Young aspen trees in Yellowstone are doing something they have not done in almost 100 years. Rather than sprouting and being eaten back to nubs by elk and bison, they're actually growing into tall, adult forest trees rising up towards the canopy.



This matters more than it might seem, because it shows what happens when a missing piece of an ecosystem returns.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-yellowstone-aspens-and-elk">Yellowstone, aspens, and elk</h2>



In the 1920s, people <a href="https://www.yellowstone.org/wolf-project/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">eliminated wolves in Yellowstone</a>. At the time, with limited scientific knowledge, managers believed it was the right thing to do.



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/from-wolves-to-dogs-did-domestication-begin-without-human-help/">Without wolves</a>, elk herds grew very large. Elk love to eat aspen shoots - the tender young growth is highly palatable to them.



For roughly 70 years, elk browsed aspen sprouts down to stub height, and the trees couldn't grow. 



If you had walked through Yellowstone in the 1980s, you would have seen many tiny aspen shoots covering the ground, but almost no young trees gaining height. 



The forest's regeneration was stalled. Old trees died, and no new ones replaced them.



In 1995 and 1996, park managers reintroduced wolves into the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/yellowstone-supervolcano-eruption-study-sparks-new-debate-on-where-and-when-it-will-erupt/">Yellowstone Park ecosystem</a>. Scientists hoped and wondered whether this would change anything for the trees.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-aspen-matter-to-yellowstone">Why aspen matter to Yellowstone</h2>



Aspen groves provide habitat for many species. Birds nest in them. Beavers eat the bark and use the wood for dams. Butterflies and moths lay eggs on the leaves. 



Their canopy admits enough light for wildflowers and shrubs to grow beneath. When it rains, aspen groves hold water in the soil better than some other forest types.



In short, when aspen return, dozens of other species benefit. More trees support more insects, which in turn support more birds, enriching the ecosystem.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-checking-the-trees-three-decades-later">Checking the trees three decades later</h2>



<a href="https://fwcs.oregonstate.edu/users/luke-painter" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Luke Painter</a>, an ecologist at <a href="https://oregonstate.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Oregon State University</a>, sought clear answers. His team returned to 87 aspen stands across Yellowstone that scientists had previously surveyed. 



They measured thousands of young trees, looked for bite marks, and counted how many stems were tall enough that elk could no longer reach the tips.



About a third of these stands now have many tall young aspens pushing toward the canopy. 



"About 26 of the 87 aspen stands we examined had large numbers of tall saplings throughout, a remarkable change from the 1990s when surveys found none at all," Painter said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-wolves-matter-to-yellowstone-aspens">Why wolves matter to Yellowstone aspens</h2>



Breaking it all down, the conclusions of this study are pretty simple. 



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/wolves-move-pups-across-mountains-to-adapt-to-climate-pressure/">Wolves hunt elk</a>. When wolves came back, two things happened. First, elk numbers declined from unusually high levels. Second, elk changed their behavior. They spent less time in the same areas feeding.



With fewer elk and shorter feeding bouts, more aspen shoots survived long enough to exceed the browsing zone - about six to seven feet high. 



Once a sapling reaches that height, elk cannot easily reach the growing tip. The tree continues to grow.



"The reintroduction of large carnivores has initiated a recovery process that had been shut down for decades," Painter explained.



Scientists call this a <a href="https://www.nature.com/scitable/knowledge/library/trophic-cascades-across-diverse-plant-ecosystems-80060347/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">trophic cascade</a> - when adding or removing one species causes changes that ripple through the whole system.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-some-places-recover-others-don-t">Some places recover, others don't</h2>



Unfortunately, not every aspen stand has recovered yet. Some valleys still have many short, heavily browsed shoots, because it's not only elk eating them anymore. 



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/yellowstones-iconic-bison-have-merged-into-a-single-herd/">Bison herds have grown</a>, and bison browse on aspen as well. They are strong enough to break young trees. 



"Increasing numbers of bison may be emerging as a new constraint to aspen in some areas," Painter confirmed.



Additionally, winter snow depth varies; droughts stress trees; bears and mountain lions also hunt elk; and hunting outside the park influences elk distribution. 



All of these factors interact, which is why some sites show strong recovery, others show moderate recovery, and a few have changed very little.



The key pattern is that places with many tall saplings experience little browsing, and aspen groves that remain popular eating grounds today stay short. 



This fact is the strongest indication that tree recovery is linked directly to wolf presence, not solely to weather or soil conditions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-proof-in-the-measurements">Proof in the measurements</h2>



Painter's team did not rely on casual observation. They used the same methods as earlier researchers, measuring the same plots. 



They counted recruitment - when young trees surpass browsing height and begin progressing toward maturity. This measure is crucial. Sprouts are insufficient if they never grow; without recruitment, the forest cannot replace itself.



The results are robust. After being stalled for most of a century, Yellowstone's aspens are increasing in height. In recovering stands today, you will see saplings - six, eight, or ten feet tall - that were not present in the 1990s.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-future-of-yellowstone-s-aspens">The future of Yellowstone's aspens</h2>



"This is a remarkable case of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/giant-viruses-found-in-yellowstones-hot-springs-may-be-near-the-root-of-all-life-on-earth/">ecological restoration</a>," Painter concluded. "Wolf reintroduction is yielding long-term ecological changes contributing to increased biodiversity and habitat diversity."



Trees grow slowly, so even with wolves restored, it will take decades for these young aspens to form a full-grown forest. 



Some areas might never fully recover if bison numbers continue to rise or if the climate becomes too hot and dry.



Thanks to the work of Painter and his team, scientists are now certain that restoring the Yellowstone predator has restarted aspen forest regeneration. Not everywhere and not perfectly, but enough to be measured, creating hope for the future.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0378112725004499?via%3Dihub" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Forest Ecology and Management</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Yellowstone's aspen trees are growing again thanks to the reintroduction of wolves

Young aspen trees in Yellowstone are doing something they have not done in almost 100 years. Rather than sprouting and being eaten back to nubs by elk and bison, they're actually growing into tall, adult forest trees rising up towards the canopy. This matters more than it might seem, because it shows what happens when a missing piece of an ecosystem returns. Yellowstone, aspens, and elk In the 1920s, people eliminated wolves in Yellowstone. At the time, with limited scientific knowledge, managers believed it was the right...

Every seed begins life with a simple aim: to reach water, collect nutrients, and stay upright. Beneath the surface, root tips probe the soil and spread into branches that keep the plant alive.



Getting those branches to appear at just the right spot and moment matters even more now that weather swings between long dry spells and sudden cloudbursts.



Researchers have traced that timing to autophagy, the recycling pathway many people associate with health benefits from fasting.



By following a shape‑shifting protein through Arabidopsis roots, the team uncovered how brief clean‑up pulses let new branches form and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/symbiotic-relationship-plant-roots-underground-mycorrhizal-fungi/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">help crops cope</a> with tougher conditions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-plant-roots-cellular-clean-up-crew">Plant roots' cellular clean‑up crew</h2>



Scientists at the <a href="https://www.ku.dk/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Copenhagen</a> mapped the pathway in living seedlings. They watched the transcription factor ARF7 vanish and return in predictable waves, each tied to a jump in the growth hormone auxin. 



“Fasting has become popular as it seems to have a range of health‑promoting effects in humans, as periods without food cause the body to activate clean‑up processes to dispose of various waste products in cells," explains Assistant Professor Eleazar Rodriguez from the Department of Biology, who led the study.



"We have proven that the same mechanism, which also exists in the plant kingdom, plays a vital role in the ability of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/measuring-plant-root-health-scanning-leaves-xray-device/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">plant roots to grow</a> and absorb water and nutrients for the rest of the plant.” 



The process relies on NBR1, a tag that guides used proteins toward a vacuole for breakdown. Each removal of ARF7 resets the signaling circuit so it can fire again a few hours later. 



When autophagy slows, ARF7 accumulates, messages run long, and the root loses its usual rhythm.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-autophagy-and-auxin">Autophagy and auxin</h2>



Side branches normally form with steady precision. Roughly every four to six hours, auxin peaks at the root tip and switches on genes that mark a patch of tissue for future branching. 



“The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/maize-plant-genetics-shape-root-health-and-growth/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">movement of a root</a> is almost like watching a snake slithering forward in search of water and nourishment in the soil. And we can see that the heartbeat is strongest every time the root meanders forth,” says Rodriguez.



Using a luminescent reporter, the team confirmed that ARF7 cycles in step with those hormone pulses. 



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/05/autophagy_Arabidopsis-plant_ezyme-study_credit-UCopenhagen_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/05/autophagy_Arabidopsis-plant_ezyme-study_credit-UCopenhagen_1s.jpg" alt="To investigate the significance of autophagy, the researchers developed a mutant Arabidopsis (thale cress) plant in which its autophagy was disabled which is shown on the right. With an enzyme from fire flies the researchers made it possible to distinguish the normal plant from the plant with its autophagy function disabled. The plant to the right has fewer light areas and thereby fewer potential places to grow new roots with it's autophagy function turned off. Credit: Eleazar Rodriguez, Department of Biology, University of Copenhagen." class="wp-image-1969564"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">To investigate the significance of autophagy, the researchers developed a mutant Arabidopsis (thale cress) plant in which its autophagy was disabled which is shown on the right. With an enzyme from fire flies the researchers made it possible to distinguish the normal plant from the plant with its autophagy function disabled. The plant to the right has fewer light areas and thereby fewer potential places to grow new roots with it's autophagy function turned off. Click image to enlarge. Credit: Eleazar Rodriguez, Department of Biology, University of Copenhagen. </figcaption></figure>



The pattern resembles the circadian rhythms that guide leaf opening, yet it runs on its own schedule and focuses solely on building the hidden half of the plant.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-when-autophagy-stalls">When autophagy stalls</h2>



The group then disabled key autophagy genes to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plants-change-their-roots-to-survive-harsh-conditions/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">test the pathway’s limits</a>. Mutant seedlings produced fewer lateral roots and soaked up less water. 



“When we disrupted the plant's autophagy, there was waste everywhere, and we were able to detect the ARF7 protein among the waste,” says Rodriguez.



Microscopy revealed swollen vacuoles packed with debris. Growth zones that once cleared their protein stockpile before each auxin wave now stayed loaded, leaving no room for a fresh signal. The result was a sparse, inefficient root system.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-does-any-of-this-matter">Why does any of this matter?</h2>



Because the recycling toolkit is shared across flowering plants, the findings open new options for breeders and for companies developing microbial soil additives. 



Numerous methods to change the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/tomato-plants-use-their-roots-to-ration-water-during-drought/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">genetic characteristics of plants</a> are available today. These can be used to get plants to develop longer roots, faster, and in doing so, become more resistant to droughts or floods. 



"One of the methods enlists the help of bacteria that live in symbiosis with the plant and can cause the plant to change its growth pattern. Several companies in Denmark are working on this right now,” explains Ph.D. student Jeppe Ansbøl, who co‑authored the study.



Tuning autophagy or adjusting NBR1 tags could let roots chase moisture deeper in the soil and capture stray fertilizer before it washes away, improving harvests without extra inputs.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-autophagy-makes-stronger-roots">Autophagy makes stronger roots</h2>



“The more roots the plants have, the more water and nutrients they can take up, so the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/good-microbes-in-tea-roots-grow-tastier-healthier-plants/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">plants grow better, faster</a>," Rodriquez summarized.



"We're heavily dependent on plants because they feed us, extract CO2 from the atmosphere and produce the oxygen we breathe. As such, it is extremely important to understand them fully, to which end we have just taken a big step forward."



Pilot plots in Denmark are already testing these ideas under shifting rain patterns. Early observations hint that crops with tweaked recycling bounce back more quickly after both saturation and dry spells.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-next-for-crops-and-autophagy">What next for crops and autophagy?</h2>



Upcoming work will examine whether other auxin response factors move through the same recycling pathway and how changes in light, temperature, or soil chemistry adjust the schedule. 



Studies in mosses and liverworts, which split from flowering plants roughly 400 million years ago, may reveal how old the link between autophagy and development really is.



For farmers, a timely cellular tidy‑up could translate into sturdier yields. By keeping root cells clear of clutter, plants gain the freedom to build the networks they need to thrive in a climate that rarely sits still.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.embopress.org/doi/full/10.1038/s44319-024-00142-5" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EMBO Reports</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Scientists finally learn what makes plants grow faster and stronger

Every seed begins life with a simple aim: to reach...

Time often influences how we feel physically, affecting muscle function, whether it’s waking up with a jolt or unwinding at the end of a long day. Researchers studying the body’s natural cycles have begun to link disruptions in our sleep schedules to accelerated muscle aging.



The focus is on circadian rhythms and how they affect muscle <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ripening-tomatoes-may-hold-clues-to-delay-human-aging/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">health</a>. This direction comes from work involving lead author Dr. Jeffrey Kelu, a research associate at <a href="https://www.kcl.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">King’s College London</a>. 



Dr. Kelu's team explored the idea that internal muscle clocks might explain why irregular routines hasten the signs of getting older.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-muscle-clocks-affect-aging">How muscle clocks affect aging </h2>



Circadian rhythms rely on biological “timekeepers” in different parts of the body. Scientists have long known that the brain and other organs use these clocks to regulate temperature, hormones, and digestion.



Research now suggests muscle cells run on their own schedule. When these cycles are interrupted, the aging process can ramp up, also known as <a href="https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/diseases/23167-sarcopenia" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">sarcopenia</a>, which is the gradual decline in muscle mass.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-muscle-aging-patterns-in-fish">Muscle aging patterns in fish</h2>



“We then monitored the fish for two years, comparing them to healthy controls. While no significant differences were seen at younger ages, fish lacking a functional muscle clock eventually showed clear signs of premature <a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-admin/post.php?post=1970116&amp;action=edit" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">aging</a>,” said Dr. Kelu. 



The team ran experiments on <a href="https://www.genome.gov/genetics-glossary/Zebrafish" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">zebrafish</a>, small aquarium fish that share many genes with humans.&nbsp;



Scientists picked zebrafish partly because their transparent features make muscle changes easier to observe. These characteristics save valuable time and resources before trying similar work in larger animals or humans.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-observing-long-term-health-impacts">Observing long-term health impacts</h2>



Zebrafish aren’t just chosen for convenience. Their muscle structure and cellular processes are surprisingly similar to those in humans, which makes them a reliable model for studying complex <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ai-tool-analyzes-face-age-to-predict-cancer-risk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">biological systems</a> like circadian rhythms and protein turnover.



Zebrafish also reproduce quickly and develop rapidly, which helps researchers observe long-term effects like aging within a much shorter period. 



Because their bodies are transparent at early stages, scientists can watch what’s happening in real time, instead of relying solely on post-mortem tissue samples.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-sleep-patterns-and-muscle-aging">Sleep patterns and muscle aging</h2>



“In the UK, approximately four million shift workers play a vital role in keeping businesses and emergency services operational around the clock," said Dr. Kelu.



"Our study provides further evidence that the disruption of circadian rhythms in shift workers compromises multiple aspects of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/klotho-s-kl-protein-discovered-boosts-lifespan-muscle-brain-power-with-one-dose/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">health</a>."



Muscle decline in later years appears to be only one piece of the puzzle. Experts <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/21355031/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">note</a> that shift schedules disturb normal sleep-wake cycles and hamper body clocks for years. 



This misalignment seems to speed up the same muscle wear-and-tear that shows up with age, leaving people more at risk of mobility issues.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-this-means-for-everyday-routines">What this means for everyday routines</h2>



These findings don’t just affect night-shift workers. People with irregular sleep patterns, long-haul travelers, or anyone who regularly stays up late may also experience similar disruptions to their internal clocks. 



The disruptions can add up over time, even if obvious signs do not emerge right away. This raises questions about how much recovery the body truly gets when sleep schedules constantly change. 



Sticking to a consistent bedtime and allowing for deeper rest at night may help the body carry out its normal muscle maintenance routines more effectively.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-muscle-aging-in-men-and-women">Muscle aging in men and women</h2>



Although the study used zebrafish, similar <a href="https://genomebiology.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/gb-2003-4-10-r61" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">patterns</a> have been seen in humans, especially when it comes to how muscle mass declines with age. 



Recent population data suggests that men may experience sharper drops in muscle strength over time, which lines up with what was observed in male zebrafish. 



This difference might come from how circadian rhythms interact with hormones and metabolic changes across the lifespan. 



Further research is needed to investigate whether men and women need different strategies to protect muscle health as they get older.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-sleep-s-influence-on-muscle-aging">Sleep's influence on muscle aging</h2>



Healthy muscles go through daily cleanup. Faulty proteins gather during active periods and are cleared at night so muscles can recover.



Scientists discovered that circadian rhythms direct this cleanup. When these rhythms break, damaged proteins build up, making muscle tissue weaker over time.



New possibilities are emerging. Certain treatments that target internal clocks may help prevent the early muscle loss reported in night workers, though more trials are needed.



“This work shows how studying something as complicated as muscle growth in a simple system, like little fish larva, can really teach us something,” said Professor Simon Hughes, from King’s College London. Therapies that stabilize muscle clocks might keep cells healthier for longer.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-of-muscle-aging-treatments">Future of muscle aging treatments</h2>



Early-stage research is already testing drugs that target clock-related proteins like <a href="https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4865262/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Rev-erb and Ror</a>, which play a role in regulating nighttime muscle cleanup. 



If these treatments prove safe and effective, they could become part of new therapies designed to slow or prevent sarcopenia in at-risk groups.



There’s also growing interest in <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22936255/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">chronomedicine</a>, timing treatments to match the body’s natural rhythms. For muscle health, this might mean taking medications or scheduling physical therapy at specific times of day to get the best results.



The study is published in <a href="https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.2422446122" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a>.



-----



Like what you read?<a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"> Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on<a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"> EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by<a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"> Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Irregular sleep may cause premature muscle aging

Time often influences how we feel physically, affecting muscle function,...

Light is often associated with life, whether through the warm glow of a campfire or the brilliance of the sun. Yet, there is another kind of light - one that is nearly imperceptible but ever-present in living organisms.



This subtle illumination, known as ultraweak photon emission (UPE), is not visible to the naked eye but is a natural byproduct of metabolic processes.



Researchers at the <a href="https://www.ucalgary.ca" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Calgary</a> recently explored UPE in a study that delved into its biological significance. Unlike bioluminescence, which produces visible light, UPE emits extremely low-intensity light that falls within the spectral range of 200–1,000 nm.



This phenomenon is observed in a wide range of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earth-day-2025-what-were-really-fighting-for/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">life forms</a>, from bacteria and plants to animals and humans.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lighting-up-in-life-and-death">Lighting up in life and death</h2>



In mice, UPE might signal vitality. The researchers compared living and recently deceased mice, capturing UPE with high-sensitivity imaging equipment. 



The living mice shone brighter, while the recently deceased emitted barely any light. Both groups were kept at the same temperature of 37°C (98.6°F), but the difference in UPE was unmistakable.



This faint light might not look like much, but it could indicate life’s internal rhythm. The study suggests that UPE isn’t just random; it might be tied to fundamental biological <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-wins-in-2025-came-from-unexpected-places/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">processes</a> that continue as long as life does.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-plant-responses-light-as-a-signal">Plant responses: Light as a signal</h2>



Plants emit UPE too, but in them, it responds to stress. The researchers exposed plant tissues to temperature changes, injuries, and chemicals. Injured areas glowed more intensely, and the brightness increased after chemical treatments.



Why the extra light? When plants experience stress, they ramp up chemical <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/global-warming-is-accelerating-beyond-control-as-co2-levels-rise/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">reactions</a> that produce reactive oxygen species (ROS). These molecules are like cellular alarm bells. In their rush to signal damage, they produce tiny sparks of light, visible only through advanced imaging.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-living-cells-flash-bursts-of-light">Living cells flash bursts of light</h2>



Think of living organisms as busy chemical labs. Cells carry out countless reactions to sustain life, and some reactions generate ROS. These molecules play dual roles - they’re essential for cell signaling but can become harmful when levels spike.



During stress, ROS levels surge, and oxidative stress kicks in. This imbalance excites electrons, creating conditions for UPE. It’s not a glow in the dark - it’s a faint, silent burst of photons, unnoticed by the human eye.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-invisible-light-from-living-cells">Invisible light from living cells</h2>



Capturing UPE requires ultradark enclosures and specialized cameras. The researchers used Electron-Multiplying Charge-Coupled Device (EMCCD) cameras for plants and Charge-Coupled Device (CCD) cameras for mice. These devices can detect UPE in controlled, dark settings, minimizing background noise.



The images revealed more than just faint glows. They showed how UPE changes with temperature, stress, and injury. In mice, the light vanished after death. In plants, chemical treatments and injuries made specific regions flare up, marking them as sites of stress or damage.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-potential-diagnostic-tool">A potential diagnostic tool</h2>



What if doctors could detect stress and disease just by measuring UPE? The study hints that UPE could serve as a non-invasive diagnostic tool. 



In mice, the difference between <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-extremes-in-2024-what-have-we-learned/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">life</a> and death appeared in the intensity of UPE. In plants, stress-induced light bursts pinpointed areas of damage.



If scientists can decode UPE patterns, they might develop ways to detect diseases earlier. Monitoring UPE could reveal cellular stress before symptoms become obvious, offering a glimpse into the body’s hidden struggles.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-light-emissions-and-life-processes">Light emissions and life processes</h2>



UPE blurs the line between physics and biology. It’s not just a quirk of cellular chemistry; it’s a signal, a pulse, a silent language of life. 



The researchers suggest that understanding UPE could open doors to new diagnostic techniques and research avenues.



But much remains unknown. Why do some stressed cells emit more light than others? How do specific injuries alter UPE patterns? And could UPE one day serve as a life indicator, a subtle sign of biological activity in tissues?



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-secrets-of-invisible-light">The secrets of invisible light</h2>



The study from the University of Calgary raises more questions than it answers. 



What exactly triggers UPE in stressed plants? How does cellular metabolism fuel these faint flashes of light? And could these light signals one day serve as early warning signs of disease?



For now, UPE remains a silent, invisible light - a flicker of living cells that scientists are only beginning to understand. But as researchers dig deeper, they may find that even the faintest light reveals vital clues to what it means to be living.



The study is published in <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acs.jpclett.4c03546" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">The Journal of Physical Chemistry Letters</a>. 



-----



Like what you read?<a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"> Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on<a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"> EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by<a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"> Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

All living beings emit a subtle light that fades after death

Light is often associated with life, whether through the warm...

If you’ve ever found yourself overwhelmed by work, bills, or the latest headlines, taking a moment for mindfulness might offer some relief. 



The practice - simply paying attention to the present moment without judgment - is known to help calm the mind and improve concentration.



“A lot of research has shown that mindfulness can reduce <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/teachers-experienced-high-anxiety-during-the-pandemic/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">anxiety</a> symptoms,” said Resh Gupta, a postdoctoral research associate with the&nbsp;Mindfulness Science and Practice research cluster.



While many people experience the benefits of mindfulness firsthand, scientists continue to explore exactly how it works and which types of mindfulness best suit different anxiety patterns. 



Some anxieties come and go. Others linger and interfere with daily life. "We all experience anxiety, but it can manifest in many different ways,” noted Gupta. “It’s a tough problem to pin down.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-matching-mindfulness-with-anxiety-types">Matching mindfulness with anxiety types</h2>



At <a href="https://artsci.washu.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Washington University in St. Louis</a>, researchers proposed a new framework to better understand how mindfulness interacts with anxiety. 



Their idea, published in Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews, suggests that no single technique works for everyone. Instead, different mindfulness approaches may work better for different anxiety profiles.



The team includes postdoctoral research associate Resh Gupta, psychology professor Todd Braver, and Wendy Heller, a professor at the University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign. Their work was supported in part by WashU’s Incubator for Transdisciplinary Futures.



Braver described the paper as a reflection of the cluster’s broader goals. “There is a growing recognition that these practices can be incredibly useful in enhancing <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/houseplants-boosted-psychological-well-being-during-covid-19-lockdown/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">psychological well-being</a>,” he said. 



“But we still do not fully understand the mechanisms of action by which mindfulness can produce beneficial effects. That’s where the scientific research can be so valuable, by helping us more precisely identify why and how certain practices are effective.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-role-of-cognitive-control">The role of cognitive control</h2>



One of the key ideas in the new paper is that mindfulness may ease anxiety by improving what scientists call “<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bilingual-children-have-lasting-cognitive-benefits/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cognitive control</a>.” This is the brain’s ability to stay on track — to manage thoughts and actions in ways that support our goals.



“Cognitive control is the ability to regulate your thoughts and your actions in a way that helps you achieve your goals,” Gupta explained. “For example, if you know you have to go to the grocery store right after work, you can keep that goal in mind during the workday and turn down an offer to do something else after work.”



Mindfulness appears to boost this mental skill. Neuroimaging research shows that meditation can activate the parts of the brain involved in cognitive control. 



In contrast, anxiety tends to do the opposite. It floods the brain’s working memory - the system we rely on to keep track of tasks and priorities - with worry and distractions.



“Worry occupies a lot of space in the brain’s working memory system,” Gupta said. “This is where your goals are stored.”



That mental clutter weakens cognitive control and makes it harder to cope with <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/stress-eats-away-our-brains-cognitive-defenses/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">stress</a>. But mindfulness can strengthen control again and break the cycle of worry.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-choosing-the-right-practice">Choosing the right practice</h2>



Not all mindfulness techniques work the same way. Depending on what kind of anxiety someone is experiencing, one approach might work better than another.



For people who tend to ruminate - replaying <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/pandemic-related-worries-diminish-cognitive-skills/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">worries</a> over and over - focused attention might be the most effective.



“Focused attention teaches you to choose an anchor, such as your breath or a sound,” Gupta said. “You keep bringing your attention back to that anchor every time your mind wanders. Instead of focusing on the worry, you're focusing on the present moment experience.”



Others experience anxiety as physical symptoms, such as a racing heart or tightness in the chest. For those cases, a broader technique may be more useful. 



“For this type of anxiety, a form of mindfulness meditation called open monitoring may be beneficial,” Gupta said. “Instead of focusing on one thing, such as the breath, you can observe all internal and external experiences from moment to moment in a non-reactive, non-judgmental way.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-bringing-mindfulness-into-the-community">Bringing mindfulness into the community</h2>



The Mindfulness Science &amp; Practice cluster at Washington University isn’t just focused on research. It also offers programs for students, faculty, and the St. Louis community. 



The programs include talks, workshops, and events that introduce participants to mindfulness exercises taught by trained practitioners.



“We’re dedicated to helping the WashU and greater St. Louis community get access to tools to learn about mindfulness science and practice,” Gupta said.



Braver believes that making a variety of mindfulness options available empowers individuals to find the practices that suit them best. 



“People have different options they can choose from, so it becomes easier to find one that best fits your particular temperament, concerns, or current situation,” said Braver. "It’s quite empowering to learn these types of practices, and to feel like we can be in charge of how we use them to improve our quality of life.”



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Practicing mindfulness can quiet the noise of anxiety

If you’ve ever found yourself overwhelmed by work, bills, or...

When glaciers melt, they release water that carries sulfate-rich minerals previously trapped in the ice. This sulfate flows into streams and wetlands, increasing its concentration in watersheds.



As sulfate accumulates, it creates conditions that can trigger the production of toxic methylmercury, posing risks to ecosystems and wildlife.



Methylmercury, a potent neurotoxin, forms in waterlogged, sulfate-rich wetlands and enters water systems. It accumulates in fish, moves up the food chain to birds, and eventually reaches people who consume contaminated wildlife.



"Very little research has looked at methylmercury production in high-elevation wetlands," said Hannah Miller, a PhD student at <a href="https://www.colorado.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">CU Boulder</a> and lead author of a recent study.



"This leaves important knowledge gaps regarding how much is being produced in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/glacier-melting-threatens-global-water-supplies-and-coastal-communities/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">mountain</a> wetlands and how this may change with ongoing climate change."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-mercury-turns-toxic-in-wetlands">How mercury turns toxic in wetlands</h2>



Methylmercury production from <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/melting-glaciers-are-reshaping-landscapes-and-national-borders-around-the-world/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">glacier</a> melt sulfate only occurs within a specific range in wetland soils. If glacier-derived sulfate levels are too low, the conversion process doesn’t start; too high, and it stalls.



The ideal range - 0.60 to 1.4 milligrams per gram of dry soil - creates optimal conditions for mercury to transform into its toxic methylated form.



Miller’s team pinpointed this “Goldilocks zone” after testing soil from peatlands, alpine meadows, and riparian zones. Above the treeline, methylmercury levels barely budged. Below the treeline, peatlands pulsed with microbial activity, converting mercury to its toxic form.



"We also found in our experiment that moderate sulfate additions to the subalpine peatlands resulted in the greatest production of methylmercury within the soils," Miller said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-peatlands-as-mercury-hotspots">Peatlands as mercury hotspots</h2>



In the lab, Miller pumped different sulfate concentrations into soil samples. The response? Peatlands with moderate sulfate additions churned out the most methylmercury.



But there’s a catch. Wetlands above the treeline don’t have much vegetation. Fewer plants mean less carbon-rich material to feed the microbes that convert sulfate to methylmercury. But in the subalpine peatlands, dense vegetation and waterlogged soils create the perfect storm.



Sulfate-reducing bacteria thrive in these oxygen-starved <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/millions-could-run-out-of-water-if-glaciers-continue-to-melt/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">environments</a>. They grab onto sulfate, munch through carbon, and churn out methylmercury as a byproduct. And as glaciers keep melting, more sulfate keeps coming.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-melting-glaciers-spread-sulfate">Melting glaciers spread sulfate </h2>



Sulfate doesn’t stay put. It migrates downstream, riding currents and seeping into soils. In the past 30 years, sulfate levels in Boulder’s watershed have shot up by 200%. That spike mirrors a global pattern.



Glacier-fed streams in the Andes, Alps, and Himalayas show similar trends - up to a 2000% increase in sulfate concentrations. As these minerals flow, so does the risk of methylmercury contamination.



"It's a really interesting climate-driven signal that is starting to get more attention," Miller said. "And while increasing sulfate concentrations have direct implications for ecosystems, they can also have indirect impacts, including changing how mercury is transformed within wetlands."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mercury-moves-through-food-chains">Mercury moves through food chains</h2>



Methylmercury doesn’t just stay in the soil. It slips into <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/melting-glaciers-threaten-global-water-security/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">water</a>, where fish absorb it through their gills. Small fish pass it to bigger fish. Birds swoop down, eat the fish, and the toxin moves up the food chain.



"In semi-arid mountain ecosystems, poorly developed soils and limited water bodies make it easy to think there is a lower risk for mercury contamination," noted Miller.



"But our findings show there is a risk, particularly in subalpine peatlands, and raise important questions about how this toxin may impact the communities and wildlife that rely on that water source now and in the future."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-sulfate-isn-t-the-only-player">Sulfate isn’t the only player</h2>



Sulfate takes the spotlight, but it’s not alone. Iron, carbon, and water levels also play crucial roles in the methylmercury cycle.



In Boulder’s watershed, dry conditions could limit the spread of peatlands, reducing the areas where methylmercury thrives. But increased precipitation could do the opposite - more wetlands, more methylmercury.



Miller’s study also hints at the role of iron. Sulfate additions alone triggered methylmercury production, but iron concentrations could magnify or mitigate that effect.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-melting-glaciers-rising-mercury-levels">Melting glaciers, rising mercury levels</h2>



Glaciers worldwide are melting, releasing sulfate-rich minerals into nearby streams and wetlands. This surge in sulfate is not limited to Boulder but is occurring in mountain watersheds globally. 



As sulfate levels rise, so does the risk of toxic methylmercury formation, impacting ecosystems far beyond Colorado.



Glacial melt in Peru’s Andes has turned once-pristine wetlands into mercury-contaminated hotspots. The European Alps and the Himalayas face similar risks as warming temperatures increase sulfate runoff. 



As glaciers recede, more sulfate spills into wetlands, driving methylmercury production and threatening ecosystems globally.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-controlling-mercury-in-wetlands">Controlling mercury in wetlands</h2>



Monitoring sulfate is one thing. Mitigating its impact is another. Restoring wetlands, managing runoff, and regulating upstream mining could reduce sulfate flow. But Miller and her team aren’t stopping there.



"This research is timely, given the confluence of global changes, including climate warming, changes in the supply of reactive elements, and the occurrence of wildfires that are threatening sensitive high-elevation ecosystems," said Eve-Lyn Hinckley, co-author and CIRES Fellow.



Glaciers keep melting, releasing more sulfate into streams and wetlands. This ongoing process fuels methylmercury production, posing increasing risks to ecosystems. 



The outcome hinges on monitoring efforts and proactive intervention to manage these toxic threats.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.1088/1748-9326/add8a5" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Environmental Research Letters</a>.



-----



Like what you read?<a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"> Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on<a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"> EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by<a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"> Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Mountain wetlands are turning into mercury hotspots

When glaciers melt, they release water that carries sulfate-rich minerals...

Picture this: you open your phone and there’s a new video making the rounds - one of you, taken without your permission. You didn’t know they were filming. Now, everyone’s laughing. This is cyberbullying and it doesn’t leave visible bruises. It carves deeper wounds - the kind that last long after the screen goes dark.



Recent research by Florida Atlantic University (<a href="https://www.fau.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">FAU</a>) and the <a href="https://www.uwec.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Wisconsin-Eau Claire</a> delves into the hidden impact of cyberbullying. The team surveyed over 2,600 middle and high school students. The findings are disturbing.



Cyberbullying isn’t just a passing phase or a moment of meanness. It’s an Adverse Childhood Experience (ACE) – the kind that twists your <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/gaze-and-intention-the-unspoken-language-of-survival/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">perception</a> of yourself and your place in the world.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cyberbullying-feels-like-a-silent-attack">Cyberbullying feels like a silent attack</h2>



It’s not just the threats. Sometimes, it’s the silence. A chat goes quiet when you enter. You’re the only one who didn’t get the invite. You scroll through comments, and there it is - a cruel rumor with your name attached.



Dr. Sameer Hinduja is the study's lead author and a professor in the School of Criminology and Criminal Justice at FAU. 



“As our research clearly shows, cyberbullying in any form - whether it’s exclusion from a group chat or direct threats - can lead to significant trauma in youth," said Dr. Hinduja.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-online-bullying-has-become-common">Online bullying has become common</h2>



Cyberbullying is not rare. It’s routine. The study found that 87 percent of students reported experiencing at least one form of online harassment in the past month. That's almost nine out of ten kids - in one month.



This isn’t just about aggressive, in-your-face attacks. It’s about the little digs, whispers, and rumors that spread faster than wildfire. Mean comments, false accusations, deliberate exclusions - they pile up, and they stick.



The researchers examined eighteen types of cyberbullying. Among them, indirect forms of harassment stood out. More than half of the students said they’d been targeted by mean comments. Almost as many reported being excluded from group chats or <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/futuristic-6g-internet-speed-will-arrive-sooner-than-you-think/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">online</a> discussions.



Others had their private information shared without consent, or watched as someone impersonated them online, spreading lies and ruining reputations.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-words-can-be-weapons-in-online-spaces">Words can be weapons in online spaces</h2>



Cyberbullying isn’t always loud or obvious. It’s not just mean comments or threats. Sometimes, it’s being ignored. You log in, and everyone’s chatting – except you. They’re sharing jokes and talking about things you weren’t included in. 



You keep scrolling and realize they’re making fun of you. You weren’t invited, but you’re still the target. That kind of silent rejection can sting even more than direct insults. It makes you feel invisible, unwanted, and left out on purpose.



“What mattered most was the overall amount of cyberbullying: the more often a student was targeted, the more trauma symptoms they showed,” noted Hinduja.



Girls reported the most intense emotional fallout. Younger teens felt it too - the sleepless nights, anxiety, and the fear of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/social-media-pressure-is-straining-teen-friendships/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">logging in</a>.



But when researchers adjusted for how often each student was targeted, those differences faded. The truth is, anyone can be a target - regardless of gender or age. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-five-types-of-cyberbullying">Five types of cyberbullying</h2>



Cyberbullying comes in different forms, and it doesn’t always look the same. The study found five main types.



First, there are threats. These are direct, scary messages that make you worry about your safety. Someone might say they’re going to hurt you or make you feel like you’re in danger.



Next is identity-based harassment. This is when people attack things that make you who you are, like your race, religion, or gender. They might use slurs, insults, or cruel jokes to target those parts of you.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-privacy-violations-and-harassment">Privacy violations and harassment </h2>



Privacy violations are also an issue. This is when someone shares your personal information without permission. Maybe they post your secrets <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/gen-ai-and-social-media-divert-peoples-attention-from-climate-crisis/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">online</a>, pretend to be you, or track what you’re doing. It makes you feel like you can’t control what people know about you.



Another type of cyberbullying is indirect harassment. This isn’t always in your face. It’s the gossip, rumors, and mean comments that spread behind your back. You hear people are talking about you, but you can’t stop it.



Finally, there’s exclusion. This one can seem small, but it still hurts. You’re the only one not included in the group chat or tagged in a photo. You’re left out on purpose, and it makes you feel invisible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cyberbullying-trauma-can-last-for-years">Cyberbullying trauma can last for years</h2>



The researchers didn’t just look at immediate effects. They examined the fallout that lingers.



For some, the trauma sticks around like a shadow. Nightmares that don’t go away. Flashbacks that hit when you see a certain name pop up. A sense of dread every time your phone lights up.



Previous research shows that some adults still feel the sting of childhood bullying years later. They carry it into their relationships, jobs, and their daily lives. They question their worth, flinching at every criticism. 



The study revealed that cyberbullying can have a similar effect. IIt’s not just a phase. It’s a wound that never really heals.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-lifeline-of-support">The lifeline of support</h2>



Having a strong support system can make a big difference for kids who are bullied. Family can be a safe place. Friends can help you feel less alone. Being mentally strong can also help you bounce back.



The study found that kids who felt close to their families didn’t feel as much pain from bullying. Good friends also made the hurt less intense. But not everyone has that kind of support.



For those without family or friends to lean on, the impact of bullying hit harder. They felt more alone. The loneliness became heavy, like a weight they couldn’t shake off.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-call-to-action">A call to action</h2>



Dr. Hinduja emphasized the need for a trauma-informed response. “To truly protect young people, we must take a trauma-informed approach, one that prioritizes emotional and psychological safety,” he said.



Schools need to wake up to what’s happening behind the screens. It’s not just about stopping overt threats. It’s about recognizing the quiet, insidious forms of cruelty - the exclusions, the whispers, the frozen-out group chats. 



Teachers need training to spot the signs. They need to notice the kid who goes quiet, who used to laugh and now just stares at the floor.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-long-term-effects-of-cyberbullying">Long-term effects of cyberbullying</h2>



The study calls for more research on what happens to kids after they’re bullied online. Do they heal over time, or does the pain stick with them? What about the ones who don’t have support from family or friends? Can special programs help them feel better?



We don’t have all the answers yet, but one thing is clear - we can’t ignore the impact of cyberbullying. It’s not just kids being dramatic. It’s real trauma that can last long after the bullying stops.



The hurt doesn’t end when the screen goes dark. It stays. For some, it never really goes away.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://bmcpublichealth.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s12889-025-22692-6" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">BMC Public Health</a>.



-----



Like what you read?<a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"> Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on<a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"> EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by<a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"> Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Cyberbullying causes lasting trauma similar to physical abuse

Picture this: you open your phone and there’s a new...

In nature, animal life seems wonderfully chaotic. Predators hunt. Prey flee. Herds eat and sleep together. It all feels spontaneous -each creature responding to its needs in the moment.



But new research suggests there may be a hidden order to all this movement. And it’s not just found in one place or species. It appears across continents, in animals living very different lives.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-animal-movement-across-the-globe">Animal movement across the globe</h2>



The study involved animals from three dramatically different environments. In the dry heat of the Kalahari Desert, meerkats dig through the sand. In Panama’s rainforests, coatis nap high in the trees. On the Kenyan savannah, spotted hyenas roam the grasslands. 



These species differ in body size, diet, and behavior. But researchers found something they all had in common - how they moved from one activity to the next.



Scientists from the Max Planck Institute of Animal Behavior tracked these wild animals using accelerometers, the same sensors found in smartphones and fitness watches. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-unexpected-pattern-in-animal-behavior">Unexpected pattern in animal behavior </h2>



The devices recorded tiny shifts in body movement, many times per second, and for days at a time.



“This approach allowed us to capture detailed behavioral sequences over days and even weeks from multiple individuals across three distinct species,” said Ariana Strandburg-Peshkin, group leader at the institute and senior author on the study.



Using machine learning, the data were sorted into different behavioral categories: lying, walking, foraging, and more. 



A meerkat might lie still for a while, scan the area, then dig for food. A coati might spend time climbing, resting, or eating. These changing states, tracked over time, revealed an unexpected pattern.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-animal-behavior-that-sticks">Animal behavior that sticks</h2>



Across all three species, one rule seemed to apply: the longer an animal stays in one behavior, the less likely it is to change. 



“We assumed there would be differences,” said Pranav Minasandra, a postdoctoral researcher and lead author of the study. “But we found common patterns in how animals switch between behaviors, regardless of what species and which individual. It's as if their behavior was built on the same hidden algorithm.”



The finding goes against what many might expect. Imagine a hyena that’s been walking for 10 minutes. Most people would assume it’s more likely to stop soon. The researchers thought so too. 



“We originally thought the probability of switching behaviors would increase over time, as we assumed it would not be optimal to lock-in to any behavior,” explained Minasandra.



Instead, the opposite was true. Animals became more committed to the behavior the longer they stayed in it. This effect - known as a “decreasing hazard function” - appeared across all three species.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-predicting-what-comes-next">Predicting what comes next</h2>



The researchers also examined a concept they call “predictivity decay.” This refers to how well current behavior can predict future behavior. 



As time goes on, it gets harder to make accurate predictions because of random shifts and outside influences.



Still, even this unpredictability showed a consistent pattern. “We found that the pattern of predictivity decay was remarkably consistent across all animals studied, implying a shared architecture beneath the surface,” the researchers said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-do-these-patterns-exist">Why do these patterns exist?</h2>



The study points to two possible explanations. One is simple: positive feedback. The longer an animal stays in a behavior - like lying down - the more reasons there are to continue. 



Maybe it’s comfortable, feels safe, or is simply copying what its group is doing. In any case, staying becomes easier than switching.



The second theory involves decision-making over multiple timescales. Animals are constantly processing cues from different sources: hunger, danger, weather, and social cues. 



Each signal operates on its own rhythm. The way these rhythms overlap might explain why behavior unfolds the way it does.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-more-questions-ahead">More questions ahead</h2>



There’s still a lot to explore. Do these patterns apply to animals that live alone? What about animals at different stages of life, or under stress? Could these long-behavior states help save energy, improve attention, or coordinate group movement?



“What this study suggests is that real animals, be they hunting, hiding, or resting, are guided by hidden structures that seem to echo across life’s branches,” noted Meg Crofoot, Director of the Department for the Ecology of Animal Societies.



Animal behavior may seem unpredictable. But this research suggests that, deep down, many species are following a similar rhythm. One that links creatures as different as hyenas, coatis, and meerkats in a quiet, shared structure of movement.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.2503962122" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Animals share hidden behavior patterns across continents

In nature, animal life seems wonderfully chaotic. Predators hunt. Prey...

The moon has two strikingly different sides. The side facing Earth is mostly smooth, with dark, flat plains formed by ancient lava flows. In contrast, the far side is rugged and filled with craters. 



But why do they look so different? What could have caused such a stark contrast between the two halves? Scientists have been searching for answers, and recent findings suggest that the key may lie deep within the moon’s interior.



NASA’s <a href="https://science.nasa.gov/mission/grail/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">GRAIL mission</a> has provided new insights. Two spacecraft, Ebb and Flow, orbited the moon to measure its gravity. They discovered a temperature difference deep inside the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/march-2025-stargazing-a-red-moon-and-a-vanishing-planet/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">moon</a>. This could explain why one side looks smooth and the other rough.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hidden-differences-inside-the-moon">Hidden differences inside the moon</h2>



Ryan Park and his team used GRAIL data to peer beneath the surface. They weren’t looking at rocks or craters. They were looking at gravity. The moon’s gravitational field fluctuates slightly as it moves, and Park’s team measured those tiny shifts.



The research was focused on a parameter called the gravitational tidal Love number, k3. It’s a number that reveals how the lunar mantle deforms under gravitational forces - and it revealed something very surprising.



“We report our estimated value of k3 = 0.0163 ± 0.0007, which is about 72% higher than that expected for a spherically symmetric moon,” noted the researchers.



The discovery is significant. It shows that the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/young-ridges-on-moons-surface-suggest-that-it-is-still-active/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">moon’s</a> mantle isn’t the same throughout. One side - the nearside - is warmer, softer, and more flexible. 



Meanwhile, the farside is cooler, stiffer, and less likely to deform. This difference could explain why the two sides of moon look so different.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-one-side-of-the-moon-is-hotter">Why one side of the moon is hotter</h2>



Why is the nearside hotter? Park’s team points to radioactive elements - thorium and titanium - locked in ancient lava flows. 



Billions of years ago, volcanic eruptions spread molten rock across the nearside. As the lava cooled, it trapped these heat-producing elements. They are still there, and they are still releasing heat.



Park and his colleagues estimate that the nearside mantle is up to 170°C (338°F) hotter than the farside. That heat keeps the rock softer and more flexible, allowing it to deform more easily under gravitational stress. And that’s why the k3 value is so high.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-forces-stretch-the-moon-s-interior">Forces stretch the moon's interior</h2>



Tidal forces don’t just move Earth’s oceans. They also affect the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dry-side-of-the-moon-reveals-new-details-about-its-evolution/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">moon</a>. As the moon orbits Earth, gravitational forces stretch and squeeze its interior on both sides. 



GRAIL’s measurements showed that the moon’s mantle doesn’t react the same way on each side.



The warmer, softer nearside stretches and bends more under these forces. Meanwhile, the cooler, stiffer farside resists deformation, staying more rigid. This uneven response reveals differences in the moon’s internal structure.



This discrepancy creates gravitational anomalies. And it could also explain why deep moonquakes cluster in certain <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/total-lunar-eclipse-will-paint-the-moon-blood-red-tomorrow/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">regions</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-melting-rock-and-moonquakes">Melting rock and moonquakes</h2>



When rock gets extremely hot, it begins to melt. Park’s team believes that there are areas deep within the moon’s mantle where rock has partially melted, particularly under the nearside. These pockets of molten rock could act like stress points.



As the moon orbits Earth, tidal forces stretch and compress its interior. The molten zones might respond more intensely to this pressure, causing moonquakes.



These melt zones aren’t just anywhere - they are located at depths ranging from 800 to 1,250 km (497 to 777 miles). That’s the same depth where many deep moonquakes occur. 



This overlap suggests a connection between these molten areas and the origins of moonquakes, pointing to a possible link between the moon’s internal heat and its seismic <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/nasa-new-lunar-fss-mission-will-explore-moon-far-side-moonquakes/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">activity</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-volcanic-past-and-a-chilled-future">A volcanic past and a chilled future</h2>



The moon wasn’t always so divided. Billions of years ago, lava gushed across the surface, burying craters and creating vast plains. Today, those plains are the dark spots we see on the nearside - the mare regions.



Park’s team thinks that as the lava cooled, it trapped radioactive elements, creating a thermal imbalance that persists today. 



The farside, lacking such lava flows, cooled more quickly. And that’s why it’s more rugged, cratered, and colder.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mapping-the-moon-s-interior">Mapping the moon's interior</h2>



Park’s approach didn’t involve digging into the moon or landing any probes. Instead, he and his team focused on measuring the moon’s gravity. 



As the moon moves around Earth, gravitational forces pull and squeeze its interior. By tracking these subtle changes in gravity, Park’s team effectively created a detailed map of the moon’s internal structure - like taking an “X-ray” of its insides.



This technique, called tidal tomography, uses gravitational data to study what’s hidden deep within. And it isn’t just for the moon. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-other-worlds">Implications for other worlds</h2>



The moon is not the only celestial body with two distinct sides. Mars has flat, smooth plains in the north and rough, elevated highlands in the south. 



Enceladus, one of Saturn’s moons, shoots icy plumes into space, hinting at internal activity. Ganymede, Jupiter’s largest moon, has a strong magnetic field, suggesting complex processes beneath its surface.



If tidal tomography can reveal hidden structures inside the moon, it could do the same for these worlds. 



By analyzing gravitational changes, scientists could uncover what’s happening deep within these distant bodies - all without landing a single probe.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hidden-activity-beneath-the-surface">Hidden activity beneath the surface</h2>



NASA’s upcoming lunar missions include the Farside Seismic Suite and the Lunar Geophysical Network. These missions will monitor moonquakes and map the lunar mantle in even greater detail. 



The missions could confirm the existence of melt zones, pinpoint their depths, and maybe even detect ongoing volcanic activity.



Meanwhile, the GRAIL findings raise new questions. How much heat still lingers in the nearside mantle? Could residual magma still be flowing beneath the surface? And what does that mean for future moonquakes?



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-moon-s-geological-story">The moon's geological story</h2>



NASA’s GRAIL mission did more than just measure gravity - it uncovered pieces of the moon’s history. 



The thermal differences between the two sides suggest that ancient volcanic eruptions and radioactive decay left the nearside warmer and more flexible than the farside.



The nearside’s lingering warmth and softer mantle indicate that the moon’s interior hasn’t fully cooled. This ongoing heat suggests that the moon’s geological story isn’t over - there might still be activity beneath its surface.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-025-08949-5" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature</a>.



-----



Like what you read?<a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"> Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on<a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"> EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by<a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"> Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Why one side of the moon still glows from within

The moon has two strikingly different sides. The side facing...

Earth’s soils are a powerful carbon reservoir. In fact, soils contain more than twice as much carbon as the atmosphere holds. As temperatures climb and weather patterns shift, the storage or release of soil carbon becomes a critical piece of the climate puzzle.



Scientists have long focused on the melting permafrost, where rising temperatures thaw frozen soil and unleash carbon into the air. But in subtropical and tropical regions, where vast stores of organic carbon also sit, the key driver of carbon release has been less clear.



Some research has pointed to shifts in rainfall as the main culprit. Other studies identified temperature as the bigger influence.



Dr. Vera Meyer, a scientist at the MARUM Center for Marine Environmental Sciences, is the lead author of a recent investigation.



“<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-type-of-microbes-found-earths-deep-soil-critical-zone/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Microbes</a> that break down organic matter are generally more active under warm and humid conditions, so the carbon content in tropical soils responds very quickly to climatic changes. Some studies report a main influence of changing hydroclimatic conditions, while in others temperature plays the main role,” said Dr. Meyer.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-studying-changes-in-soil-carbon">Studying changes in soil carbon </h2>



To sort this out, the research team decided not to analyze soil directly. Instead, they studied what the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/energy-trades-could-resolve-longstanding-nile-river-disputes/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nile River</a> had washed out to sea over thousands of years.



The Nile drains a massive area that stretches across subtropical and tropical parts of northeast Africa. As it flows, it picks up organic material from the land and eventually deposits it into the Mediterranean. 



To study how soil carbon changed over time, the researchers turned to a sediment core collected from the seafloor near the Nile Delta. This record holds layers of material built up over thousands of years and offers a timeline that stretches back to the last ice age.



“The age of the organic material delivered by the Nile essentially depends on two factors: how long it was in the soils, and how long it took to be transported in the river. The advantage of our approach is that long time scales can be investigated, in this case the last 18,000 years since the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/disastrous-climate-changes-of-the-last-ice-age-could-happen-again/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">last ice age</a>,” said Enno Schefuß, also from MARUM.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-carbon-release-from-soils">Carbon release from soils </h2>



The results surprised the team. It turned out that changes in rainfall and runoff didn’t significantly affect how old the soil carbon was. Temperature, on the other hand, had a big impact.



As the Earth warmed after the last ice age, the age of carbon in the Nile sediments dropped sharply. This meant that warmer conditions had accelerated the breakdown of soil organic matter. 



Microbes had gotten to work more quickly, releasing carbon dioxide in the process. This spike in decomposition was far stronger than what current carbon cycle models had predicted.



“The fact that the models underestimate carbon release from soils so strongly shows us that we need to revise the sensitivity of soil carbon in our models,” said study co-author Dr. Peter Köhler from AWI Bremerhaven.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-major-factor-in-climate-predictions">Major factor in climate predictions </h2>



Most people don’t think of soil as something that affects the air we breathe, but it does. Soils are one of the planet’s largest natural <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/organic-farming-practices-boost-soil-carbon-storage/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">carbon sinks</a>, storing huge amounts of organic matter. 



When this material breaks down, carbon dioxide is released - and that has direct consequences for the climate.



In subtropical and tropical regions, this breakdown can happen faster. Warm temperatures and moisture help microbes become more active, speeding up the process. That means these soils can quickly go from storing carbon to releasing it.



Scientists have started to pay closer attention to this shift. How soils respond to temperature changes is turning out to be a major factor in climate predictions. Yet many climate models still underestimate just how sensitive these soils are.



The study of Nile River sediments helps fill in some of these gaps. By tracking how soil carbon changed over thousands of years, researchers are getting a clearer picture of just how much influence soils can have on our future.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-warning-for-the-future">A warning for the future</h2>



This isn’t just a story about ancient climates. The same temperature-driven feedback that happened thousands of years ago could be repeating itself today - with serious consequences.



As the planet continues to heat up, tropical and subtropical soils may once again start releasing more carbon into the air. If our models are underestimating this effect, we may also be underestimating how fast <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/hidden-pool-of-global-soil-carbon-alters-climate-change-models/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">climate change</a> could accelerate.



The research was supported by the Cluster of Excellence “Ocean Floor - Earth's Uncharted Interface,” based at MARUM at the University of Bremen. 



The team is working to better understand how carbon travels through the ocean floor system, from land to sea - and what that means for our future.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-025-59013-9" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Communications</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Global warming may trigger rapid release of soil carbon

Earth’s soils are a powerful carbon reservoir. In fact, soils...

Around six hundred million years ago, our planet almost lost the invisible shield that keeps its surface hospitable. Earth's magnetic field, generated by whirling molten iron deep below our feet, faded until it was so weak it was barely detectable.



At the same moment, oxygen flooded the oceans and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/nitrogen-was-plentiful-for-early-life-on-earth/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">atmosphere</a>, and curious soft-bodied creatures began sliding across the seafloor. The coincidence has fascinated geologists and biologists for decades.



Fresh measurements from ancient crystals now reveal just how close Earth came to a magnetic stall. They also strengthen the suspicion that a waning field set the stage for the rise of complex life. 



The new data trace a dramatic drop in magnetic intensity and help explain why the field later rebounded, saving Earth from becoming a dry, radiation-blasted rock like Mars.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-earth-s-ancient-magnetic-field">Earth's ancient magnetic field</h2>



To read the planet’s magnetic diary, researchers collected grains of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earths-mantle-may-contain-a-wealth-of-green-metals/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">pyroxenite and gabbro</a> from South Africa, Brazil, and Canada.



Each mineral contains microscopic iron needles that froze in alignment with the ambient field when the rocks cooled. 



By reheating single crystals in a carefully shielded furnace, the team coaxed out tiny magnetic signals that record field strength at the time of eruption.



After analyzing hundreds of crystals, <a href="https://www.rochester.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Rochester</a> geophysicist John Tarduno and colleagues saw a clear pattern. 



“In general, the field is protective. If we had not had a field early in Earth history, water would have been stripped from the planet by the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/silent-storms-experts-identify-the-mysterious-source-of-solar-wind/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">solar wind</a> (a stream of energized particles flowing from the Sun toward Earth),” Tarduno explained.



“But in the Ediacaran, we had a fascinating period in the development of the deep Earth when processes creating the magnetic field … had become so inefficient after billions of years that the field almost completely collapsed.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-very-weak-magnetic-field">Very weak magnetic field</h2>



Crystals dated to 591 million years ago indicate a magnetic field about 30 times weaker than today - the most feeble long-term value ever measured. 



Follow-up samples show the enfeebled state persisted for at least 26 million years.



Before and after that window, rocks more than 2 billion years old and younger than 565 million years record a field as sturdy as the modern one, revealing just how exceptional the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ecosystem-behavior-earth-first-sea-creatures-stirring-water-drove-evolution/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Ediacaran lull</a> was.



During the low-field stretch, solar wind could punch far deeper into the atmosphere. Charged particles stripped away lightweight hydrogen, a process that left relatively heavy oxygen behind. 



The timing lines up with multiple geochemical markers that show a sharp increase in oxygen levels, supporting the idea that the weakened shield helped push Earth past a threshold needed for the development of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fossils-capture-a-turning-point-in-the-evolution-of-life/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">large, mobile animals</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-thinner-armor-richer-air">Thinner armor, richer air</h2>



The atmospheric link also finds support from geobiologist Shuhai Xiao of <a href="https://www.vt.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Virginia Tech</a>. 



“The <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthpedia-articles/earths-magnetic-field-origin-structure-and-impact-on-humanity/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">magnetosphere shields the Earth</a> from solar wind, thus holding the atmosphere to the Earth. Thus, a weaker magnetosphere means that lighter gases such as hydrogen would be lost from the Earth’s atmosphere,” Xiao explained to CNN.



As hydrogen escaped, oxygen concentrations rose, allowing metabolism-hungry organisms to branch out.



Tarduno agrees that other processes - such as <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dark-oxygen-discovery-deep-ocean-no-photosynthesis-baffles-scientists/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">photosynthetic microbes</a> - were certainly at work.



“We do not challenge that one or more of these processes were happening concurrently. But the weak field may have allowed oxygenation to cross a threshold, aiding animal radiation (evolution),” he said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-magnetic-field-and-earth-s-core">Magnetic field and Earth's core</h2>



Rock records also solve a puzzle about when <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earths-inner-core-is-not-solid-it-is-shape-shifting-time-for-textbooks-to-be-rewritten/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Earth’s inner core</a> began to form. Once field strength hit its nadir, it bounced back quickly.



“The observations appear to support the claim that the inner core first nucleated soon after this time, pushing the geodynamo (the mechanism that creates the magnetic field) from a weak, unstable state into a strong, stable dipolar field,” noted Peter Driscoll of the <a href="https://carnegiescience.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Carnegie Institution for Science</a>. 



A solid seed at the center released extra heat, turbocharging convection in the outer core and restoring the magnetic screen.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-strange-seafloor-pioneers">Strange seafloor pioneers</h2>



While the field flickered, the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earths-first-animals-were-very-picky-about-where-they-lived/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Ediacaran seas</a> hosted life forms unlike anything alive today.



Disk-shaped <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rewrite-the-textbooks-life-on-earth-did-not-arise-due-to-increased-oxygen-levels/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Dickinsonia</a> spread as wide as 4.6 feet (1.4 meters) across the mud; quilted fronds waved gently in the currents; and slug-like Kimberella scraped microbial mats for food.



These pioneers vanished before the Cambrian period began, around 539 million years ago, but their brief reign proved that multicellular bodies could flourish once oxygen climbed to breathable levels.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-if-it-happens-again">What if it happens again?</h2>



Not every expert is convinced the magnetic dip directly influenced the course of evolution.



“It is hard for me to evaluate the veracity of this claim because the influence that planetary magnetic fields might have on climate is not very well understood,” Driscoll cautioned. 



Untangling all the variables - solar activity, mantle chemistry, biological innovation - will take years of careful detective work.



For now, the crystal record points to a simple narrative: Earth’s shield weakened, gases escaped, oxygen levels increased, and life took a bold new turn.



By tracing that chain of events, scientists gain insight into how planets and biospheres interact, a lesson that will guide the search for living worlds far beyond our own.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s43247-024-01360-4" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Communications, Earth and Environment</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Complex life emerged on Earth 591 million years ago, scientists think they finally know how and why

Around six hundred million years ago, our planet almost lost...

Forests are not just a bunch of trees standing together. Beneath the ground, roots and fungi connect to share nutrients. This partnership, called symbiosis, helps trees survive in poor soils and tough conditions.



Some trees take this connection further. They link up with two different types of fungi at the same time. 



Researchers at the University of Zurich (<a href="https://www.uzh.ch/en.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">UZH</a>) and Agroscope studied this strategy. They found that trees with dual fungal partners handle climate change better and spread into new areas more easily.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-two-fungi-are-better-than-one">Two fungi are better than one</h2>



Some trees go beyond the usual single-fungus alliance. They partner with not one but two different types of mycorrhizal fungi. Why? It turns out that dual symbiosis means survival.



“Some woody plants form an alliance with two fungus types simultaneously,” noted study lead author Ido Rog from the Department of Plant and Microbial Biology at UZH.



The researchers analyzed over 400 <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/trees-sync-up-their-communication-signals-before-a-solar-eclipse/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">tree species</a>. They discovered that trees with two fungal partners could handle drought and nutrient scarcity better than those with just one. It’s like having two water wells instead of one - a backup when things get tough.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fungi-help-trees-spread">Fungi help trees spread</h2>



Rog calls it “bigamy,” and it’s a winning strategy. Trees with dual fungi reach farther and wider, colonizing places where other trees fail. Their expanded root systems access more nutrients and water, giving them a competitive edge.



“They thus are able to colonize a much larger territory than tree species that form a symbiosis with only one fungus type can,” said Rog.



The strategy works regardless of evolutionary history. It’s not about being a certain type of tree. Instead, it is about being adaptable. Trees that partner with two fungi create a safety net, thriving where single-fungus trees struggle.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-significance-of-dual-fungi">The significance of dual fungi</h2>



Imagine a landscape dominated by <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-is-now-the-driving-force-behind-droughts/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">drought</a> and soil cracks, where trees struggle to stay hydrated. But trees with dual fungal partners are better prepared. Their roots extend deeper, reaching untapped water reserves. They also access nutrients from diverse soil layers, widening their survival range.



“Our findings indicate that polygamy with two fungus varieties served as a strategy enabling trees to adapt to rougher environmental conditions,” noted study co-author Professor Marcel van der Heijden.



Trees with dual fungi grow where others can’t, thriving in rocky, nutrient-poor soil. This strategy doesn’t just keep them alive - it allows them to flourish.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-trees-that-beat-the-heat">Trees that beat the heat</h2>



Climate change is turning once-lush forests into dry, barren landscapes. Trees that can handle drought and nutrient scarcity may become the new standard in reforestation projects.



“In forestry, this knowledge could be helpful in the future for selecting tree species specialized in dual fungal associations,” explained Professor van der Heijden.



The idea is simple: choose trees that can do more with less. Trees that work with two fungi can stretch resources, endure droughts, and claim more territory. It’s not just survival - but dominance in a world where resources are shrinking.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-understanding-tree-fungi-partnerships">Understanding tree-fungi partnerships </h2>



There is more to this story than individual tree survival. Trees that form dual partnerships with fungi also impact entire ecosystems.



They stabilize the soil, prevent <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fighting-coastal-erosion-electricity-turns-sand-into-a-sea-wall/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">erosion</a>, and create habitats for other organisms. These trees shape the landscape, turning barren ground into thriving ecosystems.



Trees with dual fungi don’t just survive. They change the game, creating new habitats and pushing ecological boundaries. 



The implications are profound. As forests face increasing stress, understanding these fungal alliances could hold the key to saving them.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dynamic-network-of-connections">Dynamic network of connections </h2>



The study raises new questions. How many other tree species use dual partnerships with fungi? Could this strategy be applied to agricultural crops? And how do these fungi respond to extreme weather events?



Researchers are just beginning to unravel the complexities of these underground alliances. The answers could redefine <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/success-story-reforestation-has-helped-keep-the-eastern-us-relatively-cool/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">reforestation</a> strategies, climate resilience plans, and agricultural practices.



The forest floor may look silent, but beneath the surface, a dynamic network of connections is at work that could hold the secret to thriving in a changing world.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/epdf/10.1111/ele.70132" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Ecology Letters</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Trees have unique fungi partnerships that help them survive

Forests are not just a bunch of trees standing together....

When we picture the ocean, it’s often the massive waves that come to mind. But scientists are finding that some of the most important activity happens on a much smaller scale. 



Thanks to a new satellite mission, researchers are now seeing the ocean’s tiny waves and swirling currents in clearer detail than ever before - and it’s changing the way we understand life in the sea.



In a recent study led by NASA and researchers at <a href="https://www.tamu.edu/index.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Texas A&amp;M University</a>, scientists used the Surface Water and Ocean Topography (SWOT) satellite to analyze ocean features too small for earlier satellites to detect.



These features, known as submesoscale eddies and waves, are often just a mile wide, but they play a powerful role in how heat and nutrients move throughout marine ecosystems.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-we-ve-been-missing">What we’ve been missing</h2>



For years, scientists have known about these small ocean features. <a href="https://www.earth.com/image/moon-landing-of-apollo-11-in-1969/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Apollo</a> astronauts even spotted them from space nearly 50 years ago. 



But the tools available - whether ship-based instruments or older satellites - could only capture bits and pieces. They either missed the full scale or couldn’t provide a global view.



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/nasa-swot-satellite-mission-maps-earths-ocean-floors-from-space-in-stunning-detail/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">SWOT</a> is filling that gap. A joint project between NASA and the French space agency CNES, the satellite collects detailed, two-dimensional images of the ocean surface. These images help researchers track how water is moving - and what it’s carrying - around the globe.



“The role that submesoscale features play in ocean dynamics is what makes them important,” said Matthew Archer, an oceanographer at NASA’s Jet Propulsion Laboratory.



“<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/oceanic-intrusions-move-tiny-sea-life-to-the-deep-layers/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Vertical currents</a> move heat between the atmosphere and ocean, and in submesoscale eddies, can actually bring up heat from the deep ocean to the surface, warming the atmosphere."



That movement goes both ways. Just as heat can rise from deep ocean layers, nutrients can, too. These nutrients are critical to marine life, acting like food trucks arriving with supplies for surface-dwelling organisms.



“Not only can we see the surface of the ocean at 10 times the resolution of before, we can also infer how water and materials are moving at depth,” noted Nadya Vinogradova Shiffer, SWOT program scientist at NASA Headquarters in Washington.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-the-ocean-talks-to-the-sky">How the ocean talks to the sky</h2>



The SWOT satellite doesn’t just map where the water is. It also measures the height of ocean surfaces. 



From that data, scientists can estimate wave slopes and pressure levels, which reveal how strong the forces are in these currents. This helps to determine <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/atlantic-ocean-currents-slowing-as-water-temperature-rises/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">how fast water is moving</a> and how much heat, energy, or nutrients are being transported.



“Force is the fundamental quantity driving fluid motion,” said study co-author Jinbo Wang, an oceanographer at Texas A&amp;M University in College Station.



Scientists will now gain a better understanding of how the ocean and atmosphere interact. A small change in one can have a big effect on the other. For example, if warmer water reaches the surface, it can influence weather patterns and even climate.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-closer-look-at-ocean-currents">A closer look at ocean currents</h2>



To test SWOT’s capabilities, scientists focused on two ocean features. One was a swirling eddy in an offshoot of the Kuroshio Current, a major Pacific Ocean current near Japan. 



SWOT was able to spot the eddy and measure how fast water inside it was moving vertically. The estimate? Between 20 and 45 feet per day.



While the measurement may sound modest, capturing this kind of motion at a global scale is new - and vital. It’s the first step toward a better understanding of how deep-sea energy and nutrients reach the ocean surface.



The second example involved a different kind of submesoscale feature: an internal solitary wave. These waves form when tidal forces move water over underwater plateaus. 



SWOT caught one of these waves in the Andaman Sea near Myanmar. When researchers did the math, they found that this single wave had at least twice the energy of a typical internal tide in the area.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-better-models-better-predictions">Better models, better predictions</h2>



Information from SWOT will help researchers refine their models of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/collapse-of-main-atlantic-ocean-circulaton-current-amoc-is-already-happening/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ocean circulation</a>. According to study co-author and project scientist Lee Fu, a lot of ocean models were trained to show large features, like eddies that are hundreds of miles across.



"Now they have to learn to model these smaller scale features. That’s what SWOT data is helping with," noted Lee.



Researchers have already started to incorporate SWOT ocean data into some models, including NASA’s ECCO (Estimating the Circulation and Climate of the Ocean). 



It may take some time until SWOT data is fully a part of models like ECCO. But once it is, the information will help researchers better understand how the ocean ecosystem will react to a changing world.



Image Credit: NASA's Scientific Visualization Studio



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

NASA satellite is rewriting what we know about ocean currents

When we picture the ocean, it’s often the massive waves...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2E0mn5mTvhQ
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">'Death Star' moon Mimas conceals a 15-million-year-old ocean that scientists never expected.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hidden-waters-beneath-ancient-craters">Hidden waters beneath ancient craters</h2>



Scientists have made a startling discovery that challenges everything we thought we knew about <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/saturn-moon-mimas-has-remarkably-young-ocean/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Saturn's moon Mimas</a>. Beneath the heavily cratered surface that earned it the nickname "Death Star" lies a global ocean that formed just 5 to 15 million years ago—a remarkably young age by cosmic standards.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cassini-data-reveals-orbital-secrets">Cassini data reveals orbital secrets</h2>



The discovery, led by Dr. Valéry Lainey of the <a href="https://observatoiredeparis.psl.eu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Observatoire de Paris</a>, emerged from careful analysis of <a href="https://www.nasa.gov" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NASA</a>'s Cassini spacecraft data. By studying subtle irregularities in Mimas's orbit around Saturn, researchers detected the gravitational signature of liquid water hidden 20 to 30 kilometers beneath the moon's icy shell.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-an-unlikely-ocean-world">An unlikely ocean world</h2>



At only 400 kilometers in diameter, Mimas seemed like the least likely candidate to harbor a subsurface ocean. Unlike other ocean moons such as Europa and Enceladus, which show clear surface signs of internal activity, Mimas displays no obvious hints of the liquid water beneath its ancient, crater-scarred exterior.



"Mimas is a small moon, and its heavily cratered surface gave no hint of the hidden ocean beneath," explained Dr. Nick Cooper from <a href="https://www.qmul.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Queen Mary University of London</a>, a study co-author.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-astrobiology">Implications for astrobiology</h2>



The ocean's recent formation makes Mimas a prime target for studying how oceans develop and potentially support life. This discovery adds another member to the exclusive club of ocean worlds in our solar system, each offering unique insights into the conditions necessary for habitability.



The research, published in <a href="https://www.nature.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature</a> journal, demonstrates how advanced orbital analysis can reveal hidden features of celestial bodies, opening new possibilities for understanding ocean formation throughout the cosmos.



—–



Like what you saw and read?&nbsp;<a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a>&nbsp;for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.



—–



Check us out on&nbsp;<a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by&nbsp;<a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a>&nbsp;and&nbsp;<a href="https://www.earth.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Earth.com</a>.



—–

Scientists discover unexpected young ocean on Saturn's cratered moon Mimas

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2E0mn5mTvhQ 'Death Star' moon Mimas conceals a 15-million-year-old ocean that...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE
</div></figure>



On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop and sunlight barely penetrates through the polar winter. It was here, however, that an international team of scientists found <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/predatory-worms-were-terror-beasts-half-a-billion-years-ago/#google_vignette" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evidence of sea monsters</a> that would change our understanding of ocean life in the past.



This video captures the discovery of Timorebestia fossils that had been hidden for more than 500 million years in the Sirius Passet formation. The "terror beasts," as they are called, are a hidden chapter in the evolutionary history of <a href="https://www.earth.com" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Earth</a>, showing that sophisticated predator-prey interactions occurred much earlier than previously envisioned.



Dr. Jakob Vinther and his research team at the <a href="https://www.bristol.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Bristol</a>, in collaboration with researchers at the <a href="https://eng.kopri.re.kr/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Korean Polar Research Institute</a>, braved extreme weather conditions at 82.5 north latitude to locate these giant creatures. Using sophisticated electron microprobe analysis, they revealed the detailed anatomy of the animals, including their muscle and nerve tissues.



The find upsets the traditional timeline of sea predators. Although we've long appreciated that Cambrian oceans were at one time ruled by <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jWI3-UgA3_o&amp;list=PL1QLQMW9MWDwpkFOnvgAmu7wT6rZmYqdJ&amp;index=19" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">arthropods</a>, these discoveries indicate that relatives of arrow worms were first to dominate the seas. These worms were building sophisticated food webs several million years before other predator groups arose.



Each fossil is a story of ancient hunger, with fossil stomach contents revealing these meter-long beasts dined on heavily armored arthropods regularly, cementing their place as the ocean's first apex predators.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Worms dominated seas before dinosaurs

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">New York is the site of the world's oldest forest.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-385-million-year-old-trees-discovered">385-million-year-old trees discovered</h2>



Scientists have uncovered something extraordinary just two hours north of New York City. The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/worlds-oldest-forest-discovered-close-to-new-york-city/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">world's oldest forest</a>, dating back 385 million years, offers a window into how Earth's first complex forests shaped our planet's atmosphere.



Located near <a href="https://townofcairo.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cairo, New York</a>, in Greene County, these weren't merely primitive plants struggling to survive. These were sophisticated trees with root systems remarkably similar to modern forests. This ancient woodland predates dinosaurs by 140 million years.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-cairo-forest-discovery">The Cairo forest discovery</h2>



385 million years ago, upstate New York was a tropical paradise near the equator. Thanks to continental drift, this ancient forest has traveled thousands of miles to its current location.



The fossil forest sits in an abandoned quarry, roughly half the size of a football field. This represents just a slice of what was likely a massive forest system stretching from New York into Pennsylvania.



Charles Ver Straeten, curator of sedimentary rocks at the <a href="https://www.nysm.nysed.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">New York State Museum</a>, made the discovery in 2009. While scouting the former highway department property, his trained eye spotted wandering patterns in the stone that looked like marine features.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-revolutionary-age-and-preservation">Revolutionary age and preservation</h2>



The site contains 385-million-year-old rocks with fossilized woody roots forming horizontal patterns up to 18 feet (5.5 meters) wide. As Christopher Berry, a paleobotanist at Cardiff University, explains: "You are walking through the roots of ancient trees."



This discovery pushes back advanced tree evolution by millions of years. The research, published in <a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/home" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Current Biology</a> in December 2019, fundamentally changes our understanding of when complex forests first emerged.



Researchers believe a massive flood buried the forest floor, creating perfect fossilization conditions. Over millions of years, sediment hardened into rock, preserving these root patterns like nature's time capsule.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-meet-archaeopteris-the-first-modern-tree">Meet Archaeopteris: the first modern tree</h2>



The star of this ancient forest is Archaeopteris – not to be confused with the feathered dinosaur Archaeopteryx. This tree was far older and more revolutionary.



William Stein from <a href="https://www.binghamton.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Binghamton University</a> describes the roots as "strikingly modern, essentially what you'd see outside in my yard right now." These weren't simple root systems you'd expect from ancient plants.



Some fossilized roots are six inches (15 centimeters) in diameter, forming 36-foot-wide (11-meter) patterns. These giants grew up to 65 feet (20 meters) tall with five-foot-diameter (1.5-meter) trunks.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-changing-impact">Climate-changing impact</h2>



These trees fundamentally changed Earth's environment. Kevin Boyce, a Stanford University geoscientist, explains how their deep roots triggered "weathering," chemical reactions that pulled carbon dioxide from the atmosphere.



This process dropped atmospheric CO2 levels from 10-15 times higher than today to roughly modern concentrations. These ancient trees helped create atmospheric conditions that made complex life possible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ancient-forest-ecosystem">Ancient forest ecosystem</h2>



The forest was remarkably diverse. Scientists identified Eospermatopteris, palm tree-like plants with short roots that reached 30 feet (9 meters) tall but lacked woody structure. The forest also housed cladoxylopsids and a mysterious third species still being studied.



All reproduced through spores rather than seeds – millions of years before seeds evolved. This tropical environment had no grass, flowers, or flying insects, just towering trees creating Earth's first complex forest canopy.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-scientific-significance">Scientific significance</h2>



Before this finding, the Gilboa forest, located 25 miles (40 kilometers) away, held the "oldest forest" title. Cairo's trees are 2-3 million years older, showing that complex forest ecosystems developed much faster than scientists believed possible.



Patricia Gensel, a <a href="https://www.unc.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of North Carolina</a> paleobotanist, notes: "The size of those root systems is really changing the picture. Even 20 years ago, researchers assumed trees with such complex root systems didn't evolve so early."



The Cairo site presents three unique root systems, suggesting Devonian period forests were diverse ecosystems with different trees occupying different environmental niches, much like today's forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-modern-preservation-efforts">Modern preservation efforts</h2>



In 2022, New York State Senator Michelle Hinchey secured a $170,000 grant for the town of Cairo to construct specialized fencing around the fossil forest site. The town plans to conduct a feasibility study exploring the possibility of creating an educational center and working lab on-site.



Joe Hasenkopf, chair of the Cairo Planning Board, hopes to partner with educational institutions to create a research facility serving scientists, students, and the public.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lessons-for-today-s-climate">Lessons for today's climate</h2>



Why does a 385-million-year-old forest matter today? It shows how dramatically forests can change Earth's climate. These ancient woodlands created the atmospheric conditions supporting complex life.



Understanding how prehistoric forests transformed the planet helps us appreciate modern forests' critical role in addressing climate change. Forests remain Earth's most effective carbon capture systems.



These prehistoric trees changed Earth's atmosphere by pulling massive amounts of carbon dioxide from the air. As we face modern climate challenges, this ancient forest reminds us of trees' incredible power to transform our planet's environment.



The next time you walk through a forest, remember you're experiencing an ecosystem whose blueprint was established 385 million years ago in upstate New York. These ancient pioneers didn't just survive – they thrived and changed the world forever.



The full study was published in the journal Current Biology.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Earth's oldest forest found in the United States

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ New York is the site of the world's oldest...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Acid rain and a crisis solved.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-don-t-we-ever-hear-about-acid-rain-anymore-the-environmental-crisis-that-was-solved">Why don't we ever hear about "acid rain" anymore? The environmental crisis that was solved</h2>



Remember the 1980s when acid rain dominated headlines? Dire warnings about rain eating buildings, killing fish, and destroying forests filled every news cycle. Then, almost like magic, acid rain vanished from public discourse. What happened? Did we actually solve one of the late 20th century's most pressing environmental challenges?



The answer might surprise you. Unlike many environmental issues that drag on indefinitely, acid rain represents one of modern history's most successful ecological recovery stories. It's a tale of science, politics, and technology working together to tackle what seemed impossible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What was acid rain?</h2>



Acid rain isn't regular rain having a bad day – it's precipitation that became significantly more acidic due to air pollution. When power plants, factories, and vehicles burn fossil fuels, they release sulfur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides (NOx) into the atmosphere.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The science behind it</h2>



Think of acid rain as nature's chemistry experiment gone wrong. These compounds react with water, oxygen, and other chemicals to form sulfuric and nitric acids. When mixed with water vapor in clouds, they create precipitation with dangerously low pH levels.



While clean rain has a pH of about 5.6, acid rain could drop as low as 4.2 to 4.4 – roughly as acidic as tomato juice or coffee. According to US Geological Survey documentation, Scottish chemist Angus Smith first coined "acid rain" in 1872, but it didn't become a household phrase until the 1960s and 1970s when Swedish scientist Svante Odén documented its devastating effects on Scandinavian lakes and European forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The crisis at its peak</h2>



During the height of public concern, environmental damage was both widespread and visible. This wasn't some abstract future threat – people could see destruction happening in real-time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Environmental devastation</h2>



The most dramatic impacts were impossible to ignore. Research documented by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation and the New York State Department of Environmental Conservation shows that in the Adirondack Mountains, more than 200 lakes became so acidic they couldn't support fish life. The Adirondack Council reports that 409 lakes once supported brook trout, but many lost their fish populations due to acid rain.



By 1976, when scientists cataloged all acidified lakes in the Adirondack Park, researchers found that half of the lakes over 2,000 feet above sea level had no fish, according to studies published in environmental journals. The acidification process worked like a slow-motion disaster. As acid rain fell into watersheds, it gradually lowered pH levels. Fish couldn't survive in acidic water, and their food sources died off too.



Trees at high elevations showed stress directly linked to acid rain. It weakened them by leaching nutrients and making them susceptible to disease. Historical records show Germany's Black Forest saw nearly half its trees damaged by the mid-1980s.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Economic impact</h2>



Acid rain wasn't just environmental – it was expensive. Acidic precipitation corroded infrastructure, buildings, and monuments. Historic stone structures deteriorated at accelerated rates. Tourism suffered as lakes became fishless and forests declined. EPA economic analyses from the period documented repair costs mounting into billions annually.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The solution: government action and technology</h2>



Transformation from crisis to success required unprecedented cooperation between governments, industries, and environmental groups.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The Clean Air Act of 1990</h2>



The turning point came with the Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990, signed by President George H.W. Bush. This represented a fundamentally new approach to environmental regulation, as documented in EPA historical records.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Cap-and-trade success</h2>



Instead of mandating specific technologies, the 1990 amendments introduced something revolutionary: a cap-and-trade system for sulfur dioxide emissions. EPA program documentation shows this market-based approach set overall limits but allowed companies to trade emission allowances.



The genius was harnessing market forces to find cost-effective pollution reduction. Companies reducing emissions cheaply could sell excess allowances to those facing higher costs. Research published in environmental economics journals and EPA progress reports shows this resulted in dramatic SO2 reduction at a fraction of projected costs.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Technology advances</h2>



Policy provided the framework, but technology made reductions possible. Studies in atmospheric science journals document the widespread adoption of flue gas desulfurization systems ("scrubbers") that removed sulfur dioxide before it reached the atmosphere. By the 2000s, new installations could remove over 95% of SO2 emissions, according to EPA technical reports.



The push coincided with cleaner energy development. Natural gas produces fewer sulfur compounds than coal. Wind and solar, emerging in the 1990s, captured growing market share, reducing reliance on high-sulfur coal.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-we-don-t-hear-about-it-today">Why we don't hear about it today</h2>



Why did acid rain disappear from headlines? Simple: the problem was largely solved.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Success doesn't make news</h2>



There's an old journalism saying: "If it bleeds, it leads." Environmental success stories don't generate urgency like crisis reporting. Media attention shifted to other challenges: climate change, plastic pollution, and biodiversity loss. There's only so much environmental anxiety the public can absorb, and newer concerns replaced acid rain.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Mission accomplished</h2>



The primary reason is beautifully simple: interventions worked. EPA monitoring data shows sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990. Academic research published in environmental science journals confirms pH levels in formerly affected areas returned closer to normal. This represents one of history's most dramatic environmental recoveries. Studies by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation show fishless lakes now support healthy populations. Forests recovered, and building damage slowed dramatically.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-is-it-really-gone">Is it really gone?</h2>



The crisis is largely resolved, but monitoring data shows the problem isn't completely eliminated – it's managed to acceptable levels. Some areas still experience occasional events during high pollution periods. International environmental research indicates that rapidly industrializing Asian countries face similar problems to what we experienced decades ago, though they're implementing successful strategies.



EPA research shows nitrogen oxide emissions proved more challenging than sulfur dioxide, coming from vehicles and mobile sources. Climate science studies suggest changing weather patterns add complexity to how acid rain forms and falls.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What this teaches us</h2>



The acid rain experience proves that seemingly intractable environmental problems can be solved with scientific understanding, political will, and technological innovation. Environmental monitoring data shows recovery speed was remarkable – within a decade, measurable improvements appeared in air quality and ecosystem health.



Success came from bipartisan support across party lines. Policy analysis studies show the market-based approach appealed to those preferring economic incentives while achieving environmental goals. This support created lasting policy surviving political changes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Conclusion</h2>



Acid rain's disappearance from public consciousness represents environmental science's greatest success stories. Through effective regulation, technological innovation, and international cooperation, we transformed an overwhelming crisis into a manageable challenge.



Today's silence isn't because we forgot – it's because we solved it. The 1990 Clean Air Act, combined with technology and energy market changes, reduced acid rain emissions over 90%, according to comprehensive EPA data analysis.



This success offers hope for current challenges. It proves complex problems can be solved when science, policy, and technology work together. As we face climate change and plastic pollution, acid rain reminds us that dramatic positive change is possible.



Next time someone asks whether environmental regulations work, remember acid rain. It's proof that sometimes, we get it right.



<hr class="wp-block-separator has-alpha-channel-opacity"/>



Sources: This article draws from EPA official documentation and progress reports, peer-reviewed research published in environmental and atmospheric science journals, historical data from the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation, New York State Department of Environmental Conservation records, US Geological Survey publications, policy analysis studies, and environmental monitoring data collected over three decades.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Frequently Asked Questions</h2>



1. Is acid rain completely gone? No, but EPA monitoring shows it's reduced to manageable levels. US sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990, making acid rain much less severe than the 1980s crisis.



2. How long did solving take? Environmental monitoring data shows significant improvements began within 5-10 years of 1990s emission controls. Full ecosystem recovery took longer – some areas need 20-30 years for complete recovery.



3. What made the solution successful? Clear scientific understanding, visible damage motivating action, bipartisan support, available technology, and innovative market-based policies like cap-and-trade.



4. Do other countries have acid rain problems? Yes, particularly rapidly industrializing Asian countries. However, international environmental research shows many implement similar successful control strategies.



5. Could acid rain return? Potentially, if regulations weaken or we return to high-sulfur coal without controls, though effects would take years to become severe according to environmental projections.



6. Can you recommend any teaching tools on the subject of "acid rain"? The United States Environmental Protection Agency produced a wonderful teacher's guide for ages 14 and under that you can find on the EPA website here: <a href="https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf</a>



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

The environmental problem we actually solved

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk Acid rain and a crisis solved. Why don't we...

Fresh,Radish,Harvest,On,Soil,In,Garden.

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://youtu.be/Fi2OeEwuzRM?si=vTyd2m9FMmtyWkex
</div></figure>







Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving fall garden, and this guide lays out the best vegetables and herbs to plant now for a fruitful autumn harvest. 



Fast-growing leafy greens such as spinach, lettuce, kale, and arugula perform especially well in the waning summer heat, with harvests beginning as soon as 30 days. 



These cool-season crops relish the transition into fall, offering repeated yields with cut-and-come-again methods.



Root vegetables like radishes, carrots, and beets also excel during this period. Radishes deliver satisfaction in under a month, while carrots and beets mature in about two months. Employing succession planting ensures a continuous stream of produce deep into the cooler months. 



For a boost of fresh flavor, herbs like cilantro, basil, dill, and chervil are excellent picks. These heat-loving varieties flourish in July’s warmth and are harvest-ready in about 30 days, especially when sown continuously.



Gardeners in zones 6 through 9 can benefit from planting bush beans and snap peas, which don’t require trellising and are ideal for compact plots. 



Maturing in 50–60 days, they’re a smart choice for quick, protein-rich harvests. For those in hotter regions, heat-tolerant crops such as okra and southern peas provide reliable yields and thrive in scorching conditions.



This guide emphasizes more than crop selection—it highlights the importance of timing, soil preparation, and ongoing sowing techniques. 



With thoughtful planning and attention to regional climate needs, even late-summer gardeners can enjoy fresh salads, hearty stews, and the satisfaction of a robust, homegrown harvest well into fall.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;



-----

What to plant in your garden in mid-July

https://youtu.be/Fi2OeEwuzRM?si=vTyd2m9FMmtyWkex Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving...

Green,Ecoduct,Over,An,Empty,Highway,During,Sunset.

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://youtu.be/XYgiPzmNBTU?si=eFYY7gPHU1JznLvU
</div></figure>



A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that wildlife tunnels significantly reduce amphibian road mortality during seasonal migrations. 



Frogs and salamanders often cross roads to reach breeding ponds each spring, but many are killed by vehicles. 



Researchers from the <a href="https://www.uvm.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Vermont</a>, in collaboration with local citizens and the Vermont Agency of Natural Resources, installed two underpass tunnels in 2015. 



Over a 12-year monitoring period, they observed an 80.2% reduction in amphibian deaths, and up to 94% for non-climbing species like salamanders. 



The study used a before-after-control-impact design and documented more than 5,200 amphibians, highlighting the tunnels’ effectiveness even in nearby buffer zones.



Funded at $342,397 - far cheaper than wildlife crossings for large mammals - the project showcased the power of community-led conservation.



Local groups initiated the effort after observing mass amphibian deaths. Wildlife cameras later captured over 2,200 amphibians using a tunnel in just one spring, along with other species like raccoons and bobcats, indicating wider ecosystem benefits.



This marks the first peer-reviewed, long-term data set in the northeastern U.S. confirming amphibian-specific underpasses work. 



The study urges transportation departments to incorporate these designs into road planning and highlights how community action, thoughtful infrastructure, and persistence can make a real difference for biodiversity.



The full study was published in the <a href="https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1617138125000780" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal for Nature Conservation</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Wildlife tunnels save millions of amphibians

https://youtu.be/XYgiPzmNBTU?si=eFYY7gPHU1JznLvU A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that...

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing it with probiotics and prebiotics, aiming to create a treat that satisfies cravings while supporting gut health. 



The challenge lies in maintaining chocolate's beloved texture and flavor while adding health benefits.



<figure class="wp-block-embed aligncenter is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://youtu.be/Ug657J67iEo?si=w96YjGMsg939LD_3
</div></figure>



Probiotics - beneficial microbes that balance gut bacteria and aid digestion - are typically fragile and can be destroyed by stomach acid or processing. 



Prebiotics act as food for these microbes, helping them thrive. Together, they form "synbiotics," a powerful health combination.



Researchers Smriti Gaur and Shubhi Singh from India's Jaypee Institute of Information Technology took an innovative approach, using natural prebiotics like corn and honey instead of complex processing methods. 



They created five chocolate varieties: a control and four synbiotic versions containing different combinations of prebiotics, probiotics (Lactobacillus strains), and flavor enhancers (cinnamon or orange).



Laboratory simulations of human digestion showed the probiotics remained viable for over five hours, suggesting they could survive long enough to benefit gut health.



Taste tests were positive, with researchers particularly enjoying the orange-flavored variety, describing it as having "vibrant citrus notes" complementing the "rich cocoa" with a "luxurious" texture.



This research represents just the beginning. With further refinement of strains, textures, and flavors, chocolate could evolve beyond mere indulgence to become a functional food that nourishes while it delights.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.4c00741" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ACS Food Science &amp; Technology</a>.

Is chocolate the next nutritional powerhouse?

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="0ynNMYkMKa-2340414-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



---



By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

[sendtonews key="0ynNMYkMKa-2340414-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="G9bUoxcjr4-2511624-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

[sendtonews key="G9bUoxcjr4-2511624-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="3upvlAaHgO-2256633-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



---



By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

[sendtonews key="3upvlAaHgO-2256633-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="LvS8v8bp9z-2564889-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

[sendtonews key="LvS8v8bp9z-2564889-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="X0f6OHYoI4-2310561-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How does salt makes things taste better?

[sendtonews key="X0f6OHYoI4-2310561-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="JRaP49ISmm-2357509-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Santiago, Chile in South America

[sendtonews key="JRaP49ISmm-2357509-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="e4ZG0Jawp3-2374785-12187" type="single"]</div>



Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

[sendtonews key="e4ZG0Jawp3-2374785-12187" type="single"] Astronomers at Johns Hopkins University have created...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="uV9Lh2fQbV-1760058-12187" type="single"]</div>



Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.



According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."



Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;



ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. 



Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

[sendtonews key="uV9Lh2fQbV-1760058-12187" type="single"] Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="qjvhBOBnY8-2426650-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

[sendtonews key="qjvhBOBnY8-2426650-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="oL4FnPTGCV-2384527-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

[sendtonews key="oL4FnPTGCV-2384527-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="0879czfG3k-1785905-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

[sendtonews key="0879czfG3k-1785905-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from NASA...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="6HyfrAJTBI-1831843-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

[sendtonews key="6HyfrAJTBI-1831843-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

Earth,Like,Exoplanet,3d,Render

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="QIoVYJqRBi-2434608-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

[sendtonews key="QIoVYJqRBi-2434608-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from NASA...

News coming your way