair of the Cairo Planning Board, hopes to partner with educational institutions to create a research facility serving scientists, students, and the public.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lessons-for-today-s-climate">Lessons for today's climate</h2>



Why does a 385-million-year-old forest matter today? It shows how dramatically forests can change Earth's climate. These ancient woodlands created the atmospheric conditions supporting complex life.



Understanding how prehistoric forests transformed the planet helps us appreciate modern forests' critical role in addressing climate change. Forests remain Earth's most effective carbon capture systems.



These prehistoric trees changed Earth's atmosphere by pulling massive amounts of carbon dioxide from the air. As we face modern climate challenges, this ancient forest reminds us of trees' incredible power to transform our planet's environment.



The next time you walk through a forest, remember you're experiencing an ecosystem whose blueprint was established 385 million years ago in upstate New York. These ancient pioneers didn't just survive – they thrived and changed the world forever.



The full study was published in the journal Current Biology.



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Earth's oldest forest found in the United States

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ New York is the site of the world's oldest...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Acid rain and a crisis solved.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-don-t-we-ever-hear-about-acid-rain-anymore-the-environmental-crisis-that-was-solved">Why don't we ever hear about "acid rain" anymore? The environmental crisis that was solved</h2>



Remember the 1980s when acid rain dominated headlines? Dire warnings about rain eating buildings, killing fish, and destroying forests filled every news cycle. Then, almost like magic, acid rain vanished from public discourse. What happened? Did we actually solve one of the late 20th century's most pressing environmental challenges?



The answer might surprise you. Unlike many environmental issues that drag on indefinitely, acid rain represents one of modern history's most successful ecological recovery stories. It's a tale of science, politics, and technology working together to tackle what seemed impossible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What was acid rain?</h2>



Acid rain isn't regular rain having a bad day – it's precipitation that became significantly more acidic due to air pollution. When power plants, factories, and vehicles burn fossil fuels, they release sulfur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides (NOx) into the atmosphere.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The science behind it</h2>



Think of acid rain as nature's chemistry experiment gone wrong. These compounds react with water, oxygen, and other chemicals to form sulfuric and nitric acids. When mixed with water vapor in clouds, they create precipitation with dangerously low pH levels.



While clean rain has a pH of about 5.6, acid rain could drop as low as 4.2 to 4.4 – roughly as acidic as tomato juice or coffee. According to US Geological Survey documentation, Scottish chemist Angus Smith first coined "acid rain" in 1872, but it didn't become a household phrase until the 1960s and 1970s when Swedish scientist Svante Odén documented its devastating effects on Scandinavian lakes and European forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The crisis at its peak</h2>



During the height of public concern, environmental damage was both widespread and visible. This wasn't some abstract future threat – people could see destruction happening in real-time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Environmental devastation</h2>



The most dramatic impacts were impossible to ignore. Research documented by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation and the New York State Department of Environmental Conservation shows that in the Adirondack Mountains, more than 200 lakes became so acidic they couldn't support fish life. The Adirondack Council reports that 409 lakes once supported brook trout, but many lost their fish populations due to acid rain.



By 1976, when scientists cataloged all acidified lakes in the Adirondack Park, researchers found that half of the lakes over 2,000 feet above sea level had no fish, according to studies published in environmental journals. The acidification process worked like a slow-motion disaster. As acid rain fell into watersheds, it gradually lowered pH levels. Fish couldn't survive in acidic water, and their food sources died off too.



Trees at high elevations showed stress directly linked to acid rain. It weakened them by leaching nutrients and making them susceptible to disease. Historical records show Germany's Black Forest saw nearly half its trees damaged by the mid-1980s.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Economic impact</h2>



Acid rain wasn't just environmental – it was expensive. Acidic precipitation corroded infrastructure, buildings, and monuments. Historic stone structures deteriorated at accelerated rates. Tourism suffered as lakes became fishless and forests declined. EPA economic analyses from the period documented repair costs mounting into billions annually.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The solution: government action and technology</h2>



Transformation from crisis to success required unprecedented cooperation between governments, industries, and environmental groups.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The Clean Air Act of 1990</h2>



The turning point came with the Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990, signed by President George H.W. Bush. This represented a fundamentally new approach to environmental regulation, as documented in EPA historical records.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Cap-and-trade success</h2>



Instead of mandating specific technologies, the 1990 amendments introduced something revolutionary: a cap-and-trade system for sulfur dioxide emissions. EPA program documentation shows this market-based approach set overall limits but allowed companies to trade emission allowances.



The genius was harnessing market forces to find cost-effective pollution reduction. Companies reducing emissions cheaply could sell excess allowances to those facing higher costs. Research published in environmental economics journals and EPA progress reports shows this resulted in dramatic SO2 reduction at a fraction of projected costs.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Technology advances</h2>



Policy provided the framework, but technology made reductions possible. Studies in atmospheric science journals document the widespread adoption of flue gas desulfurization systems ("scrubbers") that removed sulfur dioxide before it reached the atmosphere. By the 2000s, new installations could remove over 95% of SO2 emissions, according to EPA technical reports.



The push coincided with cleaner energy development. Natural gas produces fewer sulfur compounds than coal. Wind and solar, emerging in the 1990s, captured growing market share, reducing reliance on high-sulfur coal.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-we-don-t-hear-about-it-today">Why we don't hear about it today</h2>



Why did acid rain disappear from headlines? Simple: the problem was largely solved.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Success doesn't make news</h2>



There's an old journalism saying: "If it bleeds, it leads." Environmental success stories don't generate urgency like crisis reporting. Media attention shifted to other challenges: climate change, plastic pollution, and biodiversity loss. There's only so much environmental anxiety the public can absorb, and newer concerns replaced acid rain.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Mission accomplished</h2>



The primary reason is beautifully simple: interventions worked. EPA monitoring data shows sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990. Academic research published in environmental science journals confirms pH levels in formerly affected areas returned closer to normal. This represents one of history's most dramatic environmental recoveries. Studies by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation show fishless lakes now support healthy populations. Forests recovered, and building damage slowed dramatically.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-is-it-really-gone">Is it really gone?</h2>



The crisis is largely resolved, but monitoring data shows the problem isn't completely eliminated – it's managed to acceptable levels. Some areas still experience occasional events during high pollution periods. International environmental research indicates that rapidly industrializing Asian countries face similar problems to what we experienced decades ago, though they're implementing successful strategies.



EPA research shows nitrogen oxide emissions proved more challenging than sulfur dioxide, coming from vehicles and mobile sources. Climate science studies suggest changing weather patterns add complexity to how acid rain forms and falls.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What this teaches us</h2>



The acid rain experience proves that seemingly intractable environmental problems can be solved with scientific understanding, political will, and technological innovation. Environmental monitoring data shows recovery speed was remarkable – within a decade, measurable improvements appeared in air quality and ecosystem health.



Success came from bipartisan support across party lines. Policy analysis studies show the market-based approach appealed to those preferring economic incentives while achieving environmental goals. This support created lasting policy surviving political changes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Conclusion</h2>



Acid rain's disappearance from public consciousness represents environmental science's greatest success stories. Through effective regulation, technological innovation, and international cooperation, we transformed an overwhelming crisis into a manageable challenge.



Today's silence isn't because we forgot – it's because we solved it. The 1990 Clean Air Act, combined with technology and energy market changes, reduced acid rain emissions over 90%, according to comprehensive EPA data analysis.



This success offers hope for current challenges. It proves complex problems can be solved when science, policy, and technology work together. As we face climate change and plastic pollution, acid rain reminds us that dramatic positive change is possible.



Next time someone asks whether environmental regulations work, remember acid rain. It's proof that sometimes, we get it right.



<hr class="wp-block-separator has-alpha-channel-opacity"/>



Sources: This article draws from EPA official documentation and progress reports, peer-reviewed research published in environmental and atmospheric science journals, historical data from the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation, New York State Department of Environmental Conservation records, US Geological Survey publications, policy analysis studies, and environmental monitoring data collected over three decades.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Frequently Asked Questions</h2>



1. Is acid rain completely gone? No, but EPA monitoring shows it's reduced to manageable levels. US sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990, making acid rain much less severe than the 1980s crisis.



2. How long did solving take? Environmental monitoring data shows significant improvements began within 5-10 years of 1990s emission controls. Full ecosystem recovery took longer – some areas need 20-30 years for complete recovery.



3. What made the solution successful? Clear scientific understanding, visible damage motivating action, bipartisan support, available technology, and innovative market-based policies like cap-and-trade.



4. Do other countries have acid rain problems? Yes, particularly rapidly industrializing Asian countries. However, international environmental research shows many implement similar successful control strategies.



5. Could acid rain return? Potentially, if regulations weaken or we return to high-sulfur coal without controls, though effects would take years to become severe according to environmental projections.



6. Can you recommend any teaching tools on the subject of "acid rain"? The United States Environmental Protection Agency produced a wonderful teacher's guide for ages 14 and under that you can find on the EPA website here: <a href="https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf</a>



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The environmental problem we actually solved

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk Acid rain and a crisis solved. Why don't we...

Fresh,Radish,Harvest,On,Soil,In,Garden.

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://youtu.be/Fi2OeEwuzRM?si=vTyd2m9FMmtyWkex
</div></figure>







Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving fall garden, and this guide lays out the best vegetables and herbs to plant now for a fruitful autumn harvest. 



Fast-growing leafy greens such as spinach, lettuce, kale, and arugula perform especially well in the waning summer heat, with harvests beginning as soon as 30 days. 



These cool-season crops relish the transition into fall, offering repeated yields with cut-and-come-again methods.



Root vegetables like radishes, carrots, and beets also excel during this period. Radishes deliver satisfaction in under a month, while carrots and beets mature in about two months. Employing succession planting ensures a continuous stream of produce deep into the cooler months. 



For a boost of fresh flavor, herbs like cilantro, basil, dill, and chervil are excellent picks. These heat-loving varieties flourish in July’s warmth and are harvest-ready in about 30 days, especially when sown continuously.



Gardeners in zones 6 through 9 can benefit from planting bush beans and snap peas, which don’t require trellising and are ideal for compact plots. 



Maturing in 50–60 days, they’re a smart choice for quick, protein-rich harvests. For those in hotter regions, heat-tolerant crops such as okra and southern peas provide reliable yields and thrive in scorching conditions.



This guide emphasizes more than crop selection—it highlights the importance of timing, soil preparation, and ongoing sowing techniques. 



With thoughtful planning and attention to regional climate needs, even late-summer gardeners can enjoy fresh salads, hearty stews, and the satisfaction of a robust, homegrown harvest well into fall.



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What to plant in your garden in mid-July

https://youtu.be/Fi2OeEwuzRM?si=vTyd2m9FMmtyWkex Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving...

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A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that wildlife tunnels significantly reduce amphibian road mortality during seasonal migrations. 



Frogs and salamanders often cross roads to reach breeding ponds each spring, but many are killed by vehicles. 



Researchers from the <a href="https://www.uvm.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Vermont</a>, in collaboration with local citizens and the Vermont Agency of Natural Resources, installed two underpass tunnels in 2015. 



Over a 12-year monitoring period, they observed an 80.2% reduction in amphibian deaths, and up to 94% for non-climbing species like salamanders. 



The study used a before-after-control-impact design and documented more than 5,200 amphibians, highlighting the tunnels’ effectiveness even in nearby buffer zones.



Funded at $342,397 - far cheaper than wildlife crossings for large mammals - the project showcased the power of community-led conservation.



Local groups initiated the effort after observing mass amphibian deaths. Wildlife cameras later captured over 2,200 amphibians using a tunnel in just one spring, along with other species like raccoons and bobcats, indicating wider ecosystem benefits.



This marks the first peer-reviewed, long-term data set in the northeastern U.S. confirming amphibian-specific underpasses work. 



The study urges transportation departments to incorporate these designs into road planning and highlights how community action, thoughtful infrastructure, and persistence can make a real difference for biodiversity.



The full study was published in the <a href="https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1617138125000780" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal for Nature Conservation</a>.



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Wildlife tunnels save millions of amphibians

https://youtu.be/XYgiPzmNBTU?si=eFYY7gPHU1JznLvU A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that...

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing it with probiotics and prebiotics, aiming to create a treat that satisfies cravings while supporting gut health. 



The challenge lies in maintaining chocolate's beloved texture and flavor while adding health benefits.



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Probiotics - beneficial microbes that balance gut bacteria and aid digestion - are typically fragile and can be destroyed by stomach acid or processing. 



Prebiotics act as food for these microbes, helping them thrive. Together, they form "synbiotics," a powerful health combination.



Researchers Smriti Gaur and Shubhi Singh from India's Jaypee Institute of Information Technology took an innovative approach, using natural prebiotics like corn and honey instead of complex processing methods. 



They created five chocolate varieties: a control and four synbiotic versions containing different combinations of prebiotics, probiotics (Lactobacillus strains), and flavor enhancers (cinnamon or orange).



Laboratory simulations of human digestion showed the probiotics remained viable for over five hours, suggesting they could survive long enough to benefit gut health.



Taste tests were positive, with researchers particularly enjoying the orange-flavored variety, describing it as having "vibrant citrus notes" complementing the "rich cocoa" with a "luxurious" texture.



This research represents just the beginning. With further refinement of strains, textures, and flavors, chocolate could evolve beyond mere indulgence to become a functional food that nourishes while it delights.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.4c00741" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ACS Food Science &amp; Technology</a>.

Is chocolate the next nutritional powerhouse?

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

[sendtonews key="G9bUoxcjr4-2511624-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

[sendtonews key="3upvlAaHgO-2256633-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

[sendtonews key="LvS8v8bp9z-2564889-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How does salt makes things taste better?

[sendtonews key="X0f6OHYoI4-2310561-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Santiago, Chile in South America

[sendtonews key="JRaP49ISmm-2357509-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

[sendtonews key="e4ZG0Jawp3-2374785-12187" type="single"] Astronomers at Johns Hopkins University have created...

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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.



According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."



Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;



ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. 



Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

[sendtonews key="uV9Lh2fQbV-1760058-12187" type="single"] Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

[sendtonews key="qjvhBOBnY8-2426650-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

[sendtonews key="oL4FnPTGCV-2384527-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

[sendtonews key="0879czfG3k-1785905-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from NASA...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

[sendtonews key="6HyfrAJTBI-1831843-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

Earth,Like,Exoplanet,3d,Render

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

[sendtonews key="QIoVYJqRBi-2434608-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from NASA...

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