Young aspen trees in Yellowstone are doing something they have not done in almost 100 years. Rather than sprouting and being eaten back to nubs by elk and bison, they're actually growing into tall, adult forest trees rising up towards the canopy.



This matters more than it might seem, because it shows what happens when a missing piece of an ecosystem returns.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-yellowstone-aspens-and-elk">Yellowstone, aspens, and elk</h2>



In the 1920s, people <a href="https://www.yellowstone.org/wolf-project/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">eliminated wolves in Yellowstone</a>. At the time, with limited scientific knowledge, managers believed it was the right thing to do.



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/from-wolves-to-dogs-did-domestication-begin-without-human-help/">Without wolves</a>, elk herds grew very large. Elk love to eat aspen shoots - the tender young growth is highly palatable to them.



For roughly 70 years, elk browsed aspen sprouts down to stub height, and the trees couldn't grow. 



If you had walked through Yellowstone in the 1980s, you would have seen many tiny aspen shoots covering the ground, but almost no young trees gaining height. 



The forest's regeneration was stalled. Old trees died, and no new ones replaced them.



In 1995 and 1996, park managers reintroduced wolves into the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/yellowstone-supervolcano-eruption-study-sparks-new-debate-on-where-and-when-it-will-erupt/">Yellowstone Park ecosystem</a>. Scientists hoped and wondered whether this would change anything for the trees.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-aspen-matter-to-yellowstone">Why aspen matter to Yellowstone</h2>



Aspen groves provide habitat for many species. Birds nest in them. Beavers eat the bark and use the wood for dams. Butterflies and moths lay eggs on the leaves. 



Their canopy admits enough light for wildflowers and shrubs to grow beneath. When it rains, aspen groves hold water in the soil better than some other forest types.



In short, when aspen return, dozens of other species benefit. More trees support more insects, which in turn support more birds, enriching the ecosystem.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-checking-the-trees-three-decades-later">Checking the trees three decades later</h2>



<a href="https://fwcs.oregonstate.edu/users/luke-painter" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Luke Painter</a>, an ecologist at <a href="https://oregonstate.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Oregon State University</a>, sought clear answers. His team returned to 87 aspen stands across Yellowstone that scientists had previously surveyed. 



They measured thousands of young trees, looked for bite marks, and counted how many stems were tall enough that elk could no longer reach the tips.



About a third of these stands now have many tall young aspens pushing toward the canopy. 



"About 26 of the 87 aspen stands we examined had large numbers of tall saplings throughout, a remarkable change from the 1990s when surveys found none at all," Painter said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-wolves-matter-to-yellowstone-aspens">Why wolves matter to Yellowstone aspens</h2>



Breaking it all down, the conclusions of this study are pretty simple. 



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/wolves-move-pups-across-mountains-to-adapt-to-climate-pressure/">Wolves hunt elk</a>. When wolves came back, two things happened. First, elk numbers declined from unusually high levels. Second, elk changed their behavior. They spent less time in the same areas feeding.



With fewer elk and shorter feeding bouts, more aspen shoots survived long enough to exceed the browsing zone - about six to seven feet high. 



Once a sapling reaches that height, elk cannot easily reach the growing tip. The tree continues to grow.



"The reintroduction of large carnivores has initiated a recovery process that had been shut down for decades," Painter explained.



Scientists call this a <a href="https://www.nature.com/scitable/knowledge/library/trophic-cascades-across-diverse-plant-ecosystems-80060347/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">trophic cascade</a> - when adding or removing one species causes changes that ripple through the whole system.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-some-places-recover-others-don-t">Some places recover, others don't</h2>



Unfortunately, not every aspen stand has recovered yet. Some valleys still have many short, heavily browsed shoots, because it's not only elk eating them anymore. 



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/yellowstones-iconic-bison-have-merged-into-a-single-herd/">Bison herds have grown</a>, and bison browse on aspen as well. They are strong enough to break young trees. 



"Increasing numbers of bison may be emerging as a new constraint to aspen in some areas," Painter confirmed.



Additionally, winter snow depth varies; droughts stress trees; bears and mountain lions also hunt elk; and hunting outside the park influences elk distribution. 



All of these factors interact, which is why some sites show strong recovery, others show moderate recovery, and a few have changed very little.



The key pattern is that places with many tall saplings experience little browsing, and aspen groves that remain popular eating grounds today stay short. 



This fact is the strongest indication that tree recovery is linked directly to wolf presence, not solely to weather or soil conditions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-proof-in-the-measurements">Proof in the measurements</h2>



Painter's team did not rely on casual observation. They used the same methods as earlier researchers, measuring the same plots. 



They counted recruitment - when young trees surpass browsing height and begin progressing toward maturity. This measure is crucial. Sprouts are insufficient if they never grow; without recruitment, the forest cannot replace itself.



The results are robust. After being stalled for most of a century, Yellowstone's aspens are increasing in height. In recovering stands today, you will see saplings - six, eight, or ten feet tall - that were not present in the 1990s.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-future-of-yellowstone-s-aspens">The future of Yellowstone's aspens</h2>



"This is a remarkable case of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/giant-viruses-found-in-yellowstones-hot-springs-may-be-near-the-root-of-all-life-on-earth/">ecological restoration</a>," Painter concluded. "Wolf reintroduction is yielding long-term ecological changes contributing to increased biodiversity and habitat diversity."



Trees grow slowly, so even with wolves restored, it will take decades for these young aspens to form a full-grown forest. 



Some areas might never fully recover if bison numbers continue to rise or if the climate becomes too hot and dry.



Thanks to the work of Painter and his team, scientists are now certain that restoring the Yellowstone predator has restarted aspen forest regeneration. Not everywhere and not perfectly, but enough to be measured, creating hope for the future.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0378112725004499?via%3Dihub" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Forest Ecology and Management</a>.



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Yellowstone's aspen trees are growing again thanks to the reintroduction of wolves

Young aspen trees in Yellowstone are doing something they have not done in almost 100 years. Rather than sprouting and being eaten back to nubs by elk and bison, they're actually growing into tall, adult forest trees rising up towards the canopy. This matters more than it might seem, because it shows what happens when a missing piece of an ecosystem returns. Yellowstone, aspens, and elk In the 1920s, people eliminated wolves in Yellowstone. At the time, with limited scientific knowledge, managers believed it was the right...

Researchers and healthcare workers have seen a rapid rise in reports of the alpha-gal food allergy, which is linked to bites by certain ticks. The number of confirmed cases jumped from just 24 in 2009 to more than 34,000 in 2019.



“Red meat allergy caused by tick bites might be increasing in association with fragmented habitats,” noted Dr. Brandon D. Hollingsworth, from <a href="https://www.unchealth.org/home" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">UNC Health</a>, who was lead lead author of a new study in the mid-Atlantic region. 



Dr. Hollingsworth has explored how environmental features might be tied to these tick-borne <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-is-making-allergy-season-worse-and-longer-lasting/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">reactions</a>.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tick-bites-and-red-meat-allergies">Tick bites and red meat allergies</h2>



Alpha-gal syndrome (AGS) affects people who have developed a specific immune response triggered by substances present in tick saliva. After being bitten, they react negatively to certain sugars in mammalian meat, and develop symptoms that include hives, stomach distress, and sometimes serious <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-therapy-may-help-reduce-peanut-allergies-in-children/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">reactions</a>.



Health specialists have noted that neurotoxins and other biological cues in tick saliva may help these creatures to latch onto humans, increasing exposure for people in areas where wildlife and urban zones overlap.



Those who live near forest edges, or in suburban spots with scattered trees, may be at higher risk.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-broken-forests-and-suburban-lawns">Broken forests and suburban lawns</h2>



Fragmented lands often bring deer, raccoons, and other tick-carrying animals into contact with <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/oak-trees-show-that-allergy-season-is-becoming-longer-and-more-intense/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">human</a> communities. Large lawns that border wooded patches create a patchwork of grass and trees, which many ticks seem to favor.



Recent investigations found that open space development and low-intensity construction might be associated with more tick bites.



Arachnologist field surveys have shown that some of the densest populations of the tick <a href="https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8352541/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Amblyomma americanum</a> occur where small forests and developed lots meet.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-from-coastlines-to-mountains">From coastlines to mountains</h2>



Scientists who mapped the distribution of alpha-gal syndrome in North Carolina, South Carolina, and Virginia observed a general shift in case frequency from coastal plains to mountainous zones. 



Some analyses showed patchy spots in coastal lands, but the highest likelihood of cases was often in places with low-density sprawl.



Low-density suburban settings offer enough shade, leaf litter, and wild animal life to allow ticks to flourish. Even properties with scattered white-tailed deer traffic may give these ticks the chance to drop off and find new hosts.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lack-of-awareness">Lack of awareness </h2>



Diagnosing <a href="https://www.cdc.gov/alpha-gal-syndrome/about/index.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">alpha-gal syndrome</a> isn't easy. Unlike most food allergies, symptoms don’t appear right after eating. They can take 3 to 6 hours to show up, which makes it hard for people to connect their symptoms to something they ate.



Even worse, most doctors still aren’t familiar with the condition. A 2023 CDC <a href="https://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/volumes/72/wr/mm7230a1.htm" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">report</a> found that 77% of U.S. healthcare providers were either unaware of AGS or unsure how to diagnose it. 



Without proper testing and awareness, thousands of people may go undiagnosed or misdiagnosed, often enduring months of unexplained <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/early-peanut-consumption-could-prevent-100000-allergy-cases-each-year/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">symptoms</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-protection-from-tick-borne-meat-allergies">Protection from tick-borne meat allergies</h2>



Reports of alpha-gal syndrome could keep rising if habitat changes continue and warmer temperatures <a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0150180" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">extend</a> the active season for ticks. Simple habits, such as using insect repellents, wearing light-colored clothing, and promptly checking for ticks after yard work can reduce exposure risks.



Healthcare professionals also suggest that individuals track any reactions linked to beef, pork, or other red meats. 



Test positivity rates in certain regions have approached 30% of screened patients, which means vigilance is important for anyone experiencing odd, food-related issues.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tick-bites-can-spark-lifelong-allergies">Tick bites can spark lifelong allergies</h2>



“We found evidence that suggests repeated tick bites can set off the allergic response,” wrote Gary Crispell, who studied tick-induced IgE patterns in North American patients. Surprisingly, a single tick bite is sometimes enough to spark alpha-gal sensitivity in certain people.&nbsp;



Although this condition can affect day-to-day life for some, awareness among doctors and patients is still catching up. 



Early and correct diagnosis can help steer people away from foods that might trigger severe meat allergy events, leading to more confident meal choices and fewer unwelcome surprises after sitting at the dinner table.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-limitations-and-future-research-directions">Limitations and future research directions </h2>



One of the main limitations in current research is that tick exposure is estimated based on where a person lives, not on the location where they were actually bitten. Many people spend time in parks, on trails, or visiting family in different areas, so the models can't pinpoint exact exposure sites.



Researchers also noted that wealthier individuals in suburban areas might be more likely to seek medical help and testing, which could also skew case data. 



To improve accuracy, future studies may need to incorporate patient travel histories and broader seroprevalence surveys across different income and age groups.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-recognizing-the-influential-factors">Recognizing the influential factors</h2>



Many counties across the mid-Atlantic are adding public health alerts to help folks recognize the signs of alpha-gal syndrome. 



Researchers have expressed hope that timely recognition of these habitat factors will lead to targeted education, so that fewer individuals end up with frustrating or even dangerous allergic reactions.



Some people worry that fewer forest corridors might mean fewer ticks, but partial deforestation and selective development sometimes backfire by providing more edges for tick proliferation. 



Land planners aiming to reduce tick-human contact may need to balance green space with better pest-management practices.



The study was published in the journal <a href="https://journals.plos.org/climate/article?id=10.1371/journal.pclm.0000528" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">PLOS Climate</a>.



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Tick bites can trigger lifelong red meat allergies

Researchers and healthcare workers have seen a rapid rise in...

Human beings have always relied on more than speech to communicate. Thankfully, we can understand a person's intention from their gaze with just a look. Long before the first spoken word, our ancestors navigated danger, formed bonds, and shared meaning through glances and gestures. 



Among these silent exchanges, eye contact holds a unique power. A single look can connect minds, signal warning, or offer comfort. But how much can we really know from someone’s gaze?



A recent study from <a href="https://www.mcgill.ca" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">McGill University</a> brings science closer to answering this age-old question. The findings suggest that intentional eye movements - those chosen freely by a person - send out subtle signals that others can sense and interpret rapidly.



These tiny, often imperceptible differences <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mothers-affection-shapes-a-childs-personality-into-adulthood/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">influence</a> how quickly we respond to what someone else is looking at. In a world that often relies on words, this study reminds us that silence can still speak volumes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-we-read-intent-through-eyes">We read intent through eyes</h2>



In human <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/personality-has-a-profound-influence-on-gene-expression/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evolution</a>, silence could mean survival. Making a sound might have alerted predators, but eyes offered a way to share information without speaking. As groups grew more complex, humans became increasingly skilled at reading facial cues, especially those from the eyes.



“Humans have a long history of living in complex groups and social situations. It has been theorized that this has led our brains to develop a heightened ability to focus on social cues from faces, and especially from eyes,” said Jelena Ristic, a professor in McGill’s psychology department.



“It’s a system that has evolved to support very quick exchanges of complex social information.”



This insight ties into something we experience every day. Whether in conversation, walking down a street, or sitting in a room, our eyes constantly seek out the gaze of others to determine their intention. 



We look where they look. We try to see what they see. And even infants - just months old - follow the gaze of their caregivers.



“Gaze-following is thought to provide a foundation for our <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bees-have-unique-personalities-that-determine-whether-they-sting/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">social development</a> and behavior. It helps us to understand what others are thinking, looking or wanting, as well as to connect with them mentally, so we follow where others are looking quickly and spontaneously. Even young human infants and primates do it,” said Ristic.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-different-eye-movements">Different eye movements</h2>



To better understand how gaze reveals intention, researchers at McGill created a unique experimental setup. Participants viewed videos where people looked either to the left or right. 



In some clips, the on-screen individuals decided for themselves where to look. In others, they were directed by a computer. The twist? Observers didn’t know whether the gaze was chosen or instructed.



Videos paused just before the eye movement began. Participants were then asked to guess the direction the person would look next. 



What the researchers found was compelling: when the gaze was self-chosen, participants responded faster - even if their guesses weren’t always more accurate. This suggests that people subconsciously picked up on something in the eyes before the gaze shift occurred.



This phenomenon became the focus of three detailed experiments led by Florence Mayrand, Sarah D. McCrackin, and Jelena Ristic. The results confirm that we are quicker to respond when we sense the intention behind a glance.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-we-react-faster-to-an-intentional-gaze">We react faster to an intentional gaze</h2>



The first experiment measured how fast participants could predict gaze direction. In the second and third experiments, the researchers explored whether the gaze also affected how quickly people responded to targets appearing in the gazed-at direction. 



The answer was yes - targets that matched the direction of an intentional gaze prompted faster responses. Importantly, this was not just about where the eyes moved. It was about how they moved. 



A detailed analysis using optical flow techniques revealed more subtle motion in the eye region when the gaze was intentional. These small changes, although nearly invisible to the naked eye, were enough to affect how people responded.



“The speed of the observers’ responses suggests that they implicitly recognize and respond more quickly to intentional eye movements. It also told us how sensitive we are to information about the mental state and intentions conveyed by the eyes,” Mayrand explained.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-science-of-seeing-intention-through-gaze">Science of seeing intention through gaze</h2>



This sensitivity doesn’t seem to stem from deliberate thought. Instead, it appears automatic - something wired into our <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/personality-type-can-accurately-predict-your-relationship-status/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">biology</a>. Experiment 1 showed that people respond faster to intentional looks even before any visible shift occurs. 



This supports the theory that mental state information is conveyed through the eyes, and that others pick up on it before movement is complete. Subsequent experiments explored the timing of gaze-related cues.



In Experiment 3, the researchers varied the delay between the moment the eyes moved and when the target appeared. They found that the effect of intentional gaze was strongest when participants had time to process the cue - suggesting that even subtle signals need a short moment to influence behavior.



Interestingly, while directionality affected how quickly people noticed targets, it did not significantly interact with the perception of intent. This indicates that the brain may process where someone is looking and why they are looking there using different systems, possibly in parallel.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tiny-eye-motions-speak-volumes">Tiny eye motions speak volumes</h2>



In their analysis, the researchers measured the motion around the eyes in self-chosen versus instructed trials. They found that even before the actual gaze shift, intentional eye movements created slightly more motion in the eye region.



These micro-movements may be the signals that observers unknowingly detect and respond to. This motion pattern is so subtle that it’s not consciously visible, yet it still changes behavior. 



The study used Optical Flow Analysis to measure these movements, offering a new method for understanding how gaze communicates mental states. The results open up possibilities for future research using high-speed eye tracking or neuroimaging to examine this phenomenon more closely.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-gaze-shapes-how-we-connect">Gaze shapes how we connect</h2>



The findings have broader relevance. In real life, we often make quick judgments based on a look. These split-second decisions might be influenced by motion cues we don’t even realize we’re seeing. 



This also explains why some people appear more expressive than others - even when they don’t speak. The research team now hopes to explore how these cues function across different populations.



Can people with autism or ADHD pick up on the same signals? How do different gazer identities influence observer response? And does gender affect the perception of intention?



In future studies, researchers aim to test more diverse gazers and contexts. They may examine how intention detection works in natural settings, such as live conversations or social environments. They also plan to investigate how auditory cues or timing instructions affect our ability to recognize intentions behind a person's gaze.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-eyes-as-messengers-of-the-mind">Eyes as messengers of the mind</h2>



This study confirms what poets, artists, and parents have known for centuries: our eyes carry meaning far beyond sight. The research shows that even the smallest eye movement can transmit intent, emotion, and attention. 



What’s new is the scientific understanding of how, when, and why that happens. At its core, this work redefines what it means to “see” someone. 



A look is never just a look - it’s a signal. And now, thanks to this research, we know that signal is not only visible but measurable. In a noisy world, the quiet power of a glance still speaks the loudest.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s44271-024-00137-x" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Communications Psychology</a>.



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Gaze and intention: The unspoken language of survival

Human beings have always relied on more than speech to...

Microscopic particles are useful in many areas of technology. These tiny helpers are often smaller than a grain of pollen, yet they promise many possibilities that could address specific medical needs or environmental challenges.



Janus particles are nano- or micro-sized materials that have distinctly different properties on the opposite sides of each particle. 



The particles can carry out more than one function at the same time. This special property, which is related to their asymmetry, makes them candidates for smart tasks, such as moving substances around in specific ways.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-janus-particles-caught-attention">Why Janus particles caught attention</h2>



A couple of decades ago, a Penn State team developed <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsnano.4c05076" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Phoretic Janus particles</a>, which are small structures covered by two different chemical surfaces. One side can push fluid away, while the other side does the opposite.



Scientists consider these particles interesting because they can power themselves using simple fuels. This feature allows them to swim along microscopic pathways, carry <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/robots-with-space-to-think-will-become-more-useful/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">materials</a>, and respond to signals like changes in acidity



“A major problem with designing anything that moves, both large and small, is how its motion is altered when placed in a confined environment,” said Stewart Mallory, assistant professor of chemistry and chemical engineering at <a href="https://www.psu.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Penn State</a>.



His team explored these concerns through theoretical and computational approaches, targeting ways to manage and harness particle <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/robots-can-now-learn-from-humans-by-watching-how-to-videos/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">motion</a> when space is restricted.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-controlling-janus-particles-for-smart-tasks">Controlling Janus particles for smart tasks</h2>



Single-file movement appears in microscopic and daily life situations. When particles line up without the option to pass, researchers call it <a href="https://journals.aps.org/pre/abstract/10.1103/PhysRevE.110.024118" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">single-file dynamics</a>.



For microscale designs, predicting how far these particles will travel over time becomes vital. Mallory’s group recently published a study, revealing a new way to handle this problem in tiny <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/worlds-smallest-robot-could-transform-minimally-invasive-surgery/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">channels</a>.



The researchers aim to fine-tune the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-soft-robot-crawls-moves-like-origami-folds/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">behavior</a> of these particles for various uses. By adjusting the chemical nature of the two surfaces, it becomes possible to control the direction, speed, and timing of their movements.



These tiny swimmers could someday move inside the body, delivering medication to specific spots. Another application involves targeting pollutants, such as unwanted plastics in water, by programming the particles to bind to those pollutants and carry them away.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-we-need-to-predict-motion-precisely">Why we need to predict motion precisely</h2>



Microscale environments are unpredictable. Fluids behave differently, surfaces become obstacles, and minor changes can throw off expected behavior. If we want reliable machines the size of a cell, we need to account for every bit of delay, drift, or redirection.



That’s why the Penn State team focused so much on <a href="https://docs.mdanalysis.org/2.0.0/documentation_pages/analysis/msd.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">mean square displacement</a> - a measure of how far a particle tends to move over time.



The new formula factors in restrictions like narrow pathways and traffic-like build-ups, which helps engineers design devices that can meet medical or environmental deadlines without getting stuck or stalled.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-group-behavior-of-janus-particles">Group behavior of Janus particles</h2>



Microscopic workers sometimes act together. This leads to <a href="https://journals.aps.org/prresearch/abstract/10.1103/PhysRevResearch.6.013118" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">collective behavior</a>, a phenomenon where large groups of self-propelled particles produce effects that extend beyond individual motions.



Once these particles interact in confined environments, the crowded setting can slow them or change their patterns. 



Learning how Janus particles cluster under different conditions paves the way for practical applications such as localized treatment or smart <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/robot-buddies-encourage-children-to-stay-physical-activity/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">material</a> assembly.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-prospects-for-targeted-treatments">Prospects for targeted treatments</h2>



Some nanoparticles, made from materials like <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK562303/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">calcium carbonate</a>, can respond to unique markers from diseased cells, allowing them to gather in the affected area. These tiny machines might deliver medication straight to cancer cells or other unhealthy tissue.



Fine control is crucial. Engineers need to predict how quickly the particles will reach their destinations, whether they will remain stable in the bloodstream, and how to stop them from clustering when unnecessary.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-janus-particles-for-material-building">Janus particles for material building</h2>



Mallory’s team also investigated how smaller building blocks might form more extensive structures on their own. Natural processes inspire this work, showing that self-assembly can arrange molecules into organized clusters.



If the right pieces are placed in a fluid with active particles, researchers think they can coax those pieces into forming patterns. This approach might save costs and time by letting the system organize itself, thus cutting down on human interference.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-computational-models-and-future-paths">Computational models and future paths</h2>



Mallory and his colleagues developed complex simulations that focus on both single particles and swarms. The goal is to blend these methods so that the microscopic actions of each particle add up to a predictable whole.



These simulations matter because every change in environment affects how the particles swim or assemble. By building reliable models, the team hopes to create functioning micro-robots that can handle tasks ranging from medicine to pollution control.



Interest in these tiny movers is steadily growing. Scientists want to ensure their designs are safe, efficient, and precise before they are put to the test.



Some experts think these developments may transform how diseases are treated or how we deal with ecological threats. Every step in understanding single-file motion or boosting the abilities of Janus particles moves the field closer to helpful outcomes.



The study is published in <a href="https://pubs.aip.org/aip/jcp/article-abstract/162/16/164902/3344885/Single-file-diffusion-of-active-Brownian-particles?redirectedFrom=fulltext" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">The Journal of Chemical Physics</a>.



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Tiny particles may help cure disease and clean up pollution

Microscopic particles are useful in many areas of technology. These...

Humans have depended on baker’s yeast for thousands of years. They used it to produce bread, wine, and other fermented goods as early as 7000 BCE.&nbsp; Recent work at the <a href="https://www.uga.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Georgia</a> uncovers how this tiny organism might hold a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/humans-and-bakers-yeast-have-similar-dna/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">record</a> of past human movement.



The study was led by Douda Bensasson, an associate professor in the Franklin College of Arts and Sciences Department of Plant Biology at the University of Georgia.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-yeast-found-in-kitchens-and-forests">Yeast found in kitchens and forests</h2>



Scientists have found yeast living both in food production settings and in wild habitats. The researchers discovered that wild types from certain forests show <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-018-0030-5" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">genetic differences</a> from those usually associated with baking or winemaking.



“We are seeing distinct subpopulations within continents,” said Jacqueline J. Peña, a Ph.D. candidate in the Department of Plant Biology.



She explained that evidence points to some wild yeast types mingling with those associated with <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fossil-discovery-anadoluvius-turkae-suggests-humans-originated-in-europe-not-africa/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">humans</a>, even though they still maintain separate traits.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-yeast-migration-mirrors-human-farming">Yeast migration mirrors human farming</h2>



Migration patterns often bring to mind ancient journeys of large mammals. Yeast appears to have followed a similar <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16103919/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">timeline</a>, but on an invisible scale.



“But to our surprise, we found that it roughly coincided with the last ice age, which is around the time that humans were starting to grow their own food and spreading farming around the world,” said Bensasson. 



She noted that this timeline could suggest <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/prediction-how-and-when-humans-and-mammals-will-face-next-mass-extinction/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">people</a> helped scatter microscopic travelers without knowing it.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-humans-unknowingly-carried-yeast">Humans unknowingly carried yeast</h2>



The scientists traced certain genetic markers in yeast to see if strains in America might have come from other regions.



The results showed that some forest populations in North America share a close link to those in Asia, while others in Europe also appear to have origins outside local woodlands.



This picture hints that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/hidden-chapter-in-human-evolution-revealed-through-genetics/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">people</a> have carted microbes along with food and supplies for centuries. It also reveals how a single-celled organism can adapt to bark and soil while staying genetically distinct from domestic varieties.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-historic-vineyard-rescue">Historic vineyard rescue</h2>



A major clue about how humans moved yeast lies in 19th-century Europe. Vineyards suffered from Phylloxera, an insect accidentally introduced from North America that devastated grapes in places like France.



Workers <a href="https://archive.org/details/botanistvintnerh0000camp" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">saved</a> the wine industry by bringing hardy rootstock from the southern United States. This decision likely introduced American yeast into European soils, where it now coexists with local strains.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-secrets-of-yeast-in-the-forest">Secrets of yeast in the forest</h2>



This study pushes back against the tidy line we often draw between wild and domestic life. 



Humans show that microbes like yeast don’t stay neatly categorized - they move, mix, and adapt in ways that blur the boundaries we expect.



When North American yeast appeared in European forests, it didn’t just mean new DNA in new places. It revealed that even wild spaces aren't untouched. What looks natural might carry a quiet legacy of global trade, human survival strategies, and forgotten agricultural fixes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-worries-about-modern-shifts">Worries about modern shifts</h2>



The researchers fear that current global trade, travel, and agricultural methods might speed up yeast relocation. They suspect unintentional transport could alter local ecosystems in ways we still do not fully grasp.



“If humans, without intending to, were moving microbes around thousands of years ago, just think about all the stuff that we are doing now. We may be changing all kinds of things without knowing it. And I don’t know if that’s good or bad, but it’s a little worrying that we have no idea what we’re doing,” said Bensasson.&nbsp;



Scholars want to keep mapping these microscopic footprints. They believe it might uncover more interactions between human habits and the natural world.



Future studies could focus on other corners of the globe where microbes remain understudied. Research on overlooked strains may reveal even more about how such organisms follow humanity’s path across different landscapes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-yeast-reveals-human-nature-connection">Yeast reveals human-nature connection</h2>



Although tree-borne yeast strains often stay isolated, these lineages can occasionally merge with domestic cousins. Some leaps across oceans happened without notice, spreading yeast populations that now stick to bark or hide in grapevines.



Tracking them sheds light on the entwined story of people and the species we carry. Each forest sampling reveals new details about an ongoing shuffle between wild and cultivated environments.



Yeast research brings a fresh perspective to ancient migrations and modern agricultural practices. The way yeast shows up in unexpected places illustrates how small life forms can roam far when humans are on the move.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/mec.17669" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Molecular Ecology</a>.



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Yeast in forests reveals a story of ancient human migration

Humans have depended on baker’s yeast for thousands of years....

Rattlesnake venom has always intrigued scientists due to its complex role in hunting and survival. A new study is shaking up traditional ideas by showing that some island populations are evolving simpler venom <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/venom-beyond-animals-the-toxic-arsenal-of-fungi-plants-and-microbes/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">profiles</a> instead of increasingly intricate ones.



The researchers explored 11 remote islands in the Gulf of California to gather samples from 83 rattlesnakes. The investigation was led by Dr. Mark Margres of the <a href="https://www.usf.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of South Florida</a> and doctoral student Samuel Hirst.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-these-rattlesnakes-were-studied">How these rattlesnakes were studied</h2>



The research team spent long nights on quiet shorelines, collecting rattlesnakes once the tropical sun had settled. The goal was to capture fresh venom that reflects real-world conditions in these secluded habitats.



Each snake was coaxed into a specialized container to safely harvest a small sample of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/cobra-venom-just-became-less-deadly-thanks-to-a-common-drug/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">venom</a>. Afterward, every reptile was released back into the wild, minimizing stress and disruption.



Once collected, the venom samples were carefully dried and labeled, then examined through advanced lab techniques. Different chemical components helped reveal how each snake’s meal plan might influence its toxin makeup.



Because these islands host four recognized rattlesnake species, the researchers could compare venom traits across multiple genetic backgrounds. This gave them a unique perspective on how ecology, diet, and isolation interact to shape <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-black-widow-venom-attacks-the-nervous-system/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evolution</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-island-rattlesnakes-evolved-simpler-venoms">Island rattlesnakes evolved simpler venoms</h2>



<a href="https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.1704949114" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Habitat fragmentation</a> is a key factor in the current biodiversity crisis, which threatens species worldwide. Islands act like natural test cases for fragmentation, letting scientists see how animals respond when surrounded by ocean barriers.



“We initially hypothesized that larger islands, which support greater biodiversity and prey diversity, would be associated with more complex venoms. However, we found the opposite pattern,” said Hirst.&nbsp;



On these bigger landmasses, island rattlesnakes often developed narrower <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/spider-venom-has-hidden-biochemical-value/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">toxin</a> ranges. The reason might be linked to competition from other snake species that forces them to specialize.



At the same time, smaller islands presented their own surprises. Limited space and fewer prey options led to different venom formulas that still challenge old assumptions about how venom should evolve.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-habitat-changes-in-rattlesnake-venom">Habitat changes in rattlesnake venom</h2>



“Habitat fragmentation is like breaking apart a completed puzzle. A healthy, intact <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/deadly-snail-venom-possible-key-to-improving-diabetes-medicine/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ecosystem</a> is like a 1,000-piece puzzle where every piece is in place - you can clearly see the full picture,” said Margres.



Although these Gulf of California islands are not heavily impacted by people, they show what might happen in places where roads, farms, or cities carve habitats into smaller patches. Different species may evolve unexpected traits just to keep up with these pressures.



That includes changes at the molecular level, such as refining venom for specific prey. This idea underscores why monitoring smaller populations is so vital to conservation biology.



Funding from the <a href="https://www.nationalgeographic.org/society/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">National Geographic Society</a> supported fieldwork efforts that took place under permits from Mexican environmental authorities. This partnership made the study possible while respecting ecological protections on the islands.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-island-rattlesnakes-matter">Why island rattlesnakes matter</h2>



Island rattlesnakes aren’t just oddities tucked away on remote shorelines - they’re indicators of how quickly evolution can shift when ecosystems shrink or isolate.



What happens on an island, where every change is magnified, might foreshadow what could unfold in other fragmented habitats affected by human expansion.



Because venom is a survival tool that adapts to local prey, changes in its complexity can highlight how animals respond to shifting resources, competitors, and climate pressures. 



Studying these snakes offers a rare, measurable glimpse into evolutionary changes that would be hard to track in more connected landscapes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-antivenom-effectiveness-for-island-venoms">Antivenom effectiveness for island venoms</h2>



“Right now, we don’t know how well existing antivenoms work against these island venoms - but our research is helping to change that,” said Margres, who is examining these specialized formulas.



Clinical treatments hinge on understanding how well existing remedies match the venom found in actual bites.&nbsp;



An effective antivenom must neutralize the toxins a snake produces, so the discovery of simpler but more specialized venoms calls for careful testing. The team plans to compare the performance of available treatments against the samples taken from remote island snakes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-habitat-fragmentation-can-change-evolution">Habitat fragmentation can change evolution</h2>



Aside from medical relevance, the research on island rattlesnakes offers lessons for wildlife managers seeking to preserve healthy ecosystems. 



Fragmented habitats can reshape the way species adapt, shifting the balance of life in ways we are only beginning to recognize.



By focusing on a trait that directly affects survival, the scientists have tapped into a powerful indicator of broader environmental change. These findings show that even minor alterations in habitat size or community structure can shift evolutionary outcomes.



The research adds to our understanding of how quickly animals might adjust when their surroundings become splintered or rearranged. The study is published in the journal <a href="https://academic.oup.com/evolut/advance-article/doi/10.1093/evolut/qpaf074/8118642?login=false" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Evolution</a>.



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Rattlesnakes develop simpler venom when living on bigger islands

Rattlesnake venom has always intrigued scientists due to its complex...

The Arctic’s icy landscapes are more than just scenic wonders. They play an important role in regulating Earth's climate. 



New research shows that climate change may be weakening one of the Arctic’s most important defenses - the ability of its fjords to capture and store carbon.



Scientists from the <a href="https://ic3.uit.no/research" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">iC3 Polar Research Hub</a> have been studying these changes closely. Their work focuses on Kongsfjorden in Svalbard, one of the Arctic’s dynamic fjord ecosystems. 



The experts found that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/melting-ice-can-speed-up-continental-drift-and-fuel-volcanic-eruptions/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">melting ice</a> is not just altering the local environment. It is also affecting the balance of life that helps keep carbon dioxide out of the atmosphere.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-microscopic-heroes-of-the-arctic">Microscopic heroes of the Arctic</h2>



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/arctic-heatwaves-have-complex-effects-on-phytoplankton-food-web/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Phytoplankton</a>, tiny microscopic plants, are the backbone of Arctic food webs. They are not just food for fish and marine animals. They also play a key part in cycling carbon and regulating the climate.



When ice retreats, more sunlight reaches the ocean's surface. This encourages phytoplankton to grow. Life flourishes, with fish and other animals gathering around these rich patches of productivity.



“The changes we observe suggest that the future of these fjord ecosystems will depend heavily on how well they adapt to a warmer climate," explained Jochen Knies, lead author of the study.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rising-ocean-temperatures">Rising ocean temperatures</h2>



Warmer water can fuel phytoplankton growth during bright <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ice-free-arctic-summers-could-be-the-new-normal-by-2030/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Arctic summers</a>. At first glance, this sounds like good news. However, it comes with hidden problems. 



As surface waters warm, they become more layered and stable. This prevents nutrients from reaching the surface where phytoplankton live.



While more phytoplankton might bloom at first, their ability to capture and lock away carbon could shrink over time.



“While we anticipate greater primary production, the reality is that warmer, stratified waters could hinder the fjords' ability to serve as effective carbon sinks,” said Jochen.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-disappearing-nutrient-lifeline">The disappearing nutrient lifeline</h2>



Glacial meltwater brings crucial nutrients to Arctic fjords. These nutrients support the entire <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/marine-food-chains-threatened-by-ocean-acidification/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">marine food chain</a>. 



As glaciers retreat, the flow of meltwater becomes unpredictable. Without a steady supply, fjord ecosystems could lose their ability to support rich marine life.



This would not only affect fish and marine mammals. It could also weaken the Arctic’s ability to capture carbon, shifting the balance of life and climate regulation in the region.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-arctic-s-warning-to-the-world">The Arctic’s warning to the world</h2>



The Arctic acts as a global climate barometer. Changes here are often early signs of bigger challenges ahead. The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/shrinking-arctic-ice-changing-global-climate-warm-arctic-cold-eurasia/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">shrinking ice</a> caps are more than a symbol of loss - they are a warning.



“The future of Arctic fjords reflects the broader climate challenges we face globally,” Jochen warns.



What happens in the Arctic does not stay in the Arctic. These fjords are sending a message. Whether we listen could shape the future of the planet.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-change-is-touching-everything">Climate change is touching everything</h2>



The effects of climate change are no longer limited to remote areas like the Arctic. They are penetrating into almost every corner of the globe, transforming weather patterns, ecosystems, and even lifestyles.



Rising temperatures are causing more severe storms, increased durations of drought, and volatile growing seasons for crops. Ocean currents are changing. Animals are moving into new ranges. Whole industries, from agriculture to tourism, are being compelled to adjust to a new normal.



What is unfolding in Arctic fjords is just one part of a far larger puzzle. Melting glaciers might be far away from the concerns of most individuals, yet they are linked with rising sea levels that pose a threat to coastal metropolises thousands of miles distant.



Shifts in phytoplankton blooms may also seem like a minor thing. But they are indicative of a broader disruption in the natural systems of the planet, with effects that can ripple across food webs and economies globally.



Scientists emphasize that these changes are happening at an accelerating rate than many models previously estimated. Every degree of warming counts. 



Each choice, from cutting emissions to preserving natural reserves, might make difference toward a more stable future. The tale of the Arctic fjords is an indication of the global challenge facing us all.



The full study was published in the journal Communications Earth &amp; Environment.



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Arctic fjords show signs of struggle in a warming world

The Arctic’s icy landscapes are more than just scenic wonders....

Exoplanet,With,A,Solid,Surface,And,An,Oxygen,Atmosphere,On

Astronomers have discovered a "super-Earth" - a planet about twice the size of Earth - orbiting its star at a distance greater than where Saturn sits in our solar system.



The discovery, led by researchers at the <a href="https://www.cfa.harvard.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Center for Astrophysics | Harvard &amp; Smithsonian</a> (CfA), upends the long-held assumption that only hulking <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/giant-gas-planets-are-cosmic-wrecking-balls-that-wreak-havoc-in-habitable-zones/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">gas giants</a> form so far from their hosts.



“We found a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-super-earth-hd-20794-found-just-20-light-years-away-is-best-target-yet-for-alien-life/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">‘super-Earth</a>’ - meaning it’s bigger than our home planet but smaller than Neptune - in a place where only planets thousands or hundreds of times more massive than Earth were found before,” said Weicheng Zang, a CfA fellow and the study’s first author.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-microlensing-the-briefest-flash-of-light">Microlensing: The briefest flash of light</h2>



The newfound world emerged from the largest microlensing survey yet conducted. Microlensing exploits a quirk of general relativity: when a foreground planet and its star drift in front of a more distant background star, their <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/unraveling-gravity-quantum-nature-entanglement-mechanics/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">gravity</a> can bend and momentarily amplify the background star’s light. 



The resulting brightening, though fleeting and subtle, carries within it the fingerprints of the intervening planet. Because microlensing does not depend on the planet’s own light, it is uniquely suited to detecting worlds in wide, cold orbits that other techniques - such as the transit or radial-velocity methods - rarely reach.



The research team analyzed observations from the <a href="https://kmtnet.kasi.re.kr/~ulens/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Korea Microlensing Telescope Network</a> (KMTNet), a trio of identical 1.6-meter telescopes stationed in Chile, South Africa, and Australia. Together they keep near-continuous watch on the densely packed star fields of the Milky Way’s bulge, where microlensing events occur most often.



“The current data provided a hint of how cold planets form,” said Professor Shude Mao of <a href="https://www.tsinghua.edu.cn/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Tsinghua University</a> and <a href="https://en.westlake.edu.cn/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Westlake University</a>, who co-supervised the project. "In the next few years, the sample will be a factor of four larger, and thus we can constrain how these planets form and evolve even more stringently with KMTNet data.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-census-of-far-flung-worlds"><a></a>A census of far-flung worlds</h2>



This latest catalog triples the number of microlensing-detected planets and lowers the minimum planet mass by a factor of eight compared with previous samples.



 By measuring planet-to-star mass ratios across the survey, the team constructed a statistical map of planetary populations occupying the chilly realm between Earth’s orbit and that of Saturn.



“This measurement of the planet population from planets somewhat larger than Earth all the way to the size of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/jupiter-storms-form-icy-ammonia-mushballs-that-fall-deep-into-the-planet/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Jupiter</a> and beyond shows us that planets, and especially super-Earths, in orbits outside the Earth’s orbit are abundant in the galaxy,” said co-author Jennifer Yee from the Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory.



The findings suggest that super-Earths - planets one to several times Earth’s mass - populate the outer zones of many systems. These planets populate just as frequently as they do the inner zones, shattering the notion that our own arrangement of small inner worlds and large outer giants is a cosmic norm.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-this-super-earth-matters"><a></a>Why this Super-Earth matters</h2>



The recently found planet orbits its parent star so distantly that a single year there might span more than a decade in Earth time. 



Previous surveys had turned up only massive, Jupiter-like bodies in such orbits, reinforcing theoretical models in which abundant, icy material at those distances rapidly coalesces to form large gas envelopes.



The presence of a comparatively lightweight super-Earth hints that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/planet-formation-new-insights-mechanics-physics/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">planetary formation</a> can follow additional pathways, perhaps involving slower accretion rates or later-stage migration.



“This result suggests that in Jupiter-like orbits, most planetary systems may not mirror our solar system,” said Youn Kil Jung of the <a href="https://www.kasi.re.kr/eng/index" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Korea Astronomy and Space Science Institute</a> (KASI), the agency that operates KMTNet. 



In other words, having a small rocky world - or one with a modest gaseous envelope - well beyond the snow line may be the rule rather than the exception.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-collaborative-effort-spanning-the-globe"><a></a>A collaborative effort spanning the globe</h2>



Along with Zang, the research roster includes several other CfA scientists: postdoctoral fellow In-Gu Shin; former Harvard undergraduate Hangyue Wang, now a graduate student at <a href="https://www.stanford.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Stanford University</a>; and KASI scientist Sun-Ju Chung, who spent a sabbatical at the CfA from 2022 to 2023.



Data from the <a href="https://ogle.astrouw.edu.pl/main/general.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Optical Gravitational Lens Experiment</a> (OGLE) and the <a href="https://www2.phys.canterbury.ac.nz/moa/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Microlensing Observations in Astrophysics</a> (MOA) surveys added crucial coverage, demonstrating how microlensing science thrives on international cooperation. 



As KMTNet and companion programs continue to monitor our galaxy and beyond, astronomers expect the census of distant super-Earths to swell. Each new data point will tighten estimates of how frequently such planets occur and refine theories of how icy, outer regions of planetary systems assemble their worlds. 



Ultimately, these results underscore that the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/our-solar-systems-journey-through-the-milky-way-may-have-altered-earths-climate/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Milky Way</a> is teeming with planetary diversity. Our solar system - with its tidy inner terrestrials and hulking outer giants - may be only one of many possible configurations. 



As microlensing surveys push to detect ever smaller planets and combine their statistics with those from transit and radial-velocity missions, a fuller portrait of planetary architecture throughout the galaxy is finally coming into view.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.adn6088" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Science</a>.



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'Super-Earth' planets are more common than previously thought

Astronomers have discovered a "super-Earth" - a planet about twice...

The land beneath our feet holds secrets that stretch back millions of years. Deep within Earth’s mantle, shifting rock and molten heat have nudged continents, created barriers, and shaped migration paths for creatures across the planet.



The link between these buried <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earths-first-crust-already-had-chemical-traits-of-modern-continents/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">processes</a> and species of ancient wanderers has captured the attention of researchers.



Among them is Thorsten Becker, a professor at <a href="https://www.utexas.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">The University of Texas</a> at Austin, who has helped piece together new insights about the deeper forces that affected how species were able to spread.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mantle-forces-reshaped-continents">Mantle forces reshaped continents</h2>



Earth’s mantle churns with slow but significant motion that can alter the planet’s surface. Gradual sinking of cooler rock and rising of hotter material create a convection system that fuels changes in crustal <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earths-inner-core-proven-to-be-rapidly-changing-and-now-rotating-backwards/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">elevation</a> and shapes coastlines.



Scientists have found that a towering plume of heated rock may have reached the surface around 30 million years after it began brewing in the depths. 



By 20 million years ago, the upward push on land in what is now the Arabian Peninsula had reorganized seas and formed a passage between Africa and Asia.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mantle-uplift-created-a-land-bridge">Mantle uplift created a land bridge</h2>



This arc of dry ground broke a 75-million-year pattern of isolation for the African continent. Animals such as elephants, giraffes, and cheetahs made use of the open route, traversing miles of emerging terrain to explore and settle new <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mantle-heat-shaped-earths-crust-3-billion-years-ago/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">environments</a>.



“The shallow seaway closed several million years before it otherwise likely would have due to these specific processes - <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/earth-and-planetary-sciences/mantle-convection" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">mantle convection</a> and corresponding changes in dynamic topography,” said Eivind Straume, who is now a postdoctoral fellow at NORCE Norwegian Research Centre and The Bjerknes Centre for Climate Research.



Once mantle uplift had created the land bridge, entire groups of mammals made journeys that altered the genetic paths of today’s species.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-impact-on-human-ancestors">Impact on human ancestors</h2>



Long before modern times, primates roamed Asia. A branch of these primates moved into Africa before returning when the land bridge fully emerged. That dual migration shaped the fate of the lineages that survived and evolved in later epochs.



“It’s an example of how the long-term convective evolution of the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earths-crust-is-dripping-under-turkey/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">planet</a> talks to the evolution of life,” said Straume. Many researchers believe this timing allowed certain primates in Africa to flourish while their relatives died out elsewhere.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mantle-shifts-altered-earth-s-climate-patterns">Mantle shifts altered Earth's climate patterns</h2>



Closure of the <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-020-70652-4" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Tethys Sea</a> transformed ocean currents and sparked broader shifts in temperature patterns. 



The disappearance of marine passageways altered how water circulated between the Atlantic and Indo-Pacific, changing conditions across northern Africa and central Asia.



Warming ocean waters also set the stage for more significant seasonal temperature swings. Some <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/386788a0" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">studies</a> have linked these shifts to intensified monsoon patterns that brought heavier rains to parts of Asia while promoting dryness in the Sahara.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-earth-s-mantle-uplift-and-the-sahara">Earth's mantle uplift and the Sahara</h2>



As landmasses rose and air circulation <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-is-now-impacting-earths-rotation/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">patterns</a> evolved, the Sahara grew drier. The shift from lush zones to desert terrain introduced a new barrier to animal movement. This drying also encouraged adaptation and migration in species seeking water sources or cooler climes.



Over time, the Sahara came to dominate much of north Africa. The new upland surfaces of Arabia, shaped by rising rock, channeled wind and moisture patterns away from former coastal areas.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-new-perspectives-from-geological-models">New perspectives from geological models</h2>



Scientists are working with advanced simulations to connect deep Earth processes to events at the surface. These models help illustrate how flows of hot rock influence crustal uplift and seafloor changes. They also provide details on how ocean basins, deserts, and mountain ranges evolved.



“This study has relevance to the question of ‘How did our planet change, in general? What are the connections between life and tectonics?’” noted Becker.



By stitching together multiple lines of evidence, teams can outline how events far below the surface have rippled through layers of geological and biological history.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-animal-routes-and-biodiversity">Animal routes and biodiversity</h2>



Large mammals that migrated between continents not only diversified their habitats but also interacted in ways that drove evolutionary shifts. 



Elephants, for instance, faced new landscapes and climates that challenged them to adapt. Giraffes and rhinoceroses found novel feeding grounds and survived despite new predators and competition.



Such exchanges left imprints on the genetic makeup of today’s mammal populations. Species that once had limited ranges across Africa or Asia soon encountered new ecosystems.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lasting-consequences-for-life">Lasting consequences for life</h2>



The land bridge created by mantle-driven uplift gave early primates and other animals opportunities to branch out. Over millions of years, these varied lineages left evidence in fossils and modern DNA.



Researchers continue to uncover how changing geography shaped not just migrations but also the survival strategies of multiple species.



Those pathways often ran in tandem with major climatic shifts. The interplay of plate collisions, mantle upwelling, and fluctuating sea levels set the stage for both expansions and extinctions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-further-exploration-of-hidden-dynamics">Further exploration of hidden dynamics</h2>



Cutting-edge technology, from seismic imaging to deep-sea drilling, supports the study of how hidden geological processes link to surface environments. 



By incorporating detailed uplift models into paleoclimate reconstructions, geoscientists can refine their understanding of ocean currents and rainfall patterns.



With each new discovery, puzzle pieces fall into place. The uplift that once closed ancient seaways still influences today’s wind and precipitation cycles, reminding us that Earth’s lower layers remain busy behind the scenes.



The study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s43017-025-00653-2" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Reviews Earth &amp; Environment</a>.



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Activity in Earth's mantle created a land bridge that animals traversed

The land beneath our feet holds secrets that stretch back...

Everyone dreams of staying healthy well into old age, but few realize just how much the health of our immune system shapes that journey. 



Recent findings reveal that a our immune defenses need to be well-tuned before we reach our late 60's if we wish to remain strong against infections and chronic diseases as we age further.



At age 40, individuals with poor immune resilience face a 9.7-fold higher risk of dying prematurely than those who maintain a robust defense. This gap is just one alarming finding from new research that focuses on <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK435854/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">salutogenesis</a>, or the active process of promoting <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/a-scientific-review-analyzes-the-potential-and-limitations-of-nmn-for-slowing-down-aging/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">health</a>.&nbsp;



Led by Dr. Sunil K. Ahuja of <a href="https://uthscsa.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">UT Health San Antonio</a> and the <a href="https://www.va.gov/south-texas-health-care/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">South Texas Veterans Health Care System</a>, the study shines a spotlight on a protective mechanism that appears to keep the immune system vital across much of adulthood.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-immune-resilience-is-key-to-healthy-aging">Immune resilience is key to healthy aging</h2>



Aging isn’t simply about adding more candles to the birthday cake. It also involves increasing susceptibility to disease, driven by three major factors: chronic inflammation, <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/medicine-and-dentistry/immunosenescence" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">immunosenescence</a> (gradual immune decline), and cell death.



Experts say each factor plays a part in undermining health as time goes on, but there is also a positive force known as immune <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-023-38238-6" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">resilience</a> that helps curb these threats.



“While most aging research focuses on disease mechanisms and the biology of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/organ-aging-can-predict-diseases-decades-in-advance/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">aging</a>, our work highlights how immune resilience sustains salutogenesis - actively promoting health,” said Dr. Ahuja. 



The research team found that one gene, <a href="https://www.genecards.org/cgi-bin/carddisp.pl?gene=TCF7" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">TCF7</a>, appears essential for preserving an immune boost that wards off illnesses throughout life. TCF7 is linked to T-cells and helps them remain functional for longer, according to additional research that shows its importance in preventing T-cell exhaustion.



Midlife stands out as a window of opportunity. Investigators saw that maintaining a strong immune profile between 40 and 70 years of age lowered mortality by 69%, which points to an ideal time for reinforcing healthy habits and seeking medical guidance.&nbsp;



Experts have noted similar patterns before, suggesting that positive health strategies in midlife can significantly improve outcomes later on.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-good-immune-resilience-matters">Why good immune resilience matters</h2>



Beyond avoiding infections, strong immunity appears to reduce the burden of heart trouble, Alzheimer’s disease, and severe illnesses. 



One reason might be that a balanced defense can respond to harmful events while keeping damaging inflammation under control. Scientists say it’s like having a security system that wards off intruders without wrecking the house in the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/defying-time-three-ways-to-slow-biological-aging/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">process</a>.



Immune resilience may also preserve vital brain structures by limiting harmful inflammatory signals. <a href="https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC9698256/">Research</a> points to a link between chronic inflammation and neurodegenerative problems.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-t-cells-help-you-age-better">How T-cells help you age better</h2>



T-cells are a type of white blood cell that can adapt and remember threats. These cells tend to wear down in older adults, but the new study found that certain people preserve youthful T-cell <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/random-dna-mutations-shape-biological-aging/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">behavior</a> for decades. 



They also seem to generate strong responses when given vaccines, highlighting how beneficial it is to look after the immune system well before reaching old age.



When T-cells lose their vigor, everyday infections can linger, and vaccines might fail to work as intended. Scientists stress that better immune monitoring - especially in the 40–70 bracket - could guide targeted interventions.



This approach also aligns with broader <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22224726/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">investigations</a> into ways in which to prevent age-related decline rather than only treating diseases once they arise.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-midlife-habits-that-boost-immunity">Midlife habits that boost immunity</h2>



The research team highlights midlife interventions as a powerful preventive <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/human-bodies-begin-breaking-down-two-very-precise-ages/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">route</a>. Lifestyle changes, controlling blood pressure, and managing early signs of chronic ailments are among practical measures that may help keep immune resilience in good shape. 



Some anti-inflammatory therapies also appear promising in slowing down the harmful cascade caused by chronic inflammation.



Early detection matters. If you wait until problems become severe, potential benefits might be reduced after the age of 70, when the lines of mortality risk seem to converge. For many experts, this emphasizes why mid-adulthood checkups and healthy routines are more important than ever.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-ways-to-boost-immune-strength">Future ways to boost immune strength</h2>



Future work could delve deeper into how different interventions - like certain biologics - might raise low immune resilience up to more youthful levels.



Researchers also want to see whether new therapies can sustain TCF7 activity and keep T-cells strong for a longer span of life. They believe this approach might translate into fewer infections, better vaccine responses, and delayed onset of degenerative diseases.



Scientists propose that these findings redefine how we think about aging. It’s no longer just a race against time, but a chance to preserve the active elements of an immune system that quietly defends the body each day.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/acel.70063" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Aging Cell</a>.



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Strong immune resilience in midlife reduces risk of early death

Everyone dreams of staying healthy well into old age, but...

Melatonin is commonly found on drugstore shelves in the United States and is well known for its link to better sleep. Scientists recently explored this supplement's impact on oxidative DNA damage, which occurs when daily cellular processes form harmful byproducts that can disrupt genetic material.



This <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2001037019304209" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">new research</a> focused on those who work during late hours, who often face reduced production of melatonin at night. <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/scientific-contributions/Umaimah-Zanif-2215395467" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Dr. Umaimah Zanif</a>, from Occupational and Environmental Medicine in Canada, led the team and evaluated whether adding an inexpensive over-the-counter melatonin supplement to daytime rest could improve the body’s natural ability to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/everyday-dna-damage-requires-constant-repair-by-cells-to-prevent-disease/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">repair</a> DNA.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dna-repair-matters-and-supplements-needed">DNA repair matters and supplements needed</h2>



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/memory-isnt-only-stored-in-our-brains-other-cells-can-remember-too/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cells</a> need a way to fix ongoing wear and tear so that harmful changes do not take hold. <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1600-079X.2005.00261.x" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Researchers</a> have long suspected that alterations in circadian rhythms can affect many bodily functions, including the repair of genetic material.



Those who work during traditional sleeping hours often have higher amounts of circulating melatonin, which can offer some antioxidant protection. 



When that level drops in individuals on night shifts, it may become harder for their bodies to handle daily oxidative strain.



Scientists in this field believe that disruptions in the melatonin supplement can interfere with enzymes needed to remove damaged DNA. 



By targeting this link between hormone levels and cellular maintenance, researchers hope to improve long-term well-being among people with unusual schedules.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-the-melatonin-trial-was-organized">How the melatonin trial was organized</h2>



In this study, a group of adults who regularly handled work during normal <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sleep-quality-could-be-the-key-to-better-metabolic-health/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">sleeping</a> hours were randomly assigned to take a melatonin supplement or a placebo. Over several weeks, the team measured how well each participant’s system cleared out broken bits of DNA.



Some participants took the supplement before sleeping in the daytime, when their bodies would normally produce very little melatonin. The researchers used standard techniques to analyze nighttime and daytime urine for biochemical markers linked to DNA repair.



With this approach, the scientists could see whether the supplement made a real difference in how effectively the body removed potentially harmful byproducts. They noted a clear improvement during daytime rest in those who used melatonin.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-snapshot-of-the-key-findings">A snapshot of the key findings</h2>



“Our randomized placebo-controlled trial suggested melatonin supplementation may improve oxidative DNA damage repair capacity among night shift workers,” said Dr. Zanif. The data showed that supplement users excreted higher levels of a specific repair marker after their day shift ended.&nbsp;



The improvement was not observed once they went back to overnight work. This makes sense to experts, given that melatonin levels typically sink during late hours if a person is exposed to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bright-light-instantly-enhances-brain-function-alertness/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">bright environments</a>.



When participants continued taking the same amount of melatonin for weeks, the effect on daytime rest persisted. Researchers say this finding backs the idea that targeted timing and dose may be needed for best results.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-other-effects-and-considerations">Other effects and considerations</h2>



Some participants also recorded how rested they felt while using the supplement. In general, melatonin has been linked to slightly better daytime sleep, though results vary from person to person.



Those behind the trial say that mixing the supplement with changes in exposure to light could yield even bigger benefits. 



Small shifts, such as avoiding bright rays after a night shift, may increase melatonin naturally and lessen the need for synthetic help.



Individuals with rotating schedules might consider discussing safe supplement use with a doctor. This conversation can help account for personal factors like overall health, work routines, and consistent patterns of rest.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-more-melatonin-possibilities-for-future-research">More melatonin: Possibilities for future research</h2>



“Our findings warrant future larger-scale studies that examine varying doses of melatonin supplements and longer-term impacts of melatonin use,” noted Dr. Zanif. 



Because this was a smaller study, the authors believe larger projects would confirm whether the benefit truly lasts over many months or even years. 



They are interested in identifying any long-term changes in overall health that might stem from better DNA repair. This includes possible links to various serious diseases that have been associated with disrupted <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/light-color-has-no-impact-on-our-internal-clocks-or-sleep-patterns/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">sleep cycles</a>.



As more data comes in, there may be recommendations for how workers can schedule melatonin to align with their specific job demands. Careful planning around daily tasks could be a simple way to maintain more robust cellular upkeep.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hope-for-those-on-late-hours">Hope for those on late hours</h2>



Night shift employees often struggle to regulate the hormones that most people release naturally in darkness. An affordable supplement capsule that supports DNA repair may eventually become part of regular self-care if upcoming results confirm what this pilot project suggests.



At the same time, experts urge caution for anyone experimenting on their own, since every supplement has potential side effects and unique interactions with medications. For most, well-timed use and standard safety checks could offer a manageable route to feeling better equipped for upside-down schedules.



Some professionals may use these findings to shape workplace guidelines. Even small policy changes, such as offering dimmer lighting in post-shift break areas, could reinforce the body’s natural cycles while saving employees from unwanted risks.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-final-thoughts">Final thoughts</h2>



This trial opens a fresh dialogue about whether an easy-to-buy supplement can benefit people who rest while the sun is out. Next steps include detailed research to see if melatonin’s influence on DNA repair translates into broader health advantages in demanding shift-work settings.



If investigations show solid advantages, then the everyday supplement aisle might hold a remarkable ally for the modern worker who seldom follows a 9-to-5 routine. Until then, experts lean on caution and suggest that individuals remain aware of how any supplement can influence sleep and general well-being.



The study is published in <a href="https://oem.bmj.com/content/82/1/1" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Occupational and Environmental Medicine</a>.



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Healthier DNA thanks to an inexpensive, over-the-counter supplement

Melatonin is commonly found on drugstore shelves in the United...

Many of us can recall times when a twinge of discomfort made us uneasy far more than a soothing moment put us at ease. Our brain reacts and certainly seems to put extra weight on signals that say something bad might be coming.



This research, conducted by <a href="https://www.iasp-pain.org/person/ulrike-bingel-md-phd/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Dr. Ulrike Bingel</a> at the University Hospital Essen, tackled a puzzle that has long kept experts on their toes. They wanted to know why negative suggestions bring on stronger responses than positive ones when it comes to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/tapping-into-the-pain-relief-potential-of-cannabis-without-the-high/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">pain</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-power-of-suggestion-placebo-and-nocebo">Power of suggestion: Placebo and nocebo</h2>



Placebo describes a helpful effect triggered by positive expectations of relief. Nocebo is its darker twin, sparking an increase in symptoms just from negative thoughts about a treatment or situation.



An earlier <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/21862825/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">investigation</a> showed nocebo responses happen even when a person only hears warnings about possible side effects. Scientists point out that this is linked to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/lsd-can-treat-crippling-anxiety-with-a-single-dose/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">anxiety</a> and attention, which can spike with a single negative comment from a trusted source.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-relief-fades-faster-than-fear">Why relief fades faster than fear</h2>



Positive experiences, like a drop in pain, often feel less memorable than unpleasant ones. Studies suggest that our minds don’t replay comfort with the same intensity or frequency as they do discomfort.



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/spiders-heights-or-public-speaking-each-fear-has-a-unique-place-in-the-brain/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Fear</a> and discomfort seem to leave a deeper mark. That’s likely because the brain treats them as warnings to remember and avoid in the future - making comfort easier to forget and fear harder to shake.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-negative-cues-stick-more">Why negative cues stick more</h2>



Some experts explain that our minds are wired to keep us safe. That may explain why nocebo cues are remembered so strongly, even when we have only experienced them once.



“Significant placebo and nocebo effects were detected on day 1 and day 8, but nocebo effects were stronger on both test days,” reported Bingel. This tendency ties into an evolutionary idea often called the <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1053810014001962" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">‘better safe than sorry’</a> strategy.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-brain-s-bias-toward-bad-news">The brain’s bias toward bad news</h2>



Research in neuroscience shows that the brain tends to light up more, reacting more to threats than to rewards. This reaction happens quickly, sometimes even before we fully realize what we’re reacting to.



This could explain why even a subtle negative expectation - like the possibility that something might hurt - grabs our attention and sticks with us. It's not just emotional; it's wired into how our nervous system responds to the world.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-role-does-personal-experience-play">What role does personal experience play</h2>



When individuals feel pain is eased, that personal experience can shape what they expect next time. But if a past situation suggested pain might get worse, that memory can loom large.



Scholars note that repeated experiences of pain reduction can slowly build trust in a treatment. Yet if negative signals stand out more, they may overshadow positive ones, which makes neutral or even reassuring messages seem less convincing.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-practitioner-connection-and-beliefs">Practitioner connection and beliefs</h2>



If a care provider seems highly competent, that might unintentionally boost nocebo responses when they mention potential downsides. Patients may trust them so much that any warning sounds like a sure threat.



Certain traits, like <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/2090830/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">somatosensory amplification</a> (tendency to notice and worry about physical sensations), also appear to tamp down the strength of a placebo effect. During short lab tests, participants with that tendency seemed less likely to feel relief from positive suggestions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-possible-ways-to-address-nocebo-effects">Possible ways to address nocebo effects</h2>



Communication strategies that reduce needless worries may ease nocebo effects. Simple changes to phrasing can shift focus away from worst-case scenarios.



Addressing everyday <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/stress-eats-away-our-brains-cognitive-defenses/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">stress</a> might help, too. Since anxious thoughts feed negative expectations, steps to calm the mind can prevent nocebo responses before they snowball.



Nocebo effects don’t just cause discomfort in the moment - they may also change the way people act in the future. If someone links a harmless activity or medication with pain or side effects, they might start avoiding it altogether.



Over time, this avoidance can build into broader patterns like skipping doctor visits, refusing useful treatments, or becoming wary of all health interventions. These patterns might quietly reduce quality of life and increase the risk of unmanaged conditions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-the-brain-reacts-looking-ahead">How the brain reacts: Looking ahead</h2>



Many clinical teams plan to keep looking at how negative expectations gain momentum. By pinpointing personal and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/study-reveals-the-neural-basis-of-social-support-in-primates/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">social cues</a> that drive nocebo effects, they hope to improve care and reduce treatment dropouts.



A deeper awareness of these findings could shape how doctors talk about treatments. Small adjustments to conversation style or tone might go a long way in protecting patients from nocebo-driven problems.



The study is published in <a href="https://elifesciences.org/reviewed-preprints/105753" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">eLife</a>.



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The brain reacts more strongly to potential harm than to potential relief

Many of us can recall times when a twinge of...

Earth’s oceans are not just rising and changing in modern times. Scientists say there was a phase when they went the other way, sinking by an amount that might raise a few eyebrows.



Another era saw sea levels plunge by roughly 85 feet to 105 feet, a shift that took place about 15,000,000 to 6,000,000 years ago. <a href="https://vivo.brown.edu/display/cdalton" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Dr. Colleen Dalton</a> from Brown University, together with colleagues, connects this dramatic change to a slowdown in seafloor spreading that reshaped the depth of the ocean basins.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-bigger-picture-earth-s-crust">The bigger picture: Earth's crust</h2>



Our planet is always moving under the hood. Spreading ridges create fresh crust, while older crust sinks back into the Earth at subduction zones.



That constant cycle keeps continents and seas in flux. Observations suggest that a 35% dip in crust production can trigger a significant sea-level drop.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-vast-ocean-change-deepening-basins">Vast ocean change: Deepening basins</h2>



Not everyone thinks of the ocean floor as dynamic. Yet the basaltic crust beneath the seas gradually cools and sinks with age.



When new crust forms more slowly, there’s less warm, shallow seafloor at any given moment. Researchers report that this chain reaction can change ocean depths by dozens of feet.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-a-slowdown-matters">Why a slowdown matters</h2>



Much like a production line, ridges run at certain speeds. Once that speed shifts, a ripple effect spreads across the planet’s oceans.



Such changes don’t happen overnight. But over millions of years, they can reshape coastlines and potentially alter ocean chemistry.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-remaking-the-chemistry-of-earth-s-crust">Remaking the chemistry of Earth's crust</h2>



Young crust emits heat and interacts with seawater in hot vents. Slower creation of that crust can reduce this heat flow and the exchange of minerals.



Older crust does not host the same level of <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/earth-and-planetary-sciences/hydrothermal-circulation" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">hydrothermal circulation</a>. As a result, off-axis chemical interactions can also shift, though more gradually.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-contrasting-with-ice-melt">Contrasting with ice melt</h2>



If the entire <a href="https://www.antarcticglaciers.org/antarctica-2/east-antarctic-ice-sheet/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">East Antarctic Ice Sheet</a> melted, scientists <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41561-019-0300-3" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">estimate</a> ocean levels might climb about 118 feet. That’s a stark contrast to an ancient time when seas pulled back instead of inching upward.



Both events carry huge implications for coastal life. Yet one is driven by solid Earth processes, and the other by melting ice.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tectonics-not-just-climate">Tectonics, not just climate</h2>



Conversations about sea-level rise often spotlight warming temperatures. But Earth’s geological engine quietly plays its own role.



Ice melts can be fast in geologic terms. Tectonic changes operate at a more measured pace but produce lasting consequences.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tracking-evidence-of-ocean-change">Tracking evidence of ocean change</h2>



Some rocks on certain coastlines hint at older shorelines that once sat higher in local strata. Shifts in the shape of ocean basins connect with those clues.



<a href="https://www.bas.ac.uk/data/our-data/publication/deep-glacial-troughs-and-stabilizing-ridges-unveiled-beneath-the-margins/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Researchers</a> piece together these findings by reconstructing plate motions over time. That sleuthing provides a window into how our planet has changed through slow but steady movements.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-earth-s-crust-impact-on-heat-flow">Earth's crust: Impact on heat flow</h2>



As the younger crust becomes less abundant, total heat from the mantle escapes at a lower rate. Studies estimate an overall drop of about 8% in oceanic heat flow linked to the slower spreading.



Heat flow is crucial for understanding Earth’s cooling over the ages. It also influences how deep-sea ecosystems function near vents and ridges.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-linked-studies">Linked studies</h2>



Other authors have probed past seafloor spreading records, noting that speed changes align with shifts in sea level. Long-term reconstructions support the idea that tectonics can rival ice-related effects in the big picture.



This topic sparks interest because it underscores that climate is not the sole driver of water’s position on Earth’s surface. Tectonic processes add another layer of complexity that’s easy to miss in short-term observations.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-broader-climate-tie-ins">Broader climate tie-ins</h2>



Some scholars propose that a slowdown in crust production might also lessen volcanic CO2 emissions. Cooling oceans would then contract, pushing sea levels even lower.



That theory suggests multiple factors can compound to shift coastlines dramatically. It’s a reminder that Earth’s systems are woven together in surprising ways.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-real-world-echoes">Real-world echoes</h2>



Past events may guide us in understanding today’s rising seas. Although current changes move more rapidly, the underlying lesson is that sea levels can swing.



Coastal communities often grapple with local uplift or sinking land. Those vertical motions can compound any global shifts, whether from melting ice or tectonic adjustments.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-potential-future-insights">Potential future insights</h2>



As scientists refine plate reconstructions, they may pinpoint exactly how often this slowdown has recurred. Each chapter of Earth’s tectonic story leaves clues in sediments and crust.



We stand to gain more clarity on the pace and scale of changes. Those insights may refine how experts project future sea-level trends.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-human-perspective">Human perspective</h2>



Every change or slight shift in ocean levels touches people living near coasts. Knowing that deep Earth processes have long-term effects may expand our appreciation for subtle geologic forces.



This knowledge can help shape future research. It highlights that climate and geology can shape the seas in tandem.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-final-note-on-publication">Final note on publication</h2>



Results linking slower crust production with large sea-level drops invite fresh questions about the planet’s internal mechanics. They also add a twist to how we interpret geologic records.



One thing is certain: Earth’s interior is not just a passive backdrop. It has been influencing the height of our seas for ages.



The study is published in <a href="https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1029/2024GC011773" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Geochemistry, Geophysics, Geosystems</a>.



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The same process that is raising sea levels today sank them millions of years ago

Earth’s oceans are not just rising and changing in modern...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2E0mn5mTvhQ
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">'Death Star' moon Mimas conceals a 15-million-year-old ocean that scientists never expected.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hidden-waters-beneath-ancient-craters">Hidden waters beneath ancient craters</h2>



Scientists have made a startling discovery that challenges everything we thought we knew about <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/saturn-moon-mimas-has-remarkably-young-ocean/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Saturn's moon Mimas</a>. Beneath the heavily cratered surface that earned it the nickname "Death Star" lies a global ocean that formed just 5 to 15 million years ago—a remarkably young age by cosmic standards.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cassini-data-reveals-orbital-secrets">Cassini data reveals orbital secrets</h2>



The discovery, led by Dr. Valéry Lainey of the <a href="https://observatoiredeparis.psl.eu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Observatoire de Paris</a>, emerged from careful analysis of <a href="https://www.nasa.gov" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NASA</a>'s Cassini spacecraft data. By studying subtle irregularities in Mimas's orbit around Saturn, researchers detected the gravitational signature of liquid water hidden 20 to 30 kilometers beneath the moon's icy shell.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-an-unlikely-ocean-world">An unlikely ocean world</h2>



At only 400 kilometers in diameter, Mimas seemed like the least likely candidate to harbor a subsurface ocean. Unlike other ocean moons such as Europa and Enceladus, which show clear surface signs of internal activity, Mimas displays no obvious hints of the liquid water beneath its ancient, crater-scarred exterior.



"Mimas is a small moon, and its heavily cratered surface gave no hint of the hidden ocean beneath," explained Dr. Nick Cooper from <a href="https://www.qmul.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Queen Mary University of London</a>, a study co-author.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-astrobiology">Implications for astrobiology</h2>



The ocean's recent formation makes Mimas a prime target for studying how oceans develop and potentially support life. This discovery adds another member to the exclusive club of ocean worlds in our solar system, each offering unique insights into the conditions necessary for habitability.



The research, published in <a href="https://www.nature.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature</a> journal, demonstrates how advanced orbital analysis can reveal hidden features of celestial bodies, opening new possibilities for understanding ocean formation throughout the cosmos.



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Scientists discover unexpected young ocean on Saturn's cratered moon Mimas

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2E0mn5mTvhQ 'Death Star' moon Mimas conceals a 15-million-year-old ocean that...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE
</div></figure>



On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop and sunlight barely penetrates through the polar winter. It was here, however, that an international team of scientists found <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/predatory-worms-were-terror-beasts-half-a-billion-years-ago/#google_vignette" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evidence of sea monsters</a> that would change our understanding of ocean life in the past.



This video captures the discovery of Timorebestia fossils that had been hidden for more than 500 million years in the Sirius Passet formation. The "terror beasts," as they are called, are a hidden chapter in the evolutionary history of <a href="https://www.earth.com" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Earth</a>, showing that sophisticated predator-prey interactions occurred much earlier than previously envisioned.



Dr. Jakob Vinther and his research team at the <a href="https://www.bristol.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Bristol</a>, in collaboration with researchers at the <a href="https://eng.kopri.re.kr/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Korean Polar Research Institute</a>, braved extreme weather conditions at 82.5 north latitude to locate these giant creatures. Using sophisticated electron microprobe analysis, they revealed the detailed anatomy of the animals, including their muscle and nerve tissues.



The find upsets the traditional timeline of sea predators. Although we've long appreciated that Cambrian oceans were at one time ruled by <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jWI3-UgA3_o&amp;list=PL1QLQMW9MWDwpkFOnvgAmu7wT6rZmYqdJ&amp;index=19" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">arthropods</a>, these discoveries indicate that relatives of arrow worms were first to dominate the seas. These worms were building sophisticated food webs several million years before other predator groups arose.



Each fossil is a story of ancient hunger, with fossil stomach contents revealing these meter-long beasts dined on heavily armored arthropods regularly, cementing their place as the ocean's first apex predators.



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Worms dominated seas before dinosaurs

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">New York is the site of the world's oldest forest.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-385-million-year-old-trees-discovered">385-million-year-old trees discovered</h2>



Scientists have uncovered something extraordinary just two hours north of New York City. The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/worlds-oldest-forest-discovered-close-to-new-york-city/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">world's oldest forest</a>, dating back 385 million years, offers a window into how Earth's first complex forests shaped our planet's atmosphere.



Located near <a href="https://townofcairo.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cairo, New York</a>, in Greene County, these weren't merely primitive plants struggling to survive. These were sophisticated trees with root systems remarkably similar to modern forests. This ancient woodland predates dinosaurs by 140 million years.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-cairo-forest-discovery">The Cairo forest discovery</h2>



385 million years ago, upstate New York was a tropical paradise near the equator. Thanks to continental drift, this ancient forest has traveled thousands of miles to its current location.



The fossil forest sits in an abandoned quarry, roughly half the size of a football field. This represents just a slice of what was likely a massive forest system stretching from New York into Pennsylvania.



Charles Ver Straeten, curator of sedimentary rocks at the <a href="https://www.nysm.nysed.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">New York State Museum</a>, made the discovery in 2009. While scouting the former highway department property, his trained eye spotted wandering patterns in the stone that looked like marine features.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-revolutionary-age-and-preservation">Revolutionary age and preservation</h2>



The site contains 385-million-year-old rocks with fossilized woody roots forming horizontal patterns up to 18 feet (5.5 meters) wide. As Christopher Berry, a paleobotanist at Cardiff University, explains: "You are walking through the roots of ancient trees."



This discovery pushes back advanced tree evolution by millions of years. The research, published in <a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/home" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Current Biology</a> in December 2019, fundamentally changes our understanding of when complex forests first emerged.



Researchers believe a massive flood buried the forest floor, creating perfect fossilization conditions. Over millions of years, sediment hardened into rock, preserving these root patterns like nature's time capsule.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-meet-archaeopteris-the-first-modern-tree">Meet Archaeopteris: the first modern tree</h2>



The star of this ancient forest is Archaeopteris – not to be confused with the feathered dinosaur Archaeopteryx. This tree was far older and more revolutionary.



William Stein from <a href="https://www.binghamton.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Binghamton University</a> describes the roots as "strikingly modern, essentially what you'd see outside in my yard right now." These weren't simple root systems you'd expect from ancient plants.



Some fossilized roots are six inches (15 centimeters) in diameter, forming 36-foot-wide (11-meter) patterns. These giants grew up to 65 feet (20 meters) tall with five-foot-diameter (1.5-meter) trunks.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-changing-impact">Climate-changing impact</h2>



These trees fundamentally changed Earth's environment. Kevin Boyce, a Stanford University geoscientist, explains how their deep roots triggered "weathering," chemical reactions that pulled carbon dioxide from the atmosphere.



This process dropped atmospheric CO2 levels from 10-15 times higher than today to roughly modern concentrations. These ancient trees helped create atmospheric conditions that made complex life possible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ancient-forest-ecosystem">Ancient forest ecosystem</h2>



The forest was remarkably diverse. Scientists identified Eospermatopteris, palm tree-like plants with short roots that reached 30 feet (9 meters) tall but lacked woody structure. The forest also housed cladoxylopsids and a mysterious third species still being studied.



All reproduced through spores rather than seeds – millions of years before seeds evolved. This tropical environment had no grass, flowers, or flying insects, just towering trees creating Earth's first complex forest canopy.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-scientific-significance">Scientific significance</h2>



Before this finding, the Gilboa forest, located 25 miles (40 kilometers) away, held the "oldest forest" title. Cairo's trees are 2-3 million years older, showing that complex forest ecosystems developed much faster than scientists believed possible.



Patricia Gensel, a <a href="https://www.unc.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of North Carolina</a> paleobotanist, notes: "The size of those root systems is really changing the picture. Even 20 years ago, researchers assumed trees with such complex root systems didn't evolve so early."



The Cairo site presents three unique root systems, suggesting Devonian period forests were diverse ecosystems with different trees occupying different environmental niches, much like today's forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-modern-preservation-efforts">Modern preservation efforts</h2>



In 2022, New York State Senator Michelle Hinchey secured a $170,000 grant for the town of Cairo to construct specialized fencing around the fossil forest site. The town plans to conduct a feasibility study exploring the possibility of creating an educational center and working lab on-site.



Joe Hasenkopf, chair of the Cairo Planning Board, hopes to partner with educational institutions to create a research facility serving scientists, students, and the public.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lessons-for-today-s-climate">Lessons for today's climate</h2>



Why does a 385-million-year-old forest matter today? It shows how dramatically forests can change Earth's climate. These ancient woodlands created the atmospheric conditions supporting complex life.



Understanding how prehistoric forests transformed the planet helps us appreciate modern forests' critical role in addressing climate change. Forests remain Earth's most effective carbon capture systems.



These prehistoric trees changed Earth's atmosphere by pulling massive amounts of carbon dioxide from the air. As we face modern climate challenges, this ancient forest reminds us of trees' incredible power to transform our planet's environment.



The next time you walk through a forest, remember you're experiencing an ecosystem whose blueprint was established 385 million years ago in upstate New York. These ancient pioneers didn't just survive – they thrived and changed the world forever.



The full study was published in the journal Current Biology.



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Earth's oldest forest found in the United States

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ New York is the site of the world's oldest...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Acid rain and a crisis solved.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-don-t-we-ever-hear-about-acid-rain-anymore-the-environmental-crisis-that-was-solved">Why don't we ever hear about "acid rain" anymore? The environmental crisis that was solved</h2>



Remember the 1980s when acid rain dominated headlines? Dire warnings about rain eating buildings, killing fish, and destroying forests filled every news cycle. Then, almost like magic, acid rain vanished from public discourse. What happened? Did we actually solve one of the late 20th century's most pressing environmental challenges?



The answer might surprise you. Unlike many environmental issues that drag on indefinitely, acid rain represents one of modern history's most successful ecological recovery stories. It's a tale of science, politics, and technology working together to tackle what seemed impossible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What was acid rain?</h2>



Acid rain isn't regular rain having a bad day – it's precipitation that became significantly more acidic due to air pollution. When power plants, factories, and vehicles burn fossil fuels, they release sulfur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides (NOx) into the atmosphere.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The science behind it</h2>



Think of acid rain as nature's chemistry experiment gone wrong. These compounds react with water, oxygen, and other chemicals to form sulfuric and nitric acids. When mixed with water vapor in clouds, they create precipitation with dangerously low pH levels.



While clean rain has a pH of about 5.6, acid rain could drop as low as 4.2 to 4.4 – roughly as acidic as tomato juice or coffee. According to US Geological Survey documentation, Scottish chemist Angus Smith first coined "acid rain" in 1872, but it didn't become a household phrase until the 1960s and 1970s when Swedish scientist Svante Odén documented its devastating effects on Scandinavian lakes and European forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The crisis at its peak</h2>



During the height of public concern, environmental damage was both widespread and visible. This wasn't some abstract future threat – people could see destruction happening in real-time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Environmental devastation</h2>



The most dramatic impacts were impossible to ignore. Research documented by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation and the New York State Department of Environmental Conservation shows that in the Adirondack Mountains, more than 200 lakes became so acidic they couldn't support fish life. The Adirondack Council reports that 409 lakes once supported brook trout, but many lost their fish populations due to acid rain.



By 1976, when scientists cataloged all acidified lakes in the Adirondack Park, researchers found that half of the lakes over 2,000 feet above sea level had no fish, according to studies published in environmental journals. The acidification process worked like a slow-motion disaster. As acid rain fell into watersheds, it gradually lowered pH levels. Fish couldn't survive in acidic water, and their food sources died off too.



Trees at high elevations showed stress directly linked to acid rain. It weakened them by leaching nutrients and making them susceptible to disease. Historical records show Germany's Black Forest saw nearly half its trees damaged by the mid-1980s.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Economic impact</h2>



Acid rain wasn't just environmental – it was expensive. Acidic precipitation corroded infrastructure, buildings, and monuments. Historic stone structures deteriorated at accelerated rates. Tourism suffered as lakes became fishless and forests declined. EPA economic analyses from the period documented repair costs mounting into billions annually.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The solution: government action and technology</h2>



Transformation from crisis to success required unprecedented cooperation between governments, industries, and environmental groups.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The Clean Air Act of 1990</h2>



The turning point came with the Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990, signed by President George H.W. Bush. This represented a fundamentally new approach to environmental regulation, as documented in EPA historical records.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Cap-and-trade success</h2>



Instead of mandating specific technologies, the 1990 amendments introduced something revolutionary: a cap-and-trade system for sulfur dioxide emissions. EPA program documentation shows this market-based approach set overall limits but allowed companies to trade emission allowances.



The genius was harnessing market forces to find cost-effective pollution reduction. Companies reducing emissions cheaply could sell excess allowances to those facing higher costs. Research published in environmental economics journals and EPA progress reports shows this resulted in dramatic SO2 reduction at a fraction of projected costs.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Technology advances</h2>



Policy provided the framework, but technology made reductions possible. Studies in atmospheric science journals document the widespread adoption of flue gas desulfurization systems ("scrubbers") that removed sulfur dioxide before it reached the atmosphere. By the 2000s, new installations could remove over 95% of SO2 emissions, according to EPA technical reports.



The push coincided with cleaner energy development. Natural gas produces fewer sulfur compounds than coal. Wind and solar, emerging in the 1990s, captured growing market share, reducing reliance on high-sulfur coal.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-we-don-t-hear-about-it-today">Why we don't hear about it today</h2>



Why did acid rain disappear from headlines? Simple: the problem was largely solved.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Success doesn't make news</h2>



There's an old journalism saying: "If it bleeds, it leads." Environmental success stories don't generate urgency like crisis reporting. Media attention shifted to other challenges: climate change, plastic pollution, and biodiversity loss. There's only so much environmental anxiety the public can absorb, and newer concerns replaced acid rain.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Mission accomplished</h2>



The primary reason is beautifully simple: interventions worked. EPA monitoring data shows sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990. Academic research published in environmental science journals confirms pH levels in formerly affected areas returned closer to normal. This represents one of history's most dramatic environmental recoveries. Studies by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation show fishless lakes now support healthy populations. Forests recovered, and building damage slowed dramatically.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-is-it-really-gone">Is it really gone?</h2>



The crisis is largely resolved, but monitoring data shows the problem isn't completely eliminated – it's managed to acceptable levels. Some areas still experience occasional events during high pollution periods. International environmental research indicates that rapidly industrializing Asian countries face similar problems to what we experienced decades ago, though they're implementing successful strategies.



EPA research shows nitrogen oxide emissions proved more challenging than sulfur dioxide, coming from vehicles and mobile sources. Climate science studies suggest changing weather patterns add complexity to how acid rain forms and falls.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What this teaches us</h2>



The acid rain experience proves that seemingly intractable environmental problems can be solved with scientific understanding, political will, and technological innovation. Environmental monitoring data shows recovery speed was remarkable – within a decade, measurable improvements appeared in air quality and ecosystem health.



Success came from bipartisan support across party lines. Policy analysis studies show the market-based approach appealed to those preferring economic incentives while achieving environmental goals. This support created lasting policy surviving political changes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Conclusion</h2>



Acid rain's disappearance from public consciousness represents environmental science's greatest success stories. Through effective regulation, technological innovation, and international cooperation, we transformed an overwhelming crisis into a manageable challenge.



Today's silence isn't because we forgot – it's because we solved it. The 1990 Clean Air Act, combined with technology and energy market changes, reduced acid rain emissions over 90%, according to comprehensive EPA data analysis.



This success offers hope for current challenges. It proves complex problems can be solved when science, policy, and technology work together. As we face climate change and plastic pollution, acid rain reminds us that dramatic positive change is possible.



Next time someone asks whether environmental regulations work, remember acid rain. It's proof that sometimes, we get it right.



<hr class="wp-block-separator has-alpha-channel-opacity"/>



Sources: This article draws from EPA official documentation and progress reports, peer-reviewed research published in environmental and atmospheric science journals, historical data from the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation, New York State Department of Environmental Conservation records, US Geological Survey publications, policy analysis studies, and environmental monitoring data collected over three decades.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Frequently Asked Questions</h2>



1. Is acid rain completely gone? No, but EPA monitoring shows it's reduced to manageable levels. US sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990, making acid rain much less severe than the 1980s crisis.



2. How long did solving take? Environmental monitoring data shows significant improvements began within 5-10 years of 1990s emission controls. Full ecosystem recovery took longer – some areas need 20-30 years for complete recovery.



3. What made the solution successful? Clear scientific understanding, visible damage motivating action, bipartisan support, available technology, and innovative market-based policies like cap-and-trade.



4. Do other countries have acid rain problems? Yes, particularly rapidly industrializing Asian countries. However, international environmental research shows many implement similar successful control strategies.



5. Could acid rain return? Potentially, if regulations weaken or we return to high-sulfur coal without controls, though effects would take years to become severe according to environmental projections.



6. Can you recommend any teaching tools on the subject of "acid rain"? The United States Environmental Protection Agency produced a wonderful teacher's guide for ages 14 and under that you can find on the EPA website here: <a href="https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf</a>



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The environmental problem we actually solved

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk Acid rain and a crisis solved. Why don't we...

Fresh,Radish,Harvest,On,Soil,In,Garden.

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://youtu.be/Fi2OeEwuzRM?si=vTyd2m9FMmtyWkex
</div></figure>







Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving fall garden, and this guide lays out the best vegetables and herbs to plant now for a fruitful autumn harvest. 



Fast-growing leafy greens such as spinach, lettuce, kale, and arugula perform especially well in the waning summer heat, with harvests beginning as soon as 30 days. 



These cool-season crops relish the transition into fall, offering repeated yields with cut-and-come-again methods.



Root vegetables like radishes, carrots, and beets also excel during this period. Radishes deliver satisfaction in under a month, while carrots and beets mature in about two months. Employing succession planting ensures a continuous stream of produce deep into the cooler months. 



For a boost of fresh flavor, herbs like cilantro, basil, dill, and chervil are excellent picks. These heat-loving varieties flourish in July’s warmth and are harvest-ready in about 30 days, especially when sown continuously.



Gardeners in zones 6 through 9 can benefit from planting bush beans and snap peas, which don’t require trellising and are ideal for compact plots. 



Maturing in 50–60 days, they’re a smart choice for quick, protein-rich harvests. For those in hotter regions, heat-tolerant crops such as okra and southern peas provide reliable yields and thrive in scorching conditions.



This guide emphasizes more than crop selection—it highlights the importance of timing, soil preparation, and ongoing sowing techniques. 



With thoughtful planning and attention to regional climate needs, even late-summer gardeners can enjoy fresh salads, hearty stews, and the satisfaction of a robust, homegrown harvest well into fall.



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What to plant in your garden in mid-July

https://youtu.be/Fi2OeEwuzRM?si=vTyd2m9FMmtyWkex Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving...

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A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that wildlife tunnels significantly reduce amphibian road mortality during seasonal migrations. 



Frogs and salamanders often cross roads to reach breeding ponds each spring, but many are killed by vehicles. 



Researchers from the <a href="https://www.uvm.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Vermont</a>, in collaboration with local citizens and the Vermont Agency of Natural Resources, installed two underpass tunnels in 2015. 



Over a 12-year monitoring period, they observed an 80.2% reduction in amphibian deaths, and up to 94% for non-climbing species like salamanders. 



The study used a before-after-control-impact design and documented more than 5,200 amphibians, highlighting the tunnels’ effectiveness even in nearby buffer zones.



Funded at $342,397 - far cheaper than wildlife crossings for large mammals - the project showcased the power of community-led conservation.



Local groups initiated the effort after observing mass amphibian deaths. Wildlife cameras later captured over 2,200 amphibians using a tunnel in just one spring, along with other species like raccoons and bobcats, indicating wider ecosystem benefits.



This marks the first peer-reviewed, long-term data set in the northeastern U.S. confirming amphibian-specific underpasses work. 



The study urges transportation departments to incorporate these designs into road planning and highlights how community action, thoughtful infrastructure, and persistence can make a real difference for biodiversity.



The full study was published in the <a href="https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1617138125000780" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal for Nature Conservation</a>.



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Wildlife tunnels save millions of amphibians

https://youtu.be/XYgiPzmNBTU?si=eFYY7gPHU1JznLvU A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that...

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing it with probiotics and prebiotics, aiming to create a treat that satisfies cravings while supporting gut health. 



The challenge lies in maintaining chocolate's beloved texture and flavor while adding health benefits.



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Probiotics - beneficial microbes that balance gut bacteria and aid digestion - are typically fragile and can be destroyed by stomach acid or processing. 



Prebiotics act as food for these microbes, helping them thrive. Together, they form "synbiotics," a powerful health combination.



Researchers Smriti Gaur and Shubhi Singh from India's Jaypee Institute of Information Technology took an innovative approach, using natural prebiotics like corn and honey instead of complex processing methods. 



They created five chocolate varieties: a control and four synbiotic versions containing different combinations of prebiotics, probiotics (Lactobacillus strains), and flavor enhancers (cinnamon or orange).



Laboratory simulations of human digestion showed the probiotics remained viable for over five hours, suggesting they could survive long enough to benefit gut health.



Taste tests were positive, with researchers particularly enjoying the orange-flavored variety, describing it as having "vibrant citrus notes" complementing the "rich cocoa" with a "luxurious" texture.



This research represents just the beginning. With further refinement of strains, textures, and flavors, chocolate could evolve beyond mere indulgence to become a functional food that nourishes while it delights.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.4c00741" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ACS Food Science &amp; Technology</a>.

Is chocolate the next nutritional powerhouse?

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

[sendtonews key="0ynNMYkMKa-2340414-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

[sendtonews key="G9bUoxcjr4-2511624-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

[sendtonews key="3upvlAaHgO-2256633-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

[sendtonews key="LvS8v8bp9z-2564889-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How does salt makes things taste better?

[sendtonews key="X0f6OHYoI4-2310561-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Santiago, Chile in South America

[sendtonews key="JRaP49ISmm-2357509-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

[sendtonews key="e4ZG0Jawp3-2374785-12187" type="single"] Astronomers at Johns Hopkins University have created...

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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.



According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."



Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;



ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. 



Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

[sendtonews key="uV9Lh2fQbV-1760058-12187" type="single"] Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

[sendtonews key="qjvhBOBnY8-2426650-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

[sendtonews key="oL4FnPTGCV-2384527-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

[sendtonews key="0879czfG3k-1785905-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from NASA...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

[sendtonews key="6HyfrAJTBI-1831843-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

Earth,Like,Exoplanet,3d,Render

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

[sendtonews key="QIoVYJqRBi-2434608-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from NASA...

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