Young aspen trees in Yellowstone are doing something they have not done in almost 100 years. Rather than sprouting and being eaten back to nubs by elk and bison, they're actually growing into tall, adult forest trees rising up towards the canopy.



This matters more than it might seem, because it shows what happens when a missing piece of an ecosystem returns.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-yellowstone-aspens-and-elk">Yellowstone, aspens, and elk</h2>



In the 1920s, people <a href="https://www.yellowstone.org/wolf-project/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">eliminated wolves in Yellowstone</a>. At the time, with limited scientific knowledge, managers believed it was the right thing to do.



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/from-wolves-to-dogs-did-domestication-begin-without-human-help/">Without wolves</a>, elk herds grew very large. Elk love to eat aspen shoots - the tender young growth is highly palatable to them.



For roughly 70 years, elk browsed aspen sprouts down to stub height, and the trees couldn't grow. 



If you had walked through Yellowstone in the 1980s, you would have seen many tiny aspen shoots covering the ground, but almost no young trees gaining height. 



The forest's regeneration was stalled. Old trees died, and no new ones replaced them.



In 1995 and 1996, park managers reintroduced wolves into the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/yellowstone-supervolcano-eruption-study-sparks-new-debate-on-where-and-when-it-will-erupt/">Yellowstone Park ecosystem</a>. Scientists hoped and wondered whether this would change anything for the trees.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-aspen-matter-to-yellowstone">Why aspen matter to Yellowstone</h2>



Aspen groves provide habitat for many species. Birds nest in them. Beavers eat the bark and use the wood for dams. Butterflies and moths lay eggs on the leaves. 



Their canopy admits enough light for wildflowers and shrubs to grow beneath. When it rains, aspen groves hold water in the soil better than some other forest types.



In short, when aspen return, dozens of other species benefit. More trees support more insects, which in turn support more birds, enriching the ecosystem.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-checking-the-trees-three-decades-later">Checking the trees three decades later</h2>



<a href="https://fwcs.oregonstate.edu/users/luke-painter" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Luke Painter</a>, an ecologist at <a href="https://oregonstate.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Oregon State University</a>, sought clear answers. His team returned to 87 aspen stands across Yellowstone that scientists had previously surveyed. 



They measured thousands of young trees, looked for bite marks, and counted how many stems were tall enough that elk could no longer reach the tips.



About a third of these stands now have many tall young aspens pushing toward the canopy. 



"About 26 of the 87 aspen stands we examined had large numbers of tall saplings throughout, a remarkable change from the 1990s when surveys found none at all," Painter said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-wolves-matter-to-yellowstone-aspens">Why wolves matter to Yellowstone aspens</h2>



Breaking it all down, the conclusions of this study are pretty simple. 



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/wolves-move-pups-across-mountains-to-adapt-to-climate-pressure/">Wolves hunt elk</a>. When wolves came back, two things happened. First, elk numbers declined from unusually high levels. Second, elk changed their behavior. They spent less time in the same areas feeding.



With fewer elk and shorter feeding bouts, more aspen shoots survived long enough to exceed the browsing zone - about six to seven feet high. 



Once a sapling reaches that height, elk cannot easily reach the growing tip. The tree continues to grow.



"The reintroduction of large carnivores has initiated a recovery process that had been shut down for decades," Painter explained.



Scientists call this a <a href="https://www.nature.com/scitable/knowledge/library/trophic-cascades-across-diverse-plant-ecosystems-80060347/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">trophic cascade</a> - when adding or removing one species causes changes that ripple through the whole system.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-some-places-recover-others-don-t">Some places recover, others don't</h2>



Unfortunately, not every aspen stand has recovered yet. Some valleys still have many short, heavily browsed shoots, because it's not only elk eating them anymore. 



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/yellowstones-iconic-bison-have-merged-into-a-single-herd/">Bison herds have grown</a>, and bison browse on aspen as well. They are strong enough to break young trees. 



"Increasing numbers of bison may be emerging as a new constraint to aspen in some areas," Painter confirmed.



Additionally, winter snow depth varies; droughts stress trees; bears and mountain lions also hunt elk; and hunting outside the park influences elk distribution. 



All of these factors interact, which is why some sites show strong recovery, others show moderate recovery, and a few have changed very little.



The key pattern is that places with many tall saplings experience little browsing, and aspen groves that remain popular eating grounds today stay short. 



This fact is the strongest indication that tree recovery is linked directly to wolf presence, not solely to weather or soil conditions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-proof-in-the-measurements">Proof in the measurements</h2>



Painter's team did not rely on casual observation. They used the same methods as earlier researchers, measuring the same plots. 



They counted recruitment - when young trees surpass browsing height and begin progressing toward maturity. This measure is crucial. Sprouts are insufficient if they never grow; without recruitment, the forest cannot replace itself.



The results are robust. After being stalled for most of a century, Yellowstone's aspens are increasing in height. In recovering stands today, you will see saplings - six, eight, or ten feet tall - that were not present in the 1990s.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-future-of-yellowstone-s-aspens">The future of Yellowstone's aspens</h2>



"This is a remarkable case of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/giant-viruses-found-in-yellowstones-hot-springs-may-be-near-the-root-of-all-life-on-earth/">ecological restoration</a>," Painter concluded. "Wolf reintroduction is yielding long-term ecological changes contributing to increased biodiversity and habitat diversity."



Trees grow slowly, so even with wolves restored, it will take decades for these young aspens to form a full-grown forest. 



Some areas might never fully recover if bison numbers continue to rise or if the climate becomes too hot and dry.



Thanks to the work of Painter and his team, scientists are now certain that restoring the Yellowstone predator has restarted aspen forest regeneration. Not everywhere and not perfectly, but enough to be measured, creating hope for the future.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0378112725004499?via%3Dihub" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Forest Ecology and Management</a>.



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Yellowstone's aspen trees are growing again thanks to the reintroduction of wolves

Young aspen trees in Yellowstone are doing something they have not done in almost 100 years. Rather than sprouting and being eaten back to nubs by elk and bison, they're actually growing into tall, adult forest trees rising up towards the canopy. This matters more than it might seem, because it shows what happens when a missing piece of an ecosystem returns. Yellowstone, aspens, and elk In the 1920s, people eliminated wolves in Yellowstone. At the time, with limited scientific knowledge, managers believed it was the right...

Imagine a world where animals, like humans, form friendships that endure for years. A world where alliances are forged not through blood ties but through acts of mutual aid. 



This world exists all across Earth, but especially with a bird species called African starlings. They engage in reciprocal "helping" behavior, a concept once thought exclusive to humans.



A new study led by Alexis Earl, a former PhD student at <a href="https://www.columbia.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Columbia University</a> in Professor Dustin Rubenstein’s lab, has cracked open the complex social world of these birds. The findings challenge long-held assumptions that kinship alone drives cooperative behavior.



Instead, the study reveals that starlings form lasting <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sparrows-have-fewer-friends-as-they-age-just-like-most-people/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">friendships</a>, built on the expectation that help given today will be returned tomorrow.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-african-starlings-more-than-family-groups">African starlings: More than family groups</h2>



African starling societies are anything but simple. These aren’t just tight-knit family groups. They’re intricate networks of related and unrelated individuals, living together, helping each other, and occasionally switching roles. 



“Starling societies are not just simple families,” Rubenstein said. “They’re much more complex, containing a mixture of related and unrelated individuals that live together, much in the way that humans do.”



The research team observed these <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/most-birds-are-at-great-risk-from-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">birds</a> over 20 years at the Mpala Research Centre in Kenya. During 40 breeding seasons, they documented thousands of interactions among hundreds of birds. By collecting genetic data, they could trace familial ties and map out the social networks within each group.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-birds-help-non-relatives">Birds help non-relatives</h2>



The data revealed a striking pattern. <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bird-extinctions-shatter-the-harmonious-balance-of-nature/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Birds</a> weren’t just helping relatives, they were helping non-relatives too.



And not just once - over and over again. These birds were forming relationships based on reciprocity, where the expectation wasn’t immediate repayment but long-term support.



Rubenstein emphasized the significance of these findings. “Many of these birds are essentially forming friendships over time,” he said. 



But why help a non-relative when a relative is nearby? For the starlings, the answer appears to lie in building a network of allies, a safety net that extends beyond family bonds.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-role-reversals-and-unexpected-alliances">Role reversals and unexpected alliances</h2>



Starlings don’t stick to one role. They don’t remain helpers or breeders for life. Instead, they switch roles throughout their lifetimes, a phenomenon rarely seen in cooperative breeders. 



The researchers found that individuals frequently moved between helper and breeder roles, sometimes even after raising their own offspring.



This role-switching opened the door for reciprocal helping. A bird that helped another during one breeding season might later become a breeder and receive help from that same individual. 



The study tracked 528 helper-breeder pairs, and in 142 pairs, the same two birds swapped roles and helped each other over time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-bird-friendships-form-through-reciprocal-helping">Bird friendships form through reciprocal helping</h2>



Kin selection is a well-established concept in evolutionary biology. Helping family members ensures the survival of shared genes. But the researchers observed a different kind of bond in starlings - one based on reciprocity, not kinship.



Resident males typically helped relatives. Immigrant males, however, helped both kin and non-kin. In fact, the researchers found that the helping rate for reciprocating pairs was 242 percent higher than for non-reciprocating pairs. 



Clearly, these birds were forming alliances that went beyond genetic ties.



But kinship wasn’t entirely irrelevant. Resident females rarely became breeders, so they had fewer opportunities for reciprocal helping. Immigrant females, on the other hand, often moved between helper and breeder roles, forming bonds with specific non-relatives.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-power-of-long-term-data">Power of long-term data</h2>



The depth of this study lies in its duration. Twenty years of observations, over 12,000 recorded helping interactions and more than 500 individual birds. 



This long-term dataset allowed the researchers to detect subtle patterns that would have been invisible in a shorter study.



Rubenstein believes these findings have broader implications. “I think this kind of reciprocal helping behavior is likely going on in a lot of animal societies, and people just haven’t studied them long enough to be able to detect it,” he said.



Without such extensive data, the role of reciprocal helping might have remained hidden beneath the more obvious kin-based helping patterns. The study underscores the importance of sustained observation in uncovering the intricacies of animal behavior.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-animal-social-networks">Implications for animal social networks</h2>



Why would a bird help a non-relative, even when a relative is nearby? The answer may lie in the unpredictability of life in the African savannah. Food scarcity. Predator threats. Uncertain breeding success.



In such an environment, forming bonds with non-relatives could serve as a form of insurance. Birds that help today may receive help tomorrow when conditions worsen. It’s a strategy that maximizes survival, not just for the individual but for the entire group.



The researchers observed that these reciprocal bonds sometimes lasted for years. And in some cases, they were even stronger than bonds formed through kinship. 



By maintaining these alliances, birds could increase their chances of receiving support during critical breeding periods.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-reciprocal-helping-in-other-birds">Reciprocal helping in other birds</h2>



This phenomenon isn’t limited to African starlings. Other bird species, such as green woodhoopoes and white-fronted bee-eaters, also exhibit reciprocal helping. However, the evidence of such behavior in non-relatives is rare.



The researchers argue that reciprocal helping may be more common than previously thought. The problem is that detecting it requires long-term observation - years, even decades. And that kind of data is difficult to obtain.



In the case of African starlings, the data revealed that reciprocal helping relationships sometimes persisted for multiple breeding seasons. Birds that helped each other one year often maintained that relationship, swapping roles and continuing to support one another over time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-research-directions">Future research directions</h2>



What drives birds to choose specific partners for reciprocal helping? How do they recognize reliable allies? Are there cues - vocal signals, visual displays, prior interactions - that indicate trustworthiness?



The study raises more questions than it answers. The researchers plan to expand their observations to other species within the same environment. By doing so, they hope to determine whether reciprocal helping is a widespread strategy among cooperative breeders or a unique trait of African starlings.



Additionally, they aim to explore the impact of environmental factors on reciprocal helping. Does food scarcity strengthen these bonds? Do predator threats prompt birds to seek new allies?



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-redefining-animal-cooperation">Redefining animal cooperation</h2>



The findings of this study challenge the conventional view that cooperative behavior in animals is driven solely by kin selection. While helping relatives remains a vital strategy, reciprocal helping may play an equally significant role in stabilizing social groups.



For the African starlings, reciprocal helping is a way to build alliances, secure support, and hedge against future uncertainties. It’s a strategy that mirrors human friendships - complex, enduring, and sometimes unpredictable.



“I think this kind of reciprocal helping behavior is likely going on in a lot of animal societies, and people just haven’t studied them long enough to be able to detect it,” Rubenstein said.



The study, published in Nature, provides a rare glimpse into the hidden world of animal friendships. It shows that even in the harsh and unpredictable environment of the African savannah, social bonds can form, endure, and evolve. 



And in the end, the birds that help today may just be the ones receiving help tomorrow.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-025-08958-4" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature</a>.



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Birds observed exhibiting many behaviors that resemble human friendships

Imagine a world where animals, like humans, form friendships that...

Robots are becoming a familiar sight in the hospitality world. They’re guiding guests, delivering meals, and even recommending menu items. 



But something as subtle as a robot’s “gender” might shape how customers respond to these interactions - especially when the customer feels unsure or lacks confidence.



That’s the focus of a new study from researchers at the <a href="https://hhd.psu.edu/shm/mps-in-hospitality-management?gad_source=1&amp;gad_campaignid=18940599036&amp;gbraid=0AAAAAo7UxZlqJMbtNBd7T97lI5YjHkzAl&amp;gclid=CjwKCAjwiezABhBZEiwAEbTPGOFaJED0NEG_nlG8hE98t3TWHWeoQox2QtkSydIxrHuGuXmz3slqiBoC6J8QAvD_BwE" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Penn State School of Hospitality Management</a>. 



Their work shows that the gender traits assigned to service robots - like a masculine name or voice - can sway how customers make <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/quick-decisions-are-often-biased-and-misleading/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">decisions</a>. Their experiments also revealed how cute robot designs might help tone down this influence.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-confidence-shapes-robot-response">Confidence shapes robot response</h2>



The study looked at how people react to service robots depending on how powerful or confident they feel. 



According to the researchers, robots are often designed to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/household-robots-now-with-added-common-sense-and-ability-to-self-correct/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">mimic human</a> features - from names and voices to colors and shapes. These features suggest gender. But how people respond to these features isn’t one-size-fits-all.



“Robots can be designed or programmed to have human-like features like names, voices, and body shapes, which portray gender,” said study co-author Anna Mattila.



“In addition to robot gender, a consumer’s sense of power - how individuals perceive their ability to influence others or their environment - can also affect how successful a service robot can be in making recommendations.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-gender-influences-choices">Gender influences choices</h2>



To test this, the researchers conducted two studies. In the first, 239 participants were asked to imagine dining at a new restaurant. Before interacting with a robot server, they assessed their own feelings of power. 



The robot then recommended a breakfast burrito, and participants rated how persuasive the robot was.



The robot's design was altered slightly to show gender - using pink to suggest a female robot and gray to suggest a male one. Everything else stayed the same.



“We found women with a low sense of power were more prone to accept a male robot’s recommendations,” said study lead author Lavi Peng.



“For men with a low sense of power, we found the difference was less obvious. Based on our findings, consumers with high power tend to make their own judgement without relying on societal expectations. They are more confident and want to make decisions based off their own judgment.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-robot-traits-affect-revenue">Robot traits affect revenue</h2>



This suggests that gender cues from robots can influence decision-making, particularly for customers who don’t feel in control. The researchers say this insight could help restaurants and hotels tailor their robot features to encourage upsells or promote new offerings.



“Upselling and upgrading are all about <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ai-robots-marketing-and-the-power-of-persuasion/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">persuasion</a>, and the results of our study suggested robots with male characteristics could be effective,” Peng said.



“If a business knows its customer is female, it may want to consider using a robot with different gender characteristics than it would with a male customer.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-adorable-bots-beat-bias">Adorable bots beat bias</h2>



The second part of the research explored how to reduce the effects of gender cues. If businesses want to avoid reinforcing stereotypes, is there a design trick that helps?



To find out, the team recruited 156 university students. These participants were chosen because, as students, they are often in subordinate roles - a group that tends to feel less powerful.



Instead of using color to suggest gender, the researchers equipped robots with gendered facial designs displayed on a screen mounted on a Bear Robotics Servi robot. 



These faces included stereotypically masculine or feminine <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/who-do-children-trust-more-robots-or-humans-scientists-found-out/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">features</a>, but were drawn in a “cute” style - round faces, large eyes, and gentle expressions. Participants interacted with the robot, then rated its recommendation for avocado toast.



“Both male and female customers responded similarly to both the male and female robot designs,” Peng said. “For businesses that want to mitigate gender stereotypes, they can consider using a cute design for their robots.”



In short, cuteness may override gender cues. When robots look soft and friendly, people seem less sensitive to whether the robot appears “male” or “female.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-designing-better-service-robots">Designing better service robots</h2>



As more businesses adopt service robots, these small design details will start to matter more. This research suggests companies can do more than just program a helpful machine - they can use subtle features to shape customer experiences. 



That might mean using masculine traits to upsell certain items, or adopting gender-neutral, cute designs to avoid reinforcing stereotypes.



For hotels and restaurants, these <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/supermarket-layout-influences-food-choice-and-diet/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">choices</a> could make a real difference in customer satisfaction and business outcomes.



Sound like science fiction? Maybe not for long. The future of hospitality might just depend on how your breakfast burrito gets recommended - and who (or what) is doing the recommending.



The findings are published in the <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhtm.2025.01.019" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal of Hospitality and Tourism Management</a>.



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Robot 'gender' can influence human choices and decision making

Robots are becoming a familiar sight in the hospitality world....

From polar science to offshore energy, autonomous robots at sea are beginning to organize themselves, switch roles on the fly, and redraw their mission plans. That new flexibility unlocks tasks that once demanded large ships, heavy crews, and long timelines. 



Researchers at the <a href="https://www.ntnu.edu/">Norwegian University of Science and Technology</a> (NTNU), <a href="https://www.equinor.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Equinor</a>, the <a href="https://www.up.pt/portal/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Porto</a> and partner institutes in Europe and the United States argue that autonomous robotic organizations, or AROs, mark a major leap beyond traditional single‑platform systems.



The technology brings together autonomous underwater vehicles, uncrewed surface craft, aerial drones, and even small satellites - all linked through a shared command‑and‑control network.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-coordinated-robotic-network">A coordinated robotic network</h2>



Early marine robotics relied on a few specialized machines or on large swarms of identical units. AROs take a different path. Each <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/robots-can-now-learn-like-humans-using-self-awareness/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">robot</a> keeps its own sensors and strengths, yet can pass tasks to others when conditions change.



One vehicle may map a seafloor ridge. Another may sample the water column. A <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/drones-reveal-hidden-details-about-greenlands-melting-ice/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">drone</a> may relay video. A satellite may stream wide‑area data.



Software then merges every data feed in real time. The result is a flexible “system of systems” that works faster, costs less, and survives setbacks better than any individual device could manage.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-from-seabed-to-satellite">From seabed to satellite</h2>



The concept moved from theory to practice above the Arctic Circle. In 2022, a full observation pyramid operated in Kongsfjorden, Svalbard. 



An autonomous underwater robot scanned the depths while an uncrewed surface vessel charted currents. Overhead, an autonomous drone filmed surface patterns. Far above, NTNU’s first research satellite gathered ocean‑color data.



Each platform focused on the same <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/arctic-fjords-show-signs-of-struggle-in-a-warming-world/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">fjord</a> within the same window, capturing the annual spring bloom of algae from seabed to space.



That test followed years of smaller experiments that mixed subsea robots, surface craft, and aircraft. Adding the satellite closed the loop, letting researchers trace biological signals through the entire water column and out to the open ocean.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-teamwork-cuts-time-and-cost">Teamwork cuts time and cost</h2>



Traditional vessel campaigns are powerful but costly. A single expedition can burn weeks of ship time, fuel, and crew wages. AROs promise to cover the same ground for a fraction of the price.



Robots can remain at sea for months, return to recharge at surface buoys, or fly home for maintenance. They adapt quickly when <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/shorter-storms-bigger-impact-rising-flood-risks-in-a-warmer-world/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">storms</a>, ice, or security limits force changes. They also shrink carbon footprints - a growing concern for scientific and industrial operators alike.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-offshore-work-goes-robotic">Offshore work goes robotic</h2>



Equinor has already inserted robotic solutions into routine offshore work. Underwater vehicles inspect pipelines and platforms. 



Surface craft monitor sensitive ecosystems around drilling sites. Drones relay findings so shore‑based engineers can respond within hours, not weeks. Similar gains appear in environmental mapping, military surveillance, and emergency response.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-two-decades-of-robotic-progress">Two decades of robotic progress</h2>



The Svalbard trial rests on more than twenty years of field work. NTNU and the University of Porto have led joint missions in the Atlantic, Arctic, Pacific, Mediterranean and Adriatic Seas.



Cross‑cutting centers such as <a href="https://www.ntnu.edu/amos" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NTNU AMOS</a>, <a href="https://www.ntnu.edu/caros" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NTNU VISTA CAROS</a> and <a href="https://sfiharvest.no/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">SFI HARVEST</a> have steered research on control algorithms, energy storage, acoustic communication, and fault tolerance. In Portugal, Professor João Sousa directs NATO‑backed programs that test marine security concepts. 



In Norway, national institutes - from <a href="https://www.sintef.no/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">SINTEF</a> to the <a href="https://www.ffi.no/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Norwegian Defence Research Establishment</a> - contribute sensors, software and field logistics.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-capabilities-of-autonomous-robots">Capabilities of autonomous robots</h2>



AROs hinge on three capabilities. First is advanced cooperation. Autonomous robots must negotiate who does what without flooding operators with details. 



Second is robust control. Each unit needs to stay safe, even when a neighbor fails or a link drops.



Third is resilience. Teams must reorganize and carry on when weather, ice or hardware knocks them off script. Achieving those goals demands tight integration of artificial intelligence, navigation, power management, and high‑bandwidth communication.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-costs-down-quality-up">Costs down, quality up</h2>



Analysts predict that AROs can survey broad offshore lease blocks, inspect cables or map fish stocks at far lower cost than legacy methods. Faster data returns help regulators and firms meet tight deadlines.



Continuous presence improves safety, because robots can spot leaks or drifting gear before they enlarge. Redundancy boosts confidence that missions will finish, even if one vehicle falters.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-looking-beyond-the-ocean">Looking beyond the ocean</h2>



While marine work drives current investment, the underlying idea extends further. The same principles could link ground robots, self‑driving trucks, fixed sensors, and low‑orbit satellites into continent‑scale logistics networks.



Emergency services might deploy mixed robot teams after storms. Precision farmers could blend drone imagery with soil probes and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/aquatic-robot-inspired-by-flatworms-can-swim-in-harmony-with-nature/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">irrigation bots</a>. Anywhere tasks span air, surface, and subsurface domains, an ARO could deliver.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-plans-for-autonomous-robots">Future plans for autonomous robots</h2>



Researchers plan to expand Arctic tests to include longer endurance, more complex repairs and live hand‑offs between robot classes. 



They will refine decision‑making so fleets can weigh risks, energy budgets, and data priorities on the fly. They also aim to tighten cybersecurity, a pressing need as critical operations shift from crewed ships to distributed robots.



Autonomous robotic organizations promise a new era of marine efficiency, agility, and reach. After decades of groundwork, the technology is leaving the lab for real‑world duty. 



With costs dropping and capabilities rising, robot teams may soon become standard partners for science, industry and defense at sea - and, before long, far beyond it.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/scirobotics.adl2976" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Science Robotics</a>.



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Autonomous robots are revolutionizing ocean exploration

From polar science to offshore energy, autonomous robots at sea...

Owls are famous for their ability to hear exactly where their prey is hiding, even in complete darkness. But a surprising new study shows that owls aren’t the only raptors with this impressive skill. Harriers, a type of hawk found around the world, also have specialized hearing abilities that help them locate prey by sound.



An international team led by researchers from the <a href="https://www.ulethbridge.ca/">University of Lethbridge</a> in Canada and <a href="https://www.flinders.edu.au/">Flinders University</a> in Australia has uncovered unexpected owl-like traits in the ears and brains of several harrier species. 



The findings reveal that harriers have independently evolved several adaptations that allow them to hunt more effectively by <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/marine-mammals-recognize-the-sound-of-killer-whales-on-the-hunt/">sound</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hunting-prey-by-sound-and-sight">Hunting prey by sound and sight</h2>



“Until recently, it was assumed that all their hearing adaptations were unique to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/photographer-captures-a-rare-snowy-owl-orange-color-genetic-mutation/">owls</a>. However, our study shows that harriers have independently evolved several key adaptations for finding prey by sound,” said Sara Citron, a PhD student at the University of Lethbridge, who led the study.



Scientists have long praised owls for their fine-tuned hearing, which allows them to zero in on small prey like mice in total darkness.



Harriers, on the other hand, primarily hunted by sight - much like most hawks were believed to do. But the new research reveals that harriers are much more attuned to sound than previously believed.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ha-wks-with-exceptional-hearing">Hawks with exceptional hearing</h2>



The research team focused on harriers because of their distinctive hunting style. Andrew Iwaniuk, senior author of the study, is an associate professor at Canada’s Center for Behavioral Neuroscience. 



“Hawks tend to hunt primarily by sight. But unlike other hawks, harriers fly low over tall grass with their beak pointed to the ground,” said Iwaniuk. “During this so-called ‘quartering flight,’ they are not only looking for prey, they are also listening for it.”



“The Australian Spotted Harrier is a great example. When you look at this species’ face, you can see a distinctive disc-shaped face, which may improve their prey localization just like owls,” added co-author Aubrey Keirnan, a PhD student at Flinders University.



Older behavioral studies had already shown that harriers can locate sounds with surprising accuracy, much like owls. But the anatomical reasons behind this ability had remained a mystery.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-brains-tuned-for-prey">Brains tuned for prey</h2>



To investigate further, the researchers examined skulls and brains of harriers. They compared them to other hawks, using specimens from wildlife rehabilitators and museums in Canada and Australia. Researchers also looked at close relatives, such as the wedge-tailed eagle.



They found harriers, like owls, have large ear openings and two brain areas vital for pinpointing sound location.



“These auditory nuclei are found in the brainstem and compare the time at which sounds arrive at the left or right ear,” said co-author Vera Weisbecker, an associate professor at Flinders University. 



“If a sound arrives at both ears at the same time, then the sound is coming from directly in front of an animal. If there is a delay, this indicates that the prey is more to the left or right.”



The hawks have enhanced hearing thanks to expanded brain regions, giving them an edge in detecting hidden prey.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-separate-species-same-solution">Separate species, same solution</h2>



“Harriers have therefore evolved an auditory system similar to owls, enabling them to target sounds as accurately as owls in a remarkable example of convergent evolution of both brain and behavior in animals separated by over 60 million years,” Citron said.



However, the researchers are careful to note that these hawks are not quite on par with owls when it comes to hearing.



“There are several other features that help owls with their keen hearing which we did not find in harriers,” Citron explained.



“For example, some owl species have asymmetric ears that allow them to locate sound with greater acuity, and these owls also have several other enlarged brain regions that were not enlarged in harriers.”



This explains why owls can hunt in complete darkness, while harriers remain daytime hunters.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-conservation-strategies-for-harriers">Conservation strategies for harriers</h2>



The researchers believe their findings could help guide future studies on bird anatomy and behavior, especially when it comes to conservation.



“Anatomical studies like ours are a window into how a bird perceives the world around it, which can be extremely useful for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/birds-are-declining-fastest-where-they-were-once-common/">bird</a> conservation,” Iwaniuk said.



“For example, harriers’ reliance on sound for prey location means that they are likely more sensitive to traffic and industrial noise. This could be contributing to the large decreases in Northern Harrier populations we have seen in Canada.”



By better understanding how these birds detect prey, scientists can learn more about the challenges they face in modern environments. This knowledge could help design conservation strategies that account for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/noise-pollution-is-increasingly-disrupting-whale-migration/">noise pollution</a> and other threats that interfere with their finely tuned senses.



The study adds to a growing body of research showing how diverse species can evolve similar traits when facing similar challenges - highlighting nature’s remarkable ability to find common solutions across vast evolutionary distances.



The study is published in the <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/joa.14264">Journal of Anatomy</a>.



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Some hawks evolved super hearing abilities to locate prey

Owls are famous for their ability to hear exactly where...

Alzheimer's disease often brings to mind images of older adults struggling with memory loss and confusion. News of a 17-year-old who showed devastating cognitive decline serves to remind us of the complexity of this condition. 



His official diagnosis came at age 19, setting an unsettling record for the youngest documented case of Alzheimer's to date. Neurologist <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Jianping-Jia-2" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Dr. Jianping Jia</a> from Capital Medical University helped confirm this startling scenario.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-alzheimer-s-disease-breaking-age-barriers">Alzheimer's disease breaking age barriers</h2>



For many decades, Alzheimer's has been <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/24398425/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">classified</a> primarily as an age-related disease. It typically causes problems with memory, thinking, and behavior, as neurons in the brain become impaired over time.



Doctors now recognize early-onset cases, with some individuals diagnosed before they turn 65. These instances represent approximately 10 percent of all Alzheimer's diagnoses, making them less common but no less serious. 



Reports indicate that this teenager first noticed recurring forgetfulness around the age of 17. He struggled academically and often misplaced personal items, but the situation worsened until he needed professional assessment.



Specialized imaging revealed atrophy in his <a href="https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/body/hippocampus" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">hippocampus</a>, a key region involved in forming new memories. 



Analysis of his cerebrospinal fluid showed protein markers that are typically associated with Alzheimer's, though the cause remained unclear.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-genetic-answers-to-alzheimer-s-disease">Genetic answers to Alzheimer's disease</h2>



Most patients younger than the age of 30 are classified as having <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/neuroscience/familial-alzheimers-disease" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">familial Alzheimer's disease (FAD)</a>, meaning they inherit specific faulty genes that lead to early disease. Curiously, no gene mutations were found in this teenager's DNA, which has left doctors puzzled.



His family had no known history of memory disorders, a factor that usually points investigators toward environmental or other less common triggers. 



Still, the medical team could not identify any infections, metabolic diseases, or traumatic injuries that might explain his decline.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-unexpected-outcomes-and-statistics">Unexpected outcomes and statistics</h2>



He scored poorly on immediate, short-delay, and long-delay recall tasks, with one test placing his memory performance 82 percent below that of his peers. Another measurement showed he was 87 percent behind in immediate recall ability.



Despite these stark findings, he could still live on his own but found it impossible to finish high school. 



The authors contend that this phenomenon shows there is more to learn about how <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/alzheimers-may-not-be-a-brain-disease/">Alzheimer's</a> develops, even in very young individuals.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-where-do-we-go-from-here">Where do we go from here?</h2>



"Exploring the mysteries of young people with Alzheimer's disease may become one of the most challenging scientific questions of the future," the authors said. In a note to a local media outlet, the researchers suggested that investigations of similar rare cases are vital. 



<a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/24336208/">Scientists</a> are now looking at lifestyle factors and additional genetic markers that might play a role in early disease onset. These include things like unusual protein buildups, metabolic imbalances, or newly discovered gene variants.



Although typical early-onset Alzheimer's is often tied to known genetic defects in the <a href="https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC9504248/">PSEN1</a> or <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-021-04027-8">APP genes</a>, this teenager tested negative for all recognized variants. 



Researchers suspect that a yet-to-be-identified mutation or a unique biological mechanism might be at play.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-looking-toward-solutions">Looking toward solutions</h2>



Current treatment options focus on slowing disease progression, but no definitive cure exists. Trials involving <a href="https://alzres.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s13195-019-0529-5" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">immunotherapies</a> and drugs targeting amyloid protein are ongoing, yet they have had mixed results so far.



Families of a loved one who is diagnosed with Alzheimer's in the teens or early twenties will feel uncertain and underprepared, as little information exists about this condition in younger patients. 



More resources are needed to guide patients and relatives through a condition that is typically managed in geriatric settings.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-refining-alzheimer-s-disease-diagnostics">Refining Alzheimer's disease diagnostics</h2>



Advanced imaging methods and biomarker tests are helping clinicians detect changes in the brain earlier than ever. 



By identifying subtle shifts in metabolism and structure, doctors can intervene sooner, potentially delaying severe cognitive deterioration.



Genetic testing has also made strides in identifying those who are at high risk, although this case highlights the possibility of other unknown drivers. <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/stopping-alzheimers-before-it-starts-early-treatment-shows-potential/">Alzheimer's</a> remains a puzzle, especially when its usual patterns fail to appear.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-happens-next">What happens next?</h2>



Collaborations among neurologists, geneticists, and epidemiologists could uncover new pathways responsible for atypical Alzheimer's disease. 



Long-term monitoring of individuals like this teen may yield guidance that transforms how specialists approach younger patients.



Researchers hope these insights will lead to preventive strategies, more targeted treatments, and improved outcomes across all ages. 



This might one day spare the next generation from unexpected cognitive losses that disrupt their lives and futures.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-call-for-awareness">A call for awareness</h2>



Doctors and caregivers stress the importance of vigilance, as forgetting small details can sometimes hint at a larger issue. When suspicion arises, timely neurological evaluations offer the best shot at catching serious conditions early.



Such steps are especially critical for younger individuals who show unusual <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/memory-isnt-only-stored-in-our-brains-other-cells-can-remember-too/">memory</a> problems. Proper screening could help them stay in school, remain socially active, or gain access to supportive therapies when every moment counts.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hope-on-the-horizon">Hope on the horizon</h2>



Fresh discoveries in neuroscience promise new understandings of how the disease can begin in the prime of life. Research breakthroughs might open doors for interventions that preserve memory and give young patients a fighting chance.



No single gene or factor appears responsible for every early-onset case, which means experts must keep an open mind. 



The lesson from this story is that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-blood-test-can-track-the-progression-of-alzheimers/">Alzheimer's</a> can appear in ways we least expect, and challenge all preconceived notions.



This case highlights the need for constant vigilance and ongoing research. The effort to unravel early diagnoses could change the entire field of dementia care.



The study is published in the <a href="https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.3233/JAD-221065" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal of Alzheimer's Disease</a>.



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17-year-old man breaks the world record for early-onset Alzheimer's disease

Alzheimer's disease often brings to mind images of older adults...

The gut takes a direct hit from the Western-style diet, which is heavy on processed foods, red meat, dairy, and sugar - and low on fruits, vegetables, and whole grains.



This way of eating reduces the variety of microbes living in the digestive system, weakening the gut’s resilience. That microbial decline can interfere with how the body responds to antibiotics and makes it harder for the immune system to fight off disease.



In a new study from the <a href="https://www.uchicago.edu/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Chicago</a>, scientists show how mice fed a Western-style diet were unable to restore a healthy gut microbiome after antibiotic treatment. Not only did these mice struggle to regain microbial diversity, but they also became more vulnerable to infections like <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dogs-are-overlooked-sources-of-antibiotic-resistant-salmonella/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Salmonella</a>. 



On the other hand, mice that ate a diet resembling the Mediterranean pattern - rich in plant-based fiber from fruits, vegetables, and whole grains - bounced back quickly after antibiotic exposure.



“We were really surprised by how dramatically different the recovery process is in the mice on the Western-style diet versus the healthier one,” said study lead author Megan Kennedy.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-gut-that-can-t-regrow">A gut that can’t regrow</h2>



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/antibiotics-for-childhood-infections-are-becoming-ineffective/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Antibiotics</a> are designed to wipe out harmful bacteria, but they don’t stop there. They often destroy helpful gut bacteria as well. This mass destruction is what scientists compare to a forest fire. Once the blaze is over, the forest - or in this case, the microbiome - has to rebuild from scratch.



“The mammalian gut microbiome is like a forest, and when you damage it, it must have a succession of events that occur in a specific order to restore itself back to its former health,” said study co-author Eugene B. Chang.



“When you are on a Western diet, this does not happen because it doesn't provide the nutrients for the right microbes at the right time to recover. Instead, you end up with a few species that monopolize these resources, and don’t set the stage for other organisms that are required for recovery.”



This prompted the team to investigate what happens when both the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/western-diet-identified-as-major-cause-of-colon-cancer/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Western diet</a> and antibiotics team up against the gut. 



The experiment started with mice eating either a Western-style diet (WD) or standard mouse chow (RC), the latter being high in plant fibers and low in fat. Both groups were then given antibiotics. Some mice continued on their initial diets, while others switched to the opposite.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-limits-of-microbial-transplants">The limits of microbial transplants</h2>



To speed up microbial recovery, researchers introduced a fecal microbial transplant (FMT). This method is designed to help restore microbial balance by transferring healthy microbes from one animal to another. However, the results were stark.



Only mice fed the RC diet - before or after antibiotics - were able to regain a healthy, balanced <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/our-gut-microbiome-is-shaped-by-what-we-eat/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">gut microbiome</a>. The mice that stuck with or switched to the Western-style diet couldn’t recover. The Western diet seemed to block the microbial transplant from taking hold.



“It doesn’t seem to matter what microbes you’re putting into the community through FMT, even if it’s matched in every way possible to the ideal transplant,” Kennedy explained. “If the mice are on the wrong diet, the microbes don’t stick, the community doesn’t diversify, and it doesn’t recover.”



Even with the transplant, the Western diet didn’t offer the nutrients needed to support a robust microbial community. These mice also remained highly vulnerable to Salmonella infections.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-preparing-your-gut-for-recovery">Preparing your gut for recovery</h2>



What’s clear is that food matters - a lot. A diet high in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/physicians-need-to-know-the-benefits-of-plant-based-diets/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">plant-based</a> fiber not only promotes general well-being but may also protect people undergoing harsh treatments like chemotherapy or organ transplants, which often require potent antibiotics and immune-suppressing drugs.



“Maybe we can use diet to rebuild the commensal microbes that have been suppressed under these therapies,” Chang said. “We can restore the healthy microbiome much quicker and prevent the emergence of more multidrug-resistant organisms.”



This isn’t about overhauling your entire lifestyle overnight. The researchers acknowledged that asking everyone to become vegan is neither practical nor necessary. But adding more fruits, vegetables, and whole grains to your meals - especially before surgery or antibiotic treatments - could prepare your gut for a faster, stronger recovery.



Chang is even exploring supplement options that could support gut health without requiring major dietary shifts.



“I've become a believer that food can be medicinal,” he said. “In fact, I think that food can be prescriptive, because we can ultimately decide what food components are affecting which populations and functions of the gut microbiome.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-key-lesson-on-gut-recovery">The key lesson on gut recovery</h2>



The message is simple but powerful: what you eat lays the foundation for how your body heals. 



When your gut is knocked down - whether by antibiotics, illness, or stress - the right foods can help it get back on its feet. Think of it like this: fruits, vegetables, and whole grains don’t just fill you up - they build you up.



And next time someone reminds you to eat your greens, they just might be saving your gut.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-025-08937-9" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature</a>.



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Why your gut can’t heal on a Western diet

The gut takes a direct hit from the Western-style diet,...

A new study led by UCL researchers has traced the roots of Tyrannosaurus rex back to Asia. Before ruling North America as a colossal predator, T. rex likely crossed a land bridge from Asia more than 70 million years ago, according to the team.



Published in the journal Royal Society Open Science, the study not only examines T. rex’s <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-change-their-minds-about-tyrannosaurus-rex-dinosaur-intelligence/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">migration</a> but also explores the evolutionary rise of megaraptors, suggesting that climate played a significant role in their development.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cooler-earth-bigger-dinosaurs">Cooler Earth, bigger dinosaurs</h2>



Global temperatures peaked around 92 million years ago, but a cooling trend soon followed. This climatic shift coincided with the rapid growth in size of tyrannosaurids and megaraptors. 



Despite the cooling climate, Morrison’s team found no direct link between temperature and body mass. Instead, they suggest that climatic shifts may have indirectly fueled gigantism by altering predator-prey <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/t-rex-was-about-70-percent-bigger-than-we-thought/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dynamics</a>.



“Our modelling suggests the ‘grandparents’ of T. rex likely came to North America from Asia, crossing the Bering Strait between what is now Siberia and Alaska,” said lead author Cassius Morrison, a PhD student in Earth Sciences at <a href="https://www.ucl.ac.uk" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">UCL</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-t-rex-came-from-asia">T. rex came from Asia</h2>



The debate surrounding T. rex’s <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mammals-ground-dwellers-survived-the-asteroid-impact-that-killed-the-dinosaurs/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">origins</a> is as fierce as the predator itself. Some researchers argue that T. rex originated in Asia, while others claim North America as its birthplace.



Morrison’s findings suggest that T. rex’s direct ancestor likely migrated from Asia to North America, aligning with earlier studies linking T. rex to Asian cousins like Tarbosaurus.



But despite the wealth of T. rex fossils in North America, Morrison speculates that the direct ancestor’s fossils remain undiscovered in Asia.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-new-mexico-fossil-in-doubt">New Mexico fossil in doubt</h2>



Last year, a study proposed that Tyrannosaurus mcraeensis from New Mexico predated T. rex by three to five million years. Morrison’s team disputes this, arguing that the fossil’s dating is unreliable.



Their biogeographical model instead positions T. rex as a North American genus, evolving in Laramidia, a western region that once stretched from Alaska to Mexico.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-megaraptors-mysterious-hunters">Megaraptors: Mysterious hunters</h2>



While T. rex dominated the northern continents, megaraptors thrived in Gondwana, an ancient southern supercontinent that included South America, Africa, Antarctica, Australia, and India. 



With slender heads, long arms, and 35-centimeter claws, these predators took a different evolutionary path.



Morrison’s team traced megaraptors to Asia around 120 million years ago. From there, they spread to Europe, Africa, and the southern continents of Gondwana. Despite this wide distribution, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dinosaur-extinction-theories-are-challenged-by-new-research/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">fossils</a> remain scarce, leaving gaps in the evolutionary timeline.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-megaraptor-s-hunting-strategy">Megaraptor’s hunting strategy</h2>



Unlike the bone-crushing jaws of T. rex, megaraptors relied on their massive claws to dispatch prey. In southern Gondwana, they likely targeted juvenile sauropods, while T. rex hunted giants like Triceratops and Edmontosaurus in Laramidia.



Both predator groups reached colossal sizes as temperatures dropped and carcharodontosaurids - another group of large predators - vanished.



Morrison’s team suggests that the extinction of these giants opened the apex predator niche, allowing tyrannosaurids and megaraptors to expand their size.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cold-climates-new-predators">Cold climates, new predators</h2>



Despite the apparent link between cooler climates and bigger dinosaurs, the study found no direct correlation between temperature and body size. 



Instead, Morrison’s team proposes that climatic shifts may have indirectly driven gigantism by reshaping ecosystems and altering prey availability.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-giants-rose-after-rivals-fell">Giants rose after rivals fell</h2>



By the end of the Cretaceous, T. rex weighed up to nine tonnes, comparable to a large African elephant. Meanwhile, megaraptors stretched over 10 meters in length.



Charlie Scherer, co-author and a UCL Earth Sciences graduate, connects this size surge to the extinction of carcharodontosaurids. 



“They likely grew to such gigantic sizes to replace the equally giant carcharodontosaurid theropods that went extinct about 90 million years ago,” he said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ancient-continents-shaped-predators">Ancient continents shaped predators</h2>



Dr. Mauro Aranciaga Rolando from the Natural Sciences Argentine Museum underscores the role of Gondwana in shaping megaraptor evolution.



As continents drifted apart, megaraptors adapted to diverse environments, evolving into apex predators in Australia and Patagonia.



“While in regions like Asia, megaraptors were eventually replaced by tyrannosaurs, in areas such as Australia and Patagonia, they evolved to become apex predators, dominating their ecosystems,” Rolando said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rise-of-t-rex-and-megaraptors">Rise of T. rex and megaraptors</h2>



Morrison’s study emphasizes that more fossil evidence is essential to refining the evolutionary timeline of megaraptors. 



Regions like Africa and Antarctica, largely unexplored, may hold crucial clues to understanding megaraptor dispersal and gigantism.



For now, the study concludes that T. rex likely evolved as a North American genus, with Asian roots still shrouded in mystery. Meanwhile, megaraptors remain enigmatic, their evolutionary story far from complete.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/epdf/10.1098/rsos.242238" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Royal Society Open Science</a>.



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T. rex’s ancestors may have walked from Asia to North America

A new study led by UCL researchers has traced the...

Emissions don’t just warm the planet - they’re also costing lives. By 2050, up to 250,000 deaths linked to air pollution could be prevented every year in central and western Europe. But this outcome hinges on one thing: strong action to reduce greenhouse gas emissions.



That’s the key takeaway from a new study by atmospheric scientists at the <a href="https://www.leeds.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Leeds</a>. 



The research shows that the health benefits of climate action stretch well beyond lowering carbon footprints. They include better air quality and fewer <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/one-in-six-deaths-in-2019-was-caused-by-pollution/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">pollution-related deaths</a>, especially in poorer communities across Europe.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hidden-dangers-of-air-pollution">Hidden dangers of air pollution</h2>



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/135-million-people-died-prematurely-due-to-pm25-air-pollution/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Air pollution</a> is a major health threat. It’s the biggest environmental risk factor for early death, contributing to around 8 million fatalities worldwide each year, according to the World Bank and the World Economic Forum.



The World Health Organization has warned that nearly every <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/microplastics-found-in-99-percent-sea-turtles-organ-tissue-reproductive-system/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">organ</a> in the body can be affected by air pollution. Tiny particles can pass through the lungs and enter the bloodstream, causing widespread inflammation and increasing the risk of cancer.



The list of health problems linked to dirty air is long. It includes strokes, heart disease, chronic lung diseases, cancer, pneumonia, diabetes, dementia, and even poor pregnancy outcomes such as low birth weight.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cutting-emissions-to-save-lives">Cutting emissions to save lives</h2>



The research team examined Europe’s exposure to two key pollutants: fine particulate matter (which can deeply enter the lungs) and surface-level ozone (which forms when sunlight reacts with gases like nitrogen oxides). 



They used a detailed atmospheric model to simulate air quality in 2050 under three scenarios: low, medium, and high climate action.



The findings were clear. The more we reduce emissions, the more lives we save. But there’s another layer to the story. Poorer regions currently bear the brunt of air pollution. Stronger climate action can not only reduce overall deaths but also level the playing field.



A high level of action, which also included reductions in agricultural emissions, would lead to improvements in air quality across the continent as well as an improvement in equity and far larger reductions in mortality overall.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mapping-the-gains-from-emissions-cuts">Mapping the gains from emissions cuts</h2>



In 2014, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/u-s-air-pollution-levels-have-dropped-but-not-for-everyone/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">air pollution levels</a> were highest in central and eastern Europe - places like southern Poland, Bosnia and Herzegovina, and Italy’s Po Valley.



Fast-forward to 2050 under a high-emissions-cutting scenario, and fine particulate matter falls sharply. Areas like southwest Germany and Paris could see up to a 90 percent drop.



Interestingly, a medium level of action - focusing more on housing, industry, and transport - provided the greatest benefits to low-income areas. That’s because these sectors heavily impact urban and working-class communities.



“The strategies that policymakers take to mitigate climate change will have considerable implications for human exposure to air quality, not least of which are the number of deaths,” said Connor Clayton, a PhD student in the School of Earth and Environment and the Priestley Centre for Climate Futures. 



“But they also urgently need to consider the persistent inequity of exposure between wealthier and more deprived populations which continues to be an issue even though air pollution has reduced across Europe.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-win-for-the-planet-and-public-health">A win for the planet and public health</h2>



The message is simple. Reducing greenhouse gas emissions is not just about the climate. It is about health, fairness, and saving lives - especially in places that need help the most.



“This work provides evidence that there are direct health benefits from moving towards a low carbon economy,” noted Dr Jim McQuaid, who led the research.



“Air pollutants and the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/limiting-global-warming-to-1-5-degrees-celsius-would-save-billions-of-lives/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">climate warming</a> gases and aerosols are one and the same, it is very much two sides of the same coin. It was particularly good to see that those who suffer most from air pollution currently benefit most from the benefits of the drive to a net zero world.”



As Europe plans its climate strategy, the study highlights a powerful opportunity. If policymakers take bold steps toward cutting emissions, they could protect public health and reduce long-standing social inequalities at the same time.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1029/2024EF005404" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Earth's Future</a>.



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Cutting emissions could save 250,000 lives a year in Europe

Emissions don’t just warm the planet - they’re also costing...

Termites are often overlooked in rainforest restoration, where the focus is usually on planting trees. But what if the key to a thriving forest lies not in the canopy above, but in the soil below - and in the insects that crawl through it?



A new study reveals that termites, often seen as pests, might actually be essential allies in helping young rainforests flourish. 



Scientists from the <a href="https://www.caryinstitute.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cary Institute of Ecosystem Studies</a> and the University of Queensland in Australia have found that these tiny decomposers are missing - or at least lagging behind - in forests that have been replanted, even more than a decade after restoration began.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-forests-need-more-than-trees">Forests need more than trees</h2>



“People tend to think that by just planting a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/tree-species-diversity-makes-forests-more-productive/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">diversity of trees</a>, these rainforests will regenerate,” said Baptiste Wijas, a postdoctoral fellow at Cary Institute and visiting academic at the University of Queensland. 



“But it's worth thinking about, should we actually be putting in other organisms as well, to restore other ecosystem processes that help the forest function? In the context of rainforest regeneration, no one really thinks about it at all.”



That question matters more than ever. As more land is reforested in efforts to combat climate change and restore ecosystems, it’s crucial to understand what makes a forest actually function. 



Decomposers like termites and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fungi-can-think-and-make-smart-decisions-without-a-brain/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">fungi</a> play a critical role in cycling nutrients and carbon. Without them, the soil might lack the resources young trees need to grow.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-testing-the-forest-floor">Testing the forest floor</h2>



To understand how well decomposers were rebounding, the research team set up a simple but telling experiment. They placed wooden blocks in three different forest settings in Australia’s Daintree Rainforest. One was a pristine <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/forest-microclimates-impact-bird-species-diversity/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">old-growth forest</a>. 



The other two were replanted sites - one restored in 2010, the other in 2014 - on land that had been cleared for agriculture decades ago and later abandoned. The replanting was carried out by a nonprofit organization called Rainforest Rescue.



For four years, the team checked on the wooden blocks every six months. They looked for signs of fungi, termites, or both, and tracked how fast the wood was breaking down.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-wet-and-wild-challenge">A wet and wild challenge</h2>



The fieldwork was anything but easy. “You’re sweating all the time, and there are plants that want to attack you everywhere,” said Wijas. 



In one year alone, the team faced a series of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/droughts-and-extreme-weather-events-are-escalating/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">extreme weather events</a> - drought, floods, fires, and “a zombie cyclone that caught us twice,” said Cary Institute senior scientist Amy Zanne. “It was an epic, biblical year.”



Despite these challenges, the team made a surprising discovery. They expected that termites would be thriving in all the rainforests and that fungi would struggle more in the younger sites. But the results were the opposite.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fungi-thrive-while-termites-struggle">Fungi thrive while termites struggle</h2>



Fungi were resilient. They performed almost as well in the replanted forests as in the old-growth site, though they were a bit slower in the youngest forest. 



Termites, however, were another story. While they were present at all three sites, they decomposed wood at a much slower rate in the replanted forests. Even 12 years after <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/success-story-reforestation-has-helped-keep-the-eastern-us-relatively-cool/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">reforestation</a> began, the termite-driven decay lagged behind.



The researchers suggest several possible reasons: termite colonies in the replanted areas may be fewer, smaller, less diverse, or less mature.



That’s a problem, because slow decomposition can mean nutrients and carbon aren’t returning to the soil quickly enough. And that could stunt forest growth.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-radical-idea-importing-insects">A radical idea: Importing insects</h2>



To fix the problem, the scientists have a bold proposal. They suggest bringing logs from old-growth forests into younger forests to introduce decomposers and give existing ones more to eat.



“A young, regenerating forest doesn’t have a lot of deadwood in it,” Zanne explained. “So if you bring in these logs, you’re giving them some food to tide them over while they wait for parts of trees to start falling down.”



They’re also thinking even bigger: what about transplanting entire termite mounds? “That’s something that no one's really thought about either,” said Wijas.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rethinking-termites-in-forests">Rethinking termites in forests</h2>



Convincing forest managers to welcome termites into their restoration plans won’t be easy.



“Many people - forest managers included - don’t really like termites,” said Wijas. “But they play an important role in having a healthy forest.”



Zanne pointed out that most termites get a bad rap for no reason. "Only about 3% of termites are known to damage human homes. Very little is known about the other 97%.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-more-than-just-decomposers">More than just decomposers</h2>



In fact, termites might be doing even more good than we think. 



“We think termites might be locking up carbon in their nests,” said Wijas. “When they eat wood, they’re not able to digest all of it, and so the feces they use to build their nests could be quite carbon-rich. They may even lock up more carbon than they emit, but we just don’t know yet.”



Termites may also help trees grow by partnering with nitrogen-fixing <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bacteria-pass-down-memories-to-future-generations/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">bacteria</a>, which convert nitrogen into a form plants can use.



“Termites and fungi are absolutely critical to forest function,” said Zanne. “It would be interesting to see who else returns to the regenerating forests if the termites are there - perhaps ants, lizards, and gliders that eat termites. Right now we just don't have any idea whether these organisms are coming back in these systems.”



As the search continues for ways to speed up rainforest recovery, termites may prove to be unlikely but vital allies. The next time we think about rebuilding a forest, we might want to think beyond trees—and start thinking about termites too.



The full study was published in the <a href="https://ecoevorxiv.org/repository/view/7974/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal of Applied Ecology</a>.



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Termites play an unexpected role in rainforest revival

Termites are often overlooked in rainforest restoration, where the focus...

A growing body of scientific work is revealing a remarkable feature of certain microbes. They can “breathe” in a way that produces electricity instead of relying on oxygen, suggesting unusual survival strategies that could inspire future clean energy solutions.



This <a href="https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0092867425002892" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">discovery</a> came to light when researchers noticed that some <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/previously-overlooked-viruses-may-secretly-shape-bacterial-populations/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">bacteria</a> thrive in conditions with little or no oxygen by sending out electrons into their environment.



Soon after, they found a key detail: these bacteria hand off electrons through certain molecular carriers, enabling them to keep growing while essentially “exhaling” electric current. Caroline Ajo-Franklin of <a href="https://www.rice.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Rice University</a> helped guide this project.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-bacteria-produce-electricity">Bacteria produce electricity</h2>



Some species, including <a href="https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC9481105/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Shewanella</a> and <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/agricultural-and-biological-sciences/geobacter" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Geobacter</a>, have long been <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/nrmicro2113" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">known</a> to transfer electrons to external surfaces, even metal oxides, while growing in oxygen-limited zones. 



Scientists realized these organisms produce a small but steady electric current through this process.



Biki Bapi Kundu is a Rice doctoral student and first author of the study who took a closer look at an everyday bacterium and figured out the mechanism behind its power output.&nbsp;



“This newly discovered mechanism of respiration is a simple and ingenious way to get the job done,” said Bapi Kundu.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-microbes-generate-energy-without-oxygen">Microbes generate energy without oxygen</h2>



These electricity-generating <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bacteria-recreate-an-ancient-war-trick-to-defeat-viruses/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">microbes</a> do not rely on the usual electron acceptors, like oxygen. Instead, they latch onto conductive surfaces. 



By pushing electrons onto external materials, they gain energy to keep going in oxygen-deprived spots. 



Researchers now know that certain bacteria use a special molecule known as <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0092867425002892" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">naphthoquinone</a> to help pass electrons to their outside world.



Once those electrons move out, the cells generate energy in a self-sustained system. The process bears similarities to how a battery releases current.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-microbes-transfer-electrons-like-a-battery">Microbes transfer electrons like a battery</h2>



These <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-type-of-microbes-found-earths-deep-soil-critical-zone/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">bacteria</a> gain an advantage by freeing up electrons they would otherwise hold onto. Through that exit pathway, they can break down carbon sources more efficiently than in standard fermentation processes.



It seems that this feature might be lurking in a wider range of microbes than previously thought. One research group discovered that these electricity-making strategies are not limited to organisms specifically adapted to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-virus-discovered-in-the-deepest-part-of-the-ocean/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">extreme habitats</a>.



“Our research not only solves a long-standing scientific mystery, but it also points to a new and potentially widespread survival strategy in nature,” said Ajo-Franklin.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-uses-for-electricity-producing-bacteria">Uses for electricity-producing bacteria</h2>



Because electricity-producing <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bacteria-pass-down-their-memories-to-fight-viruses/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">bacteria</a> can relieve the buildup of electrons, they have potential uses in various industrial applications. 



Some scientists foresee improved <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bacteriophages-could-revolutionize-fracking-wastewater-treatment/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">wastewater treatment</a>, where these microbes might help remove pollutants while sending out an electric signal.



This line of work could also help with biomanufacturing. While certain processes bog down from electron imbalances, electricity-generating organisms might balance the system by shuttling electrons away in real time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-long-term-vision-for-clean-energy">Long-term vision for clean energy</h2>



With a bit of engineering, these cells might even harness carbon dioxide through renewable power. The concept mimics photosynthesis in plants, but here, bacteria could rely on external electricity in a controlled setting.



In the future, we may see specialized microbial <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/23-new-marine-bacteria-species-discovered-that-influence-global-ocean-cycles/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">communities</a> that maintain their own flow of electrons, feeding into sensors and energy devices. 



Researchers note that these bacteria may also prove handy in areas where oxygen is scarce, like underground or potentially even in space technology.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-bacteria-as-real-time-sensors">Bacteria as real-time sensors</h2>



Experts believe electricity-making cells could bring improvements to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/environmental-health-ai-can-identify-insects-based-on-their-sounds/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">environmental monitoring</a>. Their electrical signals change when toxins are present, so they can provide real-time alerts about pollution or water quality.



Some hope that such systems might open the door to new diagnostic tools as well. The natural inclination of these microbes to shuttle electrons might allow them to perform tasks that previously demanded more complex instruments.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-does-all-of-this-mean">What does all of this mean?</h2>



These findings expand our perspective on microbial metabolism. Once thought to be limited to fermentation under oxygen-free conditions, many ordinary bacteria may hold hidden skills for electron transfer. 



The implications extend across fields from bioengineering to synthetic biology. Researchers are optimistic that this work will encourage a deeper examination of how microbes manage energy in their native habitats. 



By understanding these strategies, scientists can look for ways to steer or optimize electron transfer on a larger scale.



Academics point out that an improved knowledge of microbial <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/edge-state-atoms-how-electrons-find-their-groove-in-frictionless-flow/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">electron flow</a> could open new doors in sustainable technology. 



If cultivated in controlled bioreactors, these organisms might help curtail industrial waste and boost the output of valuable chemicals.



At the same time, study authors are cautious about the next steps. They say that scaling up these systems requires more data and design know-how, but they remain confident about the future.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0092867425002892" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cell</a>.



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Life finds a way: Some bacteria "breathe" by producing electricity instead of relying on oxygen

A growing body of scientific work is revealing a remarkable...

A new investigation at a high‑Andean temple reveals that the distant ancestors of the Inca wielded psychoactive plants as a political tool. 



Archaeologists have uncovered bone tubes still coated with traces of mind‑altering snuff, showing that Chavín lords used controlled visions to cement their rule almost three millennia ago.



The discovery comes from a project led by researchers at the <a href="https://www.ufl.edu/">University of Florida</a>, <a href="https://www.stanford.edu/">Stanford University</a>, and partner institutions across South America. 



The experts analyzed artifacts from Chavín de Huántar, a vast ceremonial center that sits 10,000 feet above sea level in the Peruvian Andes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ancient-use-of-psychoactive-plants">Ancient use of psychoactive plants</h2>



Inside narrow passageways and hidden rooms, the team found small hollow bones carved into elegant inhalation tubes. 



Chemical testing detected nicotine from wild tobacco relatives and residue from vilca beans, whose potent compounds are related to DMT.



Microscopic work confirmed plant particles embedded in the ancient surfaces. The date of the deposits makes this the oldest direct evidence for psychoactive plant use yet known in the high Andes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rituals-shaped-social-order">Rituals shaped social order</h2>



The placement of the tubes mattered. They were sealed within private chambers that could hold only a handful of people. That setting implies exclusive ceremonies, not widespread communal feasts.



The evidence matches a broader pattern of Chavín architecture, which funnels visitors through labyrinths toward dimly lit sanctuaries where sights, sounds, and fragrances overwhelm the senses.



“Taking psychoactives was not just about seeing visions. It was part of a tightly controlled ritual, likely reserved for a select few, reinforcing the social hierarchy,” said Daniel Contreras, an anthropological archaeologist at the University of Florida and a co‑author of the study.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-chavin-rituals-meant-to-stun">Chavín rituals meant to stun</h2>



Stone corridors at Chavín already distort light and echo footsteps. Researchers have also recovered giant trumpets fashioned from imported conch shells. 



The deep blasts of those horns, amplified by the tunnels, would have rattled bone. Add intense <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/understanding-presence-hallucinations-impact-on-social-perception/">hallucinations</a>, and followers might have felt a raw presence of gods or spirits.



“The supernatural world isn’t necessarily friendly, but it’s powerful,” Contreras said. “These rituals, often enhanced by psychoactives, were compelling, transformative experiences that reinforced belief systems and social structures.”



By staging such events, leaders wrapped their authority in cosmic mystery. Participants emerged convinced that rank and building labor served a higher design. 



Craftspeople who carved the monumental granite slabs and farmers who fed the workforce likely saw themselves as part of a living myth, not as servants under duress.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-belief-used-for-power">Belief used for power</h2>



“One of the ways that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/wealth-inequality-began-shaping-human-societies-10000-years-ago/">inequality</a> was justified or naturalized was through ideology - through the creation of impressive ceremonial experiences that made people believe this whole project was a good idea,” Contreras said.



The snuff tubes thus fit a larger strategy. Earlier Andean settlements show few signs of strict hierarchy. By Chavín times, around 800 BCE, society had acquired priests, skilled artisans, and regional trade routes. 



Control over sacred knowledge, including plant lore, helped elites turn soft power into hard architecture and coordinated labor.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-psychoactive-plant-mixture">Psychoactive plant mixture</h2>



Vilca beans grow in lowland forests far from Chavín’s icy heights. Their presence points to long‑distance exchange networks and to careful botanical skill.



When roasted, mixed with lime, and inhaled, the powder produces vivid visions, rapid heartbeat, and disorientation. 



Wild tobaccos add <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/nicotine-pouches-are-a-new-dangerous-trend-among-teens/">nicotine</a>’s stimulant rush and sharp aroma. Combined, these plants could propel users into what seemed another realm.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-bringing-invisible-details-to-light">Bringing invisible details to light</h2>



Contreras has worked at the site for nearly 30 years in a project directed by Stanford archaeologist John Rick.



Their excavations have mapped hidden galleries, sculpted stone icons, and water channels that once gurgled beneath temple floors. The new chemical analyses bring invisible details to light, showing not only what people did but also what they felt.



“It’s exciting that ongoing excavations can be combined with cutting‑edge archaeological science techniques to get us closer to understanding what it was like to live at this site,” Contreras said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-from-vision-to-empire">From vision to empire</h2>



The Chavín phenomenon spread a shared artistic style and worldview up and down the Peruvian coast and sierra. Later Andean states inherited its taste for grand plazas, stone imagery, and elite ritual.



By demonstrating the intentional use of psychoactive plants in tightly managed settings, the study bridges the gap between small egalitarian hamlets and the vast empires that eventually ruled the Cordillera.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-modern-glimpse-of-ancient-minds">A modern glimpse of ancient minds</h2>



Today, visitors to Chavín de Huántar walk through restored corridors where carved fangs and staring eyes still pierce the dim light. 



Knowing that select priests once knelt here, inhaled potent smoke, and proclaimed cosmic truths changes how we read those walls.



The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/archaeologists-find-hallucinogenic-seeds-in-ancient-bones-black-henbane/">bone</a> tubes, simple yet sophisticated, remind us that chemistry, belief, and social order have long been intertwined. In the high Andes, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/meditation-reveals-common-altered-states-of-consciousness/">altered consciousness</a> was more than a personal journey - it was statecraft written in breath and stone.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.2425125122">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a>.



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How psychoactive plants helped build an ancient empire

A new investigation at a high‑Andean temple reveals that the...

Happy,Mature,Female,Teacher,Educator,Helping,African,American,Junior,School

Grading student work can take up countless hours for teachers, especially when assignments call for deep thinking, explanations, or scientific modeling. However, a new study suggests that artificial intelligence (AI) could help ease that burden - but only if used carefully and alongside human input.



The research was led by Xiaoming Zhai, associate professor and director of the <a href="https://coe.uga.edu/research/labs/ai4stem/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">AI4STEM Education Center </a>at <a href="https://www.uga.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Georgia</a>’s Mary Frances Early College of Education. The study explores how well Large Language Models (LLMs) can assess student work compared to human graders.



“Asking kids to draw a model, to write an explanation, to argue with each other are very complex tasks,” Zhai said. “<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/robots-teaching-other-robots-its-no-longer-science-fiction/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Teachers</a> often don’t have enough time to score all the students’ responses, which means students will not be able to receive timely feedback.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ai-grading-vs-human-judgment">AI grading vs. human judgment</h2>



The study focused on middle school students’ responses to science questions aligned with the Next Generation Science Standards. One question, for example, asked students to create a model showing how particles behave when heat energy is added. 



The correct answer would explain that molecules speed up as they heat and slow down when cooled. The research team fed student answers into an LLM called Mixtral and asked it to grade them. 



But unlike most AI grading studies, where the AI is trained using examples of human‑scored answers, this study took a different approach. Here, the LLM had to create its own grading rubric and apply it to student work.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-trading-accuracy-for-speed">Trading accuracy for speed</h2>



The researchers found that Mixtral could grade responses very quickly. However, it tended to rely on shortcuts, such as looking for specific keywords, rather than assessing the actual depth of the students’ understanding.



“Students could mention a temperature increase, and the large language model interprets that all students understand the particles are moving faster when temperatures rise,” Zhai explained.



“But based upon the student writing, as a human, we’re not able to infer whether the students know whether the particles will move faster or not.”



In other words, the AI might give points to a student simply for mentioning the right terms, even if the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/where-logic-lives-experts-identify-the-brain-region-responsible-for-reasoning/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">reasoning</a> behind the answer is unclear or incorrect.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-improving-ai-with-human-standards">Improving AI with human standards</h2>



The study suggests that LLMs need better guidelines to match human grading standards. Specifically, AI models perform better when they use detailed rubrics created by teachers, which outline exactly what to look for in a good response.



Without these rubrics, the AI only reached about 33.5% accuracy when compared to human grading. With access to human‑created rubrics, that accuracy jumped to just over 50%.



“The train has left the station, but it has just left the station,” Zhai said. “It means we still have a long way to go when it comes to using AI, and we still need to figure out which direction to go in.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-human-reasoning-still-matters"><a></a>Why human reasoning still matters</h2>



One key difference between human graders and LLMs is how they handle complex or incomplete answers. 



According to the researchers, while LLMs will mark a student’s response as correct if it includes certain keywords,. However, it cannot evaluate the logic the student is using.



This happens because LLMs tend to “over‑infer,” assuming a student understands a concept based on surface clues. Human teachers, though, look for evidence of clear thinking and accurate reasoning. 



Without explanations for why certain answers earned specific grades, the AI lacks the context to make fine‑tuned decisions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-teachers-want-help-not-replacement"><a></a>Teachers want help, not replacement</h2>



Despite these limitations, many teachers are interested in using AI <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/man-vs-machine-why-students-still-write-better-than-ai/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">tools</a> to speed up routine grading.



“Many teachers told me, ‘I had to spend my weekend giving feedback, but by using automatic scoring, I do not have to do that. Now, I have more time to focus on more meaningful work instead of some labor‑intensive work,’” Zhai said. “That’s very encouraging for me.”



Rather than fully replacing human graders, the researchers suggest that AI systems should serve as assistants. This way, it frees teachers to concentrate on tasks that require human judgment, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/creativity-improves-life-satisfaction-and-overall-well-being/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">creativity</a>, and connection.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-comes-next-for-ai-grading"><a></a>What comes next for AI grading</h2>



The research highlights both the promise and the challenges of using AI in classrooms. While current LLMs can process large batches of student work quickly, they still need better instructions, oversight, and refinement to deliver meaningful feedback. 



Teachers remain essential for guiding the use of these tools, setting expectations, and ensuring fairness. As AI technologies continue to evolve, the hope is that future models will become more adept at understanding not just keywords but the quality of student reasoning.



With thoughtful design and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/do-humans-and-ai-work-better-together/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">human‑AI collaboration</a>, these tools could become powerful allies in helping teachers support student learning - without sacrificing weekends to piles of ungraded papers.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10758-025-09836-8" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Technology, Knowledge and Learning</a>.



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Grading with AI: Faster than teachers, but not smarter

Grading student work can take up countless hours for teachers,...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2E0mn5mTvhQ
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">'Death Star' moon Mimas conceals a 15-million-year-old ocean that scientists never expected.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hidden-waters-beneath-ancient-craters">Hidden waters beneath ancient craters</h2>



Scientists have made a startling discovery that challenges everything we thought we knew about <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/saturn-moon-mimas-has-remarkably-young-ocean/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Saturn's moon Mimas</a>. Beneath the heavily cratered surface that earned it the nickname "Death Star" lies a global ocean that formed just 5 to 15 million years ago—a remarkably young age by cosmic standards.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cassini-data-reveals-orbital-secrets">Cassini data reveals orbital secrets</h2>



The discovery, led by Dr. Valéry Lainey of the <a href="https://observatoiredeparis.psl.eu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Observatoire de Paris</a>, emerged from careful analysis of <a href="https://www.nasa.gov" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NASA</a>'s Cassini spacecraft data. By studying subtle irregularities in Mimas's orbit around Saturn, researchers detected the gravitational signature of liquid water hidden 20 to 30 kilometers beneath the moon's icy shell.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-an-unlikely-ocean-world">An unlikely ocean world</h2>



At only 400 kilometers in diameter, Mimas seemed like the least likely candidate to harbor a subsurface ocean. Unlike other ocean moons such as Europa and Enceladus, which show clear surface signs of internal activity, Mimas displays no obvious hints of the liquid water beneath its ancient, crater-scarred exterior.



"Mimas is a small moon, and its heavily cratered surface gave no hint of the hidden ocean beneath," explained Dr. Nick Cooper from <a href="https://www.qmul.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Queen Mary University of London</a>, a study co-author.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-astrobiology">Implications for astrobiology</h2>



The ocean's recent formation makes Mimas a prime target for studying how oceans develop and potentially support life. This discovery adds another member to the exclusive club of ocean worlds in our solar system, each offering unique insights into the conditions necessary for habitability.



The research, published in <a href="https://www.nature.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature</a> journal, demonstrates how advanced orbital analysis can reveal hidden features of celestial bodies, opening new possibilities for understanding ocean formation throughout the cosmos.



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Scientists discover unexpected young ocean on Saturn's cratered moon Mimas

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2E0mn5mTvhQ 'Death Star' moon Mimas conceals a 15-million-year-old ocean that...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE
</div></figure>



On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop and sunlight barely penetrates through the polar winter. It was here, however, that an international team of scientists found <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/predatory-worms-were-terror-beasts-half-a-billion-years-ago/#google_vignette" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evidence of sea monsters</a> that would change our understanding of ocean life in the past.



This video captures the discovery of Timorebestia fossils that had been hidden for more than 500 million years in the Sirius Passet formation. The "terror beasts," as they are called, are a hidden chapter in the evolutionary history of <a href="https://www.earth.com" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Earth</a>, showing that sophisticated predator-prey interactions occurred much earlier than previously envisioned.



Dr. Jakob Vinther and his research team at the <a href="https://www.bristol.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Bristol</a>, in collaboration with researchers at the <a href="https://eng.kopri.re.kr/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Korean Polar Research Institute</a>, braved extreme weather conditions at 82.5 north latitude to locate these giant creatures. Using sophisticated electron microprobe analysis, they revealed the detailed anatomy of the animals, including their muscle and nerve tissues.



The find upsets the traditional timeline of sea predators. Although we've long appreciated that Cambrian oceans were at one time ruled by <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jWI3-UgA3_o&amp;list=PL1QLQMW9MWDwpkFOnvgAmu7wT6rZmYqdJ&amp;index=19" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">arthropods</a>, these discoveries indicate that relatives of arrow worms were first to dominate the seas. These worms were building sophisticated food webs several million years before other predator groups arose.



Each fossil is a story of ancient hunger, with fossil stomach contents revealing these meter-long beasts dined on heavily armored arthropods regularly, cementing their place as the ocean's first apex predators.



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Worms dominated seas before dinosaurs

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">New York is the site of the world's oldest forest.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-385-million-year-old-trees-discovered">385-million-year-old trees discovered</h2>



Scientists have uncovered something extraordinary just two hours north of New York City. The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/worlds-oldest-forest-discovered-close-to-new-york-city/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">world's oldest forest</a>, dating back 385 million years, offers a window into how Earth's first complex forests shaped our planet's atmosphere.



Located near <a href="https://townofcairo.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cairo, New York</a>, in Greene County, these weren't merely primitive plants struggling to survive. These were sophisticated trees with root systems remarkably similar to modern forests. This ancient woodland predates dinosaurs by 140 million years.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-cairo-forest-discovery">The Cairo forest discovery</h2>



385 million years ago, upstate New York was a tropical paradise near the equator. Thanks to continental drift, this ancient forest has traveled thousands of miles to its current location.



The fossil forest sits in an abandoned quarry, roughly half the size of a football field. This represents just a slice of what was likely a massive forest system stretching from New York into Pennsylvania.



Charles Ver Straeten, curator of sedimentary rocks at the <a href="https://www.nysm.nysed.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">New York State Museum</a>, made the discovery in 2009. While scouting the former highway department property, his trained eye spotted wandering patterns in the stone that looked like marine features.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-revolutionary-age-and-preservation">Revolutionary age and preservation</h2>



The site contains 385-million-year-old rocks with fossilized woody roots forming horizontal patterns up to 18 feet (5.5 meters) wide. As Christopher Berry, a paleobotanist at Cardiff University, explains: "You are walking through the roots of ancient trees."



This discovery pushes back advanced tree evolution by millions of years. The research, published in <a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/home" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Current Biology</a> in December 2019, fundamentally changes our understanding of when complex forests first emerged.



Researchers believe a massive flood buried the forest floor, creating perfect fossilization conditions. Over millions of years, sediment hardened into rock, preserving these root patterns like nature's time capsule.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-meet-archaeopteris-the-first-modern-tree">Meet Archaeopteris: the first modern tree</h2>



The star of this ancient forest is Archaeopteris – not to be confused with the feathered dinosaur Archaeopteryx. This tree was far older and more revolutionary.



William Stein from <a href="https://www.binghamton.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Binghamton University</a> describes the roots as "strikingly modern, essentially what you'd see outside in my yard right now." These weren't simple root systems you'd expect from ancient plants.



Some fossilized roots are six inches (15 centimeters) in diameter, forming 36-foot-wide (11-meter) patterns. These giants grew up to 65 feet (20 meters) tall with five-foot-diameter (1.5-meter) trunks.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-changing-impact">Climate-changing impact</h2>



These trees fundamentally changed Earth's environment. Kevin Boyce, a Stanford University geoscientist, explains how their deep roots triggered "weathering," chemical reactions that pulled carbon dioxide from the atmosphere.



This process dropped atmospheric CO2 levels from 10-15 times higher than today to roughly modern concentrations. These ancient trees helped create atmospheric conditions that made complex life possible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ancient-forest-ecosystem">Ancient forest ecosystem</h2>



The forest was remarkably diverse. Scientists identified Eospermatopteris, palm tree-like plants with short roots that reached 30 feet (9 meters) tall but lacked woody structure. The forest also housed cladoxylopsids and a mysterious third species still being studied.



All reproduced through spores rather than seeds – millions of years before seeds evolved. This tropical environment had no grass, flowers, or flying insects, just towering trees creating Earth's first complex forest canopy.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-scientific-significance">Scientific significance</h2>



Before this finding, the Gilboa forest, located 25 miles (40 kilometers) away, held the "oldest forest" title. Cairo's trees are 2-3 million years older, showing that complex forest ecosystems developed much faster than scientists believed possible.



Patricia Gensel, a <a href="https://www.unc.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of North Carolina</a> paleobotanist, notes: "The size of those root systems is really changing the picture. Even 20 years ago, researchers assumed trees with such complex root systems didn't evolve so early."



The Cairo site presents three unique root systems, suggesting Devonian period forests were diverse ecosystems with different trees occupying different environmental niches, much like today's forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-modern-preservation-efforts">Modern preservation efforts</h2>



In 2022, New York State Senator Michelle Hinchey secured a $170,000 grant for the town of Cairo to construct specialized fencing around the fossil forest site. The town plans to conduct a feasibility study exploring the possibility of creating an educational center and working lab on-site.



Joe Hasenkopf, chair of the Cairo Planning Board, hopes to partner with educational institutions to create a research facility serving scientists, students, and the public.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lessons-for-today-s-climate">Lessons for today's climate</h2>



Why does a 385-million-year-old forest matter today? It shows how dramatically forests can change Earth's climate. These ancient woodlands created the atmospheric conditions supporting complex life.



Understanding how prehistoric forests transformed the planet helps us appreciate modern forests' critical role in addressing climate change. Forests remain Earth's most effective carbon capture systems.



These prehistoric trees changed Earth's atmosphere by pulling massive amounts of carbon dioxide from the air. As we face modern climate challenges, this ancient forest reminds us of trees' incredible power to transform our planet's environment.



The next time you walk through a forest, remember you're experiencing an ecosystem whose blueprint was established 385 million years ago in upstate New York. These ancient pioneers didn't just survive – they thrived and changed the world forever.



The full study was published in the journal Current Biology.



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Earth's oldest forest found in the United States

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ New York is the site of the world's oldest...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Acid rain and a crisis solved.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-don-t-we-ever-hear-about-acid-rain-anymore-the-environmental-crisis-that-was-solved">Why don't we ever hear about "acid rain" anymore? The environmental crisis that was solved</h2>



Remember the 1980s when acid rain dominated headlines? Dire warnings about rain eating buildings, killing fish, and destroying forests filled every news cycle. Then, almost like magic, acid rain vanished from public discourse. What happened? Did we actually solve one of the late 20th century's most pressing environmental challenges?



The answer might surprise you. Unlike many environmental issues that drag on indefinitely, acid rain represents one of modern history's most successful ecological recovery stories. It's a tale of science, politics, and technology working together to tackle what seemed impossible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What was acid rain?</h2>



Acid rain isn't regular rain having a bad day – it's precipitation that became significantly more acidic due to air pollution. When power plants, factories, and vehicles burn fossil fuels, they release sulfur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides (NOx) into the atmosphere.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The science behind it</h2>



Think of acid rain as nature's chemistry experiment gone wrong. These compounds react with water, oxygen, and other chemicals to form sulfuric and nitric acids. When mixed with water vapor in clouds, they create precipitation with dangerously low pH levels.



While clean rain has a pH of about 5.6, acid rain could drop as low as 4.2 to 4.4 – roughly as acidic as tomato juice or coffee. According to US Geological Survey documentation, Scottish chemist Angus Smith first coined "acid rain" in 1872, but it didn't become a household phrase until the 1960s and 1970s when Swedish scientist Svante Odén documented its devastating effects on Scandinavian lakes and European forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The crisis at its peak</h2>



During the height of public concern, environmental damage was both widespread and visible. This wasn't some abstract future threat – people could see destruction happening in real-time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Environmental devastation</h2>



The most dramatic impacts were impossible to ignore. Research documented by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation and the New York State Department of Environmental Conservation shows that in the Adirondack Mountains, more than 200 lakes became so acidic they couldn't support fish life. The Adirondack Council reports that 409 lakes once supported brook trout, but many lost their fish populations due to acid rain.



By 1976, when scientists cataloged all acidified lakes in the Adirondack Park, researchers found that half of the lakes over 2,000 feet above sea level had no fish, according to studies published in environmental journals. The acidification process worked like a slow-motion disaster. As acid rain fell into watersheds, it gradually lowered pH levels. Fish couldn't survive in acidic water, and their food sources died off too.



Trees at high elevations showed stress directly linked to acid rain. It weakened them by leaching nutrients and making them susceptible to disease. Historical records show Germany's Black Forest saw nearly half its trees damaged by the mid-1980s.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Economic impact</h2>



Acid rain wasn't just environmental – it was expensive. Acidic precipitation corroded infrastructure, buildings, and monuments. Historic stone structures deteriorated at accelerated rates. Tourism suffered as lakes became fishless and forests declined. EPA economic analyses from the period documented repair costs mounting into billions annually.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The solution: government action and technology</h2>



Transformation from crisis to success required unprecedented cooperation between governments, industries, and environmental groups.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The Clean Air Act of 1990</h2>



The turning point came with the Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990, signed by President George H.W. Bush. This represented a fundamentally new approach to environmental regulation, as documented in EPA historical records.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Cap-and-trade success</h2>



Instead of mandating specific technologies, the 1990 amendments introduced something revolutionary: a cap-and-trade system for sulfur dioxide emissions. EPA program documentation shows this market-based approach set overall limits but allowed companies to trade emission allowances.



The genius was harnessing market forces to find cost-effective pollution reduction. Companies reducing emissions cheaply could sell excess allowances to those facing higher costs. Research published in environmental economics journals and EPA progress reports shows this resulted in dramatic SO2 reduction at a fraction of projected costs.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Technology advances</h2>



Policy provided the framework, but technology made reductions possible. Studies in atmospheric science journals document the widespread adoption of flue gas desulfurization systems ("scrubbers") that removed sulfur dioxide before it reached the atmosphere. By the 2000s, new installations could remove over 95% of SO2 emissions, according to EPA technical reports.



The push coincided with cleaner energy development. Natural gas produces fewer sulfur compounds than coal. Wind and solar, emerging in the 1990s, captured growing market share, reducing reliance on high-sulfur coal.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-we-don-t-hear-about-it-today">Why we don't hear about it today</h2>



Why did acid rain disappear from headlines? Simple: the problem was largely solved.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Success doesn't make news</h2>



There's an old journalism saying: "If it bleeds, it leads." Environmental success stories don't generate urgency like crisis reporting. Media attention shifted to other challenges: climate change, plastic pollution, and biodiversity loss. There's only so much environmental anxiety the public can absorb, and newer concerns replaced acid rain.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Mission accomplished</h2>



The primary reason is beautifully simple: interventions worked. EPA monitoring data shows sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990. Academic research published in environmental science journals confirms pH levels in formerly affected areas returned closer to normal. This represents one of history's most dramatic environmental recoveries. Studies by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation show fishless lakes now support healthy populations. Forests recovered, and building damage slowed dramatically.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-is-it-really-gone">Is it really gone?</h2>



The crisis is largely resolved, but monitoring data shows the problem isn't completely eliminated – it's managed to acceptable levels. Some areas still experience occasional events during high pollution periods. International environmental research indicates that rapidly industrializing Asian countries face similar problems to what we experienced decades ago, though they're implementing successful strategies.



EPA research shows nitrogen oxide emissions proved more challenging than sulfur dioxide, coming from vehicles and mobile sources. Climate science studies suggest changing weather patterns add complexity to how acid rain forms and falls.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What this teaches us</h2>



The acid rain experience proves that seemingly intractable environmental problems can be solved with scientific understanding, political will, and technological innovation. Environmental monitoring data shows recovery speed was remarkable – within a decade, measurable improvements appeared in air quality and ecosystem health.



Success came from bipartisan support across party lines. Policy analysis studies show the market-based approach appealed to those preferring economic incentives while achieving environmental goals. This support created lasting policy surviving political changes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Conclusion</h2>



Acid rain's disappearance from public consciousness represents environmental science's greatest success stories. Through effective regulation, technological innovation, and international cooperation, we transformed an overwhelming crisis into a manageable challenge.



Today's silence isn't because we forgot – it's because we solved it. The 1990 Clean Air Act, combined with technology and energy market changes, reduced acid rain emissions over 90%, according to comprehensive EPA data analysis.



This success offers hope for current challenges. It proves complex problems can be solved when science, policy, and technology work together. As we face climate change and plastic pollution, acid rain reminds us that dramatic positive change is possible.



Next time someone asks whether environmental regulations work, remember acid rain. It's proof that sometimes, we get it right.



<hr class="wp-block-separator has-alpha-channel-opacity"/>



Sources: This article draws from EPA official documentation and progress reports, peer-reviewed research published in environmental and atmospheric science journals, historical data from the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation, New York State Department of Environmental Conservation records, US Geological Survey publications, policy analysis studies, and environmental monitoring data collected over three decades.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Frequently Asked Questions</h2>



1. Is acid rain completely gone? No, but EPA monitoring shows it's reduced to manageable levels. US sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990, making acid rain much less severe than the 1980s crisis.



2. How long did solving take? Environmental monitoring data shows significant improvements began within 5-10 years of 1990s emission controls. Full ecosystem recovery took longer – some areas need 20-30 years for complete recovery.



3. What made the solution successful? Clear scientific understanding, visible damage motivating action, bipartisan support, available technology, and innovative market-based policies like cap-and-trade.



4. Do other countries have acid rain problems? Yes, particularly rapidly industrializing Asian countries. However, international environmental research shows many implement similar successful control strategies.



5. Could acid rain return? Potentially, if regulations weaken or we return to high-sulfur coal without controls, though effects would take years to become severe according to environmental projections.



6. Can you recommend any teaching tools on the subject of "acid rain"? The United States Environmental Protection Agency produced a wonderful teacher's guide for ages 14 and under that you can find on the EPA website here: <a href="https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf</a>



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The environmental problem we actually solved

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk Acid rain and a crisis solved. Why don't we...

Fresh,Radish,Harvest,On,Soil,In,Garden.

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://youtu.be/Fi2OeEwuzRM?si=vTyd2m9FMmtyWkex
</div></figure>







Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving fall garden, and this guide lays out the best vegetables and herbs to plant now for a fruitful autumn harvest. 



Fast-growing leafy greens such as spinach, lettuce, kale, and arugula perform especially well in the waning summer heat, with harvests beginning as soon as 30 days. 



These cool-season crops relish the transition into fall, offering repeated yields with cut-and-come-again methods.



Root vegetables like radishes, carrots, and beets also excel during this period. Radishes deliver satisfaction in under a month, while carrots and beets mature in about two months. Employing succession planting ensures a continuous stream of produce deep into the cooler months. 



For a boost of fresh flavor, herbs like cilantro, basil, dill, and chervil are excellent picks. These heat-loving varieties flourish in July’s warmth and are harvest-ready in about 30 days, especially when sown continuously.



Gardeners in zones 6 through 9 can benefit from planting bush beans and snap peas, which don’t require trellising and are ideal for compact plots. 



Maturing in 50–60 days, they’re a smart choice for quick, protein-rich harvests. For those in hotter regions, heat-tolerant crops such as okra and southern peas provide reliable yields and thrive in scorching conditions.



This guide emphasizes more than crop selection—it highlights the importance of timing, soil preparation, and ongoing sowing techniques. 



With thoughtful planning and attention to regional climate needs, even late-summer gardeners can enjoy fresh salads, hearty stews, and the satisfaction of a robust, homegrown harvest well into fall.



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What to plant in your garden in mid-July

https://youtu.be/Fi2OeEwuzRM?si=vTyd2m9FMmtyWkex Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving...

Green,Ecoduct,Over,An,Empty,Highway,During,Sunset.

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A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that wildlife tunnels significantly reduce amphibian road mortality during seasonal migrations. 



Frogs and salamanders often cross roads to reach breeding ponds each spring, but many are killed by vehicles. 



Researchers from the <a href="https://www.uvm.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Vermont</a>, in collaboration with local citizens and the Vermont Agency of Natural Resources, installed two underpass tunnels in 2015. 



Over a 12-year monitoring period, they observed an 80.2% reduction in amphibian deaths, and up to 94% for non-climbing species like salamanders. 



The study used a before-after-control-impact design and documented more than 5,200 amphibians, highlighting the tunnels’ effectiveness even in nearby buffer zones.



Funded at $342,397 - far cheaper than wildlife crossings for large mammals - the project showcased the power of community-led conservation.



Local groups initiated the effort after observing mass amphibian deaths. Wildlife cameras later captured over 2,200 amphibians using a tunnel in just one spring, along with other species like raccoons and bobcats, indicating wider ecosystem benefits.



This marks the first peer-reviewed, long-term data set in the northeastern U.S. confirming amphibian-specific underpasses work. 



The study urges transportation departments to incorporate these designs into road planning and highlights how community action, thoughtful infrastructure, and persistence can make a real difference for biodiversity.



The full study was published in the <a href="https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1617138125000780" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal for Nature Conservation</a>.



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Wildlife tunnels save millions of amphibians

https://youtu.be/XYgiPzmNBTU?si=eFYY7gPHU1JznLvU A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that...

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing it with probiotics and prebiotics, aiming to create a treat that satisfies cravings while supporting gut health. 



The challenge lies in maintaining chocolate's beloved texture and flavor while adding health benefits.



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https://youtu.be/Ug657J67iEo?si=w96YjGMsg939LD_3
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Probiotics - beneficial microbes that balance gut bacteria and aid digestion - are typically fragile and can be destroyed by stomach acid or processing. 



Prebiotics act as food for these microbes, helping them thrive. Together, they form "synbiotics," a powerful health combination.



Researchers Smriti Gaur and Shubhi Singh from India's Jaypee Institute of Information Technology took an innovative approach, using natural prebiotics like corn and honey instead of complex processing methods. 



They created five chocolate varieties: a control and four synbiotic versions containing different combinations of prebiotics, probiotics (Lactobacillus strains), and flavor enhancers (cinnamon or orange).



Laboratory simulations of human digestion showed the probiotics remained viable for over five hours, suggesting they could survive long enough to benefit gut health.



Taste tests were positive, with researchers particularly enjoying the orange-flavored variety, describing it as having "vibrant citrus notes" complementing the "rich cocoa" with a "luxurious" texture.



This research represents just the beginning. With further refinement of strains, textures, and flavors, chocolate could evolve beyond mere indulgence to become a functional food that nourishes while it delights.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.4c00741" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ACS Food Science &amp; Technology</a>.

Is chocolate the next nutritional powerhouse?

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

[sendtonews key="0ynNMYkMKa-2340414-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

[sendtonews key="G9bUoxcjr4-2511624-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

[sendtonews key="3upvlAaHgO-2256633-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

[sendtonews key="LvS8v8bp9z-2564889-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How does salt makes things taste better?

[sendtonews key="X0f6OHYoI4-2310561-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Santiago, Chile in South America

[sendtonews key="JRaP49ISmm-2357509-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

[sendtonews key="e4ZG0Jawp3-2374785-12187" type="single"] Astronomers at Johns Hopkins University have created...

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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.



According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."



Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;



ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. 



Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

[sendtonews key="uV9Lh2fQbV-1760058-12187" type="single"] Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

[sendtonews key="qjvhBOBnY8-2426650-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

[sendtonews key="oL4FnPTGCV-2384527-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

[sendtonews key="0879czfG3k-1785905-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from NASA...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

[sendtonews key="6HyfrAJTBI-1831843-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

Earth,Like,Exoplanet,3d,Render

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

[sendtonews key="QIoVYJqRBi-2434608-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from NASA...

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