Young aspen trees in Yellowstone are doing something they have not done in almost 100 years. Rather than sprouting and being eaten back to nubs by elk and bison, they're actually growing into tall, adult forest trees rising up towards the canopy.



This matters more than it might seem, because it shows what happens when a missing piece of an ecosystem returns.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-yellowstone-aspens-and-elk">Yellowstone, aspens, and elk</h2>



In the 1920s, people <a href="https://www.yellowstone.org/wolf-project/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">eliminated wolves in Yellowstone</a>. At the time, with limited scientific knowledge, managers believed it was the right thing to do.



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/from-wolves-to-dogs-did-domestication-begin-without-human-help/">Without wolves</a>, elk herds grew very large. Elk love to eat aspen shoots - the tender young growth is highly palatable to them.



For roughly 70 years, elk browsed aspen sprouts down to stub height, and the trees couldn't grow. 



If you had walked through Yellowstone in the 1980s, you would have seen many tiny aspen shoots covering the ground, but almost no young trees gaining height. 



The forest's regeneration was stalled. Old trees died, and no new ones replaced them.



In 1995 and 1996, park managers reintroduced wolves into the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/yellowstone-supervolcano-eruption-study-sparks-new-debate-on-where-and-when-it-will-erupt/">Yellowstone Park ecosystem</a>. Scientists hoped and wondered whether this would change anything for the trees.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-aspen-matter-to-yellowstone">Why aspen matter to Yellowstone</h2>



Aspen groves provide habitat for many species. Birds nest in them. Beavers eat the bark and use the wood for dams. Butterflies and moths lay eggs on the leaves. 



Their canopy admits enough light for wildflowers and shrubs to grow beneath. When it rains, aspen groves hold water in the soil better than some other forest types.



In short, when aspen return, dozens of other species benefit. More trees support more insects, which in turn support more birds, enriching the ecosystem.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-checking-the-trees-three-decades-later">Checking the trees three decades later</h2>



<a href="https://fwcs.oregonstate.edu/users/luke-painter" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Luke Painter</a>, an ecologist at <a href="https://oregonstate.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Oregon State University</a>, sought clear answers. His team returned to 87 aspen stands across Yellowstone that scientists had previously surveyed. 



They measured thousands of young trees, looked for bite marks, and counted how many stems were tall enough that elk could no longer reach the tips.



About a third of these stands now have many tall young aspens pushing toward the canopy. 



"About 26 of the 87 aspen stands we examined had large numbers of tall saplings throughout, a remarkable change from the 1990s when surveys found none at all," Painter said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-wolves-matter-to-yellowstone-aspens">Why wolves matter to Yellowstone aspens</h2>



Breaking it all down, the conclusions of this study are pretty simple. 



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/wolves-move-pups-across-mountains-to-adapt-to-climate-pressure/">Wolves hunt elk</a>. When wolves came back, two things happened. First, elk numbers declined from unusually high levels. Second, elk changed their behavior. They spent less time in the same areas feeding.



With fewer elk and shorter feeding bouts, more aspen shoots survived long enough to exceed the browsing zone - about six to seven feet high. 



Once a sapling reaches that height, elk cannot easily reach the growing tip. The tree continues to grow.



"The reintroduction of large carnivores has initiated a recovery process that had been shut down for decades," Painter explained.



Scientists call this a <a href="https://www.nature.com/scitable/knowledge/library/trophic-cascades-across-diverse-plant-ecosystems-80060347/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">trophic cascade</a> - when adding or removing one species causes changes that ripple through the whole system.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-some-places-recover-others-don-t">Some places recover, others don't</h2>



Unfortunately, not every aspen stand has recovered yet. Some valleys still have many short, heavily browsed shoots, because it's not only elk eating them anymore. 



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/yellowstones-iconic-bison-have-merged-into-a-single-herd/">Bison herds have grown</a>, and bison browse on aspen as well. They are strong enough to break young trees. 



"Increasing numbers of bison may be emerging as a new constraint to aspen in some areas," Painter confirmed.



Additionally, winter snow depth varies; droughts stress trees; bears and mountain lions also hunt elk; and hunting outside the park influences elk distribution. 



All of these factors interact, which is why some sites show strong recovery, others show moderate recovery, and a few have changed very little.



The key pattern is that places with many tall saplings experience little browsing, and aspen groves that remain popular eating grounds today stay short. 



This fact is the strongest indication that tree recovery is linked directly to wolf presence, not solely to weather or soil conditions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-proof-in-the-measurements">Proof in the measurements</h2>



Painter's team did not rely on casual observation. They used the same methods as earlier researchers, measuring the same plots. 



They counted recruitment - when young trees surpass browsing height and begin progressing toward maturity. This measure is crucial. Sprouts are insufficient if they never grow; without recruitment, the forest cannot replace itself.



The results are robust. After being stalled for most of a century, Yellowstone's aspens are increasing in height. In recovering stands today, you will see saplings - six, eight, or ten feet tall - that were not present in the 1990s.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-future-of-yellowstone-s-aspens">The future of Yellowstone's aspens</h2>



"This is a remarkable case of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/giant-viruses-found-in-yellowstones-hot-springs-may-be-near-the-root-of-all-life-on-earth/">ecological restoration</a>," Painter concluded. "Wolf reintroduction is yielding long-term ecological changes contributing to increased biodiversity and habitat diversity."



Trees grow slowly, so even with wolves restored, it will take decades for these young aspens to form a full-grown forest. 



Some areas might never fully recover if bison numbers continue to rise or if the climate becomes too hot and dry.



Thanks to the work of Painter and his team, scientists are now certain that restoring the Yellowstone predator has restarted aspen forest regeneration. Not everywhere and not perfectly, but enough to be measured, creating hope for the future.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0378112725004499?via%3Dihub" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Forest Ecology and Management</a>.



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Yellowstone's aspen trees are growing again thanks to the reintroduction of wolves

Young aspen trees in Yellowstone are doing something they have not done in almost 100 years. Rather than sprouting and being eaten back to nubs by elk and bison, they're actually growing into tall, adult forest trees rising up towards the canopy. This matters more than it might seem, because it shows what happens when a missing piece of an ecosystem returns. Yellowstone, aspens, and elk In the 1920s, people eliminated wolves in Yellowstone. At the time, with limited scientific knowledge, managers believed it was the right...

Every summer, Lake Erie transforms. Warm, still waters near the surface invite the growth of tiny, plant-like organisms. 



To the naked eye, these blooms of cyanobacteria - commonly known as blue-green algae - seem like nothing more than a green scum. But beneath the surface lies a silent, potent threat. Some of these blooms release toxins that pose risks to fish, birds, and even humans.



In recent years, harmful algal <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/algae-that-thrives-on-ice-plays-an-unexpected-role-in-glacier-melting/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">blooms</a>, or HABs, have become more common in Lake Erie. The toxins they release can contaminate drinking water, disrupt ecosystems, and impact public health.



One such bloom in 2014 forced officials to shut down Toledo’s water supply due to contamination by a toxin called microcystin. But another toxin - saxitoxin - has remained a mystery for years. Scientists detected it in 2007 but could not confirm which organism was producing it.



Now, researchers at the <a href="https://umich.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Michigan</a> have finally solved that puzzle.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-identifying-the-toxin-s-source">Identifying the toxin's source</h2>



The research focused on answering a long-standing question: Which toxic cyanobacteria are responsible for saxitoxin in Lake Erie? The answer, they discovered, is Dolichospermum, a genus of cyanobacteria that can survive and thrive in nutrient-rich freshwater systems.



Harmful <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/algae-revived-after-7000-years-beneath-the-baltic-sea/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">algal</a> blooms, or HABs, form from various cyanobacteria, each capable of making different toxins. Identifying which type makes which toxin helps scientists monitor and respond to these dangerous blooms more effectively.



Saxitoxins are among the most dangerous natural toxins known. Even at very low levels, they can damage the nervous system. Understanding their biological origin is crucial for managing risks associated with drinking water and wildlife exposure.



Gregory Dick, professor of earth and environmental <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/can-algae-soak-up-loads-of-carbon-to-help-save-the-planet/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">sciences</a> and of environment and sustainability, highlighted the value of this discovery. 



"The main advantage of knowing which organism produces the toxin is that it helps us understand the conditions that cause toxin production - that is, what conditions make those organisms successful. Such information can help guide policy and management, though we're still a long way from that in this case," said Dick.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-toxic-water-samples-from-lake-erie">Toxic water samples from Lake Erie</h2>



To trace the source, the researchers collected toxic water samples from Lake Erie during bloom events. These samples held a complex mix of DNA from many organisms.



Lead author Paul Den Uyl applied a method called shotgun sequencing. Instead of isolating individual species, this method captures all the DNA in a sample and reassembles it into complete genomic sequences.



Using this data, Den Uyl was able to reconstruct full genomes from the bloom samples. Within one of these genomes, he identified the genetic signature of saxitoxin. It confirmed that some strains of Dolichospermum carry the genes necessary to produce the toxin.



This discovery came with a twist. Not all Dolichospermum strains produce saxitoxin. Some have the gene, and others do not. What influences this genetic variation remains unclear, but researchers turned their attention to the lake's environmental <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plants-emerged-zygnema-star-algae-conquer-earths-landmass/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">conditions</a> to find answers.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-role-of-temperature-and-nutrients">Role of temperature and nutrients</h2>



The team studied samples from across Lake Erie, covering different seasons and locations. They measured how much of the saxitoxin gene was present in each sample and looked for patterns linked to environmental factors.



The team found a consistent trend: warmer <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ocean-algae-play-an-unexpected-role-in-cooling-the-earth/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">water</a> tended to contain higher amounts of the gene. This raises urgent questions in the context of climate change.



"That is interesting because we do know that the lakes are changing with climate change," said Den Uyl, a scientist at U-M's Cooperative Institute for Great Lakes Research, or <a href="https://ciglr.seas.umich.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">CIGLR</a>. 



"With the warming of the lakes, one of the big questions is, how is that going to change the biological communities, including harmful cyanobacterial blooms?"



But temperature wasn’t the only factor. The researchers also looked at nutrient concentrations in the toxic lake water, particularly ammonium. They found that the gene appeared less frequently in areas with high ammonium levels.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-unique-nitrogen-advantage">A unique nitrogen advantage</h2>



This pattern may be linked to a special feature of Dolichospermum. While most organisms cannot access the nitrogen found in the atmosphere, Dolichospermum appears to have that ability. 



The team found a gene in its genome that allows it to use nitrogen in the form of dinitrogen gas - a rare trait in aquatic ecosystems.



"One of the neat things about having the whole genome is you can see everything the organism can do, at least theoretically," said Dick, who is also director of CIGLR. 



"You have the whole blueprint for what the organism can do, and we do see the capability of obtaining fixed nitrogen from the water. It's just that getting it in the form of dinitrogen gas is kind of a superpower. Not a lot of organisms can do that, and it makes them more competitive under those conditions."



This ability gives Dolichospermum a clear advantage, especially in low-nitrogen environments. It may also explain why this organism is capable of thriving in parts of the lake where other algae struggle.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-toxic-blooms-in-lake-erie">Future toxic blooms in Lake Erie</h2>



Although the team has been tracking saxitoxin in Lake Erie for nine years, that’s not enough time to predict long-term changes. Climate conditions, nutrient runoff, and microbial competition all influence the lake’s ecology. Still, the discovery provides a better foundation for future monitoring and research.



"But now that we know who's producing it, I think we can keep a better watch on these organisms and we can also directly assess the gene abundance over time," Dick said. 



"We plan to continue monitoring the abundance of this organism, but it's too early to tell if it's becoming more abundant. It's just a correlation, but that correlation with temperature is concerning."



As lake temperatures continue to rise, harmful algal blooms may become more frequent or more toxic. Understanding the organisms involved, their genetic capabilities, and the environmental triggers for toxin production is now more important than ever.



The findings from this study were published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acs.est.4c10888" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Environmental Science &amp; Technology</a>. They offer a critical piece of the puzzle in managing one of North America’s most valuable freshwater resources.



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Green algae in Lake Erie may be hiding toxic, deadly compounds

Every summer, Lake Erie transforms. Warm, still waters near the...

In the wild, survival often depends on more than instinct. It requires knowledge - hard-won, passed down, and deeply embedded in social lives. Among elephants, the keepers of this knowledge and culture are the elders.



For centuries, they have guided herds through droughts, danger, and migration. But in recent decades, this chain of wisdom has begun to break.



A recent study led by the <a href="https://www.port.ac.uk" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Portsmouth</a> reveals a grim truth: as humans interfere with elephant groups through poaching, habitat destruction, and translocation, they are not just removing individuals. They are severing vital links between generations. 



The study calls attention to a quiet crisis. The loss of elder elephants risks unraveling the social and cultural fabric that has supported these creatures for millennia.



Without these leaders, elephant <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/elephants-choose-their-paths-carefully-to-conserve-energy/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">societies</a> grow more fragile. And what’s lost may never return.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-elephants-need-elders-to-guide-them">Elephants need elders to guide them</h2>



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-era-in-wildlife-conservation-how-ai-will-help-protect-elephants/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Elephants</a> are among the most socially complex animals on the planet. They live in tight-knit family units, often centered around a matriarch. 



These matriarchs are more than dominant figures - they are teachers, guides, and guardians of inherited knowledge. Their memories stretch decades, filled with cues about drought, danger, and safe spaces.



Younger elephants rely on these leaders to navigate life’s challenges. Without that guidance, groups may fail to find resources, misjudge threats, or break apart under stress. 



“Elephants are among the most intelligent and socially complex animals on the planet. Our findings suggest that when their social structures are disrupted, whether through poaching, translocation, or habitat loss, the consequences can ripple through generations, affecting survival, reproduction, and even behavior,” noted Dr. Lucy Bates, the study’s lead author.



This statement frames the central concern of the study: the long-term fallout of removing experienced individuals from elephant <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/extinct-elephant-fossils-reveal-early-evidence-of-animal-butchery/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">herds</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-older-elephants-pass-down-knowledge">Older elephants pass down knowledge</h2>



The study is the most extensive analysis to date on the effects of social disruption in elephant populations. The research synthesizes data from 95 peer-reviewed studies, covering African savannah elephants, African forest elephants, and Asian elephants. All three species show signs of deep cultural learning.



That learning includes identifying seasonal food sources, remembering migration paths, and responding to predators. These behaviors are not genetically programmed. 



They are passed through observation and interaction. <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/world-elephant-day-2024-saving-the-gentle-giants/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Elephants</a> gather around their elders, watch how they react to unfamiliar situations, and mimic their decisions. When these opportunities vanish, so do the skills. The consequences can be dire.



Groups may overreact to harmless situations or fail to recognize real danger. Calf survival rates fall. Group cohesion weakens. Reproduction drops. What looks like a simple drop in numbers is actually a deeper, systemic failure of knowledge transfer.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-consequences-of-losing-an-elephant">Consequences of losing an elephant </h2>



In elephant <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/elephant-movement-is-influenced-by-habitat-suitability/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">societies</a>, every elder is a library. Each carries decades of ecological and social knowledge that younger individuals depend upon. 



When a matriarch is killed - often for ivory - her absence ripples beyond her death. It causes confusion, disorientation, and a breakdown in group leadership.



“Elders are the keepers of knowledge in elephant societies. Their loss disrupts the transmission of essential survival skills, much like losing a library in human terms. Conserving these social ties is as important as protecting their physical habitats,” explained Dr. Bates.



Elephants do not just forget facts when they lose elders - they lose entire frameworks for making decisions. And these frameworks are especially critical in changing environments where quick, informed decisions determine survival.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-young-elephants-without-culture">Young elephants without culture </h2>



One of the most striking observations from the study involves the long-term psychological and behavioral effects of losing elders. Elephants who grow up in disrupted groups may not just be uninformed - they may become dangerously erratic.



Young males without proper mentorship have been documented attacking rhinos, vehicles, and even villages. These events show how social learning goes beyond facts. It includes emotional control, social restraint, and understanding of roles within the group. Without it, elephants may become socially adrift.



In addition to behavioral changes, orphaned groups may fail to integrate into broader social networks. Elephant societies are layered and complex. They include friends, rivals, mentors, and distant kin. Elders often act as bridges between these layers, maintaining stability and encouraging cooperation.



When they are gone, the society becomes brittle. Disagreements may escalate. Fission may increase. And critical alliances may fall apart.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-translocation-isn-t-a-simple-fix">Translocation isn’t a simple fix</h2>



Conservationists sometimes move elephants to safer areas to protect them from poaching or habitat loss. But the study warns that this strategy can have unintended consequences if social structure is not considered.



Elephants that are translocated without their key social partners may experience disorientation, depression, and even mortality. 



Social isolation can weaken immune systems and reduce reproductive success. On the other side, elephants already living in the destination area may feel disrupted or threatened by the newcomers.



The study emphasizes that such moves must be planned with an understanding of social ties. Removing or adding individuals without preserving key relationships can cause more harm than good.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-culture-matters-as-much-as-elephant-numbers">Culture matters as much as elephant numbers</h2>



Many conservation reports focus on numbers: population size, reproduction rates, poaching statistics. But the researchers argue that these metrics miss a critical dimension - culture. Just as human communities are shaped by history, memory, and tradition, so are elephant societies.



”This research provides a fresh perspective on why elephant conservation must go beyond numbers,” said Graeme Shannon of <a href="https://www.bangor.ac.uk" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Bangor University</a>. 



”While protecting habitats is crucial, so too is recognizing the importance of the social and cultural factors central to elephant society. Without them, long-term conservation success may not be possible.”



The call is clear: conservation must evolve. It must account for more than land and laws. It must protect relationships, roles, and rituals passed down through generations.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-saving-matriarchs-protects-group-memory">Saving matriarchs protects group memory</h2>



Cultural transmission in elephants is fragile. It can disappear within a generation. But it can also persist for centuries when left intact. The study offers a vision of conservation that values social integrity as much as physical survival.



That means identifying and protecting matriarchs. It means understanding who holds knowledge within a group. It also requires close observation of less-studied species like forest and Asian elephants, whose social lives remain poorly understood.



”Understanding and safeguarding the social lives of elephants is no longer optional. It's a necessity for ensuring these magnificent animals thrive in an increasingly human-dominated world,” said Shannon.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-protecting-elephant-culture">Protecting elephant culture</h2>



Elephants remember. Their memories hold maps, histories, and relationships. When we disrupt those memories, we do not just injure the present - we wound the future.



The University of Portsmouth study offers a vital message. If we want elephants to thrive, we must protect not just their bodies but also their minds, their elders, and their culture. 



Only then can these ancient beings continue to shape the ecosystems they call home and enrich the lives of those who share their world.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rstb.2024.0132" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B</a>.



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Elephant culture could be lost forever if elders disappear

In the wild, survival often depends on more than instinct....

Colorful,Spawning,Salmon,Swimming,In,A,Shallow,Creek.

The story of salmon migration is often told as a single, determined journey. Young salmon hatch in freshwater streams, then swim downriver to the ocean. After years at sea, they return to the very river where their lives began, to spawn and restart the cycle.



But new research is challenging this narrative. Many young salmon, it turns out, aren’t sticking to a straight path.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-broader-journey-than-expected">A broader journey than expected</h2>



New research from <a href="https://www.fisheries.noaa.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NOAA Fisheries</a>, Tribal scientists, and university scientists shows that up to 22 percent of juvenile salmon in California and Washington streams make unexpected detours. 



These young fish were tracked swimming down to the ocean and then back up into different rivers - some as many as nine times. In a few cases, they traveled as far as 40 miles (64 kilometers) up the coastline to entirely new rivers.



Rather than heading out to sea and staying there until adulthood, these juveniles wander. They criss-cross the coastal landscape, slipping between <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/one-quarter-of-freshwater-fish-species-face-extinction/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">freshwater</a> and saltwater as they explore their options.



“Stretches of coast and their rivers form enormous salmon nurseries for the exploring juveniles,” explained the researchers.



The team documented this pattern in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/what-is-killing-coho-salmon-in-urban-streams/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">coho salmon</a> (Oncorhynchus kisutch), as well as steelhead (Oncorhynchus mykiss), and cutthroat (Oncorhynchus clarkii) trout, all of which are salmonids . And they believe other salmon species may do the same.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-salmon-use-the-coast-for-migration">How salmon use the coast for migration</h2>



The salmonids didn’t just travel at random. Some popped into unfamiliar rivers for short visits. Others spent entire seasons in new places.



The fish were seen using streams on Washington’s Olympic Peninsula and Northern California - places separated by long stretches of saltwater.



“The landscapes are much more connected than we realized, and salmon take advantage of that,” said Stuart Munsch, lead author of the study.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/05/salmon_young-juveniles_break-migration-rules_illustration_credit-Su-Kim_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/05/salmon_young-juveniles_break-migration-rules_illustration_credit-Su-Kim_1s.webp" alt="This schematic highlights empirically observed paths of two juvenile coho (Oncorhynchus kisutch, orange and purple) and one juvenile Oncorhynchus mykiss (yellow) that made complex movements among drainages over periods of 203 days, 305 days, and 241 days, respectively. Numbers track individuals’ chronological detection sequences. Arrows indicate movement paths among drainages, with dashed line arrows showing additional details of individuals that moved back and forth between the East Twin and West Twin Rivers. Credit: Su Kim." class="wp-image-1968182"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">This schematic highlights empirically observed paths of two juvenile coho (Oncorhynchus kisutch, orange and purple) and one juvenile Oncorhynchus mykiss (yellow) that made complex movements among drainages over periods of 203 days, 305 days, and 241 days, respectively. Numbers track individuals’ chronological detection sequences. Arrows indicate movement paths among drainages, with dashed line arrows showing additional details of individuals that moved back and forth between the East Twin and West Twin Rivers. Click image to enlarge. Credit: Su Kim.</figcaption></figure>



“This provides a more complete and accurate picture of the habitat they are using, which helps us make informed decisions as to how to promote their recovery.”



By testing out different rivers and streams, salmonids might find better shelter or more food. They might also be learning from each other - schooling with fish from different populations and picking up clues about where to find refuge or prey.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-stable-habitats-with-new-risks">Stable habitats with new risks</h2>



Heavy rains in the Pacific Northwest can quickly turn peaceful streams into violent torrents. Water flow shifts rapidly, and vital stream features like wood and gravel can be swept away. 



In such unstable environments, the ability to search out new, more stable <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/melting-glaciers-will-create-large-habitats-for-pacific-salmon/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">habitats</a> might be a lifesaver. But this behavior comes with danger. Young salmonids moving between fresh and saltwater become easier targets for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/young-salmon-outsmart-predators-on-their-journey-to-the-sea/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">predators</a>.



“They’re perfect food for lots of other species, so they are taking a risk but also finding some benefits as they go,” said Todd Bennett, a salmon scientist at NOAA Fisheries’ Northwest Fisheries Science Center.



Still, the potential payoff may be worth it. Munsch noted that the young salmon and trout are searching for the best opportunities they can find.



“By moving around, they are also spreading the risk as some may find alternative habitats that better support them as conditions change," said Munsch.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-new-questions-about-salmon-behavior">New questions about salmon behavior</h2>



It’s already known that adult salmon sometimes stray into different rivers than the ones they were born in. But could that behavior be shaped by their earlier wanderings as juveniles?



The scientists are still looking into that. They say more monitoring is needed to determine whether the rivers explored by juveniles affect where they return to spawn later in life.



What’s clear is that juvenile salmon are more <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/warming-oceans-welcome-salmon-to-the-arctic/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">mobile</a> than previously assumed.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-closer-look-at-salmonid-migration">A closer look at salmonid migration</h2>



On the Olympic Peninsula, the researchers documented nearly 900 juvenile coho salmon, steelhead, and cutthroat trout moving between different river systems. Depending on the location and year, up to 22 percent of tagged fish were later detected in other rivers.



Most fish moved between just two rivers. But around 8 percent of them moved between three different systems, making up to nine distinct migrations during their juvenile years.



In Northern California, 28 coho salmon were recorded moving between river drainages. One even swam from a tributary of Redwood Creek to another stream feeding Humboldt Bay - a journey of about 40 miles (64 kilometers).



This behavior might not be unique to the U.S. Pacific Coast. The team reviewed other studies and found similar movements on three continents. That suggests it could be widespread.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rethinking-salmon-management">Rethinking salmon management</h2>



Some of the salmonids followed routes commonly traveled by other fish. Others used paths that were rarely monitored. 



Because the study could only track fish in rivers equipped with monitors, the researchers believe their findings may underestimate how many juveniles make these kinds of moves.



The takeaway? Scientists may need to revise how they think about salmon <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-has-unpredictable-effects-on-salmon-migration/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">migration</a>.



“We wouldn’t know about this unless we happened to be looking,” said Bennett. “Even after so many scientists have studied salmon over many decades, they still figure out how to surprise us.”



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://esajournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/fee.2848" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment</a>.



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Many young salmon break the typical migration rules, boosting survival chances

The story of salmon migration is often told as a...

Walk through a Mediterranean mountain meadow, and you're likely to spot a patch of Sideritis - a hardy, aromatic plant that has long been used for making Greek mountain tea. For centuries, this herb has been prized by locals for its healing properties; it is believed to soothe everything from colds to stomach issues.



But in recent decades, something has been shifting quietly in these high-altitude ecosystems. The grassy slopes where Sideritis once thrived are being taken over slowly by <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/shrubs-play-a-dual-role-in-forest-recovery-following-wildfires/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">shrubs</a> and trees. This transformation is not just about aesthetics. It's a sign of how climate change and land use are altering the very makeup of mountain biodiversity.



Researchers from the Senckenberg Biodiversity and Climate Research Center, the National Observatory of Athens, and the <a href="https://www.ku.dk/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Copenhagen</a> have been studying the genetic consequences of these changes, with a focus on Sideritis. Their findings are unsettling.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-plants-are-losing-genetic-diversity">Plants are losing genetic diversity</h2>



Mountain regions are known for their rich biodiversity - they support countless unique and specialized species. However, over the past 50 years, many of these habitats have seen changes. 



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/single-degree-temperature-warming-boreal-forests-wreak-havoc/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Warmer temperatures</a> and reduced grazing have triggered what's known as "mountain greening" - a steady spread of woody plants into areas that were formerly open grasslands.



Sideritis is among the species feeling the pressure. Once common across the Mediterranean's montane grasslands, it now faces a shrinking habitat. But it's not just the plant’s numbers that are declining. It’s losing genetic diversity as well, which may compromise its natural resilience to stress and change.



“We examined populations in 11 Greek mountain ranges and combined satellite data from several decades with genetic analyses of herbarium specimens from the 1970s and present-day plant samples,” explained study leader Spyros Theodoridis.



The team’s approach was unusual: they paired old herbarium specimens with modern genetic testing and decades of satellite imagery. This allowed them to see how Sideritis populations had changed genetically over time and how those changes tracked with the increase in denser vegetation.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-toll-of-inbreeding-and-isolation">The toll of inbreeding and isolation</h2>



<blockquote class="wp-block-quote"></blockquote>



“The results show that in eight of the 11 mountain regions we studied, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/can-trees-protect-their-genetic-diversity-for-millions-of-years/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">genetic diversity</a> declined significantly during this period. In particularly affected regions, up to 20 percent of the genome of individual plants is now subject to inbreeding – an indication of declining population sizes,” explained Theodoridis.



The numbers point to a worrying trend. As woody plants crowd out the open spaces, Sideritis populations become smaller and more isolated. This leads to inbreeding, which weakens the species’ ability to handle diseases, droughts, and other stresses.



“The speed at which shrubs and trees are spreading in previously open grasslands can be directly linked to the decline in genetic diversity in Sideritis populations,” noted study co-author David Nogués-Bravo. 



“The genetic diversity of a species is crucial for its ability to adapt to environmental changes. If this diversity dwindles, resistance to disease, drought, or other stress factors decreases, which can lead to extinction in the long term.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-watching-plant-changes-from-space">Watching plant changes from space</h2>



One of the most impressive parts of the study is how it links satellite technology with genetics. For years, scientists believed it was impossible to track genetic diversity using remote sensing. This study proves otherwise.



“This combination opens up new possibilities for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-monitoring-method-may-help-prevent-biodiversity-loss/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">biodiversity monitoring</a>,” emphasized Theodoridis. “It allows us to use satellite images to identify indications of genetic changes in mountain ecosystems without having to genetically examine each individual population on site.”



This method could make it easier to monitor hard-to-reach mountain regions or areas where on-the-ground data is limited.



“However, our results show that the extent of genetic erosion can be predicted with surprisingly high accuracy, based solely on the increase in vegetation density,” said study co-author Thomas Hickler.



“This renders our method particularly attractive for use in mountainous regions that are difficult to access or in areas where genetic monitoring has hardly been possible to date.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-historical-specimens-hold-the-genetic-key">Historical specimens hold the genetic key</h2>



This research was made possible, in part, by historical plant specimens that have been stored in herbaria - archives of pressed and preserved plants.



“Without the historical plant specimens in herbaria, the direct comparison over a period of 50 years would not have been possible,” explained co-author Marco Thines. “These archives of nature are invaluable for biodiversity research.”



These old samples provided a genetic snapshot of the past, which was essential for comparing with modern populations.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-threats-to-the-genetic-diversity-of-plants">Threats to the genetic diversity of plants </h2>



This isn’t just a local problem. Mountain <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/2020-was-earths-greenest-year-in-two-decades/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">greening</a> is happening all over the world, as climate warms and traditional land-use practices decline. 



You can see the shift clearly in satellite images - meadows turn darker as shrubs and trees move in. That’s why the researchers believe that now is the time to act.



“There is an urgent need for comparable studies with other species and in other regions,” concluded Theodoridis. “This will allow us to gain a comprehensive picture of how environmental changes are affecting the genetic basis of biodiversity - and how we can effectively counter this development.”



Protecting plants like Sideritis means protecting more than just a tea ingredient. It means defending the integrity and resilience of entire ecosystems - before they vanish under a wave of greenery.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="http://ell.com/current-biology/fulltext/S0960-9822(25)00436-1?_returnURL=https%3A%2F%2Flinkinghub.elsevier.com%2Fretrieve%2Fpii%2FS0960982225004361%3Fshowall%3Dtrue">Current Biology</a>.



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Mountain greening threatens genetic diversity of iconic plants

Walk through a Mediterranean mountain meadow, and you're likely to...

Parents,Lie,On,The,Couch,And,Father,Read,A,Book

Humanity has spent the last century wrestling with population growth. For decades, global efforts focused on reducing fertility rates to curb overpopulation. Family planning, access to contraception, and changing social norms contributed to a steep decline in births. 



The global total fertility rate (TFR) dropped from 5.3 in the 1960s to 2.3 by 2023. Today, however, we face a paradox. Instead of a crowded future, scientists are now warning of potential collapse - not from too many people, but too few.



A recent study, published in the journal PLOS One, shifts the narrative again. Led by Takuya Okabe of <a href="https://www.shizuoka.ac.jp/english/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Shizuoka University</a> and colleagues, the research argues that the widely accepted replacement rate of 2.1 children per woman is too low to guarantee long-term <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/resveratrol-may-boost-female-fertility-naturally/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">survival</a>.



The analysis suggests a more realistic number is 2.7. This higher threshold takes into account the unpredictable forces that shape real-world populations - forces that statistics alone often overlook.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-2-1-isn-t-enough-anymore">Why 2.1 isn’t enough anymore</h2>



The replacement fertility rate of 2.1 assumes a stable world. It expects low child mortality, equal numbers of boys and girls, and large, steady <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/global-fertility-rates-are-quickly-declining-and-little-is-being-done-about-it/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">populations</a>. These assumptions work in clean models, but reality is messier. 



People don’t always have two children. Some have none. Some die before reproducing. And in small populations, such random variation - called demographic stochasticity - can wipe out entire family lines.



Okabe and his team developed mathematical models to test what happens over generations when these fluctuations are included. They simulated populations using a branching process, a tool commonly used in population ecology. 



Each woman could have any number of children, following a Poisson distribution, and not all offspring would survive. These models revealed that unless the average number of children reaches 2.7, the risk of extinction remains high over time.



In short, the study calls for a reevaluation of what sustainability truly means. The average isn’t enough if too many fall below it.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-low-fertility-rate-may-erase-family-lines">Low fertility rate may erase family lines</h2>



The consequences aren’t only theoretical. Even in large countries with millions of people, most family lineages will eventually disappear if the fertility rate remains below 2.7. 



This has profound implications for identity, heritage, and cultural memory. Your surname, your traditions, your family stories - without enough descendants, all of it vanishes with time.



“Considering stochasticity in fertility and mortality rates, and sex ratios,” said Diane Carmeliza N. Cuaresma. “A fertility rate higher than the standard replacement level is necessary to ensure sustainability of our <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/poor-semen-quality-signifies-more-than-just-fertility-problems/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">population</a>.”



Extinction here doesn’t mean the end of humanity in one dramatic event. Rather, it means the quiet fading away of individual histories, surnames, and ancestral lines. 



It’s an erosion of human diversity, invisible until it's too late to reverse. This applies not only to families, but to the world’s languages and cultures.



At least 40% of the 6,700 spoken languages are predicted to vanish in the next century. Each lost language takes with it stories, songs, and spiritual beliefs that no data set can replace.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fertility-rate-is-dropping-across-the-world">Fertility rate is dropping across the world</h2>



While global population numbers still rise, the future looks different depending on where you live. Two-thirds of the world’s people now reside in countries with fertility rates below the 2.1 mark. 



In Japan, the rate is 1.3. In South Korea, it has dropped as low as 0.87. Even in the United States, it's only 1.66. These numbers suggest slow decline, but the reality may be steeper.



Japan’s population, for example, is projected to shrink by 31% every generation if current trends continue. This decline is compounded by <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/air-pollution-and-traffic-noise-increase-risk-of-infertility/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">aging</a>, as fewer young people are born to support older ones. 



Policies in countries like France and Singapore attempt to raise birth rates through incentives, but they’ve seen only modest results.



Modern life comes with trade-offs. Education and careers delay parenthood. Housing and childcare costs are high. In some cultures, single-child families have become the norm. These social realities are harder to change than the numbers suggest.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-female-biased-births">Female-biased births</h2>



The study offers a compelling insight: more girls can help prevent collapse. This isn’t about social engineering but about biology’s quiet adjustments. 



A female-biased sex ratio at birth increases the pool of future mothers. This gives populations a better chance of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/male-infertility-screening-will-be-drastically-improved-with-ai/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">sustaining</a> themselves.



Stressful environments often trigger such shifts. Wars, famines, and environmental disasters have led to more girls being born. 



In humans, psychological stress, poor nutrition, pollution, and even natural disasters have all been linked to a rise in female births. The same pattern appears in mammals like cattle, pigs, rats, and mice.



These adaptive shifts may be nature’s way of giving species a survival edge when facing extreme pressure. The presence of more females, even slightly, improves the odds that some lineages will persist through hard times.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-low-fertility-rate-leads-to-collapse">Low fertility rate leads to collapse</h2>



Okabe’s team simulated thousands of generations to see what happens when fertility remains below the 2.7 mark. Most populations collapsed within 20 generations. 



Even at a fertility rate of 2.1, extinction was all but certain. A handful of simulations survived longer - but those were exceptions, not the rule.



These findings show that survival, while not impossible, becomes highly improbable when fertility drops too far. As fertility approaches 2.7, survival chances improve. But anything lower becomes a gamble against mathematical odds.



In this model, randomness plays a central role. A few unlucky generations can eliminate an entire lineage, especially if there are no surviving males or females to continue it. That risk grows when fewer children are born on average. It's not enough to hit 2.1 once. Consistency across generations is key.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-does-all-of-this-mean">What does all of this mean?</h2>



Though the study focuses on human populations, its lessons apply broadly. Conservationists often aim to boost fertility among endangered species. But many plans fail to consider randomness, sex ratios, and mortality. 



As this study shows, achieving a simple average isn’t sufficient for long-term stability. Species with small populations, especially those isolated or fragmented, face similar extinction dynamics. 



A slightly skewed sex ratio or unexpected drop in births can push them toward collapse. Adjusting targets to reflect these deeper risks could strengthen conservation strategies.



For humans, the study urges policymakers to rethink population goals. It challenges the notion that economic or environmental concerns justify perpetual decline. 



Sustainability isn’t just about shrinking footprints. It’s also about keeping enough people - and diversity - to carry forward what makes humanity rich and resilient.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rethinking-population-goals-is-key">Rethinking population goals is key</h2>



The debate over population often swings between panic over too many and fear of too few. 



This research brings nuance to that conversation. It shows that the path to survival isn’t just about numbers - it’s about understanding the complex web of chance, biology, and behavior.



As fertility rates fall and the world changes, we must ask what kind of future we want. 



Not just one where humans survive, but one where traditions, languages, and lineages live on. A fertility rate of 2.1 may no longer be enough to keep that future alive.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0322174" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">PLOS One</a>.



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Our current fertility rate isn't high enough for humanity to survive

Humanity has spent the last century wrestling with population growth....

Earth’s ancient oceans once held marine predators that could rival the fiercest movie monsters. In the Late Jurassic and Early Cretaceous, the seas were ruled by titanic predators. With jaws measuring up to two meters and teeth sharp enough to shred bone, pliosaurids were apex hunters.



Ichthyosaurs, with their streamlined bodies, resembled swordfish but grew far larger and swam faster. Crocodile-like thalattosuchians dominated the coasts and deeper <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/marine-life-became-strangely-uniform-after-earths-worst-mass-extinction/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">waters</a> alike.



For millions of years, these animals sat atop marine food webs. Their dominance seemed unshakable. Then, something changed. The fossil record tells a story of sudden disappearance. 



One by one, these giants vanished. In their place, a new lineup of marine predators took over - mosasaurs with eel-like tails, long-necked plesiosaurs, and rapidly diversifying sharks. What triggered this massive reshuffling of ocean life?



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mass-extinction-of-marine-predators">Mass extinction of marine predators</h2>



Scientists believe the answer lies in a dramatic period during the middle Cretaceous, around 94 million years ago, when top marine predators were lost in a mass extinction event.



According to a new study led by Valentin Fischer of the <a href="https://www.uliege.be/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Université de Liège</a> in Belgium, this shift was driven by severe environmental changes. The findings highlight a time of both ecological collapse and evolutionary <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/jurassic-extinction-may-hold-clues-about-our-oceans-future/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">opportunity</a>.



At the heart of the change is a period known as the Cenomanian/Turonian transition. It marked the peak of a greenhouse world, the hottest interval in the last 541 million years. 



Atmospheric carbon dioxide soared and ocean circulation faltered. Vast parts of the ocean floor became anoxic (deprived of oxygen) making life impossible for many marine species.



Nutrients like sulphur and iron were thrown out of balance. These shifts cascaded throughout the food web. As Fischer’s team suggests, this extreme climate moment destabilized the entire marine ecosystem, especially at the top where large predators thrived.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-top-predators-faced-a-deadly-filter">Top predators faced a deadly filter</h2>



Valentin Fischer and his colleagues aimed to understand how this transition shaped marine reptile <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/what-caused-marine-mass-extinctions-millions-of-years-ago/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evolution</a>. To do so, they built a comprehensive dataset. 



The researchers studied the evolutionary relationships of hundreds of marine reptile species, mapping which groups went extinct and when. Then, they compiled the largest collection to date of two-dimensional and three-dimensional anatomical data on marine reptiles.



The team combined data on the phylogenetic relationships of hundreds of marine reptile lineages to analyze how extinctions were distributed in the tree of life.



Then, they used the largest sample of 2D and 3D data on marine reptiles ever assembled to analyze the effect of these extinctions on the predatory capabilities of Cretaceous marine reptiles.



“Our analyses showed that the Cenomanian-Turonian transition is associated with elevated rates of extinction and that these extinctions disproportionally targeted some groups of large and fast predators, in a stepwise manner,” said Fischer.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-new-marine-predators-hunted-differently">New marine predators hunted differently </h2>



What does it mean for a predator to disappear from an ecosystem? Not just an empty niche, but a major change in how animals hunt, compete, and survive. 



Fischer’s study found that predator skulls from before and after the transition had markedly different shapes. This affected feeding behavior in a fundamental way.



For example, skull shapes of predators were significantly different after the transition, notably resulting in distinct bite force, said Fischer.



This means that while new predators took over, they hunted differently. Some may have focused on smaller prey, while others developed crushing bites for armored <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/what-was-the-cause-of-earths-largest-mass-extinction/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">victims</a>. The loss of long-distance fast swimmers, like ichthyosaurs, opened the door for other body plans and strategies.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-end-of-one-era-sparked-another">The end of one era sparked another</h2>



The extinction of familiar marine predators didn’t signal the end of danger in the seas. It marked a rebirth. Mosasaurs surged in diversity and size, eventually becoming the new apex predators. 



Sharks too adapted, evolving faster and with more varied diets. The marine ecosystems of the Late Cretaceous looked different not just in species but in structure and dynamics.



This was not merely evolution marching on. It was evolution restructured by crisis. An environmental shock turned the oceans into both a graveyard and a cradle. Out of loss came transformation. Understanding these moments helps us grasp how life on Earth responds to extreme climate events.



The <a href="https://meetingorganizer.copernicus.org/EGU25/EGU25-3100.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">research</a> was presented at the European Geosciences Union General Assembly (<a href="https://www.egu25.eu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EGU 2025</a>).



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Climate chaos caused a mass extinction of top marine predators

Earth’s ancient oceans once held marine predators that could rival...

What makes people happy has puzzled philosophers, psychologists, and ordinary people for centuries. Is happiness a gift we carry inside us, immune to outside conditions? Or is it built on the foundations of good jobs, strong relationships, financial comfort, and good health? 



Every year, projects like the <a href="https://worldhappiness.report" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">World Happiness Report</a> attempt to measure and explain well-being across societies. Yet, the more we explore, the clearer it becomes: happiness isn’t simple, and it certainly isn’t the same for everyone.



A new study published in the journal Nature Human Behaviour sheds powerful light on this puzzle. It challenges the idea that happiness follows one clear path. According to lead author Emorie Beck and her team, people find happiness in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/most-people-believe-they-deserve-good-karma-more-than-others/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">different ways</a> - and what works for one person may not work at all for another.



“We have to understand the sources of happiness to build effective interventions,” said Beck, assistant professor of psychology at the <a href="https://www.ucdavis.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of California, Davis</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-two-major-views-on-happiness">Two major views on happiness</h2>



For decades, researchers have debated whether happiness comes from our life circumstances or our inner world. The first model, known as the “bottom-up” approach, argues that happiness builds up from life’s specific parts. 



When people are satisfied with domains such as their job, relationships, income, health, and housing, their overall <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/why-chasing-happiness-makes-you-feel-worse/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">life satisfaction</a> improves. This model shapes many public policies and international surveys. These efforts aim to boost happiness by improving access to external goods and services that support well-being.



But life doesn't always support that framework. Some people remain joyful even while facing hardship or loss. They seem untouched by circumstances that might break others. This brings attention to the “top-down” view of happiness. 



This model suggests that personality traits, mindsets, and emotional habits shape how we experience life. It emphasizes mental health practices, therapy, or mindfulness as tools to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/happiness-influences-online-shopping-habits/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">improve well-being</a> by adjusting internal attitudes.



“But we all know people in our lives who experience traumatic events yet seem to be happy,” noted Beck.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-new-perspective-on-happiness">A new perspective on happiness </h2>



The idea that both internal and external <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sleep-increases-feelings-of-hope-happiness-and-gratitude/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">forces</a> shape happiness isn’t new. What makes this study stand out is its attempt to measure this interaction across individuals and time. 



According to the third model Beck and her team explored, happiness may flow in both directions. Inner qualities and outer life domains affect each other in ways that are dynamic and complex. From this perspective, targeting either the environment or the mind can make a difference.



But this still leaves many questions unanswered. Do all people follow the same pattern? Do policies based on population averages truly help those they aim to support? To answer these questions, the researchers introduced a fourth idea - a “personalized happiness” perspective.



This new approach proposes that happiness is not universal. Instead, the causes and effects of happiness are idiographic, or specific to each person. What raises happiness for one individual may not move the needle at all for another.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-decades-of-data-on-happiness">Decades of data on happiness </h2>



To explore these ideas, Beck and her collaborators analyzed an enormous data set. They studied 40,074 people in five countries: Germany, Britain, Switzerland, The Netherlands, and Australia. 



These participants had taken part in repeated surveys over as many as 33 years. The surveys asked about their overall life <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/who-is-happier-being-single-men-or-women/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">satisfaction</a> and satisfaction in five life areas: work, income, health, housing, and relationships.



“What comes out is that we see roughly equal groups that demonstrate each pattern,” Beck explained.



Some participants fit the bottom-up model. Their happiness closely tracked satisfaction in life’s domains. Others followed a top-down pattern. Their internal well-being remained stable despite changes in their life circumstances. 



Another group showed bidirectional influence, where changes in one area affected the other. Finally, some individuals did not fit any clear model at all.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-personalized-happiness-is-more-than-a-theory">Personalized happiness is more than a theory</h2>



These findings gave weight to the personalized happiness approach. The researchers discovered that the population-level models often failed to match the actual patterns seen in individual lives. 



Between 41.4% and 50.8% of participants showed mostly one-way influences between domain satisfaction and life satisfaction. Only 19.3% to 25.9% showed bidirectional effects.



This shows that population averages often hide personal truths. Happiness, the study reveals, is shaped by unique configurations of traits and experiences. Even two people with similar incomes or job satisfaction may report entirely different levels of happiness.



The data also revealed that some people’s overall satisfaction did not link clearly to any of the measured domains. These individuals may experience satisfaction influenced by broader structural forces or singular life events that were not captured in the surveys.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-therapy">Implications for therapy</h2>



If the aim is to improve happiness for as many people as possible, this research sends a powerful message. One-size-fits-all strategies will not work. Improving healthcare, housing, or income may support some individuals, but not all. 



Likewise, mindfulness programs or therapy-based initiatives may not benefit people whose happiness depends more on external conditions. "Importantly, the most effective policies will be tailored to the individual themselves,” said Beck.



This perspective urges governments, organizations, and mental health practitioners to think differently. Instead of targeting a universal happiness recipe, they should aim to understand the diverse ingredients people draw from to feel fulfilled. 



Doing so might not just improve lives - it may also make public efforts more effective and meaningful.



“These things are treated separately, but they aren’t really. They feed into each other at a personal level,” Beck added.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-individual-needs-and-differences">Individual needs and differences </h2>



The idea of personalized happiness, while promising, also presents challenges. The study showed clear individual patterns, but distinguishing those from random variations is difficult. 



Beck and her colleagues suggest that future research needs more precise and innovative methods to capture these subtle trends.



Supported by the <a href="https://www.nia.nih.gov" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">National Institute on Aging</a>, this study lays the groundwork for a more human-centered view of happiness. Rather than assuming happiness is something we all measure in the same way, it invites a deeper respect for individual stories, differences, and needs.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-one-path-doesn-t-fit-all">One path doesn’t fit all</h2>



This research invites us to rethink everything we thought we knew about happiness. It is not an endpoint with a single route. For some, it lies in community or stability. For others, it may come from within - through purpose, peace, or personal growth.



The science is clear: happiness is personal. To understand it, we must listen more closely, not just to the numbers, but to the people behind them.



Other contributors included Joshua Jackson of&nbsp;<a href="https://wustl.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Washington University</a>, Felix Cheung of the&nbsp;<a href="https://www.utoronto.ca/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Toronto</a>, and Stuti Thapa of the&nbsp;<a href="https://utulsa.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Tulsa</a>.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41562-025-02171-z" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Human Behaviour</a>.



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Where does happiness come from? It depends on who you are

What makes people happy has puzzled philosophers, psychologists, and ordinary...

The Hubble Space Telescope, the most celebrated observatory in history, is officially 35 years old.



To mark the milestone, NASA has released a fresh gallery of <a href="https://science.nasa.gov/missions/hubble/nasa-celebrates-hubbles-35th-year-in-orbit/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">images</a> spanning our solar system and well beyond - from Mars’s ruddy surface to star-forming <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/unraveling-the-mysterious-origins-of-the-crab-nebula/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">nebulae</a> and a neighboring galaxy.



The new portraits serve not only as a birthday gift to the public, but also as a vivid reminder of how profoundly Hubble has transformed modern astronomy and popular culture alike.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fixing-hubble-s-blurry-beginnings">Fixing Hubble’s blurry beginnings</h2>



On April 24, 1990, the space shuttle Discovery roared into the sky with Hubble folded inside its cargo bay. A <a href="http://NASA.gov" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NASA</a> commentator called the telescope "a new window on the universe," raising expectations sky-high.



Yet jubilation faded fast when engineers found a tiny mirror flaw that made early images frustratingly blurry.



The rescue came in December 1993, when astronauts performed the first of five intricate servicing missions. They installed corrective optics - an optical “contact lens” - and upgraded Hubble’s cameras and electronics. The successful fix restored the telescope’s vision and set the stage for three decades of breakthrough science.



“Hubble opened a new window to the universe when it launched 35 years ago,” said Shawn Domagal-Goldman, acting director of the <a href="https://science.nasa.gov/astrophysics/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Astrophysics Division</a> at NASA Headquarters. 



“Its stunning imagery inspired people across the globe, and the data behind those images revealed surprises about everything from early galaxies to planets in our own solar system.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-an-observatory-that-keeps-giving">An observatory that keeps giving</h2>



Since that turning point, Hubble has recorded nearly 1.7 million observations of roughly 55,000 celestial targets. 



Those data have generated more than 22,000 peer-reviewed papers, amassing over 1.3 million citations - figures that make Hubble the most scientifically productive telescope ever built. 



All its raw images and spectra, totaling more than 400 terabytes, are publicly archived, fueling new discoveries every year.



The mission’s longevity lets astronomers revisit cosmic scenes and track their evolution in near-real time. 



Hubble has tracked the seasonal shifts of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/asteroid-could-be-pushed-into-a-collision-course-with-earth/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Mars</a> and Saturn, watched supernova remnants balloon outward, chronicled bright knots in active galactic nuclei, and even captured the afterglow of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/asteroid-could-be-pushed-into-a-collision-course-with-earth/">asteroid collisions</a>. 



Each long-baseline study illuminates processes that once seemed too slow to witness within a single human career.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-hubble-redefined-the-cosmos">How Hubble redefined the cosmos</h2>



Before Hubble, ground-based observatories peering through Earth’s turbulent atmosphere could see only halfway across the visible universe. 



Estimates of cosmic age oscillated wildly, and astronomers could only speculate about whether every galaxy harbored a central <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-do-black-holes-become-supermassive/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">supermassive black hole</a>. The existence of planets around other stars was still unconfirmed.



Hubble rewrote those narratives. Its legendary Deep Field images unveiled a staggering population of faint, ancient galaxies stretching back more than 13 billion years. 



By tracking Cepheid variable stars and Type Ia supernovae, the telescope pinned down the rate of cosmic expansion. It helped expose <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dark-energy-is-ripping-the-universe-apart-but-we-arent-sure-how/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dark energy</a>, a discovery that later earned the 2011 Nobel Prize in Physics.



Hubble also furnished the first measurements of exoplanet atmospheres and demonstrated that supermassive black holes lurk in the cores of most large galaxies. 



The telescope’s wide-ranging achievements inspired a wave of next-generation observatories, including the infrared-optimized James Webb Space Telescope.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-engineering-made-hubble-unstoppable">Engineering made Hubble unstoppable</h2>



Part of Hubble’s success stems from its design as a serviceable spacecraft. 



Between 1993 and 2009, five shuttle crews rendezvoused with the 24,000-pound telescope to swap out gyroscopes, batteries, and scientific instruments. These cosmic pit stops transformed Hubble into a nimble, ever-improving workhorse.



“The fact that it is still operating today is a testament to the value of our flagship observatories, and provides critical lessons for the <a href="https://science.nasa.gov/astrophysics/programs/habitable-worlds-observatory/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Habitable Worlds Observatory</a>, which we plan to be serviceable in the spirit of Hubble,” Domagal-Goldman noted.



While the final shuttle mission in 2009 left Hubble in excellent health, engineers have spent the past decade developing innovative software patches. They also created remote troubleshooting techniques to counter aging hardware.



As a result, the Hubble telescope remains fully operational. It partners with Webb to study exoplanet atmospheres and map the formation of distant galaxy clusters.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-cultural-icon">A cultural icon</h2>



Beyond its scientific cachet, Hubble has captured the public imagination. Its images - Pillars of Creation, the Eagle Nebula, the Horsehead, the Sombrero Galaxy - decorate classrooms, inspire artists, and headline documentaries.



Hubble’s visual output demystifies astrophysics, turning arcane data into vibrant landscapes that convey both beauty and scale. 



The telescope’s success has shown that deep-space exploration is not just for scientists, but for everyone who gazes upward in wonder.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-new-telescope-built-on-hubble-s-lessons">New telescope built on Hubble’s lessons</h2>



Hubble’s torch will eventually pass to the Habitable Worlds Observatory (HWO), NASA’s proposed successor for the 2040s. 



With a mirror much larger than Hubble’s and capabilities in the ultraviolet and visible bands, HWO aims to be up to 100 times more sensitive to starlight.



A key mission goal is finding Earth-size planets in habitable zones and detecting possible signs of life in their atmospheres. Engineers plan to make HWO serviceable, drawing directly on the lessons learned from three decades of keeping Hubble alive and thriving.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-legacy-that-s-still-growing">A legacy that's still growing</h2>



For now, Hubble continues its pioneering journey, orbiting Earth every 97 minutes at an altitude of about 330 miles. 



Each day it scans the space, adding new data to its towering archive and offering humanity fresh vistas of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-molecule-detected-in-space-where-stars-are-born/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">star birth</a>, galaxy collisions, and planetary weather.



From its rocky start to its current stardom, Hubble’s 35-year run epitomizes ingenuity, perseverance, and curiosity - the very traits that fuel all great explorations. 



NASA’s newest image release is both a birthday card and a reminder: somewhere high above, an aging yet agile Hubble telescope still opens that “new window on the universe,” inviting us to peer through and dream.



Image Credit: NASA/ Hubble Heritage Team



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35 years of Hubble: The telescope that changed our view of the universe

The Hubble Space Telescope, the most celebrated observatory in history,...

The Antarctic Peninsula has drawn widespread attention due to the unusual heat affecting the region, which is warming about five times faster than the global average. 



The extreme heat shocked many observers when a temperature of 18.8°C (65.8°F) was recorded at Seymour Island in February 2020.



Scientists are concerned about how this temperature surge could impact ice melt and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/why-antarctic-waters-are-cooling-in-a-warming-world/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">sea</a> levels. These concerns prompted a new investigation into how conditions far away in the Tasman Sea might contribute to warming at the southern tip of the planet.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tasman-sea-heat-reaches-antarctica">Tasman Sea heat reaches Antarctica</h2>



The research was led by Dr. Fei Zheng from <a href="https://www.sysu.edu.cn/sysuen/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Sun Yat-sen University</a>, whose team traced a path of influence from <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s00376-024-4350-0" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">waters</a> between Australia and New Zealand to the icy peninsula.



The experts discovered that winter sea surface temperatures in the Tasman Sea can influence atmospheric patterns that steer heat toward <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/what-lies-beneath-16000-feet-of-antarctic-ice-a-world-never-before-seen-by-humans/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Antarctica</a>. These findings highlight the surprising power of mid-latitude ocean changes.



“Our research shows that warmer or cooler temperatures in the Tasman Sea can send a climatic ‘ripple effect’ across the Pacific, ultimately warming the Antarctic Peninsula,” said Dr. Zheng.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-shifting-winds-drive-antarctic-warming">Shifting winds drive Antarctic warming</h2>



One key feature is the <a href="https://journals.ametsoc.org/view/journals/clim/29/17/jcli-d-15-0843.1.xml" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Pacific–South American pattern</a>, which emerges when the Tasman Sea shifts from cooler to warmer waters. This pattern forms a chain of shifting pressure and wind belts that can bring unusual warmth to certain parts of Antarctica.



The researchers noticed that high-resolution climate models capture this <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/antarcticas-melting-ice-shelves-threaten-global-sea-levels/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">pattern</a> better than those with fewer grid points.



“However, not all climate models capture this link accurately - higher-resolution models do a much better job,” said Dr. Zheng.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tasman-antarctica-link-confuses-models">Tasman-Antarctica link confuses models</h2>



Some models overestimate how much the Antarctic Peninsula temperature changes from year to year. They also underestimate how the Tasman Sea fluctuates during the same seasons.



Researchers caution that this mismatch could exaggerate how the atmosphere reacts to ocean shifts in some simulations. They aim to refine these models so that future <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/emergency-meeting-reveals-the-alarming-extent-of-antarcticas-ice-loss/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">temperature</a> estimates become more dependable.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-antarctic-heat-affects-sea-levels">Antarctic heat affects sea levels</h2>



A warming Antarctic <a href="https://www.climate.gov/tags/antarctica" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Peninsula</a> can affect ice sheet stability and global sea-level changes. Insights from studies like this provide a clearer view of how distant oceans might tip the balance in vulnerable polar regions.



Shifts in temperature can also influence how local sea ice behaves and how wildlife copes with changing conditions. Tracking these influences supports better decisions about conservation and planning for future environmental shifts.



These findings may change how scientists and policymakers approach climate modeling on a global scale. If warming in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/antarctica-is-greening-at-an-unprecedented-rate/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Antarctica</a> is linked to changes thousands of miles away, forecasts must look beyond local conditions.



This could shift funding and research priorities toward better monitoring of mid-latitude oceans. Long-term planning for coastal cities and global sea-level projections may now need to factor in the Tasman Sea as a major player.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-role-of-ocean-feedback-loops">The role of ocean feedback loops</h2>



The Tasman-Antarctica connection may also help explain recent feedback loops seen in climate records. Warmer waters in the Tasman Sea could alter wind patterns that trap heat in the Southern Hemisphere, reinforcing further warming in Antarctica.



This process, while still under study, suggests the ocean isn’t just responding to climate change - it may also be shaping it. Feedbacks like these are essential to understand if we want to predict how fast changes may unfold.



One major hurdle is the lack of high-resolution data for some ocean regions, including the Tasman Sea. Without better observations, even the most advanced models will struggle to predict future shifts accurately.



Researchers also warn that natural variability could mask long-term trends. Sorting short-term changes from deeper patterns will be key to improving projections for Antarctica’s future.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-antarctic-link-to-global-weather">Antarctic link to global weather</h2>



The atmospheric patterns linked to the Tasman Sea might not just affect Antarctica. Some researchers suggest that parts of South America and even the western United States could experience shifts in weather due to these ocean changes.



While the focus is still on Antarctica for now, future studies could reveal broader connections. Understanding these ripple effects might help explain unusual weather in regions far from the Southern Ocean.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-protecting-coastal-communities">Protecting coastal communities </h2>



Researchers plan to refine climate models by adding better data for smaller-scale ocean processes. They believe a closer look at ocean-atmosphere interactions will strengthen predictions for Antarctica and beyond.



Experts also hope that improving model accuracy could help communities plan for coastal threats. Robust forecasts may guide strategies that protect future generations from rising seas and shifting weather patterns.



Bringing together data from multiple sources helps researchers see the bigger picture of Antarctica’s challenges.&nbsp;



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s00376-024-4350-0" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Advances in Atmospheric Sciences</a>.



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Antarctic warming is influenced by ocean changes thousands of miles away

The Antarctic Peninsula has drawn widespread attention due to the...

The sun-baked flats of southern Peru hold a secret bigger than any signpost. From a low ridge, the landscape looks plain enough - just ocher earth and scattered stones. Yet from the air, pale etchings known as Nazca geoglyphs spread out across thirty-one miles of desert like pages in an ancient picture book.



Scholars have long marveled at these Nazca geoglyphs: animals, people, and patterns scraped into the soil roughly two thousand years ago. 



Their purpose has never been obvious, and for decades each new survey has offered more puzzles than answers.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-nazca-geoglyphs-carved-on-desert-canvas">Nazca geoglyphs carved on desert canvas</h2>



Masato Sakai of Japan’s <a href="https://www.yamagata-u.ac.jp/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Yamagata University</a> has spent two decades walking the Nazca Pampa, a dry plateau that sits about 1,640 feet above sea level. 



The lack of rain and the region’s remoteness have sheltered the drawings from erosion and farming. 



Two main styles dominate the site. Giant “line-type” designs - think the famous hummingbird - stretch for hundreds of feet. 



Smaller “surface-type” figures appear where workers once brushed away dark stones to expose lighter sand.



Early mapping relied on planes and satellite photos. Even then, the sharpest images missed many faint or partial motifs. 



Relief-type figures, often no larger than a city bus, hug age-old footpaths and easily hide in the dusty palette.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ai-scans-the-peruvian-sands">AI scans the Peruvian sands</h2>



Enter a collaboration with IBM Research. Between September 2022 and February 2023, Sakai’s team fed an artificial-intelligence model examples of known glyphs, then set it loose on high-resolution photos of the entire plateau. 



In six months, the system flagged 303 new surface-type drawings - almost doubling the catalog built up since the early twentieth century. 



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/09/Nazca-lines_petroglyphs_AI-analysis_credit-Yamagata-University_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/09/Nazca-lines_petroglyphs_AI-analysis_credit-Yamagata-University_1s.webp" alt="Fifteen of a total of 303 newly discovered relief-type figurative geoglyphs from the AI-assisted survey. Drone images taken during the field survey that confirmed the geoglyphs as authentic. The scale bars are 5 m. Outlines have been added as a guide to the eye. Versions of the images without the outlines and archaeological interpretations of the relief can be found in SI Appendix, Fig. S1. The figurative geoglyphs depict humanoids, head, domesticated animal (camelid), killer whales, birds, feline, ceremonial scene, and human/animal interaction. Credit: Yamagata University" class="wp-image-1967878"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Fifteen of a total of 303 newly discovered relief-type figurative geoglyphs from the AI-assisted survey. Drone images taken during the field survey that confirmed the geoglyphs as authentic. The scale bars are 5 m. Outlines have been added as a guide to the eye. Versions of the images without the outlines and archaeological interpretations of the relief can be found in SI Appendix, Fig. S1. The figurative geoglyphs depict humanoids, head, domesticated animal (camelid), killer whales, birds, feline, ceremonial scene, and human/animal interaction. Click image to enlarge. Credit: Yamagata University</figcaption></figure>



That fresh haul pushes the confirmed total to 430 pieces, 318 of which Yamagata University has logged since it began work in 2004.



Instead of boxing objects the usual way, the model treated the desert as a grid of tiny image tiles and scored each one for geoglyph likelihood. 



The researchers split every confirmed figure into smaller patches to give the algorithm extra training material, a trick that compensated for the limited dataset.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-are-the-nazca-geoglyphs-telling-us">What are the Nazca geoglyphs telling us?</h2>



Many newly spotted icons cluster within 141 feet of ancient trails. They show human torsos, stylized livestock, and eerie isolated heads. 



“The human heads depict human sacrifices to the gods,” Sakai explained. The pathway setting hints that small groups used these pictures as teaching aids or spiritual prompts during routine travel.



Pottery shards nearby suggest such relief-type figures may predate the grander line drawings. Their subjects lean toward domestic life, a contrast to the wild creatures often celebrated in the larger images.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ritual-routes-and-roadside-lessons">Ritual routes and roadside lessons</h2>



Line-type glyphs anchor the start and finish of broader pilgrimage routes, typically lying about 112 feet from ceremonial lines scored into the ground. 



Archaeologists think processions moved along these corridors, stopping at the vast bird, monkey, or whale outlines for communal rites. 



“At that time, there was no written language. People learned about the roles of humans and animals by looking at pictures and used them as places for rituals,” he said.



That spoken insight, paired with the spatial data, supports the idea that the Nazca culture wove its belief system straight into the landscape. 



Travelers likely rehearsed myths, seasonal duties, or social roles by pacing past images tailored to each lesson.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-behind-the-numbers">Behind the numbers</h2>



The 303 fresh finds are all surface-type, yet they vary in design and age. Roughly half depict human or animal heads, many with eyes or mouths exaggerated for emphasis. 



The rest show full figures, including camelids and felines that were vital to everyday survival. Their average length is about 20 yards. 



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/09/nazca-lines_location-map_credit-University-of-Michigan_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/09/nazca-lines_location-map_credit-University-of-Michigan_1s.webp" alt="Field survey confirms 303 new relief-type figurative Nazca geoglyphs. Map of 303 newly confirmed and 380 previously known (black) figurative relief-type geoglyphs. Newly confirmed geoglyphs are individually AI predicted (yellow), part of an AI-predicted geoglyph group (rose), or identified in the field survey without AI predicting that location (green). Inset: Histogram of ranked AI candidates (blue), visited AI candidates (red), new geoglyphs in AI groups (rose), individually confirmed AI geoglyphs (yellow), and extrapolated new geoglyphs (light yellow) as a function of rank. Credit: University of Michigan" class="wp-image-1967876"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Field survey confirms 303 new relief-type figurative Nazca geoglyphs. Map of 303 newly confirmed and 380 previously known (black) figurative relief-type geoglyphs. Newly confirmed geoglyphs are individually AI predicted (yellow), part of an AI-predicted geoglyph group (rose), or identified in the field survey without AI predicting that location (green). Inset: Histogram of ranked AI candidates (blue), visited AI candidates (red), new geoglyphs in AI groups (rose), individually confirmed AI geoglyphs (yellow), and extrapolated new geoglyphs (light yellow) as a function of rank. Click image to enlarge. Credit: University of Michigan</figcaption></figure>



The AI’s accuracy jumped once researchers applied transfer learning - starting with a vision model trained on everyday photographs before fine-tuning it for desert imagery.



Such efficiency matters because the Nazca Pampa spans more than 190 square miles. Manual surveys would take years, but AI can flag probable sites in days, letting field crews focus on verification and conservation.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ai-and-the-future-of-archaeology">AI and the future of archaeology</h2>



The success in Peru demonstrates how machine learning can spotlight hidden heritage without disturbing the ground. 



Similar techniques already aid shipwreck hunts in the Mediterranean and temple searches in Cambodia’s jungles. As satellite coverage improves, smaller teams will parse vast regions for subtle traces of ancient life.



For the Nazca Lines, the next step is protection. Mining, unregulated tourism, and modern roads nibble at the fragile crust. 



Digital maps built from AI detections give local authorities a clearer picture of what needs fencing, signage, or rerouting. 



Sharing these maps online also invites global scholars to test fresh hypotheses about how the drawings fit with climate shifts, trade, and social change over fifteen centuries.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-s-next-for-the-nazca-geoglyphs">What's next for the Nazca geoglyphs?</h2>



What began as a curiosity spotted by pilot Toribio Mejía Xesspe in 1927 now stands as proof - yes, proof - of cooperation between traditional fieldwork and cutting-edge tech. 



The Nazca people left no written chronicles, but they etched stories big enough to survive millennia of wind and sun. 



With new eyes in the sky and smarter algorithms on the ground, today’s researchers are finally starting to read those stories in full.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.pnas.org/doi/full/10.1073/pnas.2407652121" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a>.



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One of Earth's oldest and biggest mysteries is partially solved by Artificial Intelligence

The sun-baked flats of southern Peru hold a secret bigger...

Acne, eczema, and other skin conditions are issues that manifest on the surface, but they’re closely tied to what’s living just beneath. Bacteria on our faces aren’t just passive passengers. They interact, compete, and sometimes even fuel disease.



Two major bacterial species - Cutibacterium acnes and Staphylococcus epidermidis - dominate most people’s facial microbiome. Yet, figuring out how they behave and change over time has long been a challenge.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-shaping-the-skin-s-future-health">Shaping the skin's future health</h2>



Researchers at the <a href="https://www.mit.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Massachusetts Institute of Technology</a> have now mapped out the behavior of skin bacteria in more detail than ever before.



Their work offers a clearer picture of when new strains appear, how long they stick around, and how this timing could shape future acne treatments. 



The research also points to a crucial discovery: the early <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/why-teen-girls-struggle-more-with-depression/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">teen</a> years may be a key time in which to shape the skin’s future health.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-teenage-skin-and-the-rise-of-acne-bacteria">Teenage skin and the rise of acne bacteria</h2>



The team found that most new C. acnes strains - the ones commonly linked to outbreaks of acne - appear during the early teenage years.



But after that, the bacterial community on the face becomes incredibly stable. Even when people come into contact with new strains, they rarely take hold.



That insight has major implications. “We found that there are some surprising dynamics, and these dynamics provide insights for how to design probiotic therapy,” said Tami Lieberman, senior author of the study.



“If we had a strain that we knew could prevent acne, these results would suggest we should make sure we apply them early during the transition to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/feeling-loved-as-a-teen-linked-to-healthier-adulthood/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">adulthood</a>, to really get them to engraft.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tracking-skin-bacteria-and-acne">Tracking skin bacteria and acne</h2>



To understand these microbial patterns, the researchers studied the skin of 30 children and 27 of their parents, all from the same Boston-area school community. 



Sampling family members helped the team to see how strains pass between people and how stable - or unstable - those strains really are.



Some participants were sampled more than once, allowing the scientists to track bacterial changes over time. 



From each skin swab, they grew bacterial colonies and sequenced the DNA of individual cells. This helped them measure the number of different lineages in each person, how long each had been around, and how they changed over time.



They found 89 lineages of C. acnes and 78 of S. epidermidis. Up to 11 of each could be found on a single person. The findings surprised the team, as earlier studies had suggested these communities remained mostly unchanged over time.



“We wanted to know if these communities were truly stable, and if there could be times where they weren’t stable,” Lieberman explained. “In particular, if the transition to an adult skin-like microbiome would have a higher rate of acquisition of new lineages.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-an-ideal-environment-for-skin-bacteria">An ideal environment for skin bacteria </h2>



Teenage years come with a spike in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/eating-refined-carbs-can-make-you-less-attractive/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">oil production</a> on the face, which provides an ideal environment for bacteria. 



Previous studies have shown a 10,000-fold increase in bacterial density during this period. The current study confirmed that while adult facial microbiomes are largely stable, the early teen years offer an opportunity for new strains of skin bacteria - particularly of C. acnes - to establish themselves.



“For C. acnes, what we were able to show was that people do get strains throughout life, but very rarely,” said Lieberman. “We see the highest rate of influx when teenagers are transitioning to a more adult-like <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/secrets-of-aging-have-been-found-in-the-skin-microbiome/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">skin microbiome</a>.”



This supports the idea that acne-related probiotics might be most effective when used early, during the teenage transition.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-different-bacteria-different-timelines">Different bacteria, different timelines</h2>



The team also found that S. epidermidis is far more volatile than C. acnes. On average, each strain of S. epidermidis sticks around for less than two years. 



However, even family members living together often didn’t share the same lineages. This implies that bacteria aren’t constantly passed back and forth, and that the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/why-does-skin-become-leathery-after-too-much-uv-light-from-sun-exposure/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">skin</a> might be more selective than expected.



“That suggests that something is preventing homogenization between people,” said Lieberman. “It could be host genetics or host behavior, or people using different topicals or different moisturizers, or it could be active restriction of new migrants from the bacteria that are already there at that moment.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-research-directions">Future research directions </h2>



The researchers now want to know whether the immune system reacts differently depending on when a person first acquires a new strain of C. acnes. They also hope to understand why individual microbiomes remain so distinct, even when people are exposed to each other’s bacteria daily.



“We want to understand why we each have unique strain communities despite the fact that there is this constant accessibility and high turnover, specifically for S. epidermidis,” said Lieberman. “What’s driving this constant turnover in S. epidermidis, and what are the implications of these new colonizations for acne during adolescence?”



While there’s still a lot to learn, one thing is clear: the story of skin bacteria starts early. And the choices we make - or don’t make - during our teenage years might leave a lasting mark.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S193131282500143X?via%3Dihub" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cell Host &amp; Microbe</a>.



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Teen skin bacteria could hold the secret to acne prevention

Acne, eczema, and other skin conditions are issues that manifest...

Bearded,Father,Playing,Guitar,To,His,Little,Child.,Baby,Looking

Music, movement, and the soothing hum of a lullaby are often seen as cornerstones of humanity. From bustling cities to remote villages, we expect every culture to dance in joy and sing to its children. 



But the Northern Aché of Paraguay challenge that belief. These acts seem deeply human - automatic, perhaps even biological. But what if they aren’t?



A study published in the journal Current Biology by anthropologists Manvir Singh and Kim Hill asks us to reconsider this belief.



Drawing on over four decades of immersive research among the Northern Aché of Paraguay, the authors report a striking absence. This Indigenous group sings, yes - but they do not dance. And they do not sing to their babies.



This revelation disrupts long-standing theories about music as an evolutionary <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-takes-a-major-toll-on-childrens-health/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">universal</a>. Instead, it points to a more fragile reality: these traditions may be cultural inventions, and may be vulnerable to loss.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-northern-ache-don-t-dance-or-sing-lullabies">Northern Aché don’t dance or sing lullabies</h2>



The Northern Aché, a once-isolated hunter-gatherer society in eastern Paraguay, have lived outside the influence of global norms for much of modern history. 



Hill, a professor at <a href="https://www.asu.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Arizona State University</a>, first began working with them in 1977. He would go on to spend 122 months - more than ten years - living alongside Aché families in forest camps and settlements.



During these years, Hill documented their daily life in extraordinary detail. He observed songs sung around campfires, flutes played in solitude, and expressions of grief and celebration. But never once did he witness coordinated dance. Nor did he hear an infant-directed song.



“Aside from church singing introduced by missionaries, Northern Aché adults sing alone and in a limited number of contexts,” Singh explained. “As far as we can tell, anthropologists have never observed dancing or infant-directed song among the Northern Aché.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-every-culture-sings-but-not-to-infants">Every culture sings, but not to infants?</h2>



The Northern Aché’s musical life is real, but restrained. Men sing short bursts of melody about hunting and communal affairs. 



Women sing more rarely, almost always about lost relatives. Children may imitate these songs, but there is no singing aimed at babies - none of the structured soothing sounds that we associate with lullabies.



This lack isn’t due to neglect. Parents calm fussy <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/talking-to-kids-about-puberty-why-sooner-may-be-better-than-later/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">babies</a> with smiles, tickles, and playful talk. Yet even during long forest treks - where infants remain close to their mothers nearly all day - Hill and fellow researchers never encountered lullabies.



“It’s not that the Northern Aché don’t have any need for lullabies,” Singh said. “Aché parents still calm fussy infants. They use playful speech, funny faces, smiling and giggling.”



This distinction matters. It shows that caregiving persists even in the absence of what many view as essential, universal tools.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cultural-loss-not-natural-absence">Cultural loss, not natural absence</h2>



Why are dance and infant-directed song missing from this society? The answer lies not in biology but in history.



The Northern Aché endured significant upheaval in the twentieth century. Their population plummeted due to disease and forced migration. 



By 1970, only 338 individuals remained. With that decline came a shrinking of cultural practices. Alongside dance and lullabies, they lost other cultural practices, such as fire-making, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/are-dogs-replacing-children-how-modern-society-is-changing/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">puberty</a> ceremonies, hunting magic, and more.



“It does mean, however, that cultural transmission matters much more for maintaining those behaviors than many researchers, including myself, have suspected,” Singh said.



Unlike smiling, which appears across cultures without instruction, these behaviors vanish without teaching and memory. They are not spontaneous instincts. They are carefully maintained traditions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-singing-and-dancing-are-cultural-creations">Singing and dancing are cultural creations </h2>



The Northern Aché belong to a wider language family - Tupi - which includes other groups with robust musical and ritual traditions.



Southern Aché communities, for example, have been seen dancing and singing in synchrony after contact. Tupi-speaking Araweté and Guarani peoples also have lullabies and dance music. This suggests that the ancestors of the Northern Aché once shared these practices.



But over generations, population bottlenecks and isolation stripped away many layers of cultural complexity. 



They no longer make fire. They do not play stringed instruments. Their musical styles have narrowed. What remains is deeply individual, and hauntingly sparse.



Genetic studies support this story. The Northern Aché have less genetic diversity than their linguistic relatives, pointing to one or more historic population collapses. Such bottlenecks reduce not just biological <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/air-pollution-impacts-brain-development-in-children/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">variation</a> but cultural content as well.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-human-behavior-shaped-by-culture">Human behavior shaped by culture</h2>



Theories about music’s origin often assume a biological basis. Dance and lullabies are believed to build bonds - between groups, and between mothers and babies. Many researchers have treated them as evolutionary adaptations.



“Dance and infant-related song are widely considered universal, a view that has been supported by cross-cultural research, including my own,” Singh noted.



But this study suggests a different picture. It argues that these behaviors are more like fire-making than smiling. They are useful but not inevitable. They must be invented, preserved, and passed on. When communities shrink or break, those transmissions can fail.



This idea doesn’t disprove genetic readiness. Instead, it highlights that readiness alone isn’t enough. Cultural continuity sustains human behavior.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-significance-of-the-northern-ache">Significance of the Northern Aché</h2>



The absence of dance and lullabies in the Northern Aché people doesn't mean these behaviors are unimportant. It means we must reconsider what makes them possible. We need to look beyond cross-cultural surveys and explore histories of loss, isolation, and transformation.



Singh and Hill’s work shows the value of deep, long-term ethnography. Their observations emerged not from brief visits but from living as neighbors, sharing fires, and listening over decades.



“I found his observations totally fascinating and hugely important and urged him to publish them,” Singh said of Hill's work. “He wasn’t sure how to report them, so we ended up writing the manuscript together.”



In an increasingly globalized world, such quiet exceptions are rare. But they carry powerful messages. They remind us that humanity’s most cherished expressions - music, dance, the lullaby - are not just natural responses. 



Singing and dancing are cultural creations that are fragile and resilient, shaped by memory and community. And when they fall silent, they speak volumes.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/fulltext/S0960-9822(25)00447-6">Current Biology</a>.



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Social dancing and singing lullabies to babies are not innate human behaviors

Music, movement, and the soothing hum of a lullaby are...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2E0mn5mTvhQ
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">'Death Star' moon Mimas conceals a 15-million-year-old ocean that scientists never expected.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hidden-waters-beneath-ancient-craters">Hidden waters beneath ancient craters</h2>



Scientists have made a startling discovery that challenges everything we thought we knew about <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/saturn-moon-mimas-has-remarkably-young-ocean/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Saturn's moon Mimas</a>. Beneath the heavily cratered surface that earned it the nickname "Death Star" lies a global ocean that formed just 5 to 15 million years ago—a remarkably young age by cosmic standards.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cassini-data-reveals-orbital-secrets">Cassini data reveals orbital secrets</h2>



The discovery, led by Dr. Valéry Lainey of the <a href="https://observatoiredeparis.psl.eu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Observatoire de Paris</a>, emerged from careful analysis of <a href="https://www.nasa.gov" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NASA</a>'s Cassini spacecraft data. By studying subtle irregularities in Mimas's orbit around Saturn, researchers detected the gravitational signature of liquid water hidden 20 to 30 kilometers beneath the moon's icy shell.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-an-unlikely-ocean-world">An unlikely ocean world</h2>



At only 400 kilometers in diameter, Mimas seemed like the least likely candidate to harbor a subsurface ocean. Unlike other ocean moons such as Europa and Enceladus, which show clear surface signs of internal activity, Mimas displays no obvious hints of the liquid water beneath its ancient, crater-scarred exterior.



"Mimas is a small moon, and its heavily cratered surface gave no hint of the hidden ocean beneath," explained Dr. Nick Cooper from <a href="https://www.qmul.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Queen Mary University of London</a>, a study co-author.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-astrobiology">Implications for astrobiology</h2>



The ocean's recent formation makes Mimas a prime target for studying how oceans develop and potentially support life. This discovery adds another member to the exclusive club of ocean worlds in our solar system, each offering unique insights into the conditions necessary for habitability.



The research, published in <a href="https://www.nature.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature</a> journal, demonstrates how advanced orbital analysis can reveal hidden features of celestial bodies, opening new possibilities for understanding ocean formation throughout the cosmos.



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Scientists discover unexpected young ocean on Saturn's cratered moon Mimas

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2E0mn5mTvhQ 'Death Star' moon Mimas conceals a 15-million-year-old ocean that...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE
</div></figure>



On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop and sunlight barely penetrates through the polar winter. It was here, however, that an international team of scientists found <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/predatory-worms-were-terror-beasts-half-a-billion-years-ago/#google_vignette" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evidence of sea monsters</a> that would change our understanding of ocean life in the past.



This video captures the discovery of Timorebestia fossils that had been hidden for more than 500 million years in the Sirius Passet formation. The "terror beasts," as they are called, are a hidden chapter in the evolutionary history of <a href="https://www.earth.com" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Earth</a>, showing that sophisticated predator-prey interactions occurred much earlier than previously envisioned.



Dr. Jakob Vinther and his research team at the <a href="https://www.bristol.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Bristol</a>, in collaboration with researchers at the <a href="https://eng.kopri.re.kr/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Korean Polar Research Institute</a>, braved extreme weather conditions at 82.5 north latitude to locate these giant creatures. Using sophisticated electron microprobe analysis, they revealed the detailed anatomy of the animals, including their muscle and nerve tissues.



The find upsets the traditional timeline of sea predators. Although we've long appreciated that Cambrian oceans were at one time ruled by <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jWI3-UgA3_o&amp;list=PL1QLQMW9MWDwpkFOnvgAmu7wT6rZmYqdJ&amp;index=19" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">arthropods</a>, these discoveries indicate that relatives of arrow worms were first to dominate the seas. These worms were building sophisticated food webs several million years before other predator groups arose.



Each fossil is a story of ancient hunger, with fossil stomach contents revealing these meter-long beasts dined on heavily armored arthropods regularly, cementing their place as the ocean's first apex predators.



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Worms dominated seas before dinosaurs

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">New York is the site of the world's oldest forest.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-385-million-year-old-trees-discovered">385-million-year-old trees discovered</h2>



Scientists have uncovered something extraordinary just two hours north of New York City. The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/worlds-oldest-forest-discovered-close-to-new-york-city/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">world's oldest forest</a>, dating back 385 million years, offers a window into how Earth's first complex forests shaped our planet's atmosphere.



Located near <a href="https://townofcairo.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cairo, New York</a>, in Greene County, these weren't merely primitive plants struggling to survive. These were sophisticated trees with root systems remarkably similar to modern forests. This ancient woodland predates dinosaurs by 140 million years.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-cairo-forest-discovery">The Cairo forest discovery</h2>



385 million years ago, upstate New York was a tropical paradise near the equator. Thanks to continental drift, this ancient forest has traveled thousands of miles to its current location.



The fossil forest sits in an abandoned quarry, roughly half the size of a football field. This represents just a slice of what was likely a massive forest system stretching from New York into Pennsylvania.



Charles Ver Straeten, curator of sedimentary rocks at the <a href="https://www.nysm.nysed.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">New York State Museum</a>, made the discovery in 2009. While scouting the former highway department property, his trained eye spotted wandering patterns in the stone that looked like marine features.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-revolutionary-age-and-preservation">Revolutionary age and preservation</h2>



The site contains 385-million-year-old rocks with fossilized woody roots forming horizontal patterns up to 18 feet (5.5 meters) wide. As Christopher Berry, a paleobotanist at Cardiff University, explains: "You are walking through the roots of ancient trees."



This discovery pushes back advanced tree evolution by millions of years. The research, published in <a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/home" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Current Biology</a> in December 2019, fundamentally changes our understanding of when complex forests first emerged.



Researchers believe a massive flood buried the forest floor, creating perfect fossilization conditions. Over millions of years, sediment hardened into rock, preserving these root patterns like nature's time capsule.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-meet-archaeopteris-the-first-modern-tree">Meet Archaeopteris: the first modern tree</h2>



The star of this ancient forest is Archaeopteris – not to be confused with the feathered dinosaur Archaeopteryx. This tree was far older and more revolutionary.



William Stein from <a href="https://www.binghamton.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Binghamton University</a> describes the roots as "strikingly modern, essentially what you'd see outside in my yard right now." These weren't simple root systems you'd expect from ancient plants.



Some fossilized roots are six inches (15 centimeters) in diameter, forming 36-foot-wide (11-meter) patterns. These giants grew up to 65 feet (20 meters) tall with five-foot-diameter (1.5-meter) trunks.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-changing-impact">Climate-changing impact</h2>



These trees fundamentally changed Earth's environment. Kevin Boyce, a Stanford University geoscientist, explains how their deep roots triggered "weathering," chemical reactions that pulled carbon dioxide from the atmosphere.



This process dropped atmospheric CO2 levels from 10-15 times higher than today to roughly modern concentrations. These ancient trees helped create atmospheric conditions that made complex life possible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ancient-forest-ecosystem">Ancient forest ecosystem</h2>



The forest was remarkably diverse. Scientists identified Eospermatopteris, palm tree-like plants with short roots that reached 30 feet (9 meters) tall but lacked woody structure. The forest also housed cladoxylopsids and a mysterious third species still being studied.



All reproduced through spores rather than seeds – millions of years before seeds evolved. This tropical environment had no grass, flowers, or flying insects, just towering trees creating Earth's first complex forest canopy.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-scientific-significance">Scientific significance</h2>



Before this finding, the Gilboa forest, located 25 miles (40 kilometers) away, held the "oldest forest" title. Cairo's trees are 2-3 million years older, showing that complex forest ecosystems developed much faster than scientists believed possible.



Patricia Gensel, a <a href="https://www.unc.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of North Carolina</a> paleobotanist, notes: "The size of those root systems is really changing the picture. Even 20 years ago, researchers assumed trees with such complex root systems didn't evolve so early."



The Cairo site presents three unique root systems, suggesting Devonian period forests were diverse ecosystems with different trees occupying different environmental niches, much like today's forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-modern-preservation-efforts">Modern preservation efforts</h2>



In 2022, New York State Senator Michelle Hinchey secured a $170,000 grant for the town of Cairo to construct specialized fencing around the fossil forest site. The town plans to conduct a feasibility study exploring the possibility of creating an educational center and working lab on-site.



Joe Hasenkopf, chair of the Cairo Planning Board, hopes to partner with educational institutions to create a research facility serving scientists, students, and the public.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lessons-for-today-s-climate">Lessons for today's climate</h2>



Why does a 385-million-year-old forest matter today? It shows how dramatically forests can change Earth's climate. These ancient woodlands created the atmospheric conditions supporting complex life.



Understanding how prehistoric forests transformed the planet helps us appreciate modern forests' critical role in addressing climate change. Forests remain Earth's most effective carbon capture systems.



These prehistoric trees changed Earth's atmosphere by pulling massive amounts of carbon dioxide from the air. As we face modern climate challenges, this ancient forest reminds us of trees' incredible power to transform our planet's environment.



The next time you walk through a forest, remember you're experiencing an ecosystem whose blueprint was established 385 million years ago in upstate New York. These ancient pioneers didn't just survive – they thrived and changed the world forever.



The full study was published in the journal Current Biology.



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Earth's oldest forest found in the United States

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ New York is the site of the world's oldest...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Acid rain and a crisis solved.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-don-t-we-ever-hear-about-acid-rain-anymore-the-environmental-crisis-that-was-solved">Why don't we ever hear about "acid rain" anymore? The environmental crisis that was solved</h2>



Remember the 1980s when acid rain dominated headlines? Dire warnings about rain eating buildings, killing fish, and destroying forests filled every news cycle. Then, almost like magic, acid rain vanished from public discourse. What happened? Did we actually solve one of the late 20th century's most pressing environmental challenges?



The answer might surprise you. Unlike many environmental issues that drag on indefinitely, acid rain represents one of modern history's most successful ecological recovery stories. It's a tale of science, politics, and technology working together to tackle what seemed impossible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What was acid rain?</h2>



Acid rain isn't regular rain having a bad day – it's precipitation that became significantly more acidic due to air pollution. When power plants, factories, and vehicles burn fossil fuels, they release sulfur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides (NOx) into the atmosphere.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The science behind it</h2>



Think of acid rain as nature's chemistry experiment gone wrong. These compounds react with water, oxygen, and other chemicals to form sulfuric and nitric acids. When mixed with water vapor in clouds, they create precipitation with dangerously low pH levels.



While clean rain has a pH of about 5.6, acid rain could drop as low as 4.2 to 4.4 – roughly as acidic as tomato juice or coffee. According to US Geological Survey documentation, Scottish chemist Angus Smith first coined "acid rain" in 1872, but it didn't become a household phrase until the 1960s and 1970s when Swedish scientist Svante Odén documented its devastating effects on Scandinavian lakes and European forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The crisis at its peak</h2>



During the height of public concern, environmental damage was both widespread and visible. This wasn't some abstract future threat – people could see destruction happening in real-time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Environmental devastation</h2>



The most dramatic impacts were impossible to ignore. Research documented by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation and the New York State Department of Environmental Conservation shows that in the Adirondack Mountains, more than 200 lakes became so acidic they couldn't support fish life. The Adirondack Council reports that 409 lakes once supported brook trout, but many lost their fish populations due to acid rain.



By 1976, when scientists cataloged all acidified lakes in the Adirondack Park, researchers found that half of the lakes over 2,000 feet above sea level had no fish, according to studies published in environmental journals. The acidification process worked like a slow-motion disaster. As acid rain fell into watersheds, it gradually lowered pH levels. Fish couldn't survive in acidic water, and their food sources died off too.



Trees at high elevations showed stress directly linked to acid rain. It weakened them by leaching nutrients and making them susceptible to disease. Historical records show Germany's Black Forest saw nearly half its trees damaged by the mid-1980s.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Economic impact</h2>



Acid rain wasn't just environmental – it was expensive. Acidic precipitation corroded infrastructure, buildings, and monuments. Historic stone structures deteriorated at accelerated rates. Tourism suffered as lakes became fishless and forests declined. EPA economic analyses from the period documented repair costs mounting into billions annually.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The solution: government action and technology</h2>



Transformation from crisis to success required unprecedented cooperation between governments, industries, and environmental groups.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The Clean Air Act of 1990</h2>



The turning point came with the Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990, signed by President George H.W. Bush. This represented a fundamentally new approach to environmental regulation, as documented in EPA historical records.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Cap-and-trade success</h2>



Instead of mandating specific technologies, the 1990 amendments introduced something revolutionary: a cap-and-trade system for sulfur dioxide emissions. EPA program documentation shows this market-based approach set overall limits but allowed companies to trade emission allowances.



The genius was harnessing market forces to find cost-effective pollution reduction. Companies reducing emissions cheaply could sell excess allowances to those facing higher costs. Research published in environmental economics journals and EPA progress reports shows this resulted in dramatic SO2 reduction at a fraction of projected costs.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Technology advances</h2>



Policy provided the framework, but technology made reductions possible. Studies in atmospheric science journals document the widespread adoption of flue gas desulfurization systems ("scrubbers") that removed sulfur dioxide before it reached the atmosphere. By the 2000s, new installations could remove over 95% of SO2 emissions, according to EPA technical reports.



The push coincided with cleaner energy development. Natural gas produces fewer sulfur compounds than coal. Wind and solar, emerging in the 1990s, captured growing market share, reducing reliance on high-sulfur coal.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-we-don-t-hear-about-it-today">Why we don't hear about it today</h2>



Why did acid rain disappear from headlines? Simple: the problem was largely solved.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Success doesn't make news</h2>



There's an old journalism saying: "If it bleeds, it leads." Environmental success stories don't generate urgency like crisis reporting. Media attention shifted to other challenges: climate change, plastic pollution, and biodiversity loss. There's only so much environmental anxiety the public can absorb, and newer concerns replaced acid rain.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Mission accomplished</h2>



The primary reason is beautifully simple: interventions worked. EPA monitoring data shows sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990. Academic research published in environmental science journals confirms pH levels in formerly affected areas returned closer to normal. This represents one of history's most dramatic environmental recoveries. Studies by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation show fishless lakes now support healthy populations. Forests recovered, and building damage slowed dramatically.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-is-it-really-gone">Is it really gone?</h2>



The crisis is largely resolved, but monitoring data shows the problem isn't completely eliminated – it's managed to acceptable levels. Some areas still experience occasional events during high pollution periods. International environmental research indicates that rapidly industrializing Asian countries face similar problems to what we experienced decades ago, though they're implementing successful strategies.



EPA research shows nitrogen oxide emissions proved more challenging than sulfur dioxide, coming from vehicles and mobile sources. Climate science studies suggest changing weather patterns add complexity to how acid rain forms and falls.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What this teaches us</h2>



The acid rain experience proves that seemingly intractable environmental problems can be solved with scientific understanding, political will, and technological innovation. Environmental monitoring data shows recovery speed was remarkable – within a decade, measurable improvements appeared in air quality and ecosystem health.



Success came from bipartisan support across party lines. Policy analysis studies show the market-based approach appealed to those preferring economic incentives while achieving environmental goals. This support created lasting policy surviving political changes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Conclusion</h2>



Acid rain's disappearance from public consciousness represents environmental science's greatest success stories. Through effective regulation, technological innovation, and international cooperation, we transformed an overwhelming crisis into a manageable challenge.



Today's silence isn't because we forgot – it's because we solved it. The 1990 Clean Air Act, combined with technology and energy market changes, reduced acid rain emissions over 90%, according to comprehensive EPA data analysis.



This success offers hope for current challenges. It proves complex problems can be solved when science, policy, and technology work together. As we face climate change and plastic pollution, acid rain reminds us that dramatic positive change is possible.



Next time someone asks whether environmental regulations work, remember acid rain. It's proof that sometimes, we get it right.



<hr class="wp-block-separator has-alpha-channel-opacity"/>



Sources: This article draws from EPA official documentation and progress reports, peer-reviewed research published in environmental and atmospheric science journals, historical data from the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation, New York State Department of Environmental Conservation records, US Geological Survey publications, policy analysis studies, and environmental monitoring data collected over three decades.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Frequently Asked Questions</h2>



1. Is acid rain completely gone? No, but EPA monitoring shows it's reduced to manageable levels. US sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990, making acid rain much less severe than the 1980s crisis.



2. How long did solving take? Environmental monitoring data shows significant improvements began within 5-10 years of 1990s emission controls. Full ecosystem recovery took longer – some areas need 20-30 years for complete recovery.



3. What made the solution successful? Clear scientific understanding, visible damage motivating action, bipartisan support, available technology, and innovative market-based policies like cap-and-trade.



4. Do other countries have acid rain problems? Yes, particularly rapidly industrializing Asian countries. However, international environmental research shows many implement similar successful control strategies.



5. Could acid rain return? Potentially, if regulations weaken or we return to high-sulfur coal without controls, though effects would take years to become severe according to environmental projections.



6. Can you recommend any teaching tools on the subject of "acid rain"? The United States Environmental Protection Agency produced a wonderful teacher's guide for ages 14 and under that you can find on the EPA website here: <a href="https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf</a>



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The environmental problem we actually solved

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk Acid rain and a crisis solved. Why don't we...

Fresh,Radish,Harvest,On,Soil,In,Garden.

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Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving fall garden, and this guide lays out the best vegetables and herbs to plant now for a fruitful autumn harvest. 



Fast-growing leafy greens such as spinach, lettuce, kale, and arugula perform especially well in the waning summer heat, with harvests beginning as soon as 30 days. 



These cool-season crops relish the transition into fall, offering repeated yields with cut-and-come-again methods.



Root vegetables like radishes, carrots, and beets also excel during this period. Radishes deliver satisfaction in under a month, while carrots and beets mature in about two months. Employing succession planting ensures a continuous stream of produce deep into the cooler months. 



For a boost of fresh flavor, herbs like cilantro, basil, dill, and chervil are excellent picks. These heat-loving varieties flourish in July’s warmth and are harvest-ready in about 30 days, especially when sown continuously.



Gardeners in zones 6 through 9 can benefit from planting bush beans and snap peas, which don’t require trellising and are ideal for compact plots. 



Maturing in 50–60 days, they’re a smart choice for quick, protein-rich harvests. For those in hotter regions, heat-tolerant crops such as okra and southern peas provide reliable yields and thrive in scorching conditions.



This guide emphasizes more than crop selection—it highlights the importance of timing, soil preparation, and ongoing sowing techniques. 



With thoughtful planning and attention to regional climate needs, even late-summer gardeners can enjoy fresh salads, hearty stews, and the satisfaction of a robust, homegrown harvest well into fall.



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What to plant in your garden in mid-July

https://youtu.be/Fi2OeEwuzRM?si=vTyd2m9FMmtyWkex Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving...

Green,Ecoduct,Over,An,Empty,Highway,During,Sunset.

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A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that wildlife tunnels significantly reduce amphibian road mortality during seasonal migrations. 



Frogs and salamanders often cross roads to reach breeding ponds each spring, but many are killed by vehicles. 



Researchers from the <a href="https://www.uvm.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Vermont</a>, in collaboration with local citizens and the Vermont Agency of Natural Resources, installed two underpass tunnels in 2015. 



Over a 12-year monitoring period, they observed an 80.2% reduction in amphibian deaths, and up to 94% for non-climbing species like salamanders. 



The study used a before-after-control-impact design and documented more than 5,200 amphibians, highlighting the tunnels’ effectiveness even in nearby buffer zones.



Funded at $342,397 - far cheaper than wildlife crossings for large mammals - the project showcased the power of community-led conservation.



Local groups initiated the effort after observing mass amphibian deaths. Wildlife cameras later captured over 2,200 amphibians using a tunnel in just one spring, along with other species like raccoons and bobcats, indicating wider ecosystem benefits.



This marks the first peer-reviewed, long-term data set in the northeastern U.S. confirming amphibian-specific underpasses work. 



The study urges transportation departments to incorporate these designs into road planning and highlights how community action, thoughtful infrastructure, and persistence can make a real difference for biodiversity.



The full study was published in the <a href="https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1617138125000780" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal for Nature Conservation</a>.



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-----

Wildlife tunnels save millions of amphibians

https://youtu.be/XYgiPzmNBTU?si=eFYY7gPHU1JznLvU A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that...

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing it with probiotics and prebiotics, aiming to create a treat that satisfies cravings while supporting gut health. 



The challenge lies in maintaining chocolate's beloved texture and flavor while adding health benefits.



<figure class="wp-block-embed aligncenter is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://youtu.be/Ug657J67iEo?si=w96YjGMsg939LD_3
</div></figure>



Probiotics - beneficial microbes that balance gut bacteria and aid digestion - are typically fragile and can be destroyed by stomach acid or processing. 



Prebiotics act as food for these microbes, helping them thrive. Together, they form "synbiotics," a powerful health combination.



Researchers Smriti Gaur and Shubhi Singh from India's Jaypee Institute of Information Technology took an innovative approach, using natural prebiotics like corn and honey instead of complex processing methods. 



They created five chocolate varieties: a control and four synbiotic versions containing different combinations of prebiotics, probiotics (Lactobacillus strains), and flavor enhancers (cinnamon or orange).



Laboratory simulations of human digestion showed the probiotics remained viable for over five hours, suggesting they could survive long enough to benefit gut health.



Taste tests were positive, with researchers particularly enjoying the orange-flavored variety, describing it as having "vibrant citrus notes" complementing the "rich cocoa" with a "luxurious" texture.



This research represents just the beginning. With further refinement of strains, textures, and flavors, chocolate could evolve beyond mere indulgence to become a functional food that nourishes while it delights.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.4c00741" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ACS Food Science &amp; Technology</a>.

Is chocolate the next nutritional powerhouse?

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

[sendtonews key="0ynNMYkMKa-2340414-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

[sendtonews key="G9bUoxcjr4-2511624-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

[sendtonews key="3upvlAaHgO-2256633-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

[sendtonews key="LvS8v8bp9z-2564889-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="X0f6OHYoI4-2310561-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How does salt makes things taste better?

[sendtonews key="X0f6OHYoI4-2310561-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="JRaP49ISmm-2357509-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Santiago, Chile in South America

[sendtonews key="JRaP49ISmm-2357509-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

[sendtonews key="e4ZG0Jawp3-2374785-12187" type="single"] Astronomers at Johns Hopkins University have created...

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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.



According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."



Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;



ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. 



Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

[sendtonews key="uV9Lh2fQbV-1760058-12187" type="single"] Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

[sendtonews key="qjvhBOBnY8-2426650-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

[sendtonews key="oL4FnPTGCV-2384527-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

[sendtonews key="0879czfG3k-1785905-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from NASA...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

[sendtonews key="6HyfrAJTBI-1831843-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

Earth,Like,Exoplanet,3d,Render

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

[sendtonews key="QIoVYJqRBi-2434608-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from NASA...

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