Young aspen trees in Yellowstone are doing something they have not done in almost 100 years. Rather than sprouting and being eaten back to nubs by elk and bison, they're actually growing into tall, adult forest trees rising up towards the canopy.



This matters more than it might seem, because it shows what happens when a missing piece of an ecosystem returns.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-yellowstone-aspens-and-elk">Yellowstone, aspens, and elk</h2>



In the 1920s, people <a href="https://www.yellowstone.org/wolf-project/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">eliminated wolves in Yellowstone</a>. At the time, with limited scientific knowledge, managers believed it was the right thing to do.



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/from-wolves-to-dogs-did-domestication-begin-without-human-help/">Without wolves</a>, elk herds grew very large. Elk love to eat aspen shoots - the tender young growth is highly palatable to them.



For roughly 70 years, elk browsed aspen sprouts down to stub height, and the trees couldn't grow. 



If you had walked through Yellowstone in the 1980s, you would have seen many tiny aspen shoots covering the ground, but almost no young trees gaining height. 



The forest's regeneration was stalled. Old trees died, and no new ones replaced them.



In 1995 and 1996, park managers reintroduced wolves into the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/yellowstone-supervolcano-eruption-study-sparks-new-debate-on-where-and-when-it-will-erupt/">Yellowstone Park ecosystem</a>. Scientists hoped and wondered whether this would change anything for the trees.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-aspen-matter-to-yellowstone">Why aspen matter to Yellowstone</h2>



Aspen groves provide habitat for many species. Birds nest in them. Beavers eat the bark and use the wood for dams. Butterflies and moths lay eggs on the leaves. 



Their canopy admits enough light for wildflowers and shrubs to grow beneath. When it rains, aspen groves hold water in the soil better than some other forest types.



In short, when aspen return, dozens of other species benefit. More trees support more insects, which in turn support more birds, enriching the ecosystem.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-checking-the-trees-three-decades-later">Checking the trees three decades later</h2>



<a href="https://fwcs.oregonstate.edu/users/luke-painter" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Luke Painter</a>, an ecologist at <a href="https://oregonstate.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Oregon State University</a>, sought clear answers. His team returned to 87 aspen stands across Yellowstone that scientists had previously surveyed. 



They measured thousands of young trees, looked for bite marks, and counted how many stems were tall enough that elk could no longer reach the tips.



About a third of these stands now have many tall young aspens pushing toward the canopy. 



"About 26 of the 87 aspen stands we examined had large numbers of tall saplings throughout, a remarkable change from the 1990s when surveys found none at all," Painter said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-wolves-matter-to-yellowstone-aspens">Why wolves matter to Yellowstone aspens</h2>



Breaking it all down, the conclusions of this study are pretty simple. 



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/wolves-move-pups-across-mountains-to-adapt-to-climate-pressure/">Wolves hunt elk</a>. When wolves came back, two things happened. First, elk numbers declined from unusually high levels. Second, elk changed their behavior. They spent less time in the same areas feeding.



With fewer elk and shorter feeding bouts, more aspen shoots survived long enough to exceed the browsing zone - about six to seven feet high. 



Once a sapling reaches that height, elk cannot easily reach the growing tip. The tree continues to grow.



"The reintroduction of large carnivores has initiated a recovery process that had been shut down for decades," Painter explained.



Scientists call this a <a href="https://www.nature.com/scitable/knowledge/library/trophic-cascades-across-diverse-plant-ecosystems-80060347/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">trophic cascade</a> - when adding or removing one species causes changes that ripple through the whole system.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-some-places-recover-others-don-t">Some places recover, others don't</h2>



Unfortunately, not every aspen stand has recovered yet. Some valleys still have many short, heavily browsed shoots, because it's not only elk eating them anymore. 



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/yellowstones-iconic-bison-have-merged-into-a-single-herd/">Bison herds have grown</a>, and bison browse on aspen as well. They are strong enough to break young trees. 



"Increasing numbers of bison may be emerging as a new constraint to aspen in some areas," Painter confirmed.



Additionally, winter snow depth varies; droughts stress trees; bears and mountain lions also hunt elk; and hunting outside the park influences elk distribution. 



All of these factors interact, which is why some sites show strong recovery, others show moderate recovery, and a few have changed very little.



The key pattern is that places with many tall saplings experience little browsing, and aspen groves that remain popular eating grounds today stay short. 



This fact is the strongest indication that tree recovery is linked directly to wolf presence, not solely to weather or soil conditions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-proof-in-the-measurements">Proof in the measurements</h2>



Painter's team did not rely on casual observation. They used the same methods as earlier researchers, measuring the same plots. 



They counted recruitment - when young trees surpass browsing height and begin progressing toward maturity. This measure is crucial. Sprouts are insufficient if they never grow; without recruitment, the forest cannot replace itself.



The results are robust. After being stalled for most of a century, Yellowstone's aspens are increasing in height. In recovering stands today, you will see saplings - six, eight, or ten feet tall - that were not present in the 1990s.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-future-of-yellowstone-s-aspens">The future of Yellowstone's aspens</h2>



"This is a remarkable case of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/giant-viruses-found-in-yellowstones-hot-springs-may-be-near-the-root-of-all-life-on-earth/">ecological restoration</a>," Painter concluded. "Wolf reintroduction is yielding long-term ecological changes contributing to increased biodiversity and habitat diversity."



Trees grow slowly, so even with wolves restored, it will take decades for these young aspens to form a full-grown forest. 



Some areas might never fully recover if bison numbers continue to rise or if the climate becomes too hot and dry.



Thanks to the work of Painter and his team, scientists are now certain that restoring the Yellowstone predator has restarted aspen forest regeneration. Not everywhere and not perfectly, but enough to be measured, creating hope for the future.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0378112725004499?via%3Dihub" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Forest Ecology and Management</a>.



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Yellowstone's aspen trees are growing again thanks to the reintroduction of wolves

Young aspen trees in Yellowstone are doing something they have not done in almost 100 years. Rather than sprouting and being eaten back to nubs by elk and bison, they're actually growing into tall, adult forest trees rising up towards the canopy. This matters more than it might seem, because it shows what happens when a missing piece of an ecosystem returns. Yellowstone, aspens, and elk In the 1920s, people eliminated wolves in Yellowstone. At the time, with limited scientific knowledge, managers believed it was the right...

Manta,In,The,Blue,Background,While,Diving,Maldives

A new survey of North Sea waters has revealed that several shark and ray species move through Dutch offshore wind farms and may even use them as shelter.



By reading traces of DNA suspended in seawater, scientists from <a href="https://www.wur.nl/en.htm" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Wageningen University &amp; Research</a> have shown that these high-tech energy sites could also play an unexpected part in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ocean-conservation-credit-system-could-reduce-costs/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">marine conservation</a>. 



The research provides new evidence that renewable-energy structures can interact with marine life in complex ways - sometimes for the better.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-sharks-and-rays-at-wind-farms">Sharks and rays at wind farms</h2>



The team collected 436 water samples inside and around four wind-farm zones: Borssele, Hollandse Kust Zuid, Luchterduinen, and Gemini. Each sample was filtered in the lab for fragments of genetic material shed by passing animals. The method, known as <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dna-fishing-helps-scientists-survey-marine-life-in-the-deep-ocean/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">environmental DNA</a> or eDNA, is sensitive enough to confirm a species’ presence without nets or hooks.



“We're trying to understand whether these animals are actually using the wind farms as habitat, or whether they're being displaced by them,” said lead author Annemiek Hermans, a PhD candidate at Wageningen University &amp; Research.



Five elasmobranchs - <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mediterranean-sharks-face-growing-threats-despite-conservation-efforts/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">sharks</a> and rays - left a clear genetic signature at wind farms. Thornback rays appeared most often and in three of the four farms throughout the year.



Starry smooth-hound sharks and blonde rays showed up in multiple seasons. Basking sharks, famous for their long migrations, were detected in Hollandse Kust Zuid during winter, hinting at cold-season routes previously unknown in Dutch waters.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-reading-the-water-for-clues">Reading the water for clues</h2>



“It's like finding a fingerprint in the water,” Hermans explained. “Even if you don't see the shark, the DNA tells you it's been there.”



Because the technique is quick and does not disturb wildlife, it opens new doors for large-scale monitoring in rough offshore conditions. It also lets scientists compare many sites over time, revealing patterns that traditional surveys might miss.



The study drew on earlier data gathered by <a href="https://www.therichnorthsea.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">The Rich North Sea program</a>, then added fresh fieldwork to paint a broader picture. By merging datasets, the researchers confirmed that sharks and rays are not just skirting the turbine fields - they are moving through them in measurable numbers.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-turbines-sharks-and-rays-find-shelter">Turbines: Sharks and rays find shelter</h2>



Turbine safety zones ban bottom-trawling and other gear that gouges the seabed. Those restrictions give benthic habitats a break from constant disturbance, allowing worms, shellfish and small fish to rebound. Such changes create richer feeding grounds and hiding spots for predators higher up the food web.



“We must tread carefully,” Hermans cautioned. “If we start allowing bottom trawling in these areas, we risk losing the very protection these zones may offer.”



Vulnerable elasmobranchs, which mature slowly and lay few eggs, could benefit most from these inadvertent sanctuaries.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-wind-farms-influence-sharks-and-rays">Wind farms influence sharks and rays</h2>



The findings arrive just as the European Union rolls out the Nature Restoration Law and updates its Habitats Directive.



Policymakers face a delicate task: scaling up <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/tapping-into-the-natural-power-of-plants-for-renewable-energy/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">renewable energy</a> without harming the ecosystems they hope to safeguard. Evidence that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/offshore-wind-farms-threaten-marine-life-hotspots/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">wind farms</a> can double as conservation assets offers a rare chance for a “win-win” approach.



The six-year <a href="https://www.wur.nl/en/project/elasmopower-1.htm" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ElasmoPower project</a>, under which this study falls, also looks at how electromagnetic fields from subsea power cables might influence shark and ray behavior.



Future work will blend lab trials with camera arrays, sensors, and more eDNA sampling to see whether the animals linger, feed, or breed inside turbine clusters - or simply pass through.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-next-steps-for-north-sea-wildlife"><a></a>Next steps for North Sea wildlife</h2>



Using non-invasive genetics, the team now has a baseline for tracking seasonal movements and long-term trends. Repeating the survey in different years and depths could reveal whether the number of elasmobranchs rises as benthic life recovers beneath turbine blades.



The same approach might be applied to other protected species, guiding spatial plans that place turbines where they help rather than harm.



For now, the study demonstrates that wind farms are more than power plants. They are new structures in a busy sea, shaping habitats in ways still being mapped. Whether those changes become a net gain for threatened sharks and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ancient-rays-were-more-diverse-than-previously-thought/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">rays</a> will depend on careful management - and on keeping the trawls out.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-beneath-the-waves">Beneath the waves</h2>



The North Sea is a crowded stage of shipping lanes, fishing grounds and growing energy grids. Environmental DNA offers a swift, animal-friendly way to see how each new addition affects life below the surface.



In this case it has been shown that, under the right rules, rows of spinning turbines might turn into corridors of relative calm for some of the ocean’s most ancient fish.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ocecoaman.2025.107671" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Ocean &amp; Coastal Management</a>.



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Offshore wind farms are now habitats for sharks and rays

A new survey of North Sea waters has revealed that...

Children born today are stepping into a world that is increasingly defined by climate extremes.



Heatwaves, floods, wildfires, droughts, and tropical cyclones are occurring more often and with greater intensity. As global temperatures continue to rise, these extreme events are projected to grow even more severe.



More than any generation before them, young people face a future that will be shaped by climate uncertainty. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-world-of-climate-extremes">A world of climate extremes</h2>



New research from scientists at <a href="https://www.vub.be/nl" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Vrije Universiteit Brussel</a> (VUB) and Environment and Climate Change Canada (ECCC) paints a startling picture. 



The study shows that today’s children will likely experience a much higher number of climate extremes over their lifetime compared to those born just a few decades earlier. And in many parts of the world, these experiences will be without historical precedent.



“In 2021, we demonstrated how children are to face disproportionate increases in extreme event exposure - especially in low-income countries," said Wim Thiery, professor of climate science at VUB and senior author of the study.



"Now, we examined how the cumulative exposure to climate extremes across one’s lifetime will far exceed that which would have been experienced in a pre-industrial climate."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-an-unprecedented-life">An unprecedented life</h2>



The study introduces a concept called an “unprecedented life.” According to Dr. Luke Grant, the study's lead author, living an unprecedented life means that, without climate change, one would have less than a 1-in-10,000 chance of experiencing that many climate extremes across one’s lifetime.



<blockquote class="wp-block-quote">
“This is a stringent threshold that identifies populations facing climate extremes far beyond what could be expected without <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/indisputable-evidence-of-human-caused-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">man-made climate change</a>,” said Dr. Grant.
</blockquote>



The scientists arrived at these conclusions by combining demographic data with projections from climate models. 



This allowed them to calculate, for every region on Earth, the percentage of people born between 1960 and 2020 who are expected to live through an unprecedented number of climate extremes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-future-defined-by-climate-extremes">A future defined by climate extremes</h2>



The findings revealed a clear generational divide. The younger someone is, the more extreme events they are likely to endure.



Even if <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/limiting-global-warming-to-1-5-degrees-celsius-would-save-billions-of-lives/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">global warming</a> is limited to 1.5°C, more than half (52%) of children born in 2020 will face a lifetime of unprecedented heatwaves. In contrast, only 16% of those born in 1960 would face such extremes.



“By stabilizing our climate around 1.5 °C above pre-industrial temperatures, about half of today’s young people will be exposed to an unprecedented number of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-has-made-heatwaves-more-deadly/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">heatwaves</a> in their lifetime. Under a 3.5 °C scenario, over 90% will endure such exposure throughout their lives,” noted Dr. Grant.



“The same picture emerges for other climate extremes examined, though with slightly lower affected fractions of the population. Yet the same unfair generational differences in unprecedented exposure is observed.”



And geography matters. Children in tropical countries are especially vulnerable - even under a 1.5°C warming limit.



If emissions continue on their current path, nearly every child on Earth could end up facing a future defined by <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/extreme-summer-rainfall-events-have-increased-in-the-u-s/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">extreme events</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-inequality-makes-the-crisis-worse">Inequality makes the crisis worse</h2>



The research also highlights the injustice of climate change. Children who are more likely to be exposed to extreme events are most often living in poorer countries that are the least equipped to respond. These communities often lack the infrastructure and resources needed to adapt or recover.



<blockquote class="wp-block-quote">
“Precisely the most vulnerable children experience the worst escalation of climate extremes. With limited resources and adaptation options, they face disproportionate risks,” said Thiery.
</blockquote>



Under current policies, 95% of the most socioeconomically vulnerable children born in 2020 are expected to live through unprecedented heatwave exposure. For the least vulnerable group, that number is 78 percent.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-urgent-action-is-needed">Urgent action is needed</h2>



The timing of this study is no coincidence. It arrives as world leaders prepare for COP30 in Brazil, where new climate commitments will be on the table. 



Right now, existing policies put the planet on a path toward approximately 2.7°C of warming this century. The scientists behind this study, along with global advocates, are calling for stronger, faster action to keep warming below 1.5°C.



“Across the world, children are forced to bear the brunt of a crisis they are not responsible for," said Inger Ashing, CEO of Save the Children International.



"Dangerous heat that puts their health and learning at risk; <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/are-bomb-cyclones-increasing-due-to-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cyclones</a> that batter their homes and schools; creeping droughts that shrivel up crops and shrink what’s on their plates. Amid this daily drumbeat of disasters, children plead with us not to switch off." 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-protecting-children-from-climate-extremes">Protecting children from climate extremes </h2>



This new research shows there is still hope, but only if we act urgently and ambitiously to limit warming temperatures rapidly to 1.5 °C. We need to put children front and center of our response to climate change.



“With global emissions still rising and the planet only 0.2 °C away from the 1.5 °C threshold, world leaders must step up to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and lessen the climate burden on today’s youth,” concluded Thiery.



The study doesn’t just offer a warning - it offers a choice. Today’s decisions will shape the future lives of millions of children, including how many climate extremes they will have to endure.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-025-08907-1" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature</a>.



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Today’s children will face more climate extremes than ever before

Children born today are stepping into a world that is...

In the web of life, survival demands strategy. For the brown widow spider, survival hinges on one essential task – protecting its offspring. 



These invasive <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/do-spiders-have-personalities-what-new-research-reveals/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">spiders</a> have spread across urban landscapes, thriving in hidden corners beneath garbage cans, fence posts, and building nooks. Their success may not just be about adaptability but also about fierce maternal instincts.



Valeria Arabesky and her team at <a href="https://www.bgu.ac.il/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Ben-Gurion University of the Negev</a> decided to dig deeper. In a study published in the journal Proceedings of the Royal Society B, they examined how brown widow spiders defend their egg sacs against parasitic wasps.



The findings reveal that these spiders don’t just rely on luck - they actively fight back.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-maternal-instincts-of-brown-widow-spiders">Maternal instincts of brown widow spiders</h2>



For many species, eggs represent a vulnerable stage of life. Defenseless and stationary, they become prime targets for parasites and predators. 



"For creatures that start their life as eggs, such as <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/animals-develop-natural-immunity-to-ticks-after-being-bitten-once/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">spiders</a>, parental protection can be crucial. The eggs themselves are defenseless and very attractive to parasites and predators, thus their parents are their only hope for survival," noted Arabesky, the study’s lead author.



Brown widow spiders take this to heart. While some spiders abandon their eggs, brown widows do the opposite. They guard them with vigilance, patrolling the web and encircling their egg sacs with protective legs. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-battle-begins-wasp-vs-spider">The battle begins: Wasp vs. spider</h2>



Tiny parasitic wasps, known as Philolema latrodecti, target spider eggs. They approach spider webs, seeking a chance to lay their own eggs inside the silken sacs. What happens next? A clash of survival <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/spider-man-web-slinging-technology-has-become-a-reality/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">strategies</a>.



Brown widow spiders respond with aggression. They don’t wait. They tap their egg sacs, sending vibrations that warn the wasps to stay away. 



If that doesn’t work, they escalate. The spiders capture the wasps, killing them and tossing them out of the web - without even feeding on them. It’s not about hunger. It’s about protection.



White widow spiders, on the other hand, adopt a less aggressive stance. They shake their webs violently, hoping to dislodge the intruders. But shaking only goes so far. While it can fend off some wasps, it lacks the direct impact of the brown widow’s lethal approach.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-silk-spikes-the-secret-weapon">Silk spikes: The secret weapon</h2>



Beyond aggression, brown widow spiders wield another weapon - silk spikes. They cover their egg sacs in dense, sharp silk protrusions. The spikes form a physical barrier, complicating any wasp’s attempts to penetrate the sacs.



The researchers tested this strategy. They carefully removed spikes from some sacs and left others intact. Then, they introduced the parasitic wasps. The results? Wasps consistently preferred the smooth, spike-free sacs, laying their eggs there without hesitation.



Spikes, it turns out, aren’t just for show. They serve a vital purpose. Brown widow spiders use them to disrupt wasp attacks, giving their eggs a fighting chance.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-brown-widows-adapt-to-threats">How brown widows adapt to threats</h2>



Brown widow spiders don’t just sit back and wait for wasps to attack - they adapt. When wasps linger nearby, these spiders go into defense mode, thickening the silk spikes around their sacs. It’s a calculated move, a way to reinforce barriers when threats increase.



This behavior suggests a level of environmental awareness. Brown widows aren’t passive <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/spiders-adapt-their-webs-to-filter-out-human-made-noise/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">creatures</a>. They assess their surroundings, identify potential dangers, and adjust their defenses accordingly. That level of adaptability may explain why they’ve become such successful invaders.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-urban-spaces-help-widow-spiders">Urban spaces help widow spiders</h2>



Urban environments provide the perfect stage for this spider-wasp showdown. Buildings, fences, and garbage cans create hiding spots for spiders, while also attracting parasitic wasps. The stakes rise in these crowded, chaotic spaces.



Brown widow spiders thrive here. Their dense, spiked egg sacs blend into the urban clutter, camouflaged yet heavily fortified. White widow spiders, accustomed to open desert habitats, struggle to keep up. They lack the silk spikes. 



They lack the aggressive tactics. In the end, they lose more eggs to wasps.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-war-without-end">A war without end</h2>



The battle between brown widows and wasps isn’t just about survival. It’s about control - of space, resources, and control of life itself. Brown widow spiders fight this war with silk, with legs, with sheer tenacity.



Their relentless defense strategies may hold a deeper lesson. Invasive species like brown widows don’t just spread through numbers. They spread by mastering the art of survival - by finding new ways to shield their young, by adapting, by refusing to back down.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-research-directions">Future research directions </h2>



Arabesky’s study raises more questions than it answers. Are other invasive species using similar tactics to protect their offspring? Could these strategies help explain how certain species dominate new habitats? And what role does parental care play in the success of invaders?



These questions open the door for further research. Brown widow spiders may have set the stage, but they’re just one piece of a larger puzzle. 



As invasive species continue to reshape ecosystems, scientists may find that the fight for survival is more complex - and more intense - than anyone ever imagined.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rspb.2024.2735" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences</a>.



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Brown widow spiders protect their young from parasitic wasps

In the web of life, survival demands strategy. For the...

Fish often appear as simple creatures, mindlessly drifting through water. Yet, behind those unblinking eyes, complex cognitive processes unfold as they learn and adapt. 



For years, researchers confined fish cognition studies to sterile labs, where controlled settings attempted to simulate natural environments. But these setups often miss the mark.



Now, a team from Wageningen University &amp; Research (<a href="https://www.wur.nl/en.htm" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">WUR</a>) has created a tool that brings the lab to the wild. Their innovative device, a simple yet effective feeding board, allows fish to solve tasks in their natural habitats. 



Published in the journal Methods in Ecology and Evolution, the study reveals not only the cognitive abilities of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dna-fishing-helps-scientists-survey-marine-life-in-the-deep-ocean/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">fish</a> but also their intriguing social strategies.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-key-learning-insights-in-fish">Key learning insights in fish</h2>



Imagine being placed in a blank room, far from your familiar surroundings. Would you behave the same? Probably not.



In traditional lab studies, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/some-fish-use-tools-to-crack-open-prey/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">fish</a> are removed from their natural environments and placed in tanks devoid of the usual stimuli. Stress levels rise, motivation dips and learning suffers. Elevated cortisol levels can cloud cognitive performance, making fish seem less capable than they truly are.



Moreover, lab-raised fish miss out on real-world challenges. They don’t have to avoid predators, search for food, or navigate intricate habitats. As a result, findings from lab studies may not accurately represent how fish behave in the wild.



Recognizing these limitations, Catarina Vila-Pouca and Alexander Kotrschal decided to flip the script. Instead of bringing fish to the lab, they brought the lab to the fish.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tool-reveals-fish-learning-potential">Tool reveals fish learning potential</h2>



At first glance, the apparatus appears unremarkable. It’s a 30x30 cm PVC board with 24 small holes, each covered by a pivoting disc. Underneath each disc lies a food reward. The challenge? The fish must push the disc aside to access the food.



"We sought a solution that could be deployed anywhere, from shallow ponds to fast-flowing rivers," said Vila-Pouca.



The device is light, portable, and adaptable, allowing fish to engage with it without the stress of capture or confinement.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-guppies-display-learning-skills">Guppies display learning skills</h2>



For the initial trial, the researchers headed to Trinidad’s Aripo River to learn how fish interact with the apparatus. The test subjects: wild guppies. Known for their vibrant social <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/unlikely-allies-octopuses-cooperate-with-fish-to-catch-prey/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">interactions</a>, guppies provided the perfect opportunity to assess how fish learn in group settings.



Researchers set up the feeding board in outdoor enclosures and watched as the guppies approached. Initially, the fish appeared puzzled. They nudged the discs, swam away, then returned. Some individuals began to grasp the concept, pushing the correct discs to uncover food.



By the end of the trial, nine guppies emerged as standout solvers. These individuals successfully dislodged more than 20% of the target discs, demonstrating not only persistence but also learning proficiency. 



Meanwhile, other guppies watched and waited, benefiting from the efforts of their more industrious peers.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-social-strategies-to-access-food">Social strategies to access food</h2>



A fascinating pattern emerged. Some guppies became “producers,” actively solving the task and claiming rewards. 



Others assumed the role of “scroungers,” hovering nearby and swooping in to snatch the prize once a producer had done the hard work.



Throughout the study, these strategies persisted. The same individuals continued to dominate as producers, while others remained content to scrounge. This division in behavior reflects broader social foraging dynamics seen in other <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fish-leaving-home-how-cichlids-perfectly-time-independence/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">species</a>, from birds to primates.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-testing-sticklebacks-in-a-new-habitat">Testing sticklebacks in a new habitat</h2>



After the Trinidad experiment, the researchers headed to Wageningen University’s freshwater pond in the Netherlands. This time, the subjects were ninespine sticklebacks, a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-boat-shaped-robot-mimics-insects-and-is-made-of-fish-food/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">species</a> noted for its observational skills.



Unlike the guppies, the sticklebacks showed less variability in behavior. Almost all individuals engaged with the feeding board, with fewer scroungers in the mix. Most fish actively attempted to dislodge the discs, leading to a more egalitarian task-sharing dynamic.



Despite their collective approach, individual differences still surfaced. Some sticklebacks learned the task faster, while others required more time to grasp the concept. 



The apparatus not only revealed cognitive abilities but also highlighted how different species adopt distinct strategies based on their ecological context.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tracking-how-fish-learn">Tracking how fish learn </h2>



The beauty of the feeding board lies in its ability to track learning across multiple sessions. Each interaction was recorded, allowing researchers to pinpoint which fish improved over time and which struggled.



In the Trinidad trial, nine guppies consistently excelled. They returned to the board repeatedly, experimenting with different discs and refining their approach. These fish not only solved the task more frequently but also adapted their strategies based on previous successes.



Scroungers, on the other hand, rarely attempted to solve the task independently. Instead, they hovered nearby, waiting for producers to uncover the reward. This behavior underscores how social learning influences cognitive performance. 



While some fish clearly excelled as problem-solvers, others thrived as opportunists.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-adjusting-the-tool-for-different-habitats">Adjusting the tool for different habitats</h2>



What makes the feeding board truly groundbreaking is its versatility. The same apparatus used in shallow rivers worked seamlessly in the still waters of a pond. With minor adjustments, it can be adapted for various habitats, from rocky streams to open lakes.



In the Netherlands study, the team added a video camera to capture every interaction without disturbing the fish. This setup provided a deeper understanding of group dynamics and individual learning trajectories. 



The data revealed that sticklebacks, unlike guppies, showed a more uniform learning pattern, with fewer dominant individuals taking control of the task.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-future-research">Implications for future research</h2>



"By studying animals within their natural habitats, we are better able to observe authentic behavior. This not only enhances our understanding of cognitive evolution but also has implications for conservation and animal welfare," said Kotrschal.



The feeding board offers a powerful tool for researchers worldwide. Beyond assessing learning and memory, the device can be adapted to study spatial navigation, social recognition, and decision-making. It also allows for repeated testing, enabling researchers to observe how cognitive abilities evolve over time.



Moreover, the low cost and portability of the device make it accessible for use in remote or ecologically sensitive areas. As researchers continue to refine the apparatus, the potential for expanding fish cognition studies becomes evident.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fish-learn-and-strategize">Fish learn and strategize</h2>



For decades, fish cognition research remained trapped in laboratory tanks, far removed from the real world. With the advent of the feeding board apparatus, that era is ending.



The Trinidad and Netherlands studies reveal just how much fish can learn - and how much they rely on social cues to navigate challenging tasks. Producers emerge as leaders, setting examples for others. Scroungers capitalize on those efforts, showing that even fish can employ cunning strategies.



As the researchers refine the apparatus and test it across more species, one thing is certain - fish are not as simple as they seem. Beneath those calm, glassy eyes lies a mind capable of problem-solving, learning from peers, and even strategizing.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://besjournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/2041-210X.70002" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Methods in Ecology and Evolution</a>.



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Fish reveal surprising learning skills in natural habitats

Fish often appear as simple creatures, mindlessly drifting through water....

Monsoons across the planet are known for their seasonal timing, delivering vital rainfall in some months and waning in others. Yet the exact reasons behind their shifts from dry to wet conditions have often puzzled researchers.



In a new study, scientists revealed that the atmosphere can hold moisture for longer than previously suspected, adding a twist to traditional thinking about these large-scale <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-land-conditions-affect-the-asian-monsoon-climate/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">weather</a> systems.



This phenomenon was identified by Anja Katzenberger, a climatologist at the <a href="https://www.pik-potsdam.de/en/home" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Potsdam Institute for Climate Impact Research</a>, who investigated the ways water vapor shapes the timing of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/extreme-rainfall-increases-as-a-direct-result-of-global-warming/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">rainfall</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-seasonal-rains-support-billions">Seasonal rains support billions</h2>



Monsoon rains emerge each year in regions such as South Asia, West Africa, parts of the Americas, and East Asia. More than <a href="https://community.wmo.int/en/news/wgtmra-new-international-monsoons-project-office-launched-support-global-monsoon-research-activities" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">two billion people</a> rely on these rains to to irrigate crops and replenish rivers.



Scientists have long connected monsoon onset with the warming of land masses under stronger sunlight in spring. Yet findings suggest there may be more to this process than just solar energy.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-role-of-moisture-memory">The role of moisture memory</h2>



Research indicates a property known as <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/mathematics/bistability" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">bistability</a>, where the atmosphere settles in either a rainy or a dry configuration for a given level of solar heating. This stable arrangement persists until a certain threshold of moisture tips the system into a new state.



“The atmosphere can ‘remember’ its previous state by storing physical information in the form of water vapor,” said Katzenberger. This storage creates conditions where <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rain-and-snow-are-difficult-to-forecast-at-near-freezing-temperatures/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">rainfall</a> can switch on rapidly after enough moisture builds.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-testing-rainfall-without-oceans">Testing rainfall without oceans</h2>



To isolate the atmosphere’s behavior, the researchers used a specialized climate model called a <a href="https://www.ipcc-data.org/guidelines/pages/gcm_guide.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">general circulation model</a>. They removed slower Earth systems like oceans to test how the air alone responds to changing conditions.



The results showed that even without ocean heat, the atmosphere could switch states once moisture passed a certain level. This finding confirms that memory-like behavior exists within the air itself - contradicting long-held assumptions in <a href="https://www.gfdl.noaa.gov/earth-system-model/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">climate science</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-moisture-for-monsoon-timing">Moisture for monsoon timing</h2>



We usually think of water vapor escaping or condensing in short time frames. But researchers found evidence that it can accumulate over weeks to sustain wet <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/extreme-summer-rainfall-events-have-increased-in-the-u-s/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">conditions</a> when the rains begin.



“We’ve long known that systems like the ocean or ice sheets have some sort of memory,” said Anders Levermann, who leads the Complexity Science department at the institute.



Those discoveries hinted that slower climate processes could store energy, yet the idea of the air having a similar capacity seemed far-fetched until now.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-delayed-rain-risks-crops">Delayed rain risks crops</h2>



The timing of monsoon onset isn’t just a scientific curiosity - it’s directly tied to crop planting, water storage, and disaster readiness. A shift of just a few weeks can mean the difference between a successful harvest and a failed one.



Regions that rely heavily on seasonal rains, like parts of India and Southeast Asia, have already seen increased variability. These new findings raise concerns about how climate change might amplify delays or intensify rainfall beyond manageable levels.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-billions-depend-on-monsoons">Billions depend on monsoons</h2>



When the atmosphere transitions to its rainy phase, it can hold on to that state even after sunlight starts to dip. If conditions shift due to additional pollution or higher temperatures, the threshold for flipping back might change.



These sudden swings matter. A <a href="https://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar6/wg2/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">delayed monsoon</a> could leave regions parched while an extended wet spell may bring floods that damage crops and disrupt local economies.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-improving-monsoon-predictions">Improving monsoon predictions</h2>



Future research may refine early warning systems for abrupt weather changes. Pinpointing the moisture level that triggers a switch could help local planners manage water resources more effectively.



Climate scientists worldwide are watching these findings closely. Some hope to extend the concept of atmospheric memory to other weather patterns, adding a fresh perspective to long-term climate modeling.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-questions-about-monsoon-timing">Questions about monsoon timing</h2>



While the study explains how monsoon shifts occur, it doesn’t yet explain how different regions might respond as the climate warms unevenly. More research is needed to determine if the threshold changes across continents or ecosystems.



It’s also unclear how human activities - such as deforestation, aerosol emissions, or irrigation - might alter the atmosphere’s ability to store moisture. These variables could push some monsoon systems closer to instability without clear warning signs.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.2418093122" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a>.



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The atmosphere has a 'memory' that affects the timing of monsoons

Monsoons across the planet are known for their seasonal timing,...

The world has been experiencing increasingly frequent hot weather and droughts, affecting both people and the environment, with severe consequences for crop yields. While most of us feel the heat in our daily lives, farmers face the greatest impact as their crop yields decline.



Crops that once thrived under predictable weather patterns now struggle against unpredictable <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/genetically-enhanced-crops-could-help-fight-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">climatic shifts</a>. The consequences are not limited to just a few regions but are evident across the globe. 



A recent <a href="https://www.stanford.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Stanford</a> study sheds light on the profound impact of rising temperatures and air dryness on essential crops such as wheat, barley, and maize. The study not only reveals the extent of the damage but also uncovers significant gaps in existing climate models.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-crop-yields-drop-as-temperatures-rise">Crop yields drop as temperatures rise</h2>



The study reveals a troubling pattern: warming and air dryness have intensified across nearly every major farming region. Some areas now endure hotter growing seasons than they’ve seen in half a century.



Grain yields are plummeting. Wheat, barley, and maize show declines of 4% to 13%, a stark contrast to what could have been without recent climate trends.



For a world dependent on these <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plants-could-soon-talk-to-farmers-and-listen-too/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">crops</a>, the implications are nothing short of alarming.



Study lead author David Lobell is the Gloria and Richard Kushel Director of Stanford's Center on Food Security and the Environment (FSE).



"There have been a lot of news stories about crop failures around the world, and often I get asked whether the impacts are happening faster than we expected," said Lobell. "That motivated a closer look at what's been happening in farms around the world."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-predicting-agricultural-impacts">Predicting agricultural impacts</h2>



Despite the growing evidence of crop stress, the study highlights two critical ways that existing climate models have failed to accurately predict the magnitude of the impact. 



In many cases, the models did not fully account for the extent of warming and drying that agricultural regions would <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/pests-are-moving-to-cooler-regions-due-to-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">experience</a>. This has led to discrepancies between predicted and observed outcomes, leaving farmers and policymakers underprepared.



"In many ways, the changes farmers are experiencing are completely in line with what climate models predicted, so the overall impact should not be a surprise," said study co-author Stefania Di Tommaso, a research data analyst at FSE. 



Yet, there were unexpected twists in the data that revealed significant oversights in climate projections.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-severe-drying-in-europe-and-china-nbsp">Severe drying in Europe and China&nbsp;</h2>



One of the most surprising findings of the study was the extent of drying in temperate zones like Europe and China. 



These regions, typically characterized by moderate climates, are now experiencing far greater levels of air dryness than projected. In contrast, U.S. farms, particularly those in the Midwest, have faced less intense warming and drying than anticipated.



"These two big surprises are important to resolve," said Di Tommaso. "Of all the uncertainties in climate models, these are the two big ones that matter for global food production." 



The implications of these unexpected findings are significant, not only for understanding current crop losses but also for planning future <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/critical-food-crops-are-threatened-by-rising-temperatures-globally/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">agricultural strategies</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-carbon-dioxide-s-role-in-crop-yields">Carbon dioxide’s role in crop yields</h2>



Some scientists believed that rising carbon dioxide could mitigate crop yield losses caused by climate change.



Higher carbon dioxide levels can enhance photosynthesis, potentially promoting plant growth. Sounds promising, but the study finds that scorching temperatures and relentless dryness have overshadowed those potential benefits.



The takeaway? Any carbon dioxide gains are being drowned out by heat and drought, complicating efforts to project future yields and demanding strategies that extend beyond carbon-focused solutions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-past-strategies-miss-the-mark">Past strategies miss the mark</h2>



For decades, researchers have recommended extending growing seasons by adopting longer-maturing crop varieties. 



However, the study indicates that such strategies may now be less effective, given the extent of air dryness and heat stress in many regions. Longer growing seasons could increase vulnerability to drought and temperature spikes, potentially negating the intended benefits.



Lobell and his team argue that the surprising gaps in climate models must be addressed to refine agricultural strategies and mitigate future risks. 



"If anything, I think the blind spots have been on specialized crops where we don't have as much modeling, but which are very salient to consumers," Lobell noted.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-need-for-improved-adaptation-strategies">Need for improved adaptation strategies</h2>



The need for more accurate climate models extends beyond predicting crop losses. It also affects how farmers prepare for future growing seasons. Adaptation strategies based on outdated or incomplete models may inadvertently place farmers in greater peril.



For instance, extending growing seasons without accounting for increased air dryness could set farmers up for substantial losses. 



Accurate modeling would provide a more comprehensive view of the risks and inform better agricultural planning. This is particularly urgent given the potential for even greater climate variability in the years ahead.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-crop-yields-and-food-security">Crop yields and food security </h2>



The stakes are particularly high when considering the potential impact on global food security. While the study focuses on major grains, the implications extend to a range of specialized crops that are vital to regional economies. 



"That includes things like coffee, cocoa, oranges, and olives. All these have been seeing supply challenges and price increases. These matter less for food security but may be more eye-catching for consumers who might not otherwise care about climate change," Lobell said.



This focus on consumer goods underscores the complex ripple effects of agricultural losses. A decline in coffee or cocoa yields may not cause widespread hunger, but it can disrupt livelihoods and trigger price spikes that resonate through supply chains.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-market-disruptions-and-real-world-impact">Market disruptions and real-world impact</h2>



Lobell emphasizes that even seemingly small percentage losses in crop yields can have profound consequences. 



"I think when people hear 5%, they tend to think it's a small number. But then you live through it and see it's enough to shift markets. We're talking about enough food for hundreds of millions of people," he said.



This sentiment highlights the need for both greater public awareness and more nuanced communication about the scale and implications of crop losses. It also suggests that policymakers and farmers must work together to implement effective strategies that can withstand more frequent and severe climatic shocks.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-call-for-more-accurate-models">A call for more accurate models</h2>



The study concludes with a call for more comprehensive climate models that can account for unexpected drying patterns in temperate zones and other under-researched regions. 



This would not only improve predictions but also inform better adaptation strategies, especially for specialized crops that remain underrepresented in current research.



"Overall, I think climate science has done a remarkable job of anticipating global impacts on the main grains, and we should continue to rely on this science to guide policy decisions," Lobell stated. 



The study’s findings underscore a critical need: climate projections must be refined, not just to predict crop losses but to craft effective, targeted strategies for protecting the global food supply.



What happens next? That depends on how quickly researchers and policymakers address the flaws in existing climate models. The stakes couldn’t be higher - a manageable agricultural future or a catastrophic food crisis.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.pnas.org/doi/abs/10.1073/pnas.2502789122" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a>.



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Unexpected climate changes hit crop yields harder than predicted

The world has been experiencing increasingly frequent hot weather and...

Space weather rarely makes headlines, but on May 10, 2024, it became impossible to ignore. That day, a powerful geomagnetic storm battered Earth, disrupting satellites, power grids, and navigation systems.



Named for space weather physicist <a href="https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1029/2024SW004016" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Jennifer Gannon</a>, the storm revealed hidden vulnerabilities and exposed Earth to phenomena previously considered rare.



Scientists now pore over data that was collected during the storm, as they uncover insights that could reshape our understanding of space weather.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-drill-turns-into-disaster">Drill turns into disaster</h2>



A year ago, NASA and over 30 U.S. government agencies gathered for a training exercise. Their mission was to simulate the effects of a geomagnetic storm and assess weaknesses in existing systems.



"The plan was to run through a hypothetical scenario, finding where our existing processes worked and where they needed improvement," said Jamie Favors, NASA’s <a href="https://science.nasa.gov/heliophysics/focus-areas/space-weather/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Space Weather</a> program director.



As the exercise unfolded, a real geomagnetic storm struck Earth, transforming the drill into a full-scale response effort. The Gannon storm, a G5-class geomagnetic <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/solar-storm-triggered-stunning-auroras-worldwide-october-11-2024/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">event</a>, became the strongest of its kind in over two decades. Suddenly, the simulation became real - and the consequences were severe.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-geomagnetic-storm-disrupted-power-grids">Geomagnetic storm disrupted power grids</h2>



The Gannon storm unleashed <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/auroras-and-severe-solar-storms-will-continue-through-tomorrow/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">chaos</a> on Earth’s surface. Electrical grids faced sudden surges as high-voltage lines tripped and transformers overheated. 



In the U.S. Midwest, GPS-guided tractors veered off course, compounding problems for farmers who were already battling heavy rains.



"Not all farms were affected but those that were lost on average about $17,000 per farm," noted Terry Griffin, a professor of agricultural economics at <a href="https://www.k-state.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Kansas State University</a>.



Airlines scrambled to reroute transatlantic flights, prioritizing safety as radiation levels spiked. Meanwhile, in the thermosphere, temperatures rocketed to over 2,100 degrees Fahrenheit. Winds howled as nitrogen particles surged higher, driven by intense solar energy.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-storm-drags-satellites-down">Storm drags satellites down</h2>



In orbit, satellites battled rising atmospheric drag. NASA’s ICESat-2 plummeted in altitude, while CIRBE - a CubeSat tasked with radiation monitoring - prematurely deorbited. The European Space Agency’s Sentinel mission faced power shortages and had to burn fuel to stay in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/widest-high-resolution-photo-of-the-sun-ever-captured-solar-orbiter/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">orbit</a>.



The ionosphere, Earth’s charged upper atmosphere, shifted dramatically during the geomagnetic storm. A dense band of particles, typically found over the equator, drifted toward the South Pole, creating a vast gap over the equator.



Communication systems stuttered, as signals struggled to traverse the altered ionospheric landscape.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-energy-from-geomagnetic-storms">Energy from geomagnetic storms</h2>



In the magnetosphere, chaos reigned.&nbsp;<a href="https://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/mms/overview/index.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NASA’s MMS</a>&nbsp;and&nbsp;<a href="https://www.nasa.gov/artemisprogram" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">THEMIS-ARTEMIS</a>&nbsp;missions recorded massive particle waves crashing against the magnetosphere’s edge. These waves dumped unprecedented magnetic energy, generating the strongest electrical currents in two decades.



Solar particles punched through, creating two new belts of high-energy particles. CIRBE’s REPTile-2 instrument identified the new radiation belts, sandwiched between the Van Allen Belts. 



The belts teemed with high-energy electrons and protons, endangering satellites and space missions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-storm-creates-radiation-zones">Storm creates radiation zones</h2>



Before the storm, CIRBE’s REPTile-2 recorded minimal particle activity in the region around L = 2.5–3.5. Afterward, the space became a dense belt of electrons with energies ranging from 1.3 to 5 MeV. 



This new belt lingered for weeks, challenging assumptions about particle behavior during geomagnetic storms on Earth.



CIRBE also detected a proton belt at L = 2, where protons ranging from 6.8 to 20 MeV congregated. 



The proton belt remained undisturbed by subsequent storms, suggesting a unique stability. While the electron belt dissipated during a magnetic storm on June 28, the proton belt endured.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-data-from-geomagnetic-storms">Data from geomagnetic storms</h2>



REPTile-2’s high-resolution data provided an unprecedented view of the radiation belts. Before the storm, the region around L = 2.5–3.5 remained relatively quiet. Afterward, it morphed into a bustling zone of 1.3 to 5 MeV electrons, forming a distinct belt.



The electrons persisted, resisting scattering mechanisms that typically deplete such high-energy particles. Unlike lower-energy electrons, these particles seemed impervious to the usual wave-particle interactions - potentially indicating new dimensions in space weather physics.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rare-auroras-light-the-sky">Rare auroras light the sky</h2>



On Earth, auroras appeared in unexpected locations. The Aurorasaurus project received thousands of reports from 55 countries, including sightings in Japan. There, auroras glowed magenta instead of the usual red.



Josh Pettit of NASA’s <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Goddard Space Flight Center </a>commented on the event. "It typically needs some special circumstances, like we saw last May. A very unique event indeed."



Researchers traced the magenta hue to a blend of red and blue auroras. Oxygen and nitrogen molecules, lofted higher than usual, produced the striking colors as they collided with solar particles.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-radiation-hits-the-red-planet">Radiation hits the Red Planet</h2>



Mars bore the brunt of the Gannon storm. NASA’s MAVEN orbiter watched auroras rippling across the Martian surface between May 14 and 20, 2024. These auroras, unlike those on Earth, engulfed the entire planet.



NASA’s 2001 <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/massive-solar-storm-auroras-strikes-mars-nasa-spacecraft-record-it/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Mars Odyssey</a> orbiter lost its star camera for nearly an hour, as it became overwhelmed by solar particles. 



On the surface, the Curiosity rover recorded the highest radiation surge since its 2012 landing. Solar particles peppered the rover’s cameras, producing streaks and specks reminiscent of cosmic snow.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-unyielding-proton-belt">The unyielding proton belt</h2>



While the electron belt decayed after June 28, the proton belt persisted. REPTile-2 data showed proton levels exceeding 6.8 MeV, a rare and dangerous concentration. Protons in this belt remained stable, suggesting minimal loss to collisional processes.



For spacecraft in geostationary transfer orbits, this proton belt poses significant risks. Spacecraft must pass through the Van Allen Belts multiple times, potentially encountering lethal radiation levels. 



Further analysis is needed to assess the long-term impact on satellite systems and electronic components.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-space-weather-risks-rise">Space weather risks rise</h2>



A year after the Gannon storm, researchers still analyze the data. CIRBE’s REPTile-2 instrument continues to provide critical insights, and shed light on space weather dynamics and radiation belt formation.



The electron and proton belts identified after the storm present a rare opportunity to study long-term space weather effects. As the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/widest-high-resolution-photo-of-the-sun-ever-captured-solar-orbiter/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Sun</a> approaches a period of heightened activity, the need for effective space weather monitoring grows more urgent.



Future missions must prioritize high-resolution data collection and real-time monitoring to detect and mitigate such events. The Gannon storm served as a wake-up call, highlighting the need for preparedness as solar activity intensifies.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-preparing-for-geomagnetic-storms">Preparing for geomagnetic storms</h2>



Earth’s magnetic defenses faced a formidable test during the Gannon storm. Satellites lost altitude, communication systems faltered, and auroras danced in unexpected skies. 



Meanwhile, newly formed radiation belts lingered in space, posing ongoing threats to spacecraft.



The lessons from the Gannon storm are clear: space weather monitoring systems must evolve to detect and respond to emerging threats. As solar activity increases, future storms may prove even more intense.



For now, the new radiation belts remain a stark reminder of the Sun’s unpredictable power.



The study is published in the <a href="https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1029/2024JA033504" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal of Geophysical Research: Space Physics</a>. 



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Massive geomagnetic storm reveals Earth's technological vulnerabilities

Space weather rarely makes headlines, but on May 10, 2024,...

Most people worry about the gradual loss of stamina, strength, and mental sharpness that comes with aging. Scientists have been exploring new ideas to tackle these concerns and increase not just our years but also our quality of life. 



An international team has been testing a special approach that raises levels of a natural protein in the body.



Their research was led by Professor Miguel Chillón at the Institute of Neurosciences of the Autonomous University of Barcelona (<a href="https://web.ub.edu/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">UB</a>), and it shines a light on what might someday help people stay healthier for a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/organ-aging-can-predict-diseases-decades-in-advance/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">longer period</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-protein-s-kl-and-its-role-in-aging">Protein s-KL and its role in aging</h2>



The protein at the center of this work is <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41581-018-0078-3" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Klotho</a>, and the form used in the experiments is the <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26599613/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">secreted version</a> known as s-KL. 



Some studies suggest that Klotho may influence a wide range of biological processes by managing signals that affect inflammation and cell aging.



The name Klotho first appeared in <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/36285" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">scientific journals</a> in the late 1990s, when experiments showed that a deficiency of this protein made mice look older and more frail at younger ages.



"We have been working with the Klotho protein for some time, due to its therapeutic <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-old-are-you-really-new-tool-measures-aging-from-the-inside-out/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">potential</a> for treating neurodegenerative diseases. 



In this study, we wanted to see whether s-KL could also be beneficial for healthy aging by examining a broad range of factors," explained Professor Chillón.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-differences-between-males-and-females">Differences between males and females</h2>



The effects of s-KL weren’t the same for male and female mice. Males showed clearer gains in lifespan and muscle strength, while females responded more strongly in measures of bone structure, especially when treated earlier in life.



These sex-based differences might be tied to how male and female bodies process viral vectors or express the s-KL protein. 



Hormonal factors could also play a role, suggesting future human trials may need sex-specific <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/curiosity-might-help-you-stay-sharp-as-you-age/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">strategies</a> to get the best results.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-aging-improvements-with-s-kl-protein">Aging improvements with s-KL protein</h2>



Researchers noticed that mice given s-KL retained better muscle tissue composition, with less of the scarring often linked to older age. They also had stronger performance in tasks that tested endurance and coordination.



Weakened bones can be a big danger in older adults, so it was intriguing that s-KL seemed to keep the inner bone structure more intact. 



This finding aligns with earlier <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16436465/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">observations</a> that Klotho influences mineral balance in bone and may reduce the chances of fractures.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-timing-may-matter">Why timing may matter</h2>



Mice treated at 12 months old showed more pronounced improvements in longevity and physical health than those treated at 6 months. One reason could be that the aging mice produced higher levels of the s-KL protein after treatment, which may have amplified its <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/human-bodies-begin-breaking-down-two-very-precise-ages/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">effects</a>.



This finding raises an important question: Could middle age be a better window for intervention than early adulthood? If so, the timing of s-KL therapy in humans could be just as critical as the treatment itself.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-signs-of-brain-support">Signs of brain support</h2>



Aside from the physical improvements, the investigators measured changes in the hippocampus, a region crucial for memory and cognitive ability. 



They detected heightened markers of <a href="https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4563705/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">adult neurogenesis</a>, which is the process by which new neurons form in mature brains.



There was also evidence that key immune cells in the brain might be working in a more balanced way. This could help remove cellular waste and reduce the chronic inflammation tied to age-related brain diseases.



The researchers used gene therapy vectors that prompted cells to produce s-KL over an extended period. These vectors included genetic instructions, and once inside the mice, the cells took over production of the protein.



The approach was designed to boost s-KL levels in both the brain and other areas of the body. This helped ensure that many of the organs linked to muscle, bone, and memory got the extra support.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-s-kl-protein-and-human-aging">s-KL protein and human aging?</h2>



Although this study was done in mice, the results open the door to potential <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/defying-time-three-ways-to-slow-biological-aging/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">therapies</a> for humans. 



Age-related decline in mobility, memory, and bone strength all contribute to lower independence and quality of life in older adults. A treatment that addresses these together could shift how we think about aging.



Many current drugs only target one issue at a time, like <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/outdoor-exercise-amplifies-physical-and-mental-health-benefits/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">osteoporosis</a> or <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/your-sleep-may-predict-memory-loss-years-in-advance/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">memory loss</a>. But the effects of s-KL span across systems. 



This points toward the possibility of a more unified strategy to aging - one that works with the body’s existing repair mechanisms rather than replacing them.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-s-next-for-s-kl-protein-research">What’s next for s-KL protein research?</h2>



If we can find a viable delivery method, s-KL could make a significant contribution to improving people’s quality of life and helping to build the healthiest society possible.



Scientists continue to explore whether direct protein administration or refined gene-based aging options might work best for humans. They plan to keep studying how s-KL weaves into different biological pathways.



The study is published in <a href="https://www.cell.com/molecular-therapy-family/molecular-therapy/fulltext/S1525-0016(25)00120-0" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Molecular Therapy</a>.



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Protein discovered that boosts lifespan, muscle, and brain power with just one dose

Most people worry about the gradual loss of stamina, strength,...

Cosmic,Cliffs,In,The,Carina,Nebula.,James,Webb,Space,Telescope.

A famous James Webb Space Telescope portrait has recently gained a fresh dimension. Scientists have transformed the “Cosmic Cliffs” image, first revealed in July 2022, into a sweeping three‑dimensional fly‑through that lets audiences dive into a glittering nursery of stars.



The new visualization comes from <a href="https://www.universe-of-learning.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NASA’s Universe of Learning</a> program and premieres today during a centennial celebration of the first public planetarium, held by the <a href="https://www.ips-planetarium.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">International Planetarium Society</a> in Munich.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-3d-view-of-star-nursery">3D view of star nursery</h2>



The source photograph shows a jagged wall of gas and dust that looks like mountains lit by starlight. In reality, this cliff is a section of the nebula Gum 31 inside the sprawling Carina Nebula Complex.



At its top, unseen in the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/firefly-sparkle-webb-telescope-weighs-a-galaxy-for-the-first-time/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Webb</a> frame, sits the young star cluster NGC 3324. The cluster’s ultraviolet glare and fierce stellar winds have hollowed out a vast cavity in the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/six-rogue-worlds-discovered-inside-a-young-star-forming-nebula/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">nebula</a>. The Cosmic Cliffs mark one edge of that bubble.



Webb’s near‑infrared eyes caught the cliff as wisps of blue and gold, speckled with points of baby stars. The new 3D tour adds depth cues so viewers can sense soaring peaks and plunging valleys. 



Streams of heated gas flow upward like mist across the ridge. Bright yellow arcs trace jets erupting from infant suns as they burrow through the cloud.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-star-science-becomes-visual-art">Star science becomes visual art</h2>



“Bringing this amazing Webb image to life helps the public to comprehend the three‑dimensional structure inherent in the 2D image, and to develop a better mental model of the universe,” said <a href="https://www.stsci.edu/home" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Space Telescope Science Institute</a> (STScI) visualization scientist Frank Summers, who heads the <a href="https://universe-of-learning.org/resources/projects/astroviz" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">AstroViz Project</a> that crafted the sequence.



The piece forms part of a longer narrated video created by the STScI with partners at <a href="https://www.ipac.caltech.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Caltech/IPAC</a>.



Designed for planetariums, museums, and classrooms, the production links the epic scene to the tools and methods astronomers use to study <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-molecule-detected-in-space-where-stars-are-born/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">stellar birth</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-century-of-planetarium-storytelling">Century of planetarium storytelling</h2>



The Munich event that hosts the debut honors one hundred years since the first public planetarium opened in the same city. 



Today almost two hundred U.S. sites run <a href="https://viewspace.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ViewSpace</a>, a free video exhibit from NASA’s Universe of Learning.



The Cosmic Cliffs fly‑through will join that platform along with an online resource page dedicated to the Carina Nebula Complex. 



Interactive tools let visitors zoom into telescope images and compare wavelengths, bringing space science into local communities far from observatory domes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-star-birth-inside-the-cosmic-cliffs">Star birth inside the cosmic cliffs</h2>



Gum 31, formed of hydrogen, helium, and cosmic dust, sits about 7,600 light‑years away in the southern <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/the-carina-nebula-like-weve-never-seen-it-before/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">constellation Carina</a>. Within it, the stars of NGC 3324 are only a few million years old.



Their radiation blasts the surrounding cloud, carving the void above the cliffs. Where gas is denser, pillars endure. 



At their tips, gravity squeezes material until new stars ignite. Webb’s infrared sensitivity reveals these hidden embryos, blanketed in cooler dust that once made them invisible to optical telescopes.



The visualization translates scientific data into a sculpted digital mesh. Color layers from Webb’s detectors wrap the mesh, while particle systems simulate drifting gas.



To keep the rendering faithful, artists consulted astrophysicists about distances, densities, and light scattering. The result is not a literal map but a guided impression that honors the physics behind the picture.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-webb-changes-cosmic-understanding">Webb changes cosmic understanding</h2>



NASA’s Universe of Learning draws on missions such as Webb, Hubble, Chandra, Spitzer, and others. 



The program blends expert interviews, data sonifications, and visual effects to answer core questions: how do stars form, how do galaxies evolve, what lies beyond our <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/spiral-structure-discovered-at-the-edge-of-our-solar-system-oort-cloud/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">solar system</a>.



It belongs to <a href="https://science.nasa.gov/learn/about-science-activation/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NASA’s Science Activation network</a>, which links scientists with educators to “activate minds” through authentic content.



The James Webb Space Telescope continues to redefine what we know about the cosmos. 



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://youtu.be/dEnHVL0FjhI" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/05/cosmic-cliffs_carina-nebula_webb-space-telescope_1s.webp" alt="The landscape of “mountains” and “valleys” known as the Cosmic Cliffs is actually a portion of the nebula Gum 31, which contains a young star cluster called NGC 3324. Both Gum 31 and NGC 3324 are part of a vast star-forming region known as the Carina Nebula Complex. Credits: NASA, ESA, CSA, STScI" class="wp-image-1969298"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">The landscape of “mountains” and “valleys” known as the Cosmic Cliffs is actually a portion of the nebula Gum 31, which contains a young star cluster called NGC 3324. Both Gum 31 and NGC 3324 are part of a vast star-forming region known as the Carina Nebula Complex. Click image to watch 3D video. Credits: NASA, ESA, CSA, STScI</figcaption></figure>



Since launch in late 2021, it has probed the atmospheres of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/exoplanet-discovery-nasa-identifies-over-5500-distant-worlds/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">exoplanets</a>, spotted some of the earliest galaxies, and detailed the architecture of star‑forming regions.



The Cosmic Cliffs image was part of Webb’s first public showcase and quickly became an icon. Converting that single frame into a flight experience deepens public engagement and underscores Webb’s power to reveal structures hidden by dust.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-webb-visuals-planned">Future Webb visuals planned</h2>



The AstroViz team plans similar 3D treatments for other Webb highlights, each tailored to different learning settings. 



As tools evolve, future versions may let viewers steer their own path through nebulae using virtual‑reality headsets.



For now the new sequence will roll out to planetariums worldwide, inviting audiences to soar above a stellar cliff face, watch hot gas billow skyward, and glimpse newborn suns firing jets into the dark.



Webb’s images already inspire awe. With depth added, they can also nurture intuition about scale and process, turning distant astrophysical drama into an immersive story that anyone can feel as well as see.



<a href="https://youtu.be/dEnHVL0FjhI" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Click here to watch the full 3D video of the "Cosmic Cliffs" by JWST...</a>



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Webb's iconic 'Cosmic Cliffs' image transformed into stunning 3D video tour of a star nursery

A famous James Webb Space Telescope portrait has recently gained...

Science has been chasing a single rulebook for nature ever since people realized the same laws that guide apples also steer planets. Three of the four known forces - electromagnetism, the strong force, and the weak force - comfortably share pages in that quantum physics manual. 



Gravity, though vital to everything from tides to timekeeping, insists on speaking a different dialect inspired by Einstein’s theory of general relativity.



That mismatch keeps physicists up at night. <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-form-of-quantum-entanglement-discovered-will-transform-next-gen-technology/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Quantum ideas</a> describe particles and fields in tiny, jumpy packages, while general relativity paints gravity as smooth curves in space‑time. 



Fit those viewpoints together, and the math usually blows up into useless infinities. A fresh effort now claims to tame those infinities without bending the facts we already trust.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-bridging-gravity-field-and-quantum-forces">Bridging gravity field and quantum forces</h2>



Researchers Mikko Partanen and Jukka Tulkki at <a href="https://www.aalto.fi/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Aalto University</a> believe they have found common ground. They place gravity inside a type of gauge theory, the same broad framework that lets photons mediate light and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/atomic-nucleus-made-of-quarks-and-gluons-reproduced-for-the-first-time/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">gluons glue quarks</a>. 



“If this turns out to lead to a complete quantum field theory of gravity, then eventually it will give answers to the very difficult problems of understanding singularities in black holes and the Big Bang,” he says. 



The pair argue that the payoff could stretch far beyond pure curiosity; without <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/cosmic-glitch-in-gravity-expands-the-theory-of-general-relativity/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Einstein’s gravity</a>, for instance, GPS satellites would drift miles off course in a day.



Their proposal, published in Reports on Progress in Physics, introduces an eight‑dimensional mathematical space that hosts gravity alongside the other forces. 



In everyday life we move through three dimensions plus time, yet the extra four directions allow the equations to behave properly. 



By choosing a symmetry that mirrors the Standard Model, they avoid clashing with proven particle physics. The plan looks daring, but the researchers are convinced it keeps both feet on solid ground.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-spinors-and-symmetry">Spinors and symmetry</h2>



Inside the eight‑dimensional arena, spinors - exotic objects that keep track of how particles twist - carry gravity’s information. 



“The main idea is to have a gravity gauge theory with a symmetry that is similar to the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/quantum-entanglement-spooky-action-at-a-distance-persists-between-top-quarks/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Standard Model</a> symmetries, instead of basing the theory on the very different kind of spacetime symmetry of general relativity,” says Partanen, the study’s lead author. 



Using a shared symmetry lets gravity slot into the same style of equations that already explain how electrons interact with light.



That symmetry also dictates a new kind of gravitational field. 



“The most familiar gauge field is the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/invisible-electric-field-discovered-surrounding-earth-nasa-says-its-as-crucial-as-gravity/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">electromagnetic field</a>. When electrically charged particles interact with each other, they interact through the electromagnetic field, which is the pertinent gauge field,” explains Tulkki. 



“So when we have particles which have energy, the interactions they have just because they have energy would happen through the gravitational field.” 



In short, energy - not mass alone - becomes the charge that gravity responds to in this setup.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-space-time-gravity-dimension-field">Space‑time gravity dimension field</h2>



Extra dimensions sound abstract, yet the theory never asks anyone to live in them. Instead it builds a “space‑time dimension field” that quietly translates eight‑dimensional math into the four‑dimensional universe people occupy. 



That bridge preserves the equivalence principle, the observation that a feather and a hammer fall together in a vacuum, even though the calculations chug away behind the curtain in higher‑dimensional space.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/05/gravity-quantum-field_theory-of-everything_illustration_credit-Aalto-University_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/05/gravity-quantum-field_theory-of-everything_illustration_credit-Aalto-University_1s.webp" alt="The gravity quantum field is calculated in flat spacetime. The curved classical metric is calculated using the expectation value of the gravity quantum field. Credit: Aalto University" class="wp-image-1968436"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">The gravity quantum field is calculated in flat spacetime. The curved classical metric is calculated using the expectation value of the gravity quantum field. Click image to enlarge. Credit: Aalto University</figcaption></figure>



Because the field emerges from strict symmetry rules, the resulting gravity still pulls objects along the familiar paths predicted by Einstein, at least in calm conditions like those near Earth. 



Where things heat up - think black‑hole edges or the newborn universe - the new math starts to reveal effects that classical relativity misses.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-quantum-gravity-field-and-renormalization">Quantum gravity field and renormalization</h2>



Previous attempts to quantize gravity ran aground when higher‑order calculations spiraled into infinite answers. The Aalto approach leans on a tool called renormalization, which systematically sweeps those infinities into measurable constants. 



“If renormalization doesn’t work for higher order terms, you’ll get infinite results. So it’s vital to show that this renormalization continues to work,” explains Tulkki. So far, first‑order checks look solid; the team is pushing deeper to prove the pattern holds.



Keeping infinities in line would let physicists compute reliable probabilities for violent cosmic events. It also means gravity can be treated with the same respect as the other forces - in short, no more special exemptions that break the rules when the math gets messy.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-black-holes-big-bangs-quantum-gravity">Black holes, big bangs, quantum gravity</h2>



“A quantum theory of gravity is needed to understand what kind of phenomena there are in cases where there’s a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/unraveling-gravity-quantum-nature-entanglement-mechanics/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">gravitational field</a> and high energies,” says Partanen. 



Such conditions prevail near the edges of black holes and during the first instants after the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/more-than-one-big-bang-may-explain-cosmic-expansion-without-dark-matter/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Big Bang</a>, places where current theories shrug. 



A working quantum gravity model could clarify whether singularities truly exist or whether new physics softens the infinities predicted by Einstein’s equations.



Deeper still, the theory might speak to nagging puzzles about why <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/higgs-boson-god-particle-still-remains-quantum-mystery-after-12-years/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">matter outnumbers antimatter</a>. 



“A theory that coherently describes all fundamental forces of nature is often called the Theory of Everything,” says Partanen, although he doesn’t like to use the term himself. 



“Some fundamental questions of physics still remain unanswered. For example, the present theories do not yet explain why there is more matter than antimatter in the observable universe.” Unifying gravity could offer fresh angles on that imbalance.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-where-do-we-go-from-here">Where do we go from here?</h2>



Partanen and Tulkki openly admit the work is not finished. They must prove the renormalization machinery survives every level of the calculation and make sure no hidden contradictions lurk in the symmetry choices. 



Independent teams will also test whether the new gravity predicts subtle deviations - tiny shifts in particle behavior or cosmic signals - that future experiments can check.



For now, the duo have invited the wider community to kick the tires. 



“Like quantum mechanics and the theory of relativity before it, we hope our theory will open countless avenues for scientists to explore,” Partanen concludes. 



Success would finally let gravity pull its weight in the quantum club, tightening the threads that tie the universe together.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.1088/1361-6633/adc82e" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Reports on Progress in Physics</a>.



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Long-sought 'Theory of Everything' takes a big step closer to becoming reality

Science has been chasing a single rulebook for nature ever...

Sub-Neptunes may not orbit our Sun, but they are everywhere in our galaxy. These planets - bigger than Earth, smaller than Neptune - make up the most common type of exoplanet we’ve found so far. 



Despite their abundance, much about them remains a mystery. That’s especially true when it comes to their thick, cloudy atmospheres.



But thanks to NASA’s James Webb Space Telescope (JWST), that’s starting to change. A new observation of one of these planets, TOI-421 b, is offering an unusually clear view - literally - of what lies inside a sub-Neptune’s skies.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-breakthrough-in-exoplanet-research">Breakthrough in exoplanet research</h2>



Scientists from the <a href="https://umd.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Maryland</a> have been waiting a long time for this. With Webb’s advanced technology, they finally have the tools to study sub-Neptune atmospheres in detail.



“I had been waiting my entire career for Webb so that we could meaningfully characterize the atmospheres of these smaller planets,” said Eliza Kempton. 



“By studying their atmospheres, we’re getting a better understanding of how sub-Neptunes formed and evolved, and part of that is understanding why they don't exist in our <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/study-reveals-the-delicate-balance-of-our-solar-system/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">solar system</a>.”



These planets were first spotted by NASA’s Kepler space telescope. At the time, they were a surprise. Now, astronomers are racing to figure out why they’re so common, and what their thick atmospheres are hiding.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rare-clear-atmosphere-on-toi-421-b">Rare, clear atmosphere on TOI-421 b</h2>



Sub-Neptunes are difficult to observe. They’re <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/super-earth-planets-are-more-common-than-previously-thought/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">larger than Earth</a> but much smaller and cooler than gas giants like Jupiter. Their faint signals make it hard to see what’s in their skies.



Before Webb, almost every sub-Neptune that researchers looked at returned what’s called a flat transmission spectrum. 



That means no chemical fingerprints were visible - just a blank line. Scientists believed that haze or clouds were blocking their view.



That’s why TOI-421 b stood out. It looked like it might be different.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-atmospheric-composition-of-toi-421-b">Atmospheric composition of TOI-421 b</h2>



“Why did we observe this planet, TOI-421 b? It's because we thought that maybe it wouldn't have hazes,” confirmed Kempton. 



“And the reason is that there were some previous data that implied that maybe planets over a certain temperature range were less enshrouded by haze or clouds than others.”



That temperature threshold is around 1,070 degrees Fahrenheit (577 degrees Celsius). Below that, methane reacts with sunlight to form haze. 



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/05/exoplanet_TOI-421-b_hot-neptune_atmosphere-chart_NASA_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/05/exoplanet_TOI-421-b_hot-neptune_atmosphere-chart_NASA_1s.webp" alt="A transmission spectrum captured by NASA’s James Webb Space Telescope reveals the presence of water (H2O) and the possible presence of sulfur dioxide (SO2) and carbon monoxide (CO), but no signs of carbon dioxide (CO2) or methane (CH4), in the atmosphere of the hot sub-Neptune exoplanet TOI-421 b. The observations support the hypothesis that planets this hot (TOI-421 b is about 1,340°F) have clear atmospheres that are not obscured by clouds and haze. Credit: NASA" class="wp-image-1969294"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">A transmission spectrum captured by NASA’s James Webb Space Telescope reveals the presence of water (H2O) and the possible presence of sulfur dioxide (SO2) and carbon monoxide (CO), but no signs of carbon dioxide (CO2) or methane (CH4), in the atmosphere of the hot sub-Neptune exoplanet TOI-421 b. The observations support the hypothesis that planets this hot (TOI-421 b is about 1,340°F) have clear atmospheres that are not obscured by clouds and haze. Click image to enlarge. Credit: NASA</figcaption></figure>



But above it, planets should be too hot for methane to exist - and that could mean a clearer atmosphere.



TOI-421 b is hotter than that. Its surface temperature is about 1,340 degrees Fahrenheit (727 degrees Celsius). That gave researchers hope, and Webb confirmed it: this planet’s atmosphere is indeed clear.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-unexpected-gases-detected">Unexpected gases detected</h2>



Once they had a clear view, the team spotted signs of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/oceans-of-water-vapor-may-be-involved-in-planet-formation/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">water vapor</a> in the atmosphere. They also saw hints of carbon monoxide and sulfur dioxide. 



Some gases, including methane and carbon dioxide, were absent. And the most surprising element of all? A lot of hydrogen.



“We saw spectral features that we attribute to various gases, and that allowed us to determine the composition of the atmosphere,” said Brian Davenport, a Ph.D. student at the University of Maryland who led the data analysis. 



“Whereas with many of the other sub-Neptunes that had been previously observed, we know their atmospheres are made of something, but they're being blocked by haze.”



The discovery of a hydrogen-rich atmosphere contradicted the researchers’ expectations.



“We had recently wrapped our mind around the idea that those first few sub-Neptunes observed by Webb had heavy-molecule atmospheres, so that had become our expectation, and then we found the opposite,” said Kempton.



This suggests TOI-421 b may have taken a different path during its formation and evolution.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-star-and-planet-match">Star and planet match</h2>



The composition of TOI-421 b’s atmosphere also looked similar to gases present in the star it orbits.



“If you just took the same gas that made the host star, plopped it on top of a planet's atmosphere, and put it at the much cooler temperature of this planet, you would get the same combination of gases,” said Kempton.



This is more like what we see in the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/giant-gas-planets-are-cosmic-wrecking-balls-that-wreak-havoc-in-habitable-zones/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">gas giants</a> of our own solar system, not other sub-Neptunes observed by Webb.



Another difference is that TOI-421 b orbits a Sun-like star. Most previously observed sub-Neptunes have orbited much smaller red dwarfs. That might explain some of the differences - or maybe TOI-421 b is simply unique.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-finding-more-planets-like-toi-421-b">Finding more planets like TOI-421 b</h2>



To figure out if TOI-421 b is a one-off or part of a bigger pattern, scientists want to observe more sub-Neptunes in similar temperature ranges. 



If more hot, clear-skied sub-Neptunes turn up, that could give us a new window into how these planets form and what they’re made of.



“We've unlocked a new way to look at these sub-Neptunes,” said Davenport. “These high-temperature planets are amenable to characterization. So by looking at sub-Neptunes of this temperature, we're perhaps more likely to accelerate our ability to learn about these planets.”



One thing’s clear: TOI-421 b is no ordinary planet. But, with Webb’s help, scientists are just beginning to uncover the secrets hidden behind the haze.



The full study was published in <a href="https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.3847/2041-8213/adcd76" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">The Astrophysical Journal letters</a>.



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Webb telescope gets a clear view of a very hot alien world

Sub-Neptunes may not orbit our Sun, but they are everywhere...

When most people think of the Cretaceous Period, salmon probably aren’t the first thing that comes to mind. Towering dinosaurs and steamy tropical landscapes usually steal the spotlight. 



But in what is now northern Alaska, the picture was very different - and surprisingly familiar. Freshwater rivers and streams, instead of being dominated by dinosaurs or reptiles, teemed with ancient versions of fish we still see today, including early forms of salmon and pike.



In a recent study from the <a href="https://www.uaf.edu/uaf/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Alaska Fairbanks</a>, researchers identified three new species of fish from 73 million years ago. 



One of them, Sivulliusalmo alaskensis, has taken the spotlight as the oldest known member of the salmon family ever found in the fossil record.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-new-first-for-salmon">A new first for salmon</h2>



“This is not only a new species; it’s the oldest salmonid in the fossil record,” said Patrick Druckenmiller, director of the University of Alaska Museum of the North. 



The name Sivulliusalmo alaskensis combines the Inupiaq word for “to be first” with the Latin word for salmon.



Before this, the earliest known salmonid fossils came from British Columbia and Washington. This new find pushes the lineage back by around 20 million years. 



The researchers also found fossils of two new species of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/northern-pike-are-sneaking-through-the-ocean-to-invade-new-lakes/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">pike</a>, as well as the earliest Arctic example of the fish group that includes <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/controlling-invasive-carp-with-sound-waves/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">carp</a> and minnows.



“Many of the fish groups that we think of as being distinctive today in the high-latitude environment in Alaska were already in place at the same time as dinosaurs,” said Druckenmiller.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-warm-world-cold-loving-fish">Warm world, cold-loving fish</h2>



The presence of salmonids in such ancient, northern waters may seem surprising. After all, salmon today are known for thriving in cold environments.



But even during the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/colossal-new-dinosaur-was-hidden-in-spains-early-cretaceous-fossils/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cretaceous</a> - a time known for its warm global temperatures - the Arctic still experienced sharp seasonal changes.



“Salmon were already the kind of fish that do well in a place where those dramatic shifts were happening,” said Andrés López, curator of fish at the UA Museum of the North. 



“Despite all of the changes that the planet has gone through, all of the changes in the geography and the climate, you still had the ancestors of the same groups of species that dominate the fresh waters of the region today.”



The researchers believe these fish adapted well to fluctuations in temperature and daylight. This resilience could explain how their descendants still thrive in the far north today.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-salmon-and-dinosaurs-shared-rivers">Salmon and dinosaurs shared rivers</h2>



The fossilized fish remains came from the Prince Creek Formation, a site in northern <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/in-alaska-dinosaurs-lived-where-rainfall-was-optimal/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Alaska</a> known for its rich collection of dinosaur bones. 



But while dinosaurs steal the headlines, it's the tiny fossils that often hold the most detailed stories of the ecosystem.



“These types of fossils are often overlooked,” said Druckenmiller. “You couldn’t begin to understand a modern Arctic ecosystem without understanding the smallest animals that live there.”



That same principle, he argued, applies to ancient ecosystems. To better understand Cretaceous life, the team studied even the tiniest vertebrate fossils - especially those of ancient fish.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-finding-the-oldest-salmon-fossil">Finding the oldest salmon fossil</h2>



Finding those fossils wasn’t easy. Fish fossils are common in the Prince Creek Formation, but they’re often too small to spot during fieldwork. So the researchers hauled back buckets of sediment to their lab, where they sifted through them under microscopes.



The key fossils that revealed the new salmon species were tiny jaws, some small enough to rest on a pencil eraser. 



To see them in detail, the research team - including scientists from Western University in Ontario and the University of Colorado Boulder - used micro-computed tomography. This technology let them digitally reconstruct the fossils in 3D.



“We found a really distinct jaw and other parts that we recognized as a member of the salmon family,” Druckenmiller said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-born-in-dinosaur-era-rivers">Born in dinosaur-era rivers</h2>



The team’s findings suggest that salmon may not have migrated north, as some previously thought. Instead, their evolutionary roots may lie in the North from the very beginning.



“Northern high latitude regions were probably the crucible of their evolutionary history,” said Druckenmiller.



That idea fits with the absence of lower-latitude fish species in the same rock layers. For now, the story of salmon seems to have started in the shadow of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dinosaur-nursery-discovered-in-the-arctic/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Arctic dinosaurs</a> - in rivers that once flowed through a polar world that was cold, warm, and ever-changing all at once.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1002/spp2.70014" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Papers in Palaeontology</a>.



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When dinosaurs roamed, salmon swarmed in Arctic rivers

When most people think of the Cretaceous Period, salmon probably...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2E0mn5mTvhQ
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">'Death Star' moon Mimas conceals a 15-million-year-old ocean that scientists never expected.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hidden-waters-beneath-ancient-craters">Hidden waters beneath ancient craters</h2>



Scientists have made a startling discovery that challenges everything we thought we knew about <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/saturn-moon-mimas-has-remarkably-young-ocean/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Saturn's moon Mimas</a>. Beneath the heavily cratered surface that earned it the nickname "Death Star" lies a global ocean that formed just 5 to 15 million years ago—a remarkably young age by cosmic standards.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cassini-data-reveals-orbital-secrets">Cassini data reveals orbital secrets</h2>



The discovery, led by Dr. Valéry Lainey of the <a href="https://observatoiredeparis.psl.eu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Observatoire de Paris</a>, emerged from careful analysis of <a href="https://www.nasa.gov" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NASA</a>'s Cassini spacecraft data. By studying subtle irregularities in Mimas's orbit around Saturn, researchers detected the gravitational signature of liquid water hidden 20 to 30 kilometers beneath the moon's icy shell.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-an-unlikely-ocean-world">An unlikely ocean world</h2>



At only 400 kilometers in diameter, Mimas seemed like the least likely candidate to harbor a subsurface ocean. Unlike other ocean moons such as Europa and Enceladus, which show clear surface signs of internal activity, Mimas displays no obvious hints of the liquid water beneath its ancient, crater-scarred exterior.



"Mimas is a small moon, and its heavily cratered surface gave no hint of the hidden ocean beneath," explained Dr. Nick Cooper from <a href="https://www.qmul.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Queen Mary University of London</a>, a study co-author.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-astrobiology">Implications for astrobiology</h2>



The ocean's recent formation makes Mimas a prime target for studying how oceans develop and potentially support life. This discovery adds another member to the exclusive club of ocean worlds in our solar system, each offering unique insights into the conditions necessary for habitability.



The research, published in <a href="https://www.nature.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature</a> journal, demonstrates how advanced orbital analysis can reveal hidden features of celestial bodies, opening new possibilities for understanding ocean formation throughout the cosmos.



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Scientists discover unexpected young ocean on Saturn's cratered moon Mimas

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2E0mn5mTvhQ 'Death Star' moon Mimas conceals a 15-million-year-old ocean that...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE
</div></figure>



On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop and sunlight barely penetrates through the polar winter. It was here, however, that an international team of scientists found <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/predatory-worms-were-terror-beasts-half-a-billion-years-ago/#google_vignette" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evidence of sea monsters</a> that would change our understanding of ocean life in the past.



This video captures the discovery of Timorebestia fossils that had been hidden for more than 500 million years in the Sirius Passet formation. The "terror beasts," as they are called, are a hidden chapter in the evolutionary history of <a href="https://www.earth.com" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Earth</a>, showing that sophisticated predator-prey interactions occurred much earlier than previously envisioned.



Dr. Jakob Vinther and his research team at the <a href="https://www.bristol.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Bristol</a>, in collaboration with researchers at the <a href="https://eng.kopri.re.kr/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Korean Polar Research Institute</a>, braved extreme weather conditions at 82.5 north latitude to locate these giant creatures. Using sophisticated electron microprobe analysis, they revealed the detailed anatomy of the animals, including their muscle and nerve tissues.



The find upsets the traditional timeline of sea predators. Although we've long appreciated that Cambrian oceans were at one time ruled by <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jWI3-UgA3_o&amp;list=PL1QLQMW9MWDwpkFOnvgAmu7wT6rZmYqdJ&amp;index=19" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">arthropods</a>, these discoveries indicate that relatives of arrow worms were first to dominate the seas. These worms were building sophisticated food webs several million years before other predator groups arose.



Each fossil is a story of ancient hunger, with fossil stomach contents revealing these meter-long beasts dined on heavily armored arthropods regularly, cementing their place as the ocean's first apex predators.



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Worms dominated seas before dinosaurs

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">New York is the site of the world's oldest forest.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-385-million-year-old-trees-discovered">385-million-year-old trees discovered</h2>



Scientists have uncovered something extraordinary just two hours north of New York City. The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/worlds-oldest-forest-discovered-close-to-new-york-city/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">world's oldest forest</a>, dating back 385 million years, offers a window into how Earth's first complex forests shaped our planet's atmosphere.



Located near <a href="https://townofcairo.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cairo, New York</a>, in Greene County, these weren't merely primitive plants struggling to survive. These were sophisticated trees with root systems remarkably similar to modern forests. This ancient woodland predates dinosaurs by 140 million years.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-cairo-forest-discovery">The Cairo forest discovery</h2>



385 million years ago, upstate New York was a tropical paradise near the equator. Thanks to continental drift, this ancient forest has traveled thousands of miles to its current location.



The fossil forest sits in an abandoned quarry, roughly half the size of a football field. This represents just a slice of what was likely a massive forest system stretching from New York into Pennsylvania.



Charles Ver Straeten, curator of sedimentary rocks at the <a href="https://www.nysm.nysed.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">New York State Museum</a>, made the discovery in 2009. While scouting the former highway department property, his trained eye spotted wandering patterns in the stone that looked like marine features.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-revolutionary-age-and-preservation">Revolutionary age and preservation</h2>



The site contains 385-million-year-old rocks with fossilized woody roots forming horizontal patterns up to 18 feet (5.5 meters) wide. As Christopher Berry, a paleobotanist at Cardiff University, explains: "You are walking through the roots of ancient trees."



This discovery pushes back advanced tree evolution by millions of years. The research, published in <a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/home" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Current Biology</a> in December 2019, fundamentally changes our understanding of when complex forests first emerged.



Researchers believe a massive flood buried the forest floor, creating perfect fossilization conditions. Over millions of years, sediment hardened into rock, preserving these root patterns like nature's time capsule.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-meet-archaeopteris-the-first-modern-tree">Meet Archaeopteris: the first modern tree</h2>



The star of this ancient forest is Archaeopteris – not to be confused with the feathered dinosaur Archaeopteryx. This tree was far older and more revolutionary.



William Stein from <a href="https://www.binghamton.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Binghamton University</a> describes the roots as "strikingly modern, essentially what you'd see outside in my yard right now." These weren't simple root systems you'd expect from ancient plants.



Some fossilized roots are six inches (15 centimeters) in diameter, forming 36-foot-wide (11-meter) patterns. These giants grew up to 65 feet (20 meters) tall with five-foot-diameter (1.5-meter) trunks.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-changing-impact">Climate-changing impact</h2>



These trees fundamentally changed Earth's environment. Kevin Boyce, a Stanford University geoscientist, explains how their deep roots triggered "weathering," chemical reactions that pulled carbon dioxide from the atmosphere.



This process dropped atmospheric CO2 levels from 10-15 times higher than today to roughly modern concentrations. These ancient trees helped create atmospheric conditions that made complex life possible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ancient-forest-ecosystem">Ancient forest ecosystem</h2>



The forest was remarkably diverse. Scientists identified Eospermatopteris, palm tree-like plants with short roots that reached 30 feet (9 meters) tall but lacked woody structure. The forest also housed cladoxylopsids and a mysterious third species still being studied.



All reproduced through spores rather than seeds – millions of years before seeds evolved. This tropical environment had no grass, flowers, or flying insects, just towering trees creating Earth's first complex forest canopy.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-scientific-significance">Scientific significance</h2>



Before this finding, the Gilboa forest, located 25 miles (40 kilometers) away, held the "oldest forest" title. Cairo's trees are 2-3 million years older, showing that complex forest ecosystems developed much faster than scientists believed possible.



Patricia Gensel, a <a href="https://www.unc.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of North Carolina</a> paleobotanist, notes: "The size of those root systems is really changing the picture. Even 20 years ago, researchers assumed trees with such complex root systems didn't evolve so early."



The Cairo site presents three unique root systems, suggesting Devonian period forests were diverse ecosystems with different trees occupying different environmental niches, much like today's forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-modern-preservation-efforts">Modern preservation efforts</h2>



In 2022, New York State Senator Michelle Hinchey secured a $170,000 grant for the town of Cairo to construct specialized fencing around the fossil forest site. The town plans to conduct a feasibility study exploring the possibility of creating an educational center and working lab on-site.



Joe Hasenkopf, chair of the Cairo Planning Board, hopes to partner with educational institutions to create a research facility serving scientists, students, and the public.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lessons-for-today-s-climate">Lessons for today's climate</h2>



Why does a 385-million-year-old forest matter today? It shows how dramatically forests can change Earth's climate. These ancient woodlands created the atmospheric conditions supporting complex life.



Understanding how prehistoric forests transformed the planet helps us appreciate modern forests' critical role in addressing climate change. Forests remain Earth's most effective carbon capture systems.



These prehistoric trees changed Earth's atmosphere by pulling massive amounts of carbon dioxide from the air. As we face modern climate challenges, this ancient forest reminds us of trees' incredible power to transform our planet's environment.



The next time you walk through a forest, remember you're experiencing an ecosystem whose blueprint was established 385 million years ago in upstate New York. These ancient pioneers didn't just survive – they thrived and changed the world forever.



The full study was published in the journal Current Biology.



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Earth's oldest forest found in the United States

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ New York is the site of the world's oldest...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Acid rain and a crisis solved.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-don-t-we-ever-hear-about-acid-rain-anymore-the-environmental-crisis-that-was-solved">Why don't we ever hear about "acid rain" anymore? The environmental crisis that was solved</h2>



Remember the 1980s when acid rain dominated headlines? Dire warnings about rain eating buildings, killing fish, and destroying forests filled every news cycle. Then, almost like magic, acid rain vanished from public discourse. What happened? Did we actually solve one of the late 20th century's most pressing environmental challenges?



The answer might surprise you. Unlike many environmental issues that drag on indefinitely, acid rain represents one of modern history's most successful ecological recovery stories. It's a tale of science, politics, and technology working together to tackle what seemed impossible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What was acid rain?</h2>



Acid rain isn't regular rain having a bad day – it's precipitation that became significantly more acidic due to air pollution. When power plants, factories, and vehicles burn fossil fuels, they release sulfur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides (NOx) into the atmosphere.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The science behind it</h2>



Think of acid rain as nature's chemistry experiment gone wrong. These compounds react with water, oxygen, and other chemicals to form sulfuric and nitric acids. When mixed with water vapor in clouds, they create precipitation with dangerously low pH levels.



While clean rain has a pH of about 5.6, acid rain could drop as low as 4.2 to 4.4 – roughly as acidic as tomato juice or coffee. According to US Geological Survey documentation, Scottish chemist Angus Smith first coined "acid rain" in 1872, but it didn't become a household phrase until the 1960s and 1970s when Swedish scientist Svante Odén documented its devastating effects on Scandinavian lakes and European forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The crisis at its peak</h2>



During the height of public concern, environmental damage was both widespread and visible. This wasn't some abstract future threat – people could see destruction happening in real-time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Environmental devastation</h2>



The most dramatic impacts were impossible to ignore. Research documented by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation and the New York State Department of Environmental Conservation shows that in the Adirondack Mountains, more than 200 lakes became so acidic they couldn't support fish life. The Adirondack Council reports that 409 lakes once supported brook trout, but many lost their fish populations due to acid rain.



By 1976, when scientists cataloged all acidified lakes in the Adirondack Park, researchers found that half of the lakes over 2,000 feet above sea level had no fish, according to studies published in environmental journals. The acidification process worked like a slow-motion disaster. As acid rain fell into watersheds, it gradually lowered pH levels. Fish couldn't survive in acidic water, and their food sources died off too.



Trees at high elevations showed stress directly linked to acid rain. It weakened them by leaching nutrients and making them susceptible to disease. Historical records show Germany's Black Forest saw nearly half its trees damaged by the mid-1980s.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Economic impact</h2>



Acid rain wasn't just environmental – it was expensive. Acidic precipitation corroded infrastructure, buildings, and monuments. Historic stone structures deteriorated at accelerated rates. Tourism suffered as lakes became fishless and forests declined. EPA economic analyses from the period documented repair costs mounting into billions annually.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The solution: government action and technology</h2>



Transformation from crisis to success required unprecedented cooperation between governments, industries, and environmental groups.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The Clean Air Act of 1990</h2>



The turning point came with the Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990, signed by President George H.W. Bush. This represented a fundamentally new approach to environmental regulation, as documented in EPA historical records.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Cap-and-trade success</h2>



Instead of mandating specific technologies, the 1990 amendments introduced something revolutionary: a cap-and-trade system for sulfur dioxide emissions. EPA program documentation shows this market-based approach set overall limits but allowed companies to trade emission allowances.



The genius was harnessing market forces to find cost-effective pollution reduction. Companies reducing emissions cheaply could sell excess allowances to those facing higher costs. Research published in environmental economics journals and EPA progress reports shows this resulted in dramatic SO2 reduction at a fraction of projected costs.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Technology advances</h2>



Policy provided the framework, but technology made reductions possible. Studies in atmospheric science journals document the widespread adoption of flue gas desulfurization systems ("scrubbers") that removed sulfur dioxide before it reached the atmosphere. By the 2000s, new installations could remove over 95% of SO2 emissions, according to EPA technical reports.



The push coincided with cleaner energy development. Natural gas produces fewer sulfur compounds than coal. Wind and solar, emerging in the 1990s, captured growing market share, reducing reliance on high-sulfur coal.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-we-don-t-hear-about-it-today">Why we don't hear about it today</h2>



Why did acid rain disappear from headlines? Simple: the problem was largely solved.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Success doesn't make news</h2>



There's an old journalism saying: "If it bleeds, it leads." Environmental success stories don't generate urgency like crisis reporting. Media attention shifted to other challenges: climate change, plastic pollution, and biodiversity loss. There's only so much environmental anxiety the public can absorb, and newer concerns replaced acid rain.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Mission accomplished</h2>



The primary reason is beautifully simple: interventions worked. EPA monitoring data shows sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990. Academic research published in environmental science journals confirms pH levels in formerly affected areas returned closer to normal. This represents one of history's most dramatic environmental recoveries. Studies by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation show fishless lakes now support healthy populations. Forests recovered, and building damage slowed dramatically.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-is-it-really-gone">Is it really gone?</h2>



The crisis is largely resolved, but monitoring data shows the problem isn't completely eliminated – it's managed to acceptable levels. Some areas still experience occasional events during high pollution periods. International environmental research indicates that rapidly industrializing Asian countries face similar problems to what we experienced decades ago, though they're implementing successful strategies.



EPA research shows nitrogen oxide emissions proved more challenging than sulfur dioxide, coming from vehicles and mobile sources. Climate science studies suggest changing weather patterns add complexity to how acid rain forms and falls.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What this teaches us</h2>



The acid rain experience proves that seemingly intractable environmental problems can be solved with scientific understanding, political will, and technological innovation. Environmental monitoring data shows recovery speed was remarkable – within a decade, measurable improvements appeared in air quality and ecosystem health.



Success came from bipartisan support across party lines. Policy analysis studies show the market-based approach appealed to those preferring economic incentives while achieving environmental goals. This support created lasting policy surviving political changes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Conclusion</h2>



Acid rain's disappearance from public consciousness represents environmental science's greatest success stories. Through effective regulation, technological innovation, and international cooperation, we transformed an overwhelming crisis into a manageable challenge.



Today's silence isn't because we forgot – it's because we solved it. The 1990 Clean Air Act, combined with technology and energy market changes, reduced acid rain emissions over 90%, according to comprehensive EPA data analysis.



This success offers hope for current challenges. It proves complex problems can be solved when science, policy, and technology work together. As we face climate change and plastic pollution, acid rain reminds us that dramatic positive change is possible.



Next time someone asks whether environmental regulations work, remember acid rain. It's proof that sometimes, we get it right.



<hr class="wp-block-separator has-alpha-channel-opacity"/>



Sources: This article draws from EPA official documentation and progress reports, peer-reviewed research published in environmental and atmospheric science journals, historical data from the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation, New York State Department of Environmental Conservation records, US Geological Survey publications, policy analysis studies, and environmental monitoring data collected over three decades.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Frequently Asked Questions</h2>



1. Is acid rain completely gone? No, but EPA monitoring shows it's reduced to manageable levels. US sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990, making acid rain much less severe than the 1980s crisis.



2. How long did solving take? Environmental monitoring data shows significant improvements began within 5-10 years of 1990s emission controls. Full ecosystem recovery took longer – some areas need 20-30 years for complete recovery.



3. What made the solution successful? Clear scientific understanding, visible damage motivating action, bipartisan support, available technology, and innovative market-based policies like cap-and-trade.



4. Do other countries have acid rain problems? Yes, particularly rapidly industrializing Asian countries. However, international environmental research shows many implement similar successful control strategies.



5. Could acid rain return? Potentially, if regulations weaken or we return to high-sulfur coal without controls, though effects would take years to become severe according to environmental projections.



6. Can you recommend any teaching tools on the subject of "acid rain"? The United States Environmental Protection Agency produced a wonderful teacher's guide for ages 14 and under that you can find on the EPA website here: <a href="https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf</a>



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The environmental problem we actually solved

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk Acid rain and a crisis solved. Why don't we...

Fresh,Radish,Harvest,On,Soil,In,Garden.

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</div></figure>







Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving fall garden, and this guide lays out the best vegetables and herbs to plant now for a fruitful autumn harvest. 



Fast-growing leafy greens such as spinach, lettuce, kale, and arugula perform especially well in the waning summer heat, with harvests beginning as soon as 30 days. 



These cool-season crops relish the transition into fall, offering repeated yields with cut-and-come-again methods.



Root vegetables like radishes, carrots, and beets also excel during this period. Radishes deliver satisfaction in under a month, while carrots and beets mature in about two months. Employing succession planting ensures a continuous stream of produce deep into the cooler months. 



For a boost of fresh flavor, herbs like cilantro, basil, dill, and chervil are excellent picks. These heat-loving varieties flourish in July’s warmth and are harvest-ready in about 30 days, especially when sown continuously.



Gardeners in zones 6 through 9 can benefit from planting bush beans and snap peas, which don’t require trellising and are ideal for compact plots. 



Maturing in 50–60 days, they’re a smart choice for quick, protein-rich harvests. For those in hotter regions, heat-tolerant crops such as okra and southern peas provide reliable yields and thrive in scorching conditions.



This guide emphasizes more than crop selection—it highlights the importance of timing, soil preparation, and ongoing sowing techniques. 



With thoughtful planning and attention to regional climate needs, even late-summer gardeners can enjoy fresh salads, hearty stews, and the satisfaction of a robust, homegrown harvest well into fall.



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What to plant in your garden in mid-July

https://youtu.be/Fi2OeEwuzRM?si=vTyd2m9FMmtyWkex Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving...

Green,Ecoduct,Over,An,Empty,Highway,During,Sunset.

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https://youtu.be/XYgiPzmNBTU?si=eFYY7gPHU1JznLvU
</div></figure>



A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that wildlife tunnels significantly reduce amphibian road mortality during seasonal migrations. 



Frogs and salamanders often cross roads to reach breeding ponds each spring, but many are killed by vehicles. 



Researchers from the <a href="https://www.uvm.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Vermont</a>, in collaboration with local citizens and the Vermont Agency of Natural Resources, installed two underpass tunnels in 2015. 



Over a 12-year monitoring period, they observed an 80.2% reduction in amphibian deaths, and up to 94% for non-climbing species like salamanders. 



The study used a before-after-control-impact design and documented more than 5,200 amphibians, highlighting the tunnels’ effectiveness even in nearby buffer zones.



Funded at $342,397 - far cheaper than wildlife crossings for large mammals - the project showcased the power of community-led conservation.



Local groups initiated the effort after observing mass amphibian deaths. Wildlife cameras later captured over 2,200 amphibians using a tunnel in just one spring, along with other species like raccoons and bobcats, indicating wider ecosystem benefits.



This marks the first peer-reviewed, long-term data set in the northeastern U.S. confirming amphibian-specific underpasses work. 



The study urges transportation departments to incorporate these designs into road planning and highlights how community action, thoughtful infrastructure, and persistence can make a real difference for biodiversity.



The full study was published in the <a href="https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1617138125000780" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal for Nature Conservation</a>.



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-----

Wildlife tunnels save millions of amphibians

https://youtu.be/XYgiPzmNBTU?si=eFYY7gPHU1JznLvU A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that...

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing it with probiotics and prebiotics, aiming to create a treat that satisfies cravings while supporting gut health. 



The challenge lies in maintaining chocolate's beloved texture and flavor while adding health benefits.



<figure class="wp-block-embed aligncenter is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://youtu.be/Ug657J67iEo?si=w96YjGMsg939LD_3
</div></figure>



Probiotics - beneficial microbes that balance gut bacteria and aid digestion - are typically fragile and can be destroyed by stomach acid or processing. 



Prebiotics act as food for these microbes, helping them thrive. Together, they form "synbiotics," a powerful health combination.



Researchers Smriti Gaur and Shubhi Singh from India's Jaypee Institute of Information Technology took an innovative approach, using natural prebiotics like corn and honey instead of complex processing methods. 



They created five chocolate varieties: a control and four synbiotic versions containing different combinations of prebiotics, probiotics (Lactobacillus strains), and flavor enhancers (cinnamon or orange).



Laboratory simulations of human digestion showed the probiotics remained viable for over five hours, suggesting they could survive long enough to benefit gut health.



Taste tests were positive, with researchers particularly enjoying the orange-flavored variety, describing it as having "vibrant citrus notes" complementing the "rich cocoa" with a "luxurious" texture.



This research represents just the beginning. With further refinement of strains, textures, and flavors, chocolate could evolve beyond mere indulgence to become a functional food that nourishes while it delights.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.4c00741" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ACS Food Science &amp; Technology</a>.

Is chocolate the next nutritional powerhouse?

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

[sendtonews key="0ynNMYkMKa-2340414-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

[sendtonews key="G9bUoxcjr4-2511624-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

[sendtonews key="3upvlAaHgO-2256633-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

[sendtonews key="LvS8v8bp9z-2564889-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="X0f6OHYoI4-2310561-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How does salt makes things taste better?

[sendtonews key="X0f6OHYoI4-2310561-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="JRaP49ISmm-2357509-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Santiago, Chile in South America

[sendtonews key="JRaP49ISmm-2357509-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

[sendtonews key="e4ZG0Jawp3-2374785-12187" type="single"] Astronomers at Johns Hopkins University have created...

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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.



According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."



Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;



ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. 



Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

[sendtonews key="uV9Lh2fQbV-1760058-12187" type="single"] Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

[sendtonews key="qjvhBOBnY8-2426650-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

[sendtonews key="oL4FnPTGCV-2384527-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

[sendtonews key="0879czfG3k-1785905-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from NASA...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

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Earth,Like,Exoplanet,3d,Render

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

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