Young aspen trees in Yellowstone are doing something they have not done in almost 100 years. Rather than sprouting and being eaten back to nubs by elk and bison, they're actually growing into tall, adult forest trees rising up towards the canopy.



This matters more than it might seem, because it shows what happens when a missing piece of an ecosystem returns.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-yellowstone-aspens-and-elk">Yellowstone, aspens, and elk</h2>



In the 1920s, people <a href="https://www.yellowstone.org/wolf-project/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">eliminated wolves in Yellowstone</a>. At the time, with limited scientific knowledge, managers believed it was the right thing to do.



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/from-wolves-to-dogs-did-domestication-begin-without-human-help/">Without wolves</a>, elk herds grew very large. Elk love to eat aspen shoots - the tender young growth is highly palatable to them.



For roughly 70 years, elk browsed aspen sprouts down to stub height, and the trees couldn't grow. 



If you had walked through Yellowstone in the 1980s, you would have seen many tiny aspen shoots covering the ground, but almost no young trees gaining height. 



The forest's regeneration was stalled. Old trees died, and no new ones replaced them.



In 1995 and 1996, park managers reintroduced wolves into the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/yellowstone-supervolcano-eruption-study-sparks-new-debate-on-where-and-when-it-will-erupt/">Yellowstone Park ecosystem</a>. Scientists hoped and wondered whether this would change anything for the trees.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-aspen-matter-to-yellowstone">Why aspen matter to Yellowstone</h2>



Aspen groves provide habitat for many species. Birds nest in them. Beavers eat the bark and use the wood for dams. Butterflies and moths lay eggs on the leaves. 



Their canopy admits enough light for wildflowers and shrubs to grow beneath. When it rains, aspen groves hold water in the soil better than some other forest types.



In short, when aspen return, dozens of other species benefit. More trees support more insects, which in turn support more birds, enriching the ecosystem.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-checking-the-trees-three-decades-later">Checking the trees three decades later</h2>



<a href="https://fwcs.oregonstate.edu/users/luke-painter" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Luke Painter</a>, an ecologist at <a href="https://oregonstate.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Oregon State University</a>, sought clear answers. His team returned to 87 aspen stands across Yellowstone that scientists had previously surveyed. 



They measured thousands of young trees, looked for bite marks, and counted how many stems were tall enough that elk could no longer reach the tips.



About a third of these stands now have many tall young aspens pushing toward the canopy. 



"About 26 of the 87 aspen stands we examined had large numbers of tall saplings throughout, a remarkable change from the 1990s when surveys found none at all," Painter said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-wolves-matter-to-yellowstone-aspens">Why wolves matter to Yellowstone aspens</h2>



Breaking it all down, the conclusions of this study are pretty simple. 



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/wolves-move-pups-across-mountains-to-adapt-to-climate-pressure/">Wolves hunt elk</a>. When wolves came back, two things happened. First, elk numbers declined from unusually high levels. Second, elk changed their behavior. They spent less time in the same areas feeding.



With fewer elk and shorter feeding bouts, more aspen shoots survived long enough to exceed the browsing zone - about six to seven feet high. 



Once a sapling reaches that height, elk cannot easily reach the growing tip. The tree continues to grow.



"The reintroduction of large carnivores has initiated a recovery process that had been shut down for decades," Painter explained.



Scientists call this a <a href="https://www.nature.com/scitable/knowledge/library/trophic-cascades-across-diverse-plant-ecosystems-80060347/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">trophic cascade</a> - when adding or removing one species causes changes that ripple through the whole system.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-some-places-recover-others-don-t">Some places recover, others don't</h2>



Unfortunately, not every aspen stand has recovered yet. Some valleys still have many short, heavily browsed shoots, because it's not only elk eating them anymore. 



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/yellowstones-iconic-bison-have-merged-into-a-single-herd/">Bison herds have grown</a>, and bison browse on aspen as well. They are strong enough to break young trees. 



"Increasing numbers of bison may be emerging as a new constraint to aspen in some areas," Painter confirmed.



Additionally, winter snow depth varies; droughts stress trees; bears and mountain lions also hunt elk; and hunting outside the park influences elk distribution. 



All of these factors interact, which is why some sites show strong recovery, others show moderate recovery, and a few have changed very little.



The key pattern is that places with many tall saplings experience little browsing, and aspen groves that remain popular eating grounds today stay short. 



This fact is the strongest indication that tree recovery is linked directly to wolf presence, not solely to weather or soil conditions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-proof-in-the-measurements">Proof in the measurements</h2>



Painter's team did not rely on casual observation. They used the same methods as earlier researchers, measuring the same plots. 



They counted recruitment - when young trees surpass browsing height and begin progressing toward maturity. This measure is crucial. Sprouts are insufficient if they never grow; without recruitment, the forest cannot replace itself.



The results are robust. After being stalled for most of a century, Yellowstone's aspens are increasing in height. In recovering stands today, you will see saplings - six, eight, or ten feet tall - that were not present in the 1990s.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-future-of-yellowstone-s-aspens">The future of Yellowstone's aspens</h2>



"This is a remarkable case of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/giant-viruses-found-in-yellowstones-hot-springs-may-be-near-the-root-of-all-life-on-earth/">ecological restoration</a>," Painter concluded. "Wolf reintroduction is yielding long-term ecological changes contributing to increased biodiversity and habitat diversity."



Trees grow slowly, so even with wolves restored, it will take decades for these young aspens to form a full-grown forest. 



Some areas might never fully recover if bison numbers continue to rise or if the climate becomes too hot and dry.



Thanks to the work of Painter and his team, scientists are now certain that restoring the Yellowstone predator has restarted aspen forest regeneration. Not everywhere and not perfectly, but enough to be measured, creating hope for the future.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0378112725004499?via%3Dihub" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Forest Ecology and Management</a>.



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Yellowstone's aspen trees are growing again thanks to the reintroduction of wolves

Young aspen trees in Yellowstone are doing something they have not done in almost 100 years. Rather than sprouting and being eaten back to nubs by elk and bison, they're actually growing into tall, adult forest trees rising up towards the canopy. This matters more than it might seem, because it shows what happens when a missing piece of an ecosystem returns. Yellowstone, aspens, and elk In the 1920s, people eliminated wolves in Yellowstone. At the time, with limited scientific knowledge, managers believed it was the right...

By challenging a long-held view of time in physics, scientists have uncovered bursts of light that seem to appear and disappear out of nowhere - like magic tricks grounded in serious math. 



These flashes aren’t just fleeting illusions; they’re protected by the underlying structure of the system, making them surprisingly stable even when the environment tries to interfere.



For decades, researchers focused on how light moves through ordinary space. The concept of time often stayed in the background, overshadowed by more familiar ideas on spatial dimensions.



Curiosity about time is now driving a fresh wave of investigations. 



Professor Alexander Szameit from the <a href="https://www.uni-rostock.de/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Rostock</a> and Professor Hannah Price from the University of Birmingham are rethinking how the time <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/time-may-not-just-move-forward-experts-say-it-could-rewind/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dimension</a> might hold surprising effects.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-time-s-unique-role-beyond-space">Time's unique role beyond space</h2>



Science has long recognized that time is not just another coordinate. Its one-way arrow has puzzled experts since the early discussions by <a href="https://henry.pha.jhu.edu/Eddington.2008.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eddington</a> in the 1920s.



Crystals in space are common in physics, but recent efforts show how structures can form in both space and time. <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/28277505/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Researchers</a> have seen that time patterns bring new benefits, including unusual wave behaviors.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-light-appears-in-time-not-space">Light appears in time, not space</h2>



Light typically travels from one place to another. A new observation challenges that norm by showing pulses that appear at a specific <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/physicists-make-bold-claims-that-time-is-an-illusion-question-its-existence/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">spot</a>, then vanish.



“Then physics says, ‘Let there be light!,’ and there actually is light,” stated Professor Szameit. The effect seems strange because the flash arises in one instant, without a clear lead-in.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-time-s-one-way-flow-protects-events">Time’s one-way flow protects events</h2>



Time doesn’t behave like <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earths-rotation-is-shifting-toward-a-25-hour-day/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">space</a>. You can move forward and backward in space, but not in time - this one-way flow is what scientists call the arrow of time.



Because of this, effects tied to time gain a special kind of protection. Nothing can loop back to undo or interfere with a time-specific event once it happens.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-light-stays-stable-in-time">Why light stays stable in time</h2>



“Topology, a perhaps rather abstract but very fundamental and deeply consequential branch of mathematics, actually mandates certain physical behavior here,” explained Professor Hannah Price of the <a href="https://www.birmingham.ac.uk" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Birmingham</a>. 



This field of mathematics points out that certain patterns stay stable, even if a few details change.



Typical light waves can scatter or distort with random interference. Researchers say that these <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23579677/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">new pulses</a> have a built-in defense that keeps them intact in spite of background noise or stray signals.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-new-light-states-resist-disruption">New light states resist disruption</h2>



“This is something seemingly all previously known states of light are susceptible to,” noted Dr. Joshua Feis. Conventional optical structures get jumbled if the environment shifts.



“Such protection is very desirable as it may allow the robust shaping of light waves in key <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.aar4005" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">applications</a> such as imaging, communications or lasers,” said Dr. Sebastian Weidemann. The one-way nature of time seems to seal off many typical vulnerabilities.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-improving-lasers-and-sensors">Improving lasers and sensors</h2>



Certain devices rely on stable light patterns. Engineers aim for signals that do not degrade when traveling through fiber cables or other <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/astrophysicist-says-hes-cracked-the-equation-for-time-travel/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">mediums</a>.



Time-based ideas could spark ways to refine sensors. Stronger signal stability leads to better imaging, which might assist in medical scans or precision measurements.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-electronics-and-quantum-research">Electronics and quantum research </h2>



There is growing interest in <a href="https://journals.aps.org/rmp/abstract/10.1103/RevModPhys.82.3045" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">topological physics</a> because it has influenced electronics and quantum research for over a decade. This fresh angle on time could expand that success.



Applications might stretch into <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/2185437_Topological_Quantum_Computation" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">quantum computing</a>, where controlling photons is essential. A dimension that prevents wave disruption can be attractive for fragile quantum states.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-new-tools-from-time-locked-waves">New tools from time-locked waves</h2>



Experts in theoretical physics often speak of possibilities in higher dimensions or exotic states. The latest findings show that tiny shifts in how time is arranged can transform the behavior of light.



Engineers see a path for improved <a href="https://journals.aps.org/rmp/abstract/10.1103/RevModPhys.91.015006" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">photonics</a>. The ability to lock a wave in place may help in designing future lasers or communication networks.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-sound-waves-and-matter-waves">Sound waves and matter waves</h2>



Further exploration of time-based topologies could yield more surprising phenomena. Lab tests keep showing that controlling the timing of interactions paves the way for new outcomes.



Scientists keep searching for clues in other wave systems, hoping to confirm similar behavior in <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/ncomms11744" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">sound waves</a> or matter waves. A wide range of studies on time-sensitive structures is under way.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-light-and-time-hidden-physical-behavior">Light and time: Hidden physical behavior</h2>



To sum it all up, researchers are now treating time not just as a backdrop for events, but as a dimension that can be structured and patterned - much like space. 



This emerging idea has given rise to time and spatiotemporal crystals, systems where the behavior of particles repeats in time or across both time and space. 



These systems can host strange new states of matter that aren’t just defined by energy gaps (as in conventional topological materials) but also by gaps in momentum, leading to effects that unfold at specific moments rather than places. 



By exploring how these "temporal topological states" behave - and how they can be manipulated - scientists are opening the door to technologies that control waves in both space and time, from advanced imaging to new forms of communication. 



It's a reimagining of physics where the arrow of time isn't just a one-way street, but a building block for a new kind of material science.



The discovery that short-lived flashes can appear without a lead-up might hint at bigger revelations. Time may hold more secrets that standard analyses miss.



Every new glimpse of these events raises questions about causality and one-way flow. The interplay between space and time continues to fascinate anyone curious about how the world ticks.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41566-025-01653-w" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Photonics</a>.



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Weird science: Novel flashes of light discovered that come from and go into nothingness

By challenging a long-held view of time in physics, scientists...

Volunteering can appear simple, but it turns out that personality plays a role. Two people may join the same community program, yet only one stays committed for months.



After reviewing nearly 90,000 participants across 29 international studies, <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/40244970/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">researchers</a> identified noticeable links between certain personality <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mothers-affection-shapes-a-childs-personality-into-adulthood/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">traits</a> and a person’s willingness to do charitable work or give money. 



Professor Wiebke Bleidorn, professor of psychology at the <a href="https://www.uzh.ch/en.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Zurich</a>, led an investigation into how factors like sociability and assertiveness might affect everyday kindness.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-personality-affects-the-choice-to-volunteer">Personality affects the choice to volunteer</h2>



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/personality-has-a-profound-influence-on-gene-expression/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">People</a> engage in philanthropy for many reasons. Some may give their time or money because they value fairness and empathy, while others might act from a sense of social expectation. 



Scientists have long <a href="https://pure.rug.nl/ws/files/2839164/BekkersR-Traditional-2006.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">studied</a> these motivations, and some have found patterns that help explain why certain individuals volunteer for local causes more often than their peers.



Many of these patterns center around the <a href="https://bigfive-test.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Big Five</a> personality traits: openness, conscientiousness, extraversion, agreeableness, and neuroticism. <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/247167023_The_Interplay_of_Traits_and_Motives_on_Volunteering_Agreeableness_Extraversion_and_Prosocial_Value_Motivation" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Researchers</a> use these five broad categories to describe subtle differences in how people react to events, plan their days, or connect with others.&nbsp;



One of the main findings in this new work was that individuals high in extraversion tend to prefer activities that involve personal interaction, which appears to align well with volunteer work.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-certain-personality-traits-drive-volunteering">Certain personality traits drive volunteering</h2>



“Our findings confirm that individual differences in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/personality-type-can-accurately-predict-your-relationship-status/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">personality</a> play a role in whether and how much people engage in prosocial behavior,” said Professor Bleidorn.



This result suggests that the more outgoing and assertive a person is, the more likely they are to help, but it also points to how caring attitudes might encourage people to donate money.



Agreeableness stood out when it came to financial contributions. <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/27401167/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Researchers</a> noticed that individuals who are more trusting and considerate of others are more prone to support charities with monetary gifts. 



Meanwhile, those who score higher in conscientiousness sometimes show varying behavior, which indicates that being organized and dutiful does not necessarily guarantee more volunteer hours or larger donations.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-emotions-affect-helping-behavior">Emotions affect helping behavior</h2>



Emotional stability can matter, too. People with higher levels of neuroticism often struggle with stress, and their personality may limit how much time or energy they give to volunteer projects. However, findings on neuroticism were not consistent across the studies. Some participants who reported anxious feelings still took part in community events, showing that circumstances outside of personality also influence these <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/split-personality-of-mars-revealed-in-its-striking-features/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">decisions</a>.



Those with high openness sometimes seek new experiences, so they might be drawn to novel volunteering opportunities. Yet in many studies, this trait did not form a clear pattern and sometimes showed no link to prosocial engagement. 



No one trait can entirely predict how someone chooses to help, which highlights the varied nature of personal motivation.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-organizations-can-adjust-strategies">How organizations can adjust strategies</h2>



“This knowledge can be used to develop more targeted strategies aimed at promoting volunteering and charitable giving,” said Christopher J. Hopwood, a professor of personality psychology at the University of Zurich.



Nonprofits and policymakers might benefit by paying attention to the personality styles of their volunteers or donors, since different approaches could resonate with different groups.



For those who are more outgoing, activities with team interaction may spark interest. Those who value warmth and compassion might respond better to direct stories about the impact of donations. 



A better match between individual preferences and volunteer opportunities may lead to longer-term involvement.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-matching-volunteer-roles-to-personality">Matching volunteer roles to personality </h2>



Organizations can tailor recruitment messages and volunteer roles in a way that feels natural to individuals from all walks of life. This can encourage sustainable volunteer programs rather than one-off efforts. 



People who enjoy group activities might be interested in local workshops or public fundraising events, while those driven by empathy might engage more in direct support for charitable campaigns.



Such adaptable methods recognize each person’s distinct strengths. When supporters feel their style is appreciated, they tend to stick around and invite others to join. As a result, communities can gain a broader base of involvement, leading to more positive outcomes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-broader-view-of-volunteering">Broader view of volunteering</h2>



Insights on personality and charitable action also add to ongoing discussions about the science of prosocial behavior. Many <a href="https://psycnet.apa.org/record/2006-08776-011" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">studies</a> indicate that volunteering and donating can improve not only community welfare but also personal well-being.



This does not mean only certain personalities should give their time or money, but it highlights how self-awareness might boost satisfaction and effectiveness.



People who are aware of their preferences can look for opportunities that resonate with their social style. Feeling comfortable often leads to more consistent prosocial engagement. 



Instead of expecting every volunteer to respond the same way, a personality-based invitation can spark greater enthusiasm.



The study is published in the <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/40244970/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal of Personality and Social Psychology</a>.



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Personality traits linked to willingness to volunteer or donate

Volunteering can appear simple, but it turns out that personality...

In the tropical forests of Central and South America, life hums, buzzes, and croaks. Among this symphony of animal calls, one predator has evolved to treat sound as a roadmap to food: the fringe-lipped bat. 



This <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-bats-navigate-rush-hour-without-crashing-into-each-other/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">bat</a> doesn’t sniff or stalk its prey like many others do. Instead, it listens. It listens to the mating calls of frogs and toads - many of which are meant to attract mates, not signal danger. But for this bat, those calls become a dinner bell.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-experience-shapes-survival-skills">Experience shapes survival skills</h2>



A recent study by scientists at the Smithsonian Tropical Research Institute (<a href="https://stri.si.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">STRI</a>) reveals something even more remarkable: these bats are not born with the knowledge of which frog calls signal a safe meal and which could be deadly. 



They learn that over time. The study, published in Proceedings of the Royal Society B, sheds new light on how experience shapes survival skills in one of nature’s most acoustically-attuned hunters.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-bats-use-frog-calls-to-hunt">Bats use frog calls to hunt</h2>



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/what-secrets-are-hidden-in-the-babbling-of-bats/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Predators</a> often rely on stealth and sharp senses to catch prey. Fringe-lipped bats have taken this a step further. They are known to eavesdrop on the mating calls of over a dozen frog and toad species that share their habitat, ranging from Panama to Brazil.



These calls, intended for potential mates, also end up attracting danger from above. The bats respond within seconds of hearing a call, swooping down to snatch the unsuspecting amphibian.



But the strategy is not without risks. Not all frogs make good meals. Some are too large to carry. Others produce toxins that can harm or even kill the bats. Just like humans screening unknown calls for spam, these bats must make a quick judgment. But unlike our phones, nature doesn’t come with caller ID.



Fringe-lipped bats seem to have developed one of their own. They ignore calls from frogs known to be unpalatable. 



However, scientists had long wondered how this system developed. Is it an instinct, or is it a learned behavior? This study finally offers an answer.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-bats-must-learn-safe-frog-calls">Bats must learn safe frog calls</h2>



“It’s truly remarkable that these bats hunt using the calls of an entirely different group of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bats-surf-the-winds-of-storms-during-migration/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">animals</a> in the first place, and we have wondered for a long time how these bats acquire this unusual skill,” said Logan James, STRI postdoctoral researcher and lead author of the study.



Previous experiments had already shown that these bats are intelligent and adaptable. But until now, no one had tested whether learning played a role in refining their hunting tactics. 



The researchers wanted to find out if young bats start out with these auditory judgments or if they develop them through trial and error.



To do this, the team studied how adult and juvenile fringe-lipped bats responded to a variety of frog and toad calls. They tested 15 different species, including both edible and toxic options. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-young-bats-identify-frog-size-through-calls">Young bats identify frog size through calls</h2>



The results told a fascinating story. Adult bats performed as expected. They responded more strongly to calls from palatable frogs and ignored those from toxic or too-large species.



This confirmed what earlier studies had found. But the juvenile bats behaved differently. They didn’t seem to distinguish between safe and dangerous calls. On average, young bats reacted equally to all of them, regardless of the frog’s size or toxicity.



Still, the juveniles weren’t entirely clueless. The researchers noticed that even the younger bats could identify large frogs by the pitch and tone of their calls. They avoided them just as the adults did. But when it came to toxicity, they had no filter. 



This showed that while some aspects of prey recognition might be instinctive, others - particularly those involving danger - require time and learning.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-young-bats-need-time-and-experience">Young bats need time and experience</h2>



“We have studied this fascinating species for years, and in many aspects, we understand its behavior very well,” said Rachel Page, staff scientist at STRI, and one of the study’s senior authors. 



“But this was the first time we had ever tested juvenile bats. It was so interesting to see that, like human children, young bats needed time and experience to hone their discrimination skills.”



The comparison to human development is compelling. Just as young children don’t start life knowing what foods to avoid, young bats must also test, fail, and adapt. Their early mistakes could be deadly, but these experiences are crucial for shaping more refined behavior as they mature.



This learning curve likely mirrors processes in many other species, not just fringe-lipped bats. It opens new questions about how young animals learn to navigate the complexities of their environments—and survive.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-larger-pattern-in-nature">A larger pattern in nature</h2>



This study marks the first time researchers have directly compared eavesdropping behavior between adult and juvenile predators like bats and frog-eating species. But it might not be unique to this species.



Many predators rely on sound to hunt. If experience plays such a vital role for fringe-lipped bats, it could be just as important for others that must decipher a confusing, noisy world.



“This study highlights the power of development and learning to shape eavesdropping behavior, an insight that may extend far beyond bats to other predators also navigating complex sensory environments,” said Ximena Bernal, research associate at STRI, professor at <a href="https://www.purdue.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Purdue University</a> and one of the study’s senior authors. 



“We hope it will inspire other scientists to examine how early experience modulates predator-foraging decisions.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-listening-to-learn-surviving-through-sound">Listening to learn, surviving through sound</h2>



This research provides more than just insight into the life of one bat species. It emphasizes the importance of development in shaping behavior. The fringe-lipped bat begins life without the skill to discern between friend and foe.



Through experience and repetition, it learns. Over time, its reactions become precise. Each call becomes a clue, and each choice a matter of survival.



In a world where sound carries both promise and peril, the fringe-lipped bat shows how nature equips even its smallest hunters, like frogs and bats, with the tools to listen, learn, and live.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rspb.2025.0450" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Proceedings of the Royal Society of London B Biological Sciences</a>.



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Frog mating calls teach bats which prey to avoid

In the tropical forests of Central and South America, life...

“Get off my lawn!” That phrase, often joked about as a grumpy old man’s warning to neighborhood kids, might just as well apply to a fiercely protective bird. 



This is especially the case when it comes to birds that depend on rare, hard-to-find real estate: tree holes.



Not all birds react with this much attitude. But researchers have found that certain female birds - those that can only nest in cavities - show a striking level of aggression when defending their homes.



These aren’t just random outbursts. They are calculated, defensive behaviors tied to how and where they can reproduce.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-cavity-nesting-birds-get-aggressive">Why cavity-nesting birds get aggressive</h2>



The study was led by experts at <a href="https://duke.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Duke University</a>, Indiana University, and several international institutions.



The team focused on a group known as obligate secondary cavity nesters. These are birds that must find existing holes in trees, fence posts, or rocky crevices to raise their young. They can’t dig their own cavities, and they can’t simply build nests anywhere.



“They can't excavate that cavity themselves, and they can’t just build a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/weaver-birds-build-strikingly-unique-nests/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">nest</a> anywhere,” explained Sara Lipshutz, assistant professor of biology at Duke. “They have to find a hole in a tree, and this is the only way they can reproduce.”



This makes <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/big-brained-seagulls-choose-more-challenging-nesting-sites/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">nesting</a> spots incredibly valuable - and worth fighting for. These birds don’t just chase away threats. They screech, flap, dive, and even peck to protect what little they have.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-testing-bird-defenses-in-the-field">Testing bird defenses in the field</h2>



To see how common this behavior is, the team studied five families of birds - swallows, wood warblers, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sparrows-have-fewer-friends-as-they-age-just-like-most-people/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">sparrows</a>, thrushes, and wrens. Within each family, they compared two species: one that nests in cavities and one that doesn’t.



The setup was clever. The researchers placed lifelike decoys and broadcast bird calls via Bluetooth speakers near nests. Then, they sat back and observed how the resident birds reacted.



The differences were obvious. Most of the obligate cavity nesters were far more aggressive than their more flexible cousins. They didn’t just respond - they attacked. 



Female birds especially showed a stronger reaction, likely because they stood to lose more if their nesting space was taken over. "It was a really striking behavioral pattern,” said Lipshutz.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-aggression-isn-t-all-in-the-family">Aggression isn’t all in the family</h2>



You might expect some of this aggressiveness to be genetic - passed down through bird families. But that’s not what the researchers found. Nesting strategy was a far better predictor of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/traffic-noise-makes-rural-robins-more-aggressive/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">aggression</a> than bird family.



There were two exceptions: sparrows were generally mellow, while wrens were always feisty.



“The pressure to compete led to higher aggressiveness. And this was especially strong for the females," noted Kimberly Rosvall, a Duke alumna whose lab at Indiana University contributed to the project.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-testosterone-isn-t-to-blame">Testosterone isn’t to blame</h2>



Hormones like <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/some-birds-trick-their-way-into-mating-by-removing-testosterone-from-their-bodies/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">testosterone</a> often play a role in animal behavior, so the team checked if the more aggressive birds had higher levels of it. Surprisingly, they didn’t. 



Female cavity-nesters were not pumping out extra testosterone, at least not in a way that could explain the fierceness.



This left the researchers wondering if something deeper - like gene activity - might be behind the behavior.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-genetic-puzzle-of-bird-aggression">A genetic puzzle of bird aggression </h2>



To find clues, the scientists looked at how genes were expressed across the different bird species. Were the same genes being flipped “on” in aggressive birds?



The answer was murky. Yes, there were some patterns in how certain genes were activated in cavity-nesting birds, but there was no one-size-fits-all answer. The genes tied to aggression varied between species, and the usual suspects weren’t showing up.



“We always want to find the genes, a handful of genes that make a lot of sense, previously known genes that are associated with aggression and maybe have even been experimentally manipulated to impact aggression,” said Lipshutz. “And we didn't find any of those usual suspects.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-different-genes-same-fierce-results">Different genes, same fierce results</h2>



Rather than finding one or two major aggression genes, the researchers believe there are probably hundreds of genes involved. Each species seems to use a different combination of them. That might sound like a frustrating result, but to the team, it’s a fascinating one.



“There are probably several hundred genes associated with aggression and they're probably all working together in subtle ways. Those combinations are not the same for each species, which is really interesting from an evolutionary perspective,” said Lipshutz. 



“It shows that there are independent ways to get to the same behavioral outcome. As our team likes to say, ‘There are many possible routes to build an aggressive bird.’”



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41559-025-02675-x" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Ecology &amp; Evolution</a>.



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Angry birds: Why some females are more aggressive

“Get off my lawn!” That phrase, often joked about as...

Tiktaalik,,Extinct,Walking,Fish,,The,Evolution,Of,Four-legged,Animals,(3d

About 375 million years ago, shallow streams and tidal flats teemed with creatures that looked like fish but were already edging toward life on solid ground. One such pioneer, Tiktaalik roseae, blended fins with hints of limbs and sported a flat head suited for peering above the waterline. 



Its fossils, pulled from Arctic rocks, have become a favorite window into that unsure first step from swimming to strolling.



Fresh scans of a well-preserved specimen now show that the shift to land began deep inside the backbone and ribs, long before true legs showed up. 



Instead of an even string of look-alike vertebrae, Tiktaalik’s spine carried specialized sections, and the rear ribs grew stout enough to brace a body that sometimes lifted clear of the water’s push.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tiktaalik-fossils-a-fish-with-a-twist">Tiktaalik fossils: A fish with a twist</h2>



Scientists led by Tom Stewart at <a href="https://www.psu.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Penn State</a> turned a microcomputed tomography scanner loose on the fossil block, peeling away stone to reveal the hidden bones. 



“Tiktaalik was discovered in 2004, but key parts of its skeleton were unknown,” Stewart explained. “These new high-resolution micro-CT scans show us the vertebrae and ribs of Tiktaalik and allow us to make a full reconstruction of its skeleton, which is vital to understanding how it moved through the world.”



Those scans show that the fish’s rear ribs likely reached the pelvis by way of ligaments. 



That soft connection echoes the bony tie between hips and spine seen in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/why-reptiles-are-more-colorful-in-open-habitats/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">four-limbed animals</a>, hinting that the load-bearing framework for walking was already under construction while fins still ruled the day.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-spine-and-ribs-on-tiktaalik-fossils">Spine and ribs on Tiktaalik fossils</h2>



Most fish carry ribs and vertebrae that stay uniform from head to tail. Limbed animals break that pattern, dividing the spine into neck, trunk, sacrum, and tail, each tuned for a different job. 



Tiktaalik lands somewhere in between. Its trunk vertebrae differ from those near the skull, creating room for the head to swivel. 



“Tiktaalik is remarkable because it gives us glimpses into this major evolutionary transition,” Stewart noted. “Across its whole skeleton, we see a combination of traits that are typical of fish and life in water as well as traits that are seen in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/these-marine-mammals-killer-whales-dolphins-permanently-lost-ability-to-ever-walk-again/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">land-dwelling animals</a>.”



The researchers point out that bigger, stronger ribs in the rear half of the body would have let this fish prop itself up on the streambed rather than flop like a pure swimmer. 



Supporting weight that way is a critical step toward pushing against the ground with true limbs.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-connecting-the-hips">Connecting the hips</h2>



Fins sprout from long rods of bone that float free inside most fish. In <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/lungfish-genome-discovery-explains-how-fish-first-walked-onto-land/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">land vertebrates</a>, those rods fuse into a broad pelvis anchored to the spine. 



Tiktaalik’s pelvis was already large, and the new reconstruction shows it lining up neatly with reinforced ribs. 



“Tiktaalik had specialized ribs that would have connected to the pelvis by a ligament. It’s astonishing really. This creature has so many traits - large pair of hind appendages, large pelvis, and connection between the pelvis and axial skeleton - that were key to the origin of walking," Stewart enthused.



"And while Tiktaalik probably wasn’t walking across land, it was definitely doing something new. This was a fish that could likely prop itself up and push with its hind fin.”



That ligament link is softer than the tight bony joint found in later tetrapods, yet it marks a clear change in how force traveled through the body. Instead of relying only on water for support, Tiktaalik could shift part of its weight to the ground below.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-scanning-the-tiktaalik-fossils">Scanning the Tiktaalik fossils</h2>



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dirt-ants-were-once-masters-of-disguise-in-the-caribbean/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Micro-CT imaging</a>, a cousin of the medical CT machines used in hospitals, fires X-rays at a fossil from every angle and builds a digital stack of slices. 



The resolution reaches a fraction of a millimeter, letting researchers “see” bones still locked in stone. For Tiktaalik, this non-destructive peek exposed details of the pelvic fin skeleton that hand tools would have missed.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/04/Tiktaalik-fossil-discovery_computer-analysis_credit-PSU_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/04/Tiktaalik-fossil-discovery_computer-analysis_credit-PSU_1s.webp" alt="New reconstruction of the skeleton of the 375-million-year-old fossil fish, Tiktaalik roseae. In a new study, researchers used Micro-CT to reveal vertebrae and ribs of the fish that were previously hidden beneath rock. The new reconstruction shows that the fish’s ribs likely attached to its pelvis, an innovation thought to be crucial to supporting the body and for the eventual evolution of walking. Credit: Thomas Stewart, Penn State" class="wp-image-1967597"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">New reconstruction of the skeleton of the 375-million-year-old fossil fish, Tiktaalik roseae. In a new study, researchers used Micro-CT to reveal vertebrae and ribs of the fish that were previously hidden beneath rock. The new reconstruction shows that the fish’s ribs likely attached to its pelvis, an innovation thought to be crucial to supporting the body and for the eventual evolution of walking. Click image to enlarge. Credit: Thomas Stewart, Penn State</figcaption></figure>



“It’s incredible to see the skeleton of Tiktaalik captured in such vivid detail,” said Neil Shubin of the <a href="https://www.uchicago.edu/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Chicago</a>, who co-authored the study. 



“This study sets the stage for ones that explore how the animal moved about and interacted with its environment 375 million years ago.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hints-of-future-on-land">Hints of future on land</h2>



The new picture fits with other <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/prototaxites-the-mystery-fossil-from-a-lost-branch-of-life/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Devonian fossils</a>, such as Acanthostega and Ichthyostega, that carried limbs but still lived largely in water. 



Tiktaalik slots just before them on the timeline, showing that the groundwork for walking - regional spines, hefty ribs, mobile necks - began while fins were still the main mode of travel. 



Its head could lift, its body could rest on the bottom, and its rear fins could shove against mud or sand.



By tracing these incremental tweaks, biologists can chart how natural selection solved the engineering puzzle of gravity. 



Each adjustment, from a sturdier rib to a mobile skull joint, nudged our distant cousins closer to the shoreline.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-does-any-of-this-matter">Why does any of this matter?</h2>



Walking seems ordinary now, but it took a cascade of innovations to make it possible. Tiktaalik reminds us that evolution rarely leaps; instead, it stacks small changes that, over ages, open new ways of living. 



The study’s authors plan to model how the fish moved, using the fresh skeleton as a blueprint. Their work could even guide robotics engineers who borrow ideas from ancient anatomy.



For anyone who has ever skipped stones or waded in a creek, the notion that a fish once hoisted itself for a peek above the water threads our own story to a world long gone. 



Tiktaalik’s sturdy ribs and ambitious pelvis speak across the ages, whispering that bold moves often start with a subtle shift beneath the surface.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://journals.aps.org/prx/abstract/10.1103/PhysRevX.14.011028" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a>.



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Fossils explain how fish evolved to walk out of the water to live on land

About 375 million years ago, shallow streams and tidal flats...

NASA’s Lucy spacecraft captured a striking image of the asteroid Donaldjohanson during its close flyby on April 20, 2025. 



The snapshot reveals that the asteroid is an elongated contact binary - an object formed when two smaller bodies merge after a collision. 



This flyby marked a major milestone as Lucy completed its second encounter in its planned 12-year journey across the solar system.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-understanding-the-lucy-asteroid-mission">Understanding the Lucy asteroid mission</h2>



NASA’s Lucy spacecraft is on a bold journey to explore the Trojan asteroids - ancient remnants of our solar system that share Jupiter’s orbit around the Sun. 



Launched in October 2021 by scientists from the <a href="https://www.swri.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Southwest Research Institute</a>, Lucy swings past a total of Earth three times, using gravity assists to gain the speed and trajectory it needs to reach its distant targets. 



Over its 12-year mission, the spacecraft will visit eight asteroids, including one in the main asteroid belt and seven Trojans, making it the first mission to examine this unique population up close.



The Trojans are time capsules from the solar system’s early days, and scientists believe they hold vital clues to how the planets formed and migrated. 



By photographing their surfaces, analyzing their composition, and tracking their movement, Lucy aims to unlock secrets about our cosmic origins.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lucy-s-busy-road-ahead">Lucy’s busy road ahead</h2>



Over the next several years, Lucy will visit a record number of asteroids. It is scheduled to pass three asteroids in the main <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/asteroids-found-in-the-main-belt-are-the-smallest-ever-detected/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">asteroid belt</a> and eight Trojan asteroids that travel in Jupiter’s orbit. 



This journey offers a rare opportunity to study these time capsules from the formation of our planets.



Last month, April 20 marked a big moment for the team as Lucy completed its second <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/nasas-lucy-discovers-two-asteroids-instead-of-one-during-dinkinesh-flyby/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">flyby</a>. The spacecraft’s next destination is the Trojan asteroid Eurybates and its small satellite Queta, with the encounter set for August 2027.



Each stop along the way brings scientists closer to understanding how the solar system grew and evolved.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-story-behind-donaldjohanson-s-name">The story behind Donaldjohanson’s name</h2>



The Lucy spacecraft is named after the fossilized skeleton of a prehuman ancestor from East Africa, famously known as "Lucy." It carries forward the spirit of discovery that the fossil represents.



During this latest flyby, NASA made history by visiting a planetary body named after a living person - a first for the agency.



The asteroid Donaldjohanson received its name only after becoming one of Lucy’s targets. It was named to honor Dr. Donald Johanson, the paleoanthropologist who discovered the original Lucy fossil in Ethiopia. 



His work reshaped how we understand human evolution, and now his legacy travels through space alongside a new era of exploration.



“Asteroid Donaldjohanson has strikingly complicated geology,” noted Hal Levison, principal investigator for Lucy at Southwest Research Institute. 



“As we study the complex structures in detail, they will reveal important information about the building blocks and collisional processes that formed the planets in our Solar System.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-seeing-the-past-through-lucy-s-eyes">Seeing the past through Lucy’s eyes</h2>



Lucy’s journey has just begun. The spacecraft continues to cruise through space with a full list of destinations ahead. 



Each asteroid it encounters will offer more pieces to the grand puzzle of how our solar system came to be.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/04/asteroid_Donaldjohanson_Lucy-Spacecraft-photo_NASA_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/04/asteroid_Donaldjohanson_Lucy-Spacecraft-photo_NASA_1s.webp" alt="The asteroid Donaldjohanson as seen by the Lucy Long-Range Reconnaissance Imager (L’LORRI). This is one of the most detailed images returned by NASA’s Lucy spacecraft during its flyby. This image was taken at 1:51 p.m. EDT (17:51 UTC), April 20, 2025, near closest approach, from a range of approximately 660 miles (1,100 km). The spacecraft’s closest approach distance was 600 miles (960 km), but the image shown was taken approximately 40 seconds beforehand. The image has been sharpened and processed to enhance contrast. Credit: NASA/Goddard/SwRI/Johns Hopkins APL/NOIRLab" class="wp-image-1967589"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">The asteroid Donaldjohanson as seen by the Lucy Long-Range Reconnaissance Imager (L’LORRI). This is one of the most detailed images returned by NASA’s Lucy spacecraft during its flyby. This image was taken at 1:51 p.m. EDT (17:51 UTC), April 20, 2025, near closest approach, from a range of approximately 660 miles (1,100 km). The spacecraft’s closest approach distance was 600 miles (960 km), but the image shown was taken approximately 40 seconds beforehand. The image has been sharpened and processed to enhance contrast. Click image to enlarge. Credit: NASA/Goddard/SwRI/Johns Hopkins APL/NOIRLab</figcaption></figure>



Through Lucy’s eyes, we are seeing the remnants of the past, stitched together in rock and ice. 



It’s a journey that not only charts the ancient history of our cosmic neighborhood but also reminds us of the human drive to explore - from Earth's earliest ancestors to the distant edges of the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rare-meteorites-provide-a-window-into-the-early-solar-system/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">solar system</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-significance-of-small-asteroids">Significance of small asteroids</h2>



At first glance, asteroids like Donaldjohanson might seem small and unremarkable compared to the giant planets or dazzling moons of the solar system. 



But for scientists, these smaller bodies hold some of the most important clues about how everything we see today came to be.



Asteroids are often described as "fossils" of the solar system. They have remained relatively unchanged for billions of years, preserving the conditions and materials from the time when planets were still forming. 



Studying them is like opening a time capsule. Every rock, every crater, and every surface texture tells a story about ancient collisions, chemical changes, and the forces that shaped our cosmic neighborhood.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-insights-into-the-early-solar-system">Insights into the early solar system </h2>



The contact binary shape of Donaldjohanson also raises interesting questions. Contact binaries are formed when two separate bodies slowly come together under mutual gravitational forces. 



Understanding how and when this happens could reveal new insights about the early chaotic days of the solar system, when collisions were common and the building blocks of planets were still gathering.



Lucy’s mission goes far beyond just taking pictures. Scientists will analyze the colors, surface compositions, and structures of these asteroids to look for patterns. 



They want to find out why some asteroids are darker, why some are rich in metals, and why others seem almost untouched since the beginning.



Each asteroid adds another piece to the larger puzzle of how the Earth, the other planets, and even life itself eventually emerged.



The discoveries that Lucy makes over the coming years could reshape what we know about our origins. It’s a reminder that sometimes, the smallest and most distant places hold big secrets.



Information for this article comes from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NASA</a>.



Image credit: NASA/Goddard/SwRI/Johns Hopkins APL/NOIRLab



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Spacecraft captures rare photo of a remnant from our solar system's formation

NASA’s Lucy spacecraft captured a striking image of the asteroid...

Cancer remains a leading cause of mortality across the globe and Nigeria is no exception: Breast, cervical, prostate, and liver malignancies are climbing steadily despite wider access to chemotherapy, radiotherapy, and targeted drugs. 



For many patients, however, modern treatment is difficult to afford. This has sparked renewed interest in a largely untapped yet promising resource: Nigeria’s indigenous food plants.



These plants - including their leaves, seeds, tubers, and fruits - are loaded with bioactive compounds. Laboratory studies show that many of these natural substances have the potential to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/many-plant-species-show-great-promise-in-fight-against-cancer/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">slow or even halt</a> tumor growth. 



A growing body of evidence suggests that these plants, long consumed as part of the traditional diet, could be developed as low-cost, complementary tools in the nation’s fight against cancer.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-plants-that-prevent-or-halt-cancer">Plants that prevent or halt cancer</h2>



Researchers have catalogued dozens of edible Nigerian species with measurable <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ai-is-the-next-frontier-in-cancer-treatment/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">anti-cancer activity</a>, but nine stand out for the breadth of experimental data already available.



Spondias mombin (hog plum) contains the flavonoid quercetin along with carotenoids that trigger apoptosis - the “self-destruct” program in malignant cells - while simultaneously tamping down inflammation.



Xanthosoma sagittifolium, a cocoyam cultivated widely in the humid south, produces tannins and other phenolics that cause leukemia cells to stall in the cell-cycle, blocking proliferation and reducing the formation of new blood vessels that tumors need in order to expand.



Oil palm (Elaeis guineensis) is often maligned for ecological reasons, yet its vitamin-E–rich tocotrienols are potent antioxidants; in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plant-based-diet-improves-health-in-women-with-breast-cancer/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">breast cancer</a> models they lower cell viability and force cells into arrest, nudging them toward death.



Irvingia gabonensis, the African bush mango, supplies gallotannins that regulate metabolic pathways linked to tumorigenesis and stimulate immune surveillance.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-powerful-cancer-fighting-plant-compounds">Powerful cancer-fighting plant compounds </h2>



Allium cepa, the humble onion, is packed with organosulphur compounds as well as flavonoids that up-regulate detoxification enzymes, mop up DNA-damaging free radicals and may even help reverse multidrug resistance.



Blighia sapida (ackee) fruit, famous for its culinary role in Caribbean cuisine, also grows in Nigeria; laboratory work shows its flavonoids can hamper the ERK5 pathway, a key driver of aggressive breast cancer.



Dioscorea dumetorum, a wild yam, synthesizes diosgenin - long prized in the pharmaceutical industry as a raw material for steroid hormones - which shuts off the pro-survival NF-κB and MAPK cascades in cancer cells.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/04/plants_anti-cancer-properties_nigeria_credit-google-photos_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/04/plants_anti-cancer-properties_nigeria_credit-google-photos_1s.webp" alt="Selected edible Nigerian plants with anti-cancer properties. (a) Spondias mombin; (b) Xanthosoma sagittifolium; (c) Elaeis guineensis; (d) Irvingia gabonensis; (e) Blighia sapida; (f) Launaea taraxacifolia; (g) Tetracarpidium conophorum; (h) Chrysophyllum albidum; (i) Solanum macrocarpon; (j) Dioscorea dumetorum; (k) Talinum triangulare; (l) Psidium guajava; (m) Allium cepa L. Photo credit: google photo." class="wp-image-1967580"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Selected edible Nigerian plants with anti-cancer properties. (a) Spondias mombin; (b) Xanthosoma sagittifolium; (c) Elaeis guineensis; (d) Irvingia gabonensis; (e) Blighia sapida; (f) Launaea taraxacifolia; (g) Tetracarpidium conophorum; (h) Chrysophyllum albidum; (i) Solanum macrocarpon; (j) Dioscorea dumetorum; (k) Talinum triangulare; (l) Psidium guajava; (m) Allium cepa L. Click image to enlarge. Photo credit: FIM/Google photo.</figcaption></figure>



Psidium guajava (guava) leaves have been used for generations to treat diarrhea; now their tannins and phenolic acids are recognized for inducing apoptosis and shielding DNA from oxidative injury.



Finally, Talinum triangulare, the protein-rich “waterleaf,” contains quercetin and other antioxidants that bolster immune responses and hinder tumor growth in vitro.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-diverse-plants-with-similar-strategies">Diverse plants with similar strategies </h2>



Despite their botanical diversity, these species rely on a handful of overlapping biochemical strategies. 



First and foremost is apoptosis induction: they activate pro-apoptotic proteins such as Bax while down-regulating anti-apoptotic factors like Bcl-2, tipping the balance toward cell death.



Many extracts also impose cell-cycle arrest at the G1/S or G2/M checkpoints by interfering with cyclin-dependent kinases; deprived of the green light to divide, cancer cells accumulate DNA damage and succumb. Angiogenesis - the sprouting of new blood vessels that feed a tumor - is another frequent target. 



Compounds from cocoyam, yam and hog plum have been shown to lower levels of vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) and related signals, choking off the nutrient supply to nascent tumors. 



Inflammatory enzymes (COX-2, iNOS) and reactive oxygen species are suppressed as well, reducing the chronic <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fasting-helps-the-body-fight-inflammation-and-chronic-diseases/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">inflammation</a> and oxidative stress that often initiate or accelerate malignancy.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-bridging-tradition-and-modern-oncology"><a></a>Bridging tradition and modern oncology</h2>



While pre-clinical data are encouraging, several hurdles must be cleared before Nigerian food plants can take their place beside paclitaxel or cisplatin. 



Bioactive composition varies by soil type, rainfall pattern and harvest time; rigorous agronomic studies are needed to standardize cultivation and extraction.



Dosage, toxicity and potential interactions with conventional drugs remain largely untested in humans. Well-designed clinical trials - randomized, placebo-controlled and sufficiently powered - are essential if these botanicals are to earn a formal role in oncology clinics. 



Another challenge is the disconnect between traditional knowledge holders and laboratory scientists.



Ethnobotanical surveys can help bridge that gap, ensuring that leads chosen for development reflect community practices and dietary realities. 



Public-health campaigns, meanwhile, could educate physicians, pharmacists, and patients about the evidence base for plant-derived adjuncts, avoiding unsubstantiated claims while highlighting genuine benefits such as reduced side-effects or improved <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/active-aging-physical-activity-has-a-direct-impact-on-life-quality/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">quality of life</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cost-effective-renewable-treatments">Cost-effective, renewable treatments</h2>



If these hurdles are overcome, the payoff could be substantial. Many of the plants grow wild or are already farmed for food, implying a local, renewable supply chain. 



Extracts could be formulated as teas, capsules or functional foods, lowering barriers to access in rural areas where oncology centers are scarce.



Combining plant-based agents with lower doses of chemotherapy or radiation might retain efficacy while mitigating nausea, hair loss, and myelosuppression - side-effects that often deter patients from completing treatment.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fighting-cancer-with-plants-future-research">Fighting cancer with plants: Future research</h2>



Future research should prioritize mapping the full chemoprofile of each candidate plant. This should also include identifying synergistic combinations and unravelling pharmacokinetics in vivo. 



Genomic and metabolomic tools can accelerate the discovery of lead molecules, while <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-nanotechnology-is-fighting-microplastic-pollution/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">nanotechnology</a> may enhance their bioavailability. Collaboration between Nigerian universities, pharmaceutical firms, and international cancer institutes will be vital to secure funding and regulatory approval.



Ultimately, Nigeria’s indigenous food plants harbor a rich arsenal of anticancer phytochemicals that attack tumours through multiple, complementary pathways. 



Integrated with evidence-based medicine, these botanicals could broaden the therapeutic arsenal, reduce treatment costs and bring culturally familiar options to patients. Harnessing the plants may demand careful science, but the potential rewards will justify the effort.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.xiahepublishing.com/2835-6357/FIM-2024-00042" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Future Integrative Medicine</a>.



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These food plants demonstrated natural anti-cancer properties in a recent study

Cancer remains a leading cause of mortality across the globe...

For decades, farmers have relied on fishmeal and fish oil (FMFO) to feed carnivorous species such as salmon, turning them into supermarket staples. 



Although this trade underpins a multibillion-dollar aquaculture sector, the whereabouts of the factories that convert anchovies, sardines, menhaden, and other small-pelagic fish into feed ingredients has remained obscure.



A study led by the <a href="https://www.ubc.ca/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of British Columbia</a> (UBC) has now lifted that veil by assembling the first open-access, geo-referenced database of FMFO facilities worldwide.



The researchers located 506 factories in 63 nations and linked them to more than 400 separate companies. Peru, Mauritania, and Chile account for the greatest numbers of plants, but sizable clusters also appear in Vietnam, China, Denmark, and the United States.



“Production of fishmeal is a major issue in aquaculture. Understanding where FMFO production occurs is essential for addressing its environmental, social, and economic impacts,” said lead author Lauren Shea, who undertook the project while completing her master’s degree at UBC’s Institute for the Oceans and Fisheries.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-global-footprint-of-fishmeal">Global footprint of fishmeal</h2>



Roughly two-fifths of the output catalogued in the new map still relies on whole, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fish-diversity-has-changed-dramatically-on-the-great-barrier-reef/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">wild-caught fish</a> rather than trimmings from seafood processing plants. 



These bait-size species sit near the base of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/offshore-wind-farms-threaten-marine-life-hotspots/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">marine</a> food webs and are a crucial protein source for millions of people in low-income coastal regions.



“Dependence on the global FMFO trade could undermine food security while fueling unsustainable fishing practices,” explained Professor Rashid Sumaila, senior author of the study. “This is not just an environmental issue - it’s about justice and equity.”



The research team combined satellite imagery, government registries, company websites, and third-party certification data to locate each factory and verify which raw materials it uses. 



The most prolific region - Peru - hosts 125 factories and supplies a large share of the world’s fishmeal, primarily from anchoveta catches along the Humboldt Current. Mauritania, the runner-up, has 42 factories, many financed by foreign investors and linked by NGOs to local price spikes and resource conflicts. 



Meanwhile, nations such as Norway and Denmark host relatively few but highly efficient plants that benefit from state-of-the-art rendering technology and strict environmental oversight.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-some-plants-obscure-the-full-picture">Some plants obscure the full picture</h2>



While the map represents a major leap in transparency, Shea and her colleagues stress that it is only a baseline. Many of China’s FMFO facilities, for example, remain poorly documented because of language barriers, sparse public disclosure, and limited online footprints. 



Likewise, several West African and Southeast Asian plants operate in “data-poor” fisheries where catch statistics are unreliable or withheld from public view.



“With more transparent data, governments and organizations can better regulate FMFO sourcing, track environmental impacts, and support alternatives - like plant-based feeds or novel proteins - that reduce pressure on wild fish stocks,” Shea said.



The authors urge routine updates to the database, independent audits of raw-material sources, and finer-scale analysis of each fishmeal plant’s social and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/biotic-homogenization-human-impacts-diminish-biodiversity/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ecological</a> footprint.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-pathways-toward-responsible-fish-feed">Pathways toward responsible fish feed</h2>



Because <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/aquaculture-impacts-wild-fish-much-more-than-we-thought/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">aquaculture</a> already supplies more than half of the fish consumed globally, reforming its feed inputs is central to achieving any credible vision of sustainable seafood. Possible solutions include redirecting fish processing waste into meal and oil and expanding algae-based or microbial proteins. 



An additional solution consists of more aggressively phasing in insect meal or plant concentrates where nutritional profiles allow. Yet technical fixes alone cannot solve the governance challenges that plague FMFO supply chains.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/04/fish-factories_spatial-distribution_map_credit-UBC_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/04/fish-factories_spatial-distribution_map_credit-UBC_1s.webp" alt="Factories are color-coded by data type (see Table 1). Factories in dark blue (data type A) represent plants whose locations we were able to verify using satellite imagery and company website information. Green shaded circles represent and are scaled to the number of factories per producing country. Credit: UBC" class="wp-image-1967574"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Factories are color-coded by data type (see Table 1). Factories in dark blue (data type A) represent plants whose locations we were able to verify using satellite imagery and company website information. Green shaded circles represent and are scaled to the number of factories per producing country. Credit: UBC</figcaption></figure>



“Science can only go so far,” Sumaila said. “We need political will, corporate accountability, and community engagement to drive real change. If aquaculture is going to be part of a sustainable food future, we need better data, smarter policies, and ethical sourcing of feed ingredients."



The study highlights existing initiatives such as the <a href="https://fiti.global/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Fisheries Transparency Initiative</a> (FiTI), which invites member states to publish detailed statistics on catch volumes, processing facilities, and trade flows. 



Mauritania - a FiTI participant - has already placed a public list of its FMFO factories online, demonstrating how national action can complement independent research.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-stakes-for-oceans-and-people"><a></a>The stakes for oceans and people</h2>



Small-pelagic fish are often described as “the gold of the sea” because of their high omega-3 content and sheer abundance. When harvested responsibly, they can support coastal livelihoods, provide affordable nutrition, and feed farmed fish without jeopardizing ecosystem balance. 



When industrial fleets overshoot precautionary limits, however, the health of predator species, seabirds, and local communities can unravel quickly. 



By shining a light on where these reduction fisheries land and where the converted products are manufactured, the UBC-led investigation equips policymakers, advocacy groups, and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/boosting-seafood-production-while-protecting-biodiversity/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">seafood</a> buyers with a new tool for risk assessment.



The footprint of fishmeal and fish oil production emphasizes the urgency of enforcing science-based catch quotas. This protects traditional fishing rights, and promoting circular-economy feed ingredients.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-reducing-the-footprint-of-fishmeal">Reducing the footprint of fishmeal</h2>



Future research will need to integrate factory-level emission estimates, water-use data, and labor-rights records to paint a fuller sustainability portrait. 



Furthermore, comparing the profitability of FMFO production against potential human dietary use of the same fish could inform more equitable allocation of marine resources.



For now, the global FMFO map establishes a reference point that did not exist before. Where those 506 dots move - or multiply - over the next decade will reveal whether the aquaculture sector can reconcile growth with ocean stewardship and social responsibility.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/sciadv.adr6921" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Science Advances</a>.



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Feeding fish, draining the sea: Fishmeal's global footprint revealed

For decades, farmers have relied on fishmeal and fish oil...

Fires have long been a seasonal scourge on the west coast of North America and the densely forested east coast of Australia. 



In January 2025, flames tore through Los Angeles, destroying more than 10,000 buildings and claiming 29 lives. Just four years earlier, Australia’s 2019–2020 “Black Summer” burned over 12 million hectares - an area larger than England.



For decades, emergency crews have relied on the fact that the Northern and Southern Hemispheres reach peak fire <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fast-wildfires-are-gaining-even-more-speed/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">danger</a> at different times, allowing them to share personnel, aircraft and expertise. 



New research, however, shows that this breathing space is rapidly disappearing as wildfire seasons are increasingly overlapping.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-decades-of-fire-data">Decades of fire data</h2>



To determine how the window for mutual aid is changing, an international team of climatologists analysed daily values of the <a href="https://cwfis.cfs.nrcan.gc.ca/background/summary/fwi" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Canadian Fire Weather Index</a> (FWI) for western North America and eastern Australia between 1979 and 2022. 



The FWI combines temperature, rainfall, humidity and wind to flag “fire-weather days,” when conditions are ripe for ignition and spread.



Over the past forty years, simultaneous fire-weather days in the two regions have increased by roughly one per year. The overlap is now most pronounced from July through December, when about three-quarters of days register high wildfire risk in both places.



“This is because the fire season in eastern Australia is starting earlier in spring and overlapping with the end of the fire season on the west coast of North America,” explained Andreia Ribeiro, a climate scientist at Germany’s <a href="https://www.ufz.de/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Helmholtz Center for Environmental Research</a> (UFZ) and the study’s lead author.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-projections-point-to-steeper-rise">Projections point to steeper rise</h2>



Using four state-of-the-art climate models and hundreds of ensemble simulations to capture uncertainty, the researchers projected trends to mid-century under different greenhouse-gas scenarios. Every simulation showed further convergence.



“The number of overlapping fire weather days in western North America and eastern Australia will continue to increase,” Ribeiro warned. 



Depending on future emissions, the extra days could range from just four each year to nearly thirty by the 2050s - effectively adding an entire month of simultaneous high danger.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-diminishing-influence-of-el-nino">Diminishing influence of El Niño</h2>



Fire danger in the two regions has historically been tied to opposite phases of the El Niño–Southern Oscillation (ENSO). Eastern Australia usually endures severe heat and dryness during <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/el-nino-event-may-push-earth-towards-its-hottest-year-ever/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">El Niño</a>, whereas La Niña increases fire potential in coastal California, Oregon and British Columbia by priming vegetation in spring and desiccating it by late summer.



Yet the new study found an unexpected signal: “Despite these generally opposing patterns, we found that during strong fire weather overlap, El Niño conditions are especially pronounced in the Central Pacific,” Ribeiro said.



That influence, while still detectable, is likely to be overshadowed by relentless anthropogenic warming. 



“<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/most-people-attribute-extreme-heat-and-wildfires-to-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Climate change</a> is causing global temperature rises and increasing drought in some regions while the El Niño effect is expected to remain largely unchanged,” said Jakob Zscheischler, a UFZ co-author.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-increasingly-overlapping-wildfire-seasons">Increasingly overlapping wildfire seasons</h2>



Until recently, crews could count on a four- to five-month lull between California’s June–October fire season and Australia’s October–March window. Those months allowed exhausted firefighters and scarce aerial tankers to rotate across the Pacific.



“But these increasingly overlapping fire weather seasons in the US and Australia are narrowing the window for international cooperation and making it harder to respond quickly to large-scale wildfires,” said lead author Doug Richardson, a scientist at the <a href="https://climateextremes.org.au/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ARC Center of Excellence for Climate Extremes</a> at the University of New South Wales.



Existing bilateral agreements - some dating back three decades - assume non-overlapping seasons. 



The study argues that both countries, along with Canada, must revisit those pacts, expand domestic training pipelines, purchase additional large air tankers that can remain on call year-round, and invest in predictive technologies that can pre-position resources when simultaneous crises loom.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-preparing-for-the-future">Preparing for the future</h2>



Converging fire seasons ripple beyond emergency services. Insurance markets already reeling from record-breaking claims may face concurrent hits, driving premiums higher. 



Public-health agencies must prepare for overlapping <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/wildfire-smoke-particles-erode-the-ozone-layer/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">smoke</a> waves that can blanket cities like Sydney, Vancouver, and San Francisco at the same time.



Wildlife managers worry that species relying on alternate recovery periods in the two hemispheres - <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-do-migratory-birds-navigate-with-such-accuracy/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">migratory birds</a>, for instance - could lose habitat simultaneously. Carbon-budget analysts note that overlapping megafires release pulses of greenhouse gases that undercut national climate targets in a single season.



The team urges governments to accelerate prescribed burning and forest-thinning programs during the shrinking shoulder seasons, double down on community fire-proofing, and expand early-warning networks that incorporate the latest FWI projections. 



Internationally, they call for a global reserve of firefighting aircraft co-funded by nations facing rising wildfire risk, allowing rapid deployment even when regional fleets are committed.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-extreme-fire-weather-is-on-the-rise">Extreme fire weather is on the rise</h2>



The new findings illustrate how climate change can synchronize hazards that once struck at different times and places, overwhelming systems designed for isolated events. 



Without deep emissions cuts, the number of days when both hemispheres simultaneously face extreme fire weather is set to climb steeply, leaving little margin for relief operations that span the Pacific.



The scientists behind the study hope their work will spur policymakers to adapt cooperation agreements - and confront the warming trend that is fanning the flames on two continents.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1029/2024EF005030" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Earth’s Future</a>.



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Wildfire seasons are now overlapping worldwide

Fires have long been a seasonal scourge on the west...

Strolling a familiar beach and stumbling upon a relic from the age of dinosaurs sounds like pure fantasy, yet that is exactly what happened on England’s west coast. 



A stretch of shoreline below Somerset’s crumbling cliffs yielded a bone so large that it challenged everything we thought we knew about prehistoric marine reptiles. 



The fossil - a lower jaw more than 6½ feet long - promised a creature leagues beyond anything alive today. The find dated to around 202 million years ago, slotting it into the turbulent final chapter of the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/triassic-fossils-shed-new-light-on-ancient-ecosystems/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Triassic Period</a>.



At that time, much of what is now Britain lay beneath a warm, shallow sea patrolled by meat‑eating giants. Their reign ended in a mass extinction, leaving only scattered bones to whisper their stories - until now.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ruby-and-ichthyotitan-severnensis">Ruby and Ichthyotitan severnensis</h2>



Back in late&nbsp;May&nbsp;2020, 11‑year‑old Ruby&nbsp;Reynolds and her father, Justin, headed for the mudflats of Blue&nbsp;Anchor, looking for fossils. 



Justin spotted a four‑inch scrap of bone, “bigger than any piece of bone I'd ever found before,” he recalls. 



Ruby wandered on and unearthed a second fragment twice that size. “It was just sort of lying there,” she says. “I was just happy, really.” Their excitement would soon ripple far beyond the shoreline.



Word reached paleontologist Dean&nbsp;Lomax, who holds posts at both the <a href="https://www.bristol.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Bristol</a> and the <a href="https://www.manchester.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Manchester</a>. He recognized echoes of another Somerset specimen lifted in&nbsp;2016 by local collector Paul&nbsp;de&nbsp;la&nbsp;Salle. 



That earlier jaw fragment, called a surangular, came together from several chunks that, Lomax remembers, “fit together perfectly like an ancient prehistoric jigsaw puzzle.”



Ruby's discovery was eventually named Ichthyotitan severnensis, which literally translates to “giant fish lizard from the Severn.” 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ichthyotitan-severnensis-was-a-true-monster">Ichthyotitan severnensis was a true monster</h2>



The first bone’s eroded edges left scientists yearning for more. “It suggests that it was from something unusual and exceedingly large,”&nbsp;Lomax says. 



He and colleagues published a cautious description, but could not pin down the creature’s identity. “What we'd hoped for - we kept our fingers crossed - we hoped that maybe more specimens would come to light in the future,” he admits.



Ruby and Justin’s beachside haul delivered exactly that. After they emailed photographs - “Hey, Dr.&nbsp;Lomax - we think we've found another one of your giant ichthyosaur jawbones”&nbsp;-&nbsp;the research team raced to Somerset. 



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/04/Ichthyotitan-severnensis_largest-marine-reptile_jawbone-comparison_credit-Dean-Lomax_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/04/Ichthyotitan-severnensis_largest-marine-reptile_jawbone-comparison_credit-Dean-Lomax_1s.webp" alt="Photograph of the nearly complete giant jawbone, along with a comparison with the 2018 bone (middle and bottom) found by Paul de la Salle. Credit: Dr. Dean Lomax" class="wp-image-1966376"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Photograph of the nearly complete giant jawbone, along with a comparison with the 2018 bone (middle and bottom) found by Paul de la Salle. Click image to enlarge. Credit: Dr. Dean Lomax</figcaption></figure>



“Of course, they were quite right,” Lomax says. “They correctly identified these sections of bone as belonging to an ichthyosaur.” 



Fresh collecting trips recovered still more pieces, leaving nearly two‑thirds of the jaw intact and in excellent shape.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-matching-two-huge-jawbones">Matching two huge jawbones</h2>



Comparison of the two Somerset jaws revealed striking similarities. Because both turned up in the same rock layer and displayed uncommon internal bone textures, the team concluded they belonged to one new species. 



In a paper published in PLOS&nbsp;ONE, they proposed that the full animal stretched roughly&nbsp;82&nbsp;feet - “genuinely enormous, about the length of a blue whale,” Lomax says.



Scale alone does not grant a place in the record books; scientists also scrutinized microscopic structures inside the bone. 



These matched the odd pattern seen in other <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fiona-the-ichthyosaur-was-preserved-for-millions-of-years-after-a-landslide/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">super‑sized ichthyosaurs</a>, nudging researchers to suggest these reptiles grew in a way unlike most of their scaly kin.



Whether Ichthyotitan severnensis belonged to the shastasaur group - the clade that once produced Triassic leviathans across the globe - remains uncertain until a complete skeleton surfaces.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-sizing-up-ichthyotitan">Sizing up Ichthyotitan</h2>



The Somerset titan likely carried a lighter, more streamlined frame suited for open‑ocean cruising. Its jawbone alone outsizes a grown person by several feet. 



If its proportions followed relatives such as Shonisaurus, the skull may have spanned over&nbsp;10&nbsp;feet, with paddle‑shaped flippers stretching wider than a living‑room couch.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/04/Ichthyotitan-severnensis_largest-marine-reptile_illustration_credit-Gabriel-Ugueto_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/04/Ichthyotitan-severnensis_largest-marine-reptile_illustration_credit-Gabriel-Ugueto_1s.webp" alt="A giant pair of swimming Ichthyotitan severnensis. Credit: Gabriel Ugueto" class="wp-image-1966374"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">A giant pair of swimming Ichthyotitan severnensis. Click image to enlarge. Credit: Gabriel Ugueto</figcaption></figure>



Growth to such dimensions suggests a sea rich in food and free of bigger predators. Massive schools of squid‑like cephalopods thrived in Triassic waters, offering a banquet to long‑roaming hunters. 



Stable‑isotope evidence from other ichthyosaur bones hints at warm‑blooded metabolisms, which, paired with live birth and sleek bodies, let them fill whale‑like niches long before mammals took the plunge.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-life-in-the-triassic-was-incredible">Life in the Triassic was incredible</h2>



The Triassic often flies under the radar next to the Jurassic’s celebrity dinosaurs, yet biomechanist Kelsey&nbsp;Stilson calls it “a really weird time.” 



Continents had only just fused into <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthpedia-articles/supercontinents-101-pannotia-gondwana-and-pangea/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Pangaea</a>, monsoon‑driven climates swung from drought to deluge, and both early dinosaurs and mammals were fresh on the scene. 



“There were things that we can't even possibly imagine in the past,”&nbsp;Stilson adds. “But we can get little hints, and this is one little hint at this larger picture of evolution on Earth.”



That broader picture shows ichthyosaurs rising fast after the end‑Permian mass extinction, then peaking in size just before the next cataclysm. 



“No marine reptile ever reached such gigantic sizes ever again,”&nbsp;Lomax notes. Later Jurassic and Cretaceous ichthyosaurs shrank, perhaps pushed aside by changing oceans and by the emergence of other reptilian predators such as <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dinosaurs-were-not-the-only-animals-that-grew-fast-during-the-mesozoic/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">pliosaurs</a> and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mosasaurs-had-fierce-survival-strategies-including-cannibalism/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">mosasaurs</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-whales-replaced-ichthyotitan-severnensis">Whales replaced Ichthyotitan severnensis</h2>



The last ichthyosaurs disappeared about&nbsp;94&nbsp;million&nbsp;years ago, vacating the top spot in marine food webs. 



That gap lingered until hoofed mammals ventured back to sea some&nbsp;50&nbsp;million&nbsp;years ago, setting whales on their own path to titanic proportions. 



The repeat story - big fish‑shaped predators evolving from land‑going ancestors - highlights how evolutionary solutions recur when similar ecological opportunities arise.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/04/Ichthyotitan-severnensis_largest-marine-reptile_beached_credit-Sergey-Krasovskiy_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/04/Ichthyotitan-severnensis_largest-marine-reptile_beached_credit-Sergey-Krasovskiy_1s.webp" alt="A washed-up Ichthyotitan severnensis carcass on the beach. Credit: Sergey Krasovskiy." class="wp-image-1966372"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">A washed-up Ichthyotitan severnensis carcass on the beach. Click image to enlarge. Credit: Sergey Krasovskiy.</figcaption></figure>



Modern blue whales now stretch beyond&nbsp;100&nbsp;feet and can weigh&nbsp;180&nbsp;tons, yet, length for length, they share the open ocean’s realm with Ichthyotitan in the fossil archives. 



Their stories highlight the ocean’s capacity to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/trachelosaurus-fischeri-worlds-oldest-long-necked-marine-reptile-rediscovered/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">nurture behemoths</a> when food is ample and competition sparse.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-happens-next">What happens next?</h2>



Somerset’s cliffs erode a little more each winter. Storms tear at ancient mudstones, exposing new fossils overnight. 



“This research has been ongoing for almost eight years. It is quite remarkable to think that gigantic, blue whale‑sized ichthyosaurs were swimming in the oceans around what was the UK during the Triassic Period," Lomax concluded.



"These jawbones provide tantalizing evidence that perhaps one day a complete skull or skeleton of one of these giants might be found. You never know.”



Beachcombers like Ruby and Justin now scan those shores with renewed purpose. Their lucky strike reminds us that scientific breakthroughs sometimes hide in plain sight, waiting for curious eyes and a little persistence. 



The sea claimed Ichthyotitan severnensis long before humans walked Europe, yet its story shows that even after millions of years, a coast‑side ramble can rewrite natural history.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0300289" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">PLOS ONE</a>.



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Largest marine reptile ever known to exist was discovered by an 11-year-old girl

Strolling a familiar beach and stumbling upon a relic from...

Why do some individuals rush to help, while others hesitate? A new study led by Dr. Inbal Bartal of Tel Aviv University digs deep into this question using rats. The findings highlight the strong influence of social experience and brain chemistry on prosocial behavior and willingness to help.



The team used a helping behavior task where rats could free a distressed peer trapped in a restrainer. Rats that had previous positive interactions were more likely to help. 



These "helper rats" also showed more brain <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sleep-increases-feelings-of-hope-happiness-and-gratitude/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">activity</a> in areas linked to empathy and motivation compared to their less helpful counterparts.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-social-bonds-drive-helping">Social bonds drive helping </h2>



Helper rats exhibited stronger activation in the anterior cingulate cortex, somatosensory cortex, and other empathy-related areas. This activity pattern suggests that not just feeling another’s distress, but having a social bond, is crucial for helping.



Interestingly, oxytocin - the hormone involved in bonding - played a key role. Rats that consistently helped had higher oxytocin receptor expression in the nucleus accumbens, a major reward center in the brain. 



Blocking oxytocin signaling did not completely erase helping <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/who-is-happier-being-single-men-or-women/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">behavior</a> but did reduce the rats’ social tendencies. According to the researchers, caring about others appears more important than simply sensing their distress.



“We appear to live in an increasingly polarized society where there is a gap in empathy towards others," said Dr. Bartal, a faculty member in the Psychology Department and School of Neuroscience at <a href="http://tau.ac.il/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Tel-Aviv University</a>.



"This work helps us understand prosocial, or helpful, acts better. We see others in distress all the time but tend to help only certain individuals. The similarity between human and rat brains helps us understand the way our brain mediates prosocial decisions."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-helpful-rats-socialize-more">Helpful rats socialize more</h2>



The study found that rats who became "helpers" showed greater <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/facial-expressions-arent-enough-to-understand-human-emotions/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">social</a> affiliation even before the helping task began. Before any rat was trapped, these rats spent more time interacting, lying together, and engaging in affiliative behaviors with their cagemates.



The frequency of social interactions predicted how quickly rats would later act to free a distressed peer. Rats that interacted more often on the first day were faster to help across testing days. 



This link between early social behavior and later helping actions offers new insights into how prosocial tendencies develop.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-helpers-had-more-oxytocin-receptors">Helpers had more oxytocin receptors</h2>



Gene expression studies revealed that helper rats had significantly higher oxytocin receptor (Oxtr) levels specifically in the nucleus accumbens. They also showed greater activity of genes related to social reward and emotional <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/coping-with-eco-anxiety-turning-climate-worry-into-action/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">regulation</a>.



Importantly, genes tied to stress responses were downregulated in helper rats. This suggests that lower stress reactivity could promote a readiness to help others. Brain-wide analyses also showed that helper rats had more active networks in sensory and empathy-related brain regions.



When the researchers blocked oxytocin signaling in the brain’s paraventricular nucleus, rats showed fewer social behaviors. This reduced sociality hints that oxytocin may strengthen social bonds in the brain, which in turn could drive helping actions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-social-brains-are-motivated-to-help">Social brains are motivated to help</h2>



Helper rats demonstrated a widespread activation of the brain’s prosocial network. Critical areas included the anterior cingulate cortex, orbitofrontal cortex, nucleus accumbens, and insular cortex. Many of these regions overlap with known human empathy and reward circuits.



Moreover, the orbitofrontal cortex stood out as playing a major role. This area, known for evaluating rewards and decisions, showed the strongest difference between helpers and non-helpers.



Social interaction frequency correlated strongly with brain activity in these regions. Rats who were more socially engaged early on had higher brain activation related to empathy later, even days after initial testing.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-human-society">Implications for human society</h2>



The research suggests that social connectedness and neurochemical factors together shape helping behavior. The results support the idea that empathy alone does not always lead to action - social bonds and emotional rewards are key motivators.



Understanding how oxytocin and social affiliation drive prosocial behavior could help us better support empathy in increasingly divided societies. Strengthening social bonds might be more effective than simply raising awareness about others' distress.



Dr. Bartal and colleagues have illuminated the biological roots of kindness in a way that could one day inform how we nurture empathy in humans.



The study is published in the <a href="https://www.jneurosci.org/content/early/2025/04/17/JNEUROSCI.0845-24.2025" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal of Neuroscience</a>.



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Acts of kindness: Social brains are wired to help

Why do some individuals rush to help, while others hesitate?...

Asteroid,Vesta,In,Space.,Surface,Of,Space,Stone,From,Asteroid

For more than a decade, Vesta has sat in a scientific gray zone: too big and geologically complex to be an ordinary asteroid, yet never quite elevated to the status of a true planet. 



Its basalt-covered surface hinted at a molten past, and early analyses of data from NASA’s Dawn spacecraft suggested that Vesta possessed the same fundamental architecture as Earth - crust, mantle, and metallic core. That tidy picture has now been upended.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-vesta-s-internal-structure">Vesta's internal structure </h2>



A new study led by the <a href="https://www.jpl.nasa.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NASA Jet Propulsion Laboratory</a> (JPL) re-examined Dawn’s gravity and imaging records with greatly refined calibration methods. The result is a radical reinterpretation of Vesta’s internal <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/asteroid-vesta-found-to-have-channels-that-look-like-water-made-gullies/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">structure</a>.



Rather than harboring a dense central core, the 500-kilometer-wide body appears almost uniform throughout. 



“The lack of a core was very surprising. It’s a really different way of thinking about Vesta," said study co-author Seth Jacobson, a planetary scientist at <a href="https://msu.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Michigan State University</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-vesta-s-history-is-surprisingly-complex">Vesta's history is surprisingly complex</h2>



The research team reached this conclusion by looking at a property called the moment of inertia, which governs how an object’s mass is distributed and, consequently, how it spins in space. 



Bodies with heavy centers behave like figure skaters who pull their arms in to rotate faster; those with evenly distributed mass spin more sluggishly. Vesta’s spin signature fits the latter description, contradicting earlier models that required a substantial iron-nickel core.



To obtain their revised measurements, principal investigator Ryan Park and colleagues spent nearly a decade perfecting the cross-calibration between Dawn’s onboard cameras and radio-tracking data transmitted through <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/communicating-with-missions/dsn/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NASA’s Deep Space Network</a>.



“After nearly a decade of refining our calibration and processing techniques, we achieved remarkable alignment between Dawn’s Deep Space Network radiometric data and onboard imaging data,” Park explained. 



“Our findings show Vesta’s history is far more complex than previously believed, shaped by unique processes like interrupted planetary differentiation and late-stage collisions.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-two-competing-theories-on-vesta">Two competing theories on Vesta</h2>



Two competing ideas now vie to explain what Vesta really is. One option is that the object began to differentiate - melting internally so that metals could sink and silicates rise - but the process froze in mid-stride. 



That would make Vesta a kind of geological time capsule, preserving a rare snapshot of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scorching-world-offers-clues-to-planetary-evolution/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">planetary evolution</a> arrested before its final act.



Yet this scenario clashes with laboratory analyses of meteorites that match Vesta’s spectral fingerprint. “We’re really confident these meteorites came from Vesta,” Jacobson noted. “And these don’t show obvious evidence of incomplete differentiation.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fragment-of-a-lost-world">Fragment of a lost world</h2>



The alternative, more audacious hypothesis is that Vesta is not a stalled planet at all but a fragment blasted off a larger world during the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/distant-icy-worlds-are-unlocking-secrets-of-the-solar-system/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">solar system</a>’s chaotic youth. Jacobson first floated the idea informally years ago, suggesting that some meteorites might be relics of violent impacts among embryonic planets.



“This idea went from a somewhat silly suggestion to a hypothesis that we’re now taking seriously due to this re-analysis of NASA Dawn mission data,” Jacobson said. 



If correct, Vesta would be a shard of primordial crust from a planet that continued to accrete elsewhere - or perhaps never reached maturity because subsequent collisions shattered it beyond recognition.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-broader-implications-of-the-study">Broader implications of the study</h2>



Either explanation reshapes Vesta’s scientific value. In the incomplete-differentiation model, the body offers insight into the thermal limits that determine whether small planetary embryos grow full cores. 



In the impact-fragment model, Vesta becomes forensic evidence of the collisions that sculpted the inner solar system, possibly preserving geochemical clues to an unknown “parent” planet. 



Jacobson’s research group is already building computer models of such giant impacts, while graduate student Emily Elizondo examines how ejected debris might migrate into the asteroid belt and survive for billions of years.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-research-directions">Future research directions </h2>



More work lies ahead. Planetary <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/chemists-could-be-key-to-prevent-animal-extinction/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">chemists</a> can re-evaluate Vesta-derived <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/what-meteorites-tell-us-about-their-birthplace-in-space/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">meteorites</a> in light of the new gravity data, looking for isotopic markers that would either support or refute a uniform interior.



Meanwhile, improved dynamical simulations could test whether a collision-origin scenario can reproduce Vesta’s current orbit and composition. 



Dawn’s legacy data set remains a treasure trove; the same re-processing techniques may yet reveal subtler interior details or reconcile inconsistencies in previous models.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-pieces-of-an-ancient-planet">Pieces of an ancient planet</h2>



Whatever the final answer, Vesta’s story now looks less like a straightforward tale of arrested growth and more like a detective mystery spanning 4.5 billion years. “No longer is the Vesta meteorite collection a sample of a body in space that failed to make it as a planet,” Jacobson said.



“These could be pieces of an ancient planet before it grew to full completion. We just don’t know which planet that is yet.” 



In reframing Vesta from wannabe planet to either an unfinished embryo or a planetary shard, scientists gain fresh perspective on the tumultuous processes that forged the terrestrial world we inhabit today.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41550-025-02533-7" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Astronomy</a>



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Asteroid Vesta may be a fragment of a lost world

For more than a decade, Vesta has sat in a...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2E0mn5mTvhQ
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">'Death Star' moon Mimas conceals a 15-million-year-old ocean that scientists never expected.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hidden-waters-beneath-ancient-craters">Hidden waters beneath ancient craters</h2>



Scientists have made a startling discovery that challenges everything we thought we knew about <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/saturn-moon-mimas-has-remarkably-young-ocean/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Saturn's moon Mimas</a>. Beneath the heavily cratered surface that earned it the nickname "Death Star" lies a global ocean that formed just 5 to 15 million years ago—a remarkably young age by cosmic standards.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cassini-data-reveals-orbital-secrets">Cassini data reveals orbital secrets</h2>



The discovery, led by Dr. Valéry Lainey of the <a href="https://observatoiredeparis.psl.eu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Observatoire de Paris</a>, emerged from careful analysis of <a href="https://www.nasa.gov" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NASA</a>'s Cassini spacecraft data. By studying subtle irregularities in Mimas's orbit around Saturn, researchers detected the gravitational signature of liquid water hidden 20 to 30 kilometers beneath the moon's icy shell.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-an-unlikely-ocean-world">An unlikely ocean world</h2>



At only 400 kilometers in diameter, Mimas seemed like the least likely candidate to harbor a subsurface ocean. Unlike other ocean moons such as Europa and Enceladus, which show clear surface signs of internal activity, Mimas displays no obvious hints of the liquid water beneath its ancient, crater-scarred exterior.



"Mimas is a small moon, and its heavily cratered surface gave no hint of the hidden ocean beneath," explained Dr. Nick Cooper from <a href="https://www.qmul.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Queen Mary University of London</a>, a study co-author.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-astrobiology">Implications for astrobiology</h2>



The ocean's recent formation makes Mimas a prime target for studying how oceans develop and potentially support life. This discovery adds another member to the exclusive club of ocean worlds in our solar system, each offering unique insights into the conditions necessary for habitability.



The research, published in <a href="https://www.nature.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature</a> journal, demonstrates how advanced orbital analysis can reveal hidden features of celestial bodies, opening new possibilities for understanding ocean formation throughout the cosmos.



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Scientists discover unexpected young ocean on Saturn's cratered moon Mimas

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2E0mn5mTvhQ 'Death Star' moon Mimas conceals a 15-million-year-old ocean that...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE
</div></figure>



On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop and sunlight barely penetrates through the polar winter. It was here, however, that an international team of scientists found <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/predatory-worms-were-terror-beasts-half-a-billion-years-ago/#google_vignette" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evidence of sea monsters</a> that would change our understanding of ocean life in the past.



This video captures the discovery of Timorebestia fossils that had been hidden for more than 500 million years in the Sirius Passet formation. The "terror beasts," as they are called, are a hidden chapter in the evolutionary history of <a href="https://www.earth.com" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Earth</a>, showing that sophisticated predator-prey interactions occurred much earlier than previously envisioned.



Dr. Jakob Vinther and his research team at the <a href="https://www.bristol.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Bristol</a>, in collaboration with researchers at the <a href="https://eng.kopri.re.kr/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Korean Polar Research Institute</a>, braved extreme weather conditions at 82.5 north latitude to locate these giant creatures. Using sophisticated electron microprobe analysis, they revealed the detailed anatomy of the animals, including their muscle and nerve tissues.



The find upsets the traditional timeline of sea predators. Although we've long appreciated that Cambrian oceans were at one time ruled by <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jWI3-UgA3_o&amp;list=PL1QLQMW9MWDwpkFOnvgAmu7wT6rZmYqdJ&amp;index=19" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">arthropods</a>, these discoveries indicate that relatives of arrow worms were first to dominate the seas. These worms were building sophisticated food webs several million years before other predator groups arose.



Each fossil is a story of ancient hunger, with fossil stomach contents revealing these meter-long beasts dined on heavily armored arthropods regularly, cementing their place as the ocean's first apex predators.



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Worms dominated seas before dinosaurs

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">New York is the site of the world's oldest forest.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-385-million-year-old-trees-discovered">385-million-year-old trees discovered</h2>



Scientists have uncovered something extraordinary just two hours north of New York City. The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/worlds-oldest-forest-discovered-close-to-new-york-city/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">world's oldest forest</a>, dating back 385 million years, offers a window into how Earth's first complex forests shaped our planet's atmosphere.



Located near <a href="https://townofcairo.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cairo, New York</a>, in Greene County, these weren't merely primitive plants struggling to survive. These were sophisticated trees with root systems remarkably similar to modern forests. This ancient woodland predates dinosaurs by 140 million years.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-cairo-forest-discovery">The Cairo forest discovery</h2>



385 million years ago, upstate New York was a tropical paradise near the equator. Thanks to continental drift, this ancient forest has traveled thousands of miles to its current location.



The fossil forest sits in an abandoned quarry, roughly half the size of a football field. This represents just a slice of what was likely a massive forest system stretching from New York into Pennsylvania.



Charles Ver Straeten, curator of sedimentary rocks at the <a href="https://www.nysm.nysed.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">New York State Museum</a>, made the discovery in 2009. While scouting the former highway department property, his trained eye spotted wandering patterns in the stone that looked like marine features.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-revolutionary-age-and-preservation">Revolutionary age and preservation</h2>



The site contains 385-million-year-old rocks with fossilized woody roots forming horizontal patterns up to 18 feet (5.5 meters) wide. As Christopher Berry, a paleobotanist at Cardiff University, explains: "You are walking through the roots of ancient trees."



This discovery pushes back advanced tree evolution by millions of years. The research, published in <a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/home" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Current Biology</a> in December 2019, fundamentally changes our understanding of when complex forests first emerged.



Researchers believe a massive flood buried the forest floor, creating perfect fossilization conditions. Over millions of years, sediment hardened into rock, preserving these root patterns like nature's time capsule.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-meet-archaeopteris-the-first-modern-tree">Meet Archaeopteris: the first modern tree</h2>



The star of this ancient forest is Archaeopteris – not to be confused with the feathered dinosaur Archaeopteryx. This tree was far older and more revolutionary.



William Stein from <a href="https://www.binghamton.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Binghamton University</a> describes the roots as "strikingly modern, essentially what you'd see outside in my yard right now." These weren't simple root systems you'd expect from ancient plants.



Some fossilized roots are six inches (15 centimeters) in diameter, forming 36-foot-wide (11-meter) patterns. These giants grew up to 65 feet (20 meters) tall with five-foot-diameter (1.5-meter) trunks.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-changing-impact">Climate-changing impact</h2>



These trees fundamentally changed Earth's environment. Kevin Boyce, a Stanford University geoscientist, explains how their deep roots triggered "weathering," chemical reactions that pulled carbon dioxide from the atmosphere.



This process dropped atmospheric CO2 levels from 10-15 times higher than today to roughly modern concentrations. These ancient trees helped create atmospheric conditions that made complex life possible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ancient-forest-ecosystem">Ancient forest ecosystem</h2>



The forest was remarkably diverse. Scientists identified Eospermatopteris, palm tree-like plants with short roots that reached 30 feet (9 meters) tall but lacked woody structure. The forest also housed cladoxylopsids and a mysterious third species still being studied.



All reproduced through spores rather than seeds – millions of years before seeds evolved. This tropical environment had no grass, flowers, or flying insects, just towering trees creating Earth's first complex forest canopy.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-scientific-significance">Scientific significance</h2>



Before this finding, the Gilboa forest, located 25 miles (40 kilometers) away, held the "oldest forest" title. Cairo's trees are 2-3 million years older, showing that complex forest ecosystems developed much faster than scientists believed possible.



Patricia Gensel, a <a href="https://www.unc.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of North Carolina</a> paleobotanist, notes: "The size of those root systems is really changing the picture. Even 20 years ago, researchers assumed trees with such complex root systems didn't evolve so early."



The Cairo site presents three unique root systems, suggesting Devonian period forests were diverse ecosystems with different trees occupying different environmental niches, much like today's forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-modern-preservation-efforts">Modern preservation efforts</h2>



In 2022, New York State Senator Michelle Hinchey secured a $170,000 grant for the town of Cairo to construct specialized fencing around the fossil forest site. The town plans to conduct a feasibility study exploring the possibility of creating an educational center and working lab on-site.



Joe Hasenkopf, chair of the Cairo Planning Board, hopes to partner with educational institutions to create a research facility serving scientists, students, and the public.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lessons-for-today-s-climate">Lessons for today's climate</h2>



Why does a 385-million-year-old forest matter today? It shows how dramatically forests can change Earth's climate. These ancient woodlands created the atmospheric conditions supporting complex life.



Understanding how prehistoric forests transformed the planet helps us appreciate modern forests' critical role in addressing climate change. Forests remain Earth's most effective carbon capture systems.



These prehistoric trees changed Earth's atmosphere by pulling massive amounts of carbon dioxide from the air. As we face modern climate challenges, this ancient forest reminds us of trees' incredible power to transform our planet's environment.



The next time you walk through a forest, remember you're experiencing an ecosystem whose blueprint was established 385 million years ago in upstate New York. These ancient pioneers didn't just survive – they thrived and changed the world forever.



The full study was published in the journal Current Biology.



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Earth's oldest forest found in the United States

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ New York is the site of the world's oldest...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
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</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Acid rain and a crisis solved.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-don-t-we-ever-hear-about-acid-rain-anymore-the-environmental-crisis-that-was-solved">Why don't we ever hear about "acid rain" anymore? The environmental crisis that was solved</h2>



Remember the 1980s when acid rain dominated headlines? Dire warnings about rain eating buildings, killing fish, and destroying forests filled every news cycle. Then, almost like magic, acid rain vanished from public discourse. What happened? Did we actually solve one of the late 20th century's most pressing environmental challenges?



The answer might surprise you. Unlike many environmental issues that drag on indefinitely, acid rain represents one of modern history's most successful ecological recovery stories. It's a tale of science, politics, and technology working together to tackle what seemed impossible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What was acid rain?</h2>



Acid rain isn't regular rain having a bad day – it's precipitation that became significantly more acidic due to air pollution. When power plants, factories, and vehicles burn fossil fuels, they release sulfur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides (NOx) into the atmosphere.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The science behind it</h2>



Think of acid rain as nature's chemistry experiment gone wrong. These compounds react with water, oxygen, and other chemicals to form sulfuric and nitric acids. When mixed with water vapor in clouds, they create precipitation with dangerously low pH levels.



While clean rain has a pH of about 5.6, acid rain could drop as low as 4.2 to 4.4 – roughly as acidic as tomato juice or coffee. According to US Geological Survey documentation, Scottish chemist Angus Smith first coined "acid rain" in 1872, but it didn't become a household phrase until the 1960s and 1970s when Swedish scientist Svante Odén documented its devastating effects on Scandinavian lakes and European forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The crisis at its peak</h2>



During the height of public concern, environmental damage was both widespread and visible. This wasn't some abstract future threat – people could see destruction happening in real-time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Environmental devastation</h2>



The most dramatic impacts were impossible to ignore. Research documented by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation and the New York State Department of Environmental Conservation shows that in the Adirondack Mountains, more than 200 lakes became so acidic they couldn't support fish life. The Adirondack Council reports that 409 lakes once supported brook trout, but many lost their fish populations due to acid rain.



By 1976, when scientists cataloged all acidified lakes in the Adirondack Park, researchers found that half of the lakes over 2,000 feet above sea level had no fish, according to studies published in environmental journals. The acidification process worked like a slow-motion disaster. As acid rain fell into watersheds, it gradually lowered pH levels. Fish couldn't survive in acidic water, and their food sources died off too.



Trees at high elevations showed stress directly linked to acid rain. It weakened them by leaching nutrients and making them susceptible to disease. Historical records show Germany's Black Forest saw nearly half its trees damaged by the mid-1980s.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Economic impact</h2>



Acid rain wasn't just environmental – it was expensive. Acidic precipitation corroded infrastructure, buildings, and monuments. Historic stone structures deteriorated at accelerated rates. Tourism suffered as lakes became fishless and forests declined. EPA economic analyses from the period documented repair costs mounting into billions annually.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The solution: government action and technology</h2>



Transformation from crisis to success required unprecedented cooperation between governments, industries, and environmental groups.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The Clean Air Act of 1990</h2>



The turning point came with the Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990, signed by President George H.W. Bush. This represented a fundamentally new approach to environmental regulation, as documented in EPA historical records.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Cap-and-trade success</h2>



Instead of mandating specific technologies, the 1990 amendments introduced something revolutionary: a cap-and-trade system for sulfur dioxide emissions. EPA program documentation shows this market-based approach set overall limits but allowed companies to trade emission allowances.



The genius was harnessing market forces to find cost-effective pollution reduction. Companies reducing emissions cheaply could sell excess allowances to those facing higher costs. Research published in environmental economics journals and EPA progress reports shows this resulted in dramatic SO2 reduction at a fraction of projected costs.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Technology advances</h2>



Policy provided the framework, but technology made reductions possible. Studies in atmospheric science journals document the widespread adoption of flue gas desulfurization systems ("scrubbers") that removed sulfur dioxide before it reached the atmosphere. By the 2000s, new installations could remove over 95% of SO2 emissions, according to EPA technical reports.



The push coincided with cleaner energy development. Natural gas produces fewer sulfur compounds than coal. Wind and solar, emerging in the 1990s, captured growing market share, reducing reliance on high-sulfur coal.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-we-don-t-hear-about-it-today">Why we don't hear about it today</h2>



Why did acid rain disappear from headlines? Simple: the problem was largely solved.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Success doesn't make news</h2>



There's an old journalism saying: "If it bleeds, it leads." Environmental success stories don't generate urgency like crisis reporting. Media attention shifted to other challenges: climate change, plastic pollution, and biodiversity loss. There's only so much environmental anxiety the public can absorb, and newer concerns replaced acid rain.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Mission accomplished</h2>



The primary reason is beautifully simple: interventions worked. EPA monitoring data shows sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990. Academic research published in environmental science journals confirms pH levels in formerly affected areas returned closer to normal. This represents one of history's most dramatic environmental recoveries. Studies by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation show fishless lakes now support healthy populations. Forests recovered, and building damage slowed dramatically.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-is-it-really-gone">Is it really gone?</h2>



The crisis is largely resolved, but monitoring data shows the problem isn't completely eliminated – it's managed to acceptable levels. Some areas still experience occasional events during high pollution periods. International environmental research indicates that rapidly industrializing Asian countries face similar problems to what we experienced decades ago, though they're implementing successful strategies.



EPA research shows nitrogen oxide emissions proved more challenging than sulfur dioxide, coming from vehicles and mobile sources. Climate science studies suggest changing weather patterns add complexity to how acid rain forms and falls.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What this teaches us</h2>



The acid rain experience proves that seemingly intractable environmental problems can be solved with scientific understanding, political will, and technological innovation. Environmental monitoring data shows recovery speed was remarkable – within a decade, measurable improvements appeared in air quality and ecosystem health.



Success came from bipartisan support across party lines. Policy analysis studies show the market-based approach appealed to those preferring economic incentives while achieving environmental goals. This support created lasting policy surviving political changes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Conclusion</h2>



Acid rain's disappearance from public consciousness represents environmental science's greatest success stories. Through effective regulation, technological innovation, and international cooperation, we transformed an overwhelming crisis into a manageable challenge.



Today's silence isn't because we forgot – it's because we solved it. The 1990 Clean Air Act, combined with technology and energy market changes, reduced acid rain emissions over 90%, according to comprehensive EPA data analysis.



This success offers hope for current challenges. It proves complex problems can be solved when science, policy, and technology work together. As we face climate change and plastic pollution, acid rain reminds us that dramatic positive change is possible.



Next time someone asks whether environmental regulations work, remember acid rain. It's proof that sometimes, we get it right.



<hr class="wp-block-separator has-alpha-channel-opacity"/>



Sources: This article draws from EPA official documentation and progress reports, peer-reviewed research published in environmental and atmospheric science journals, historical data from the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation, New York State Department of Environmental Conservation records, US Geological Survey publications, policy analysis studies, and environmental monitoring data collected over three decades.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Frequently Asked Questions</h2>



1. Is acid rain completely gone? No, but EPA monitoring shows it's reduced to manageable levels. US sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990, making acid rain much less severe than the 1980s crisis.



2. How long did solving take? Environmental monitoring data shows significant improvements began within 5-10 years of 1990s emission controls. Full ecosystem recovery took longer – some areas need 20-30 years for complete recovery.



3. What made the solution successful? Clear scientific understanding, visible damage motivating action, bipartisan support, available technology, and innovative market-based policies like cap-and-trade.



4. Do other countries have acid rain problems? Yes, particularly rapidly industrializing Asian countries. However, international environmental research shows many implement similar successful control strategies.



5. Could acid rain return? Potentially, if regulations weaken or we return to high-sulfur coal without controls, though effects would take years to become severe according to environmental projections.



6. Can you recommend any teaching tools on the subject of "acid rain"? The United States Environmental Protection Agency produced a wonderful teacher's guide for ages 14 and under that you can find on the EPA website here: <a href="https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf</a>



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The environmental problem we actually solved

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk Acid rain and a crisis solved. Why don't we...

Fresh,Radish,Harvest,On,Soil,In,Garden.

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</div></figure>







Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving fall garden, and this guide lays out the best vegetables and herbs to plant now for a fruitful autumn harvest. 



Fast-growing leafy greens such as spinach, lettuce, kale, and arugula perform especially well in the waning summer heat, with harvests beginning as soon as 30 days. 



These cool-season crops relish the transition into fall, offering repeated yields with cut-and-come-again methods.



Root vegetables like radishes, carrots, and beets also excel during this period. Radishes deliver satisfaction in under a month, while carrots and beets mature in about two months. Employing succession planting ensures a continuous stream of produce deep into the cooler months. 



For a boost of fresh flavor, herbs like cilantro, basil, dill, and chervil are excellent picks. These heat-loving varieties flourish in July’s warmth and are harvest-ready in about 30 days, especially when sown continuously.



Gardeners in zones 6 through 9 can benefit from planting bush beans and snap peas, which don’t require trellising and are ideal for compact plots. 



Maturing in 50–60 days, they’re a smart choice for quick, protein-rich harvests. For those in hotter regions, heat-tolerant crops such as okra and southern peas provide reliable yields and thrive in scorching conditions.



This guide emphasizes more than crop selection—it highlights the importance of timing, soil preparation, and ongoing sowing techniques. 



With thoughtful planning and attention to regional climate needs, even late-summer gardeners can enjoy fresh salads, hearty stews, and the satisfaction of a robust, homegrown harvest well into fall.



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What to plant in your garden in mid-July

https://youtu.be/Fi2OeEwuzRM?si=vTyd2m9FMmtyWkex Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving...

Green,Ecoduct,Over,An,Empty,Highway,During,Sunset.

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https://youtu.be/XYgiPzmNBTU?si=eFYY7gPHU1JznLvU
</div></figure>



A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that wildlife tunnels significantly reduce amphibian road mortality during seasonal migrations. 



Frogs and salamanders often cross roads to reach breeding ponds each spring, but many are killed by vehicles. 



Researchers from the <a href="https://www.uvm.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Vermont</a>, in collaboration with local citizens and the Vermont Agency of Natural Resources, installed two underpass tunnels in 2015. 



Over a 12-year monitoring period, they observed an 80.2% reduction in amphibian deaths, and up to 94% for non-climbing species like salamanders. 



The study used a before-after-control-impact design and documented more than 5,200 amphibians, highlighting the tunnels’ effectiveness even in nearby buffer zones.



Funded at $342,397 - far cheaper than wildlife crossings for large mammals - the project showcased the power of community-led conservation.



Local groups initiated the effort after observing mass amphibian deaths. Wildlife cameras later captured over 2,200 amphibians using a tunnel in just one spring, along with other species like raccoons and bobcats, indicating wider ecosystem benefits.



This marks the first peer-reviewed, long-term data set in the northeastern U.S. confirming amphibian-specific underpasses work. 



The study urges transportation departments to incorporate these designs into road planning and highlights how community action, thoughtful infrastructure, and persistence can make a real difference for biodiversity.



The full study was published in the <a href="https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1617138125000780" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal for Nature Conservation</a>.



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-----

Wildlife tunnels save millions of amphibians

https://youtu.be/XYgiPzmNBTU?si=eFYY7gPHU1JznLvU A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that...

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing it with probiotics and prebiotics, aiming to create a treat that satisfies cravings while supporting gut health. 



The challenge lies in maintaining chocolate's beloved texture and flavor while adding health benefits.



<figure class="wp-block-embed aligncenter is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://youtu.be/Ug657J67iEo?si=w96YjGMsg939LD_3
</div></figure>



Probiotics - beneficial microbes that balance gut bacteria and aid digestion - are typically fragile and can be destroyed by stomach acid or processing. 



Prebiotics act as food for these microbes, helping them thrive. Together, they form "synbiotics," a powerful health combination.



Researchers Smriti Gaur and Shubhi Singh from India's Jaypee Institute of Information Technology took an innovative approach, using natural prebiotics like corn and honey instead of complex processing methods. 



They created five chocolate varieties: a control and four synbiotic versions containing different combinations of prebiotics, probiotics (Lactobacillus strains), and flavor enhancers (cinnamon or orange).



Laboratory simulations of human digestion showed the probiotics remained viable for over five hours, suggesting they could survive long enough to benefit gut health.



Taste tests were positive, with researchers particularly enjoying the orange-flavored variety, describing it as having "vibrant citrus notes" complementing the "rich cocoa" with a "luxurious" texture.



This research represents just the beginning. With further refinement of strains, textures, and flavors, chocolate could evolve beyond mere indulgence to become a functional food that nourishes while it delights.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.4c00741" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ACS Food Science &amp; Technology</a>.

Is chocolate the next nutritional powerhouse?

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

[sendtonews key="0ynNMYkMKa-2340414-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

[sendtonews key="G9bUoxcjr4-2511624-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="3upvlAaHgO-2256633-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

[sendtonews key="3upvlAaHgO-2256633-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

[sendtonews key="LvS8v8bp9z-2564889-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="X0f6OHYoI4-2310561-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How does salt makes things taste better?

[sendtonews key="X0f6OHYoI4-2310561-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="JRaP49ISmm-2357509-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Santiago, Chile in South America

[sendtonews key="JRaP49ISmm-2357509-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

[sendtonews key="e4ZG0Jawp3-2374785-12187" type="single"] Astronomers at Johns Hopkins University have created...

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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.



According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."



Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;



ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. 



Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 



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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

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Earth,Like,Exoplanet,3d,Render

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

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