Young aspen trees in Yellowstone are doing something they have not done in almost 100 years. Rather than sprouting and being eaten back to nubs by elk and bison, they're actually growing into tall, adult forest trees rising up towards the canopy.



This matters more than it might seem, because it shows what happens when a missing piece of an ecosystem returns.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-yellowstone-aspens-and-elk">Yellowstone, aspens, and elk</h2>



In the 1920s, people <a href="https://www.yellowstone.org/wolf-project/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">eliminated wolves in Yellowstone</a>. At the time, with limited scientific knowledge, managers believed it was the right thing to do.



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/from-wolves-to-dogs-did-domestication-begin-without-human-help/">Without wolves</a>, elk herds grew very large. Elk love to eat aspen shoots - the tender young growth is highly palatable to them.



For roughly 70 years, elk browsed aspen sprouts down to stub height, and the trees couldn't grow. 



If you had walked through Yellowstone in the 1980s, you would have seen many tiny aspen shoots covering the ground, but almost no young trees gaining height. 



The forest's regeneration was stalled. Old trees died, and no new ones replaced them.



In 1995 and 1996, park managers reintroduced wolves into the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/yellowstone-supervolcano-eruption-study-sparks-new-debate-on-where-and-when-it-will-erupt/">Yellowstone Park ecosystem</a>. Scientists hoped and wondered whether this would change anything for the trees.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-aspen-matter-to-yellowstone">Why aspen matter to Yellowstone</h2>



Aspen groves provide habitat for many species. Birds nest in them. Beavers eat the bark and use the wood for dams. Butterflies and moths lay eggs on the leaves. 



Their canopy admits enough light for wildflowers and shrubs to grow beneath. When it rains, aspen groves hold water in the soil better than some other forest types.



In short, when aspen return, dozens of other species benefit. More trees support more insects, which in turn support more birds, enriching the ecosystem.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-checking-the-trees-three-decades-later">Checking the trees three decades later</h2>



<a href="https://fwcs.oregonstate.edu/users/luke-painter" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Luke Painter</a>, an ecologist at <a href="https://oregonstate.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Oregon State University</a>, sought clear answers. His team returned to 87 aspen stands across Yellowstone that scientists had previously surveyed. 



They measured thousands of young trees, looked for bite marks, and counted how many stems were tall enough that elk could no longer reach the tips.



About a third of these stands now have many tall young aspens pushing toward the canopy. 



"About 26 of the 87 aspen stands we examined had large numbers of tall saplings throughout, a remarkable change from the 1990s when surveys found none at all," Painter said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-wolves-matter-to-yellowstone-aspens">Why wolves matter to Yellowstone aspens</h2>



Breaking it all down, the conclusions of this study are pretty simple. 



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/wolves-move-pups-across-mountains-to-adapt-to-climate-pressure/">Wolves hunt elk</a>. When wolves came back, two things happened. First, elk numbers declined from unusually high levels. Second, elk changed their behavior. They spent less time in the same areas feeding.



With fewer elk and shorter feeding bouts, more aspen shoots survived long enough to exceed the browsing zone - about six to seven feet high. 



Once a sapling reaches that height, elk cannot easily reach the growing tip. The tree continues to grow.



"The reintroduction of large carnivores has initiated a recovery process that had been shut down for decades," Painter explained.



Scientists call this a <a href="https://www.nature.com/scitable/knowledge/library/trophic-cascades-across-diverse-plant-ecosystems-80060347/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">trophic cascade</a> - when adding or removing one species causes changes that ripple through the whole system.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-some-places-recover-others-don-t">Some places recover, others don't</h2>



Unfortunately, not every aspen stand has recovered yet. Some valleys still have many short, heavily browsed shoots, because it's not only elk eating them anymore. 



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/yellowstones-iconic-bison-have-merged-into-a-single-herd/">Bison herds have grown</a>, and bison browse on aspen as well. They are strong enough to break young trees. 



"Increasing numbers of bison may be emerging as a new constraint to aspen in some areas," Painter confirmed.



Additionally, winter snow depth varies; droughts stress trees; bears and mountain lions also hunt elk; and hunting outside the park influences elk distribution. 



All of these factors interact, which is why some sites show strong recovery, others show moderate recovery, and a few have changed very little.



The key pattern is that places with many tall saplings experience little browsing, and aspen groves that remain popular eating grounds today stay short. 



This fact is the strongest indication that tree recovery is linked directly to wolf presence, not solely to weather or soil conditions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-proof-in-the-measurements">Proof in the measurements</h2>



Painter's team did not rely on casual observation. They used the same methods as earlier researchers, measuring the same plots. 



They counted recruitment - when young trees surpass browsing height and begin progressing toward maturity. This measure is crucial. Sprouts are insufficient if they never grow; without recruitment, the forest cannot replace itself.



The results are robust. After being stalled for most of a century, Yellowstone's aspens are increasing in height. In recovering stands today, you will see saplings - six, eight, or ten feet tall - that were not present in the 1990s.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-future-of-yellowstone-s-aspens">The future of Yellowstone's aspens</h2>



"This is a remarkable case of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/giant-viruses-found-in-yellowstones-hot-springs-may-be-near-the-root-of-all-life-on-earth/">ecological restoration</a>," Painter concluded. "Wolf reintroduction is yielding long-term ecological changes contributing to increased biodiversity and habitat diversity."



Trees grow slowly, so even with wolves restored, it will take decades for these young aspens to form a full-grown forest. 



Some areas might never fully recover if bison numbers continue to rise or if the climate becomes too hot and dry.



Thanks to the work of Painter and his team, scientists are now certain that restoring the Yellowstone predator has restarted aspen forest regeneration. Not everywhere and not perfectly, but enough to be measured, creating hope for the future.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0378112725004499?via%3Dihub" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Forest Ecology and Management</a>.



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Yellowstone's aspen trees are growing again thanks to the reintroduction of wolves

Young aspen trees in Yellowstone are doing something they have not done in almost 100 years. Rather than sprouting and being eaten back to nubs by elk and bison, they're actually growing into tall, adult forest trees rising up towards the canopy. This matters more than it might seem, because it shows what happens when a missing piece of an ecosystem returns. Yellowstone, aspens, and elk In the 1920s, people eliminated wolves in Yellowstone. At the time, with limited scientific knowledge, managers believed it was the right...

Most people hear “heart attack” and think of clogged arteries packed with fat and cholesterol. That picture is mostly right, but it may be missing a a key component. 



According to <a href="https://www.eurekalert.org/news-releases/1096050" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">new research</a>, common mouth bacteria that usually stay in their lane may drift into the bloodstream and trigger heart attacks.



The study suggests that mouth microbes don't just float through the bloodstream and disappear, as has always been understood to be the case. 



They may take up residence inside <a href="https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/arteriosclerosis-atherosclerosis/symptoms-causes/syc-20350569" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">arterial plaque</a> and help spark the kind of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/lifestyle-choices-in-young-adulthood-impact-cognitive-ability-in-midlife/">inflammation</a> that makes a weak spot crack. That is the sort of crack that can set off a clot and cut off blood flow to the heart.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-bacteria-and-heart-artery-plaques">Bacteria and heart artery plaques</h2>



Plaques form inside blood vessels over time. They are made of fats, cholesterol, immune cells, and scar-like tissue. Many sit there without causing trouble. 



The risk rises when the thin outer layer - the fibrous cap - breaks. Once that cover fails, the plaque’s contents meet the bloodstream; <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/red-blood-cells-found-to-squeeze-clots-tight-using-physical-force/">a clot can form</a>, and a heart attack can follow.



This study focused on whether bacteria from the mouth, especially a group called <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/medicine-and-dentistry/viridans-streptococci" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">viridans streptococci</a>, could be tucked into those plaques. 



The central question was: were bacteria hiding out and then helping to drive inflammation right where it hurts most?



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-the-study-was-done">How the study was done</h2>



Researchers analyzed artery plaques from two sources: people who died suddenly and patients having surgery to clear clogged neck arteries. 



They did not rely on one test. They used DNA methods to detect bacterial genetic traces, special stains to locate bacteria in tissue, and gene activity analyses to see which immune pathways were active. 



They also tested how different bacterial components trigger early warning signals in immune cells. 



Pattern recognition receptors - the body’s “burglar alarms” - were a key focus, including a pathway called <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/agricultural-and-biological-sciences/tlr2" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">TLR2</a> that is well known for spotting bacterial signatures.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-biofilm-bacteria-and-the-heart">Biofilm bacteria and the heart</h2>



Inside the deeper parts of many plaques, the team found signs that viridans streptococci were living together as a biofilm. 



A biofilm is a community of bacteria embedded in a protective matrix that helps them stick to a surface and shield themselves from stress.



In those plaque cores, immune cells called <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/heart-failure-creates-a-lasting-stress-memory-in-the-body/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">macrophages</a> did not appear to react to the biofilm. In other words, the bacteria appeared tucked away where the body’s defenses were not mounting a response.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-when-bacteria-break-bad">When bacteria break bad</h2>



The picture changed at the edges of plaques that were cracked or appeared unstable. There, the researchers saw scattered bacteria that appeared to have broken free from the <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/materials-science/biofilms" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">hidden biofilm</a>.



That shift coincided with activation of immune alarms. Pattern recognition receptors lit up - especially through TLR2 - a classic “we found bacteria” signal. 



The alarm did not just activate the rapid innate immune response; it also drew in the slower, more targeted adaptive immune system.



“Bacterial involvement in coronary artery disease has long been suspected, but direct and convincing evidence has been lacking," explained <a href="https://researchportal.tuni.fi/en/persons/pekka-karhunen" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Professor Pekka Karhunen</a>, lead author of this research.



"Our study demonstrated the presence of genetic material - DNA - from several oral bacteria inside atherosclerotic plaques."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-heart-disease-and-bacteria-signals">Heart disease and bacteria signals</h2>



Samples that tested positive for viridans streptococci tended to come from plaques that were more advanced and complicated. 



In the autopsy series, bacterial signals lined up with deaths due to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/heart-disease-kills-differently-now-than-five-decades-ago/">coronary heart disease</a> and heart attacks. 



That association does not prove the bacteria caused the deaths, but it strengthens the idea that they may play a role in a dangerous chain of events.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-daily-life-implications">Daily life implications</h2>



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/brushing-your-teeth-regularly-can-prevent-deadly-liver-disease/">Oral health</a> has long been linked with heart health in population studies. Everyday activities like brushing or chewing can push mouth bacteria into the bloodstream, especially when gums are inflamed. 



The new findings point to a path where certain mouth bacteria might colonize plaques, lie low in biofilms, and then shed pieces that trigger inflammation right where the plaque is fragile.



This is not a call for antibiotics to prevent heart attacks. It does not turn brushing into a magic shield against heart disease. 



Cholesterol levels, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/drinking-from-plastic-bottles-linked-to-high-blood-pressure-and-heart-problems/">high blood pressure</a>, smoking, diabetes, and family history still carry a lot of weight. 



The study suggests bacteria - especially in biofilm form - may be another player that nudges risky plaques toward rupture.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-more-questions-need-answers">More questions need answers</h2>



To sum it all up, this surprising, peer-reviewed study links oral bacteria within arterial plaques to inflammation associated with plaque rupture, highlighting a plausible mouth-heart connection.



The next steps include testing whether targeting biofilms, improving oral health, or dialing down specific immune alarms could make plaques more stable. 



Researchers will also need to sort out cause versus correlation and identify which bacterial features matter most inside human arteries.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-you-should-do">What you should do</h2>



In the meantime, continue to follow the basic guidelines urged by the American Heart Association. 



Keep <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/eggs-and-cholesterol-a-new-twist-in-an-old-debate/">LDL cholesterol</a> in check. Do not smoke or vape. Move your body most days. Sleep well. Eat in a way that supports cardiovascular health. 



Keep up with dental basics also - regular brushing, flossing, and routine checkups reduce the chances that mouth bacteria slip into your blood. 



None of these habits are cure-alls on their own, but together they lower risk.



The full study was published in the <a href="https://www.ahajournals.org/doi/10.1161/JAHA.125.041521" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal of the American Heart Association</a>.



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Germs in your mouth play a key role in heart attacks, upending conventional wisdom

Most people hear “heart attack” and think of clogged arteries...

Known,For,Their,Remarkable,Memory,And,Emotional,Depth,,Elephants,Display

Elephants don’t swing their trunks around for no reason. They use them to send signals with a goal in mind. When the stakes are simple - say, a tray of apples - elephant gestures become easy to spot and interpret. 



They point their trunks toward the target, angle their bodies, and look at the person who can help. If that person looks away, the show stops. If the person pays attention, the message flows.



Though silent, these gestures speak volumes about <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/elephants-take-more-risks-when-they-live-around-people/">how elephants plan</a>, how they use feedback, and how they manage social life. Purposeful gestures tell you there’s intent behind the movement - there’s a why, not just a what.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-decoding-elephant-gestures">Decoding elephant gestures</h2>



Researchers set out to test a straightforward idea: when elephants gesture, do they do it with a specific goal, direct those gestures at someone who can respond, and adjust if the first try falls short? 



A human stood by a tray that sometimes had apples and sometimes didn’t. The elephants wanted apples. The team created three outcomes: full success, partial success, and no success.



Semi-captive African savanna elephants took part. They’re used to people, so working around a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/elephants-remember-the-scent-of-their-keepers-for-decades/">human experimenter</a> didn’t throw them off. 



The setup let the researchers watch how the animals signaled before and after each outcome, and whether those signals depended on the human paying attention.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-the-elephants-did">What the elephants did</h2>



Most elephants gestured only when the person was actually watching. If trunk movements were random, they would appear regardless of who was in the room or where that person was looking. 



Instead, the animals tracked attention, a key sign that they were trying to influence someone who could act.



Their follow-through told another story. When they got only some of what they wanted, they kept going. When they got everything, they eased off. 



That pattern - pushing when the job isn’t done and relaxing when it is - fits the way intentional communication works.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-persistence-then-move-to-plan-b">Persistence, then move to plan b</h2>



When repeating the same move didn’t help, elephants tried new gestures. That shift from <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S2352154622000547" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">persistence to elaboration</a> shows they aren’t locked into one signal. 



If pointing didn’t pan out, they switched tactics, demonstrating purposeful signaling, not reflex.



One result may feel counterintuitive. They didn’t ramp up persistence more in the “no apples” outcome than in the “all apples” outcome. 



An empty tray can mean the session is over, so the payoff for pushing drops. No point in hammering away if the game has ended.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-multilayered-elephant-communication">Multilayered elephant communication</h2>



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/world-elephant-day-2025-fighting-for-survival/">Elephants communicate</a> through touch, smell, and sound - especially low-frequency rumbles that can travel over a mile through air and ground. Family groups are led by experienced females. 



Calves learn by watching and practicing. Within those tight circles, signals need to be clear, whether they’re coordinating movement, keeping track of calves, or handling tense moments at a waterhole.



The trunk is a communication powerhouse with fine control to pick up a blade of grass or tug down a branch. With that range, elephants can point, nudge, block, or beckon with precision. 



The new results fold into that picture: gestures aren’t random flourishes; they’re tools for getting things done.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-intentionality-behind-elephant-gestures">Intentionality behind elephant gestures</h2>



Scientists use the phrase “first-order intentionality” to describe signals meant to change someone’s behavior - hand me that, come here, keep going. 



By tracking attention, persisting after partial success, and shifting strategies when needed, elephants hit those marks across many gestures, not just a single trick.



That broad pattern matters. In social animals with long lives and strong family ties, the ability to tailor signals to the situation pays off. You see similar logic in species that rely on cooperation and memory.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-the-study-was-done">How the study was done</h2>



The study team watched 17 elephants and documented 38 distinct gesture types aimed either at the person or at the apples. They also noted what didn’t happen: elephants didn’t waste time signaling toward an empty tray. 



That detail backs the idea that the goal steers the gesture. The researchers are careful about limits and call for follow-up work in wild settings and in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/asian-elephants-perform-a-special-burial-ritual-for-their-calves/">elephant-to-elephant</a> interactions.



They make clear that this is about first-order intent, not changing what someone knows or believes. 



They also point out that routines around food and timing could shape how often an animal chooses to keep trying when the tray is empty. Those caveats sharpen the main pattern.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-elephant-gestures-matter">Why elephant gestures matter</h2>



Understanding intentional communication changes how people handle <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.abe7389" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">real-world situations</a> with elephants. In protected areas and reserves, clear signals can reduce stress during veterinary checks or transport. 



In community settings where elephants and people cross paths, knowing that attention and feedback shape behavior can guide calmer responses. Treat gestures not as noise but as messages that can be interpreted and answered.



It also supports better enrichment and training. If an elephant is actively monitoring your attention and adjusting tactics, then consistent cues and meaningful rewards aren’t optional. They’re part of a two-way conversation.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-humans-and-elephants-talking">Humans and elephants "talking"</h2>



<a href="https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC3986168/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Tests with wild elephants</a> will show how these patterns play out away from feeding stations and daily routines. 



Fieldwork can track how gestures function during travel, greeting, or conflict, and tease apart which signals are universal and which are learned within a family.



As the catalog grows, so will our ability to read <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-era-in-wildlife-conservation-how-ai-will-help-protect-elephants/">what elephants are saying</a> with more accuracy and respect.



Elephants aim their gestures at someone who can act, keep at it when they get only part of what they want, and switch to new signals when repeating the old ones doesn’t work. 



It’s purposeful communication - and once you notice it, you don’t see elephants the same way again.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rsos.242203" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Royal Society Open Science</a>.



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Elephants communicate in a way that scientists thought was unique to humans

Elephants don’t swing their trunks around for no reason. They...

Species don’t all carve out territory the same way. A sweeping analysis across the tree of life shows that, on average, older lineages occupy larger geographical ranges than younger ones.



The relationship isn’t uniform - <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/marine-mammals-in-the-us-are-highly-vulnerable-to-climate-change/">marine mammals</a> buck the trend, and islands add their own twists - but evolutionary time consistently emerges as a powerful predictor of how far a species spreads.



An international team led by scientists at the German Center for Integrative Biodiversity Research (<a href="https://www.idiv.de/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">iDiv</a>), Leipzig University, and the Naturalis Biodiversity Center compared evolutionary age and present-day range size for more than 26,000 species.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-panoramic-look-across-26-000-species"><a></a>A panoramic look across 26,000 species</h2>



The dataset spanned seven major groups - <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/birds-are-struggling-to-keep-pace-with-a-warming-climate/">birds</a>, reptiles, amphibians, reef fishes, palms, and both terrestrial and marine mammals - providing one of the broadest tests yet of how age shapes distribution.



The headline result is straightforward: older species tend to have larger ranges. That pattern appeared across every group except marine mammals. The logic is intuitive but has not been demonstrated at this scale.



“Older species are expected to have larger distributions because they have had more time, sometimes several millions of years, to expand their ranges since first appearing,” explained first author Adriana Alzate, a scientist at Naturalis.



“Over evolutionary timescales, these species have had more opportunities to reproduce, disperse, colonize, and adapt to diverse environments, allowing them to occupy broader geographical areas.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dispersal-power-changes-the-pace"><a></a>Dispersal power changes the pace</h2>



Time alone doesn’t tell the whole story. How easily a species moves through landscapes - its dispersal ability - can speed or slow the march outward.



Strong fliers such as birds with long, pointed wings, and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fossil-reveals-how-plants-use-winged-seeds-to-expand-their-habitats/">plants</a> whose seeds travel with large, wide-ranging animals, often achieve broad ranges quickly. Poor dispersers, including many amphibians, expand more slowly; for them, age exerts a stronger influence because overcoming barriers takes generations.



The study’s cross-taxa lens makes those contrasts visible. Two species of similar age can differ dramatically in range simply because one can vault barriers while the other cannot. That natural experiment plays out worldwide, from continental interiors to archipelagos.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-islands-rewrite-the-rules"><a></a>Islands rewrite the rules</h2>



Geography sets hard limits, and nowhere is that clearer than on islands. Native species confined to islands necessarily have smaller maximum ranges than their mainland relatives.



The team confirmed that basic constraint, but they also uncovered an unexpected nuance: the gap between young and old species’ ranges is even larger on islands than on continents.



“Island dynamics and ontogeny modulate the relationship between age and range size. Release from predators and competitors may have enabled early island colonizers, typically ecological generalists, to achieve broader ranges than expected based on age only,” said co-author Roberto Rozzi, a scientist at iDIV.



In other words, the first arrivals - often flexible in diet and habitat - can spread widely within the island system, cementing a strong age–range link even under geographic caps.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-range-size-matters-for-survival"><a></a>Why range size matters for survival</h2>



Range size isn’t just a biogeographic curiosity; it’s one of the strongest predictors of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/animal-extinction-risk-is-heavily-influenced-by-climate-change/">extinction risk</a>. Species with narrow distributions usually have smaller total populations and fewer local strongholds. 



They are more vulnerable to droughts, storms, disease outbreaks, invasive species, and human disturbance. With more than 40,000 species currently facing extinction, understanding what governs range size can sharpen conservation priorities.



That’s especially important as climate change scrambles habitats. If older species generally occupy larger, more environmentally diverse ranges, they may carry genetic variation that helps them cope with shifting conditions.



“This is even more important in the context of changing environmental conditions, because not all species may be able to keep up with these changes,” said senior author Renske Onstein, a biologist at iDIV. 



“Possibly, older species have the genetic makeup to more readily adapt and therefore persist in their relatively large ranges. This needs further testing with genetic data, for example, providing exciting possibilities for future research."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-takeaways-for-conservation-strategies">Takeaways for conservation strategies </h2>



The study highlights three practical lessons for managers. First, evolutionary age can be a useful flag when assessing exposure to risk: younger, poor-dispersing species with small ranges may need faster, more targeted intervention.



Second, island biotas demand tailored strategies that account for their tight geographic limits and unique dynamics. 



Third, bolstering connectivity - through corridors and habitat restoration - can partially compensate for weak dispersal, giving species the chance to expand or shift ranges as climates warm.



Crucially, the work also warns against one-size-fits-all assumptions. <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/these-marine-mammals-killer-whales-dolphins-permanently-lost-ability-to-ever-walk-again/">Marine mammals</a>, for instance, didn’t follow the main pattern, likely reflecting the fluidity of ocean habitats and the long-distance movements of many whale and dolphin species. The lesson is to treat age as a powerful factor, not a universal rule.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-clock-a-map-and-a-moving-target">A clock, a map, and a moving target</h2>



Range size emerges from the interplay of time, traits, and terrain. Evolutionary “clock time” creates opportunities; dispersal traits determine how readily species seize them; geography dictates what’s possible. 



By stitching those pieces together across tens of thousands of species, the researchers show that age leaves a durable imprint on where life lives today.



For conservation in a rapidly changing world, that imprint is more than academic. It helps explain why some species are widespread while their close relatives cling to a single valley or reef. 



And it offers a clearer map of where limited resources can do the most good - before small ranges become no ranges at all.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-025-62124-y" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Communications</a>.



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Why older species may be better survivors

Species don’t all carve out territory the same way. A...

Scientists have engineered wheat to nudge soil bacteria into producing plant-ready nitrogen, a shift that could cut fertilizer use, curb pollution, and lower farm costs without sacrificing yields. 



The plants overproduce a natural compound, leak the excess into the soil, and in doing so jumpstart nearby microbes that “fix” nitrogen from the air into forms crops can use.



In this work, a team at the <a href="https://www.ucdavis.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of California, Davis</a>, led by Eduardo Blumwald, used <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/crispr-used-to-remove-extra-chromosomes-in-down-syndrome-and-restore-cell-function/">CRISPR</a> to dial up a wheat metabolite and tested the effect under low-nitrogen conditions.



The study extends earlier proof-of-concept in rice, with efforts underway to translate the approach to other staple cereals.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-synthetic-nitrogen-fuels-global-harvests">Synthetic nitrogen fuels global harvests</h2>



Worldwide, synthetic nitrogen fuels modern harvests but at a steep environmental and economic price. Wheat alone accounts for about 18 percent of global nitrogen fertilizer use. Of the hundreds of millions of tons produced each year, plants capture only 30 to 50 percent.



The remainder washes into rivers and coasts, feeding oxygen-starved <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/excess-nutrients-are-creating-ocean-dead-zones/">dead zones</a>, or escapes as nitrous oxide, a potent greenhouse gas. For smallholder farmers, especially in low-income regions, cost and access make fertilizer a gamble.



“In Africa, people don't use fertilizers because they don’t have money, and farms are small, not larger than six to eight acres,” Blumwald said. “Imagine, you are planting crops that stimulate bacteria in the soil to create the fertilizer that the crops need, naturally. Wow! That’s a big difference!”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-wheat-learns-microbes-nitrogen-trick">Wheat learns microbes’ nitrogen trick</h2>



Nitrogen fixation is carried out by specialized bacteria using an enzyme called nitrogenase, which only functions in low-oxygen conditions. Legumes such as beans and peas solve this by hosting the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plants-have-root-microbiomes-like-humans-do-vital-for-survival-defense/">microbes</a> in root nodules, which are tiny oxygen-poor chambers. 



Cereals like wheat lack nodules, which is why they rely on bagged nitrogen. Rather than trying to give cereals nodules or force microbes to colonize roots - a strategy that has long struggled to stick - the team flipped the problem.



The researchers screened roughly 2,800 plant-made chemicals and found a small set, including flavones, that prompt soil <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/when-bacteria-get-hungry-they-turn-on-each-other/">bacteria</a> to form protective biofilms. Those sticky microbial coats reduce oxygen exposure enough for nitrogenase to work.



“For decades, scientists have been trying to develop cereal crops that produce active root nodules, or trying to colonize cereals with nitrogen-fixing bacteria, without much success. We used a different approach,” Blumwald said.



“We said the location of the nitrogen-fixing bacteria is not important, so long as the fixed nitrogen can reach the plant, and the plant can use it.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-gene-edit-flips-fertilizer-switch">Gene edit flips fertilizer switch</h2>



Using CRISPR, the researchers boosted wheat’s production of apigenin, a common flavone. Plants kept what they needed and exuded the surplus through their roots.



In soil tests, the extra apigenin encouraged local bacteria to spin up biofilms, protecting nitrogenase, fixing nitrogen, and making ammonium available for the crop. In low-fertility conditions, edited wheat assimilated the microbially supplied nitrogen and outyielded control plants.



The amazing thing lies in what the plant does automatically. It manufactures the signal, leaks it when nitrogen is scarce, and benefits from the neighborhood effect. No external inoculants are required, and the microbes remain free-living in the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-type-of-microbes-found-earths-deep-soil-critical-zone/">soil</a> rather than locked inside a root.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-pollution-down-resilience-up"><a></a>Pollution down, resilience up</h2>



If scaled, the approach could trim the fertilizer footprint that drives water pollution and climate forcing in wheat and other crops. Less soluble nitrogen applied to fields means less runoff during storms, smaller algal blooms, and fewer oxygen crashes in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-shock-lakes-are-losing-oxygen-faster-than-expected/">lakes</a> and coastal zones. 



Cutting back on industrial nitrogen also reduces upstream emissions from natural-gas-intensive fertilizer production.



Because the mechanism amplifies microbial activity already present in many soils, it may also help stabilize yields under input constraints. In places where fertilizer is scarce or prohibitively expensive, the crop’s own chemistry becomes a lever to unlock atmospheric nitrogen.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-billions-saved-with-less-fertilizer">Billions saved with less fertilizer</h2>



The United States alone saw nearly $36 billion in fertilizer spending in 2023. Cereals cover close to 500 million acres nationally. Even modest reductions in inputs translate into real money while lowering risk in volatile markets.



“Imagine, if you could save 10 percent of the amount of fertilizer being used on that land,” Blumwald said. “I’m calculating conservatively: That should be a savings of more than a billion dollars every year.”



Those savings would not come solely from buying less nitrogen. Fewer passes to apply fertilizer mean lower fuel use and less soil compaction. Reduced losses to waterways could also ease regulatory pressure and improve community relations in vulnerable watersheds.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-proving-stability-across-soil-types">Proving stability across soil types</h2>



The road from greenhouse pots to farm fields is long, but the milestones are clear. Researchers will need to confirm that the nitrogen boost holds under diverse soils, climates, and microbiomes, and that it plays nicely with existing rotations and management. 



They will need to show stable performance across seasons and varieties, measure effects on soil ecology, and ensure that yields and grain quality are maintained.



Because the edit increases a native metabolite rather than introducing a foreign gene, regulatory pathways may be more straightforward in some jurisdictions. Still, farmers and policymakers will want transparent data on environmental outcomes, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-solar-power-can-transform-urine-into-fertilizer/">fertilizer</a> savings, and return on investment.



If the results scale, gene-edited cereals like wheat that recruit their own microbial fertilizer factories could become a practical tool in the nitrogen toolbox - cutting costs where budgets are tight, trimming pollution where waters run foul, and building resilience in the breadbaskets of a warming world.



The study is published in the <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/pbi.70289" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Plant Biotechnology Journal</a>.



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Gene-edited wheat turns soil microbes into fertilizer

Scientists have engineered wheat to nudge soil bacteria into producing...

Farming spread across prehistoric Europe mostly because farming communities moved, not because local hunter-gatherers copied their ways. Cultural adoption played only a minimal role in the Neolithic transition, the period when agriculture took hold. 



A team of researchers at <a href="https://www.psu.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Penn State</a> combined ancient DNA, archaeology, and computer simulations to separate the effects of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ancient-dna-reveals-human-migration-patterns-in-first-millennium-ad/">migration</a> from the uptake of new practices. 



The team modeled population movements, growth, and learning, then tested those models against genetic ancestry from hundreds of Neolithic individuals and against the known pace of farming’s advance from the Middle East into Europe.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-two-sciences-unlock-farming-s-spread">Two sciences unlock farming’s spread</h2>



Christian Huber, an assistant professor of biology at Penn State and senior author on the paper, noted that archaeology and genetics offer complementary windows into this transition.



“Artifacts and isotopes in ancient bones can reveal whether a person relied on domesticated plants or animals, reflecting the adoption of new farming practices," said Huber. 



“At the same time, DNA preserved in those bones can show where people’s ancestors came from, providing evidence of migration, or the movement of farming populations into new regions.”



Archaeological traces show when <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/domesticating-wild-plants-may-result-in-more-resilient-crops/">domesticated crops</a> and animals appeared. Genomes preserve who arrived with them. 



By fusing those records within a single statistical framework, the team could estimate how much of farming’s spread came from people on the move and how much from ideas crossing cultural lines.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-migration-versus-culture-finally-measured">Migration versus culture finally measured</h2>



“This has been a long-standing question - and disentangling the roles of migration and cultural adoption has been a goal of archaeologists and anthropologists for decades,” said study lead author Troy LaPolice, a doctoral student at Penn State.



“What we found was surprising: when cultures spread through migration, it is not guaranteed local ancestry patterns will change, but the spread of farming managed to leave a strong and lasting impact on European ancestry.”



The researchers simulated the front of farming as it rolled out from the Fertile Crescent roughly 10,000 years ago, reaching into the Balkans, then north and west across the continent. They fit those simulations to radiocarbon timelines and to ancestry profiles from 618 ancient individuals.



The results allowed them to assign weight to two forces - movement of farming groups and adoption by foragers - and to test which combination best reproduced the record.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-farmers-moved-ideas-spread-slowly">Farmers moved, ideas spread slowly</h2>



The answer was clear. Migration dominated. Cultural transmission, the flow of practices without the movement of people, barely nudged the pace. 



The team’s estimates put the “cultural effect” at about half a percent. <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/stone-age-hunter-gatherers-had-a-very-organized-domestic-life/">Hunter-gatherers</a> in most places continued to forage even as farmsteads appeared nearby and, over generations, replaced their way of life.



“The assimilation rate, the rate at which hunter-gatherers were grafted into farming communities, was actually very low&nbsp; -&nbsp; only about one in 1,000 farmers converted a hunter-gatherer to farming each year,” Huber said.



“As a result, cultural transmission had almost no effect on how quickly farming spread. Still, even at this low rate, it left a lasting mark on the DNA of Europeans today and introduced useful genetic traits into the growing farming communities.”



That small but steady flow mattered biologically, even if it mattered little to the speed of the transition. 



Genes from local foragers entered the expanding farming populations. Some of those variants likely helped the newcomers adapt to new environments as they moved north into different climates and daylight regimes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-farming-and-foragers-rarely-mixed">Farming and foragers rarely mixed</h2>



The models also point to strong social boundaries. According to the team’s analysis, farmers overwhelmingly mated with farmers, and foragers with foragers. “Between-group” pairings were rare, on the order of less than three percent.



That pattern aligns with other ancient DNA studies showing persistent genetic differences between neighboring groups that shared landscapes for centuries.



Those findings help explain why the genetic imprint of the first farmers is so pervasive in Europe today. Once agricultural communities established themselves, their numbers grew more quickly than those of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/birth-of-farming-driven-by-humans/">foragers</a>. 



Even with little intermarriage or conversion, demographic momentum carried their ancestry far.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dna-helps-rewrite-early-history">DNA helps rewrite early history</h2>



“It's really interesting to be able to understand a time period before any written or oral history,” LaPolice said. “This intense interdisciplinary project allowed us to undertake a new kind of historical reconstruction.”



The approach tested not just a story but a set of mechanisms. It allowed the team to ask what combinations of movement, growth, and learning could produce the archaeological and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ancient-dna-reveals-human-migration-patterns-in-first-millennium-ad/">genetic patterns</a> we see. 



It also let them probe how sensitive their conclusions were to assumptions about mating, mobility, and population size.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-method-offers-tools-for-archaeology">Method offers tools for archaeology</h2>



The study adds to a growing body of work showing how ancient genomes can clarify human prehistory when paired with robust models.



It also echoes the team’s recent methodological papers assessing common ancestry tools - useful when applied carefully, but misleading when pushed beyond their limits.



“This research highlights the power of combining genetic data with archaeological models to uncover the complex behavioral mechanisms of our past,” Williams said. “Looking forward, I see this paving the way for a reevaluation of other major prehistoric cultural shifts.”



From metalworking to herding, from language dispersals to the rise of cities, many transformations reshaped ancient lives. The Penn State team’s framework offers a way to test whether those farming changes spread through people, ideas, or - most often - some blend of both.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-025-63172-0" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Communications</a>.



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Ancient DNA shows what really spread the farming revolution

Farming spread across prehistoric Europe mostly because farming communities moved,...

Lemurs didn’t spring from a single explosive radiation after reaching Madagascar. Instead, their extraordinary variety arose through multiple waves of speciation, some as recent as the middle to late Pleistocene about 500,000 years ago.&nbsp;



Interbreeding between species also played a creative role, feeding genetic novelty into lineages that later split again.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lemur-evolution-in-madagascar">Lemur evolution in Madagascar</h2>



An international team led by the German Primate Center – Leibniz Institute for Primate Research (<a href="https://www.dpz.eu/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">DPZ</a>) reports these findings in new research on Madagascar’s primates. 



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/endangered-lemurs-millions-of-years-of-diversity-at-risk/">Lemurs</a> comprise more than 15 percent of today’s living primate species even though their island home covers less than one percent of Earth’s land. The study challenges a popular island narrative: that a single early radiation explains most living diversity.



Lemurs are strepsirrhines, an ancient primate branch that diverged from the haplorrhines - monkeys, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/early-apes-lived-in-a-constantly-changing-world-of-fire-and-ash/">apes</a>, and humans - over 70 million years ago.&nbsp;



Their ancestors likely rafted to Madagascar roughly 53 million years ago and then adapted to a striking range of habitats, from humid rainforests to dry spiny thickets, coastal scrub, and mountains.&nbsp;



Today, scientists recognize more than 100 species, with at least 16 more lost in just the past two millennia of human presence.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-multiple-bursts-not-one">Multiple bursts, not one</h2>



The team analyzed genomic data from 79 lemur species spanning the island’s main genera. Their phylogenetic reconstructions revealed a major uptick in speciation about five to six million years ago, long after the earliest lemur radiations.&nbsp;



The surge centered on three genera that dominate modern diversity: mouse lemurs (Microcebus), true lemurs (Eulemur), and sportive lemurs (Lepilemur). Rather than evidence of a single ancient “big bang,” the pattern points to repeated pulses of diversification layered across deep time.



The late burst surprised the researchers. In many groups, speciation rates peak early and then slow as ecological space fills. 



Mouse lemurs, true lemurs, and sportive lemurs bucked that expectation. They kept minting new species into the late Neogene and Pleistocene while also swapping genes across species boundaries within their genera.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hybridization-as-an-engine-of-novelty">Hybridization as an engine of novelty</h2>



The genomic signal of gene flow was clear. Species in the same genus sometimes interbred and produced hybrids, and those hybrids were not evolutionary dead ends. 



In several clades, hybrid-origin species were even more common than “classic” species formed solely by lineage splitting.



“Our analyses show that lemurs split into new species much more frequently than their closest relatives, the lorises in Africa and Asia," explained Dietmar Zinner, a primate researcher in the Cognitive Ethology Laboratory at DPZ.&nbsp;



"We were also able to show that genetic exchange, i.e. hybridization between species, was an important driver of this diversity."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-complex-conditions-of-madagascar">Complex conditions of Madagascar</h2>



Zinner conducted the work with colleagues Peter Kappeler from the Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology Unit and Christian Roos from the <a href="https://www.dpz.eu/en/primate-genetics" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Primate Genetics Laboratory</a>.



On average, lemurs produced about 0.44 new species per million years across the tree, compared with only 0.15 per million years in lorises. In some groups, hybrid species outnumbered divergence-only species by a factor of four.&nbsp;



That contrast demonstrates how Madagascar’s complex landscapes and shifting <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-plants-actively-shaped-earths-climate-cycle-throughout-history/">climates</a> likely promoted both isolation and secondary contact, fueling cycles of split, mix, and split again.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-lemurs-outpaced-lorises">Why lemurs outpaced lorises</h2>



Lorises, spread across Africa and Asia, share ancient ancestry with lemurs yet evolved under different ecological rules.&nbsp;



Madagascar’s isolation, its mosaic of microclimates, and repeated environmental swings may have carved and rejoined populations in ways that favored diversification.&nbsp;



Small-bodied lineages such as mouse lemurs, with short generation times, could respond rapidly to new ecological opportunities or barriers. When range edges met again, occasional interbreeding would have injected novel combinations of genes that selection could act upon, speeding the emergence of distinct forms.



The study’s timeline reaches into the middle and late Pleistocene. That means the island’s living diversity is not just a relic of distant Eocene events but a product of more recent evolutionary churn.&nbsp;



Even relatively young climatic oscillations could have opened and closed corridors, fostering the repeated radiations now written into lemur genomes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-conservation-message-written-in-genes">Conservation message written in genes</h2>



The results carry immediate implications for conservation. Roughly 95 percent of lemur species are threatened as forests shrink and climate extremes intensify.&nbsp;



Hybridization can be a source of diversity, but it can also erode distinctive lineages if human-driven <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/most-species-are-shifting-their-habitats-due-to-climate-change/">habitat</a> change forces species into unnaturally high contact.



“In the future, conservation concepts must also take genetic diversity and the role of hybridization into account,” Zinner said.



That means protecting not just species names but the evolutionary processes that generated them. Safeguarding intact, connected habitats across environmental gradients will help maintain opportunities for natural diversification while limiting risky, human-triggered genetic swamping.&nbsp;



Moreover, genetic monitoring is also needed alongside field surveys to understand where boundaries are stable, porous, or shifting under pressure.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-future-of-lemur-evolution">The future of lemur evolution </h2>



“Nevertheless, this is not a license to neglect species conservation,” Roos said. “Without protective measures, many of the lemur species will go extinct before they can make use of this potential.”



For researchers, the next steps are clear. More high-resolution genomic work is needed to pinpoint when and where hybridization shaped lineages, which environmental factors promoted it, and how often it produced adaptive breakthroughs. 



That knowledge can guide strategies that respect natural evolutionary dynamics while preventing unintended outcomes.



“The more we know about their evolutionary history and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-do-asexual-ants-maintain-genetic-diversity/">genetic diversity</a>, the better we can secure their future,” Roos concluded.



Madagascar’s lemurs are a testament to what isolated landscapes and restless climates can sculpt. Their genomes show that evolution doesn’t always proceed in a single burst; sometimes it occurs in waves.&nbsp;



Protecting those waves - and the forests that make them possible - will determine whether this extraordinary experiment continues.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-025-62310-y">Nature Communications</a>.&nbsp;



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Lemur evolution happened in waves, not a single burst

Lemurs didn’t spring from a single explosive radiation after reaching...

Sweltering heat does more than make people miserable. Repeated exposure to hot spells appears to push the body toward older biology in ways we can measure.



Biological age is not a birthday. It is a reading of how well the body’s systems are functioning. When that reading runs ahead of our calendar age, scientists call it biological <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/life-purpose-the-secret-ingredient-for-healthy-aging/">age</a> acceleration, and that gap tracks with higher risks of disease and earlier death.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-heatwaves-make-us-age-faster">Heatwaves make us age faster</h2>



A team working with health data from 24,922 adults in Taiwan found that more heatwave days over time lined up with faster biological aging.



This new work was led by <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=dbHYypkAAAAJ&amp;hl=en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Siyi Chen</a> at The University of Hong Kong (<a href="https://www.hku.hk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">HKU</a>). 



The first results focused on a two-year window of heatwave exposures before each participant's health checkup and the link to their biological age recorded at those visits. This cohort that stretched from 2008 to 2022.



“Research now shows that exposure to heatwaves affects the rate at which we age,” said <a href="https://researchers.mq.edu.au/en/persons/paul-beggs" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Paul J. Beggs</a>, School of Natural Sciences at Macquarie University (<a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41558-025-02395-x" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">MU</a>).



Heat is not a niche problem. Many regions are already seeing longer, more frequent hot spells, and those patterns push health systems, workplaces, and vulnerable communities to their limits.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-understanding-biological-age">Understanding biological age</h2>



Biological age estimates how “worn” your body is compared with the average person of your calendar (chronological) age. Two 40-year-olds can have very different biological ages because bodies don’t wear at the same rate. 



Scientists measure this “wear” with biomarkers - objective signs in your cells and blood. 



Common ones include <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/epigenetic-dna-clocks-predict-biological-age-more-accurately/">epigenetic clocks</a>, telomere length, fitness measures like <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/medicine-and-dentistry/vo2-max" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">VO₂ max</a> and grip strength, and blood markers tied to inflammation, glucose control, and lipids. 



Your choices and environment push biological age up or down. Regular exercise, enough sleep, nutritious food, not smoking, and managing stress tend to slow aging signals; long-term stress, pollution, ultra-processed diets, and inactivity speed them up.



Some studies even show that improving lifestyle can make certain biomarkers “younger,” at least for a while. Put together, these data predict health risks better than birthdays do.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-biological-wear-and-tear">Biological wear and tear</h2>



For this particular study, the researchers estimated biological <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/breakthrough-method-reverses-aging-in-human-cells-without-modifying-dna/">age</a> using common clinical markers that reflect inflammation, blood pressure, and organ functions. This approach is well established in aging science and has been refined with large biobank <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s42003-023-05456-z" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">data</a>.



They calculated biological age acceleration as the difference between a person’s biological age and their birthday age. A higher number means a body that behaves older than the calendar suggests.



They then paired each person’s aging number with the heat they had faced. 



The team built measures of cumulative heatwave exposure in the two years before each screening, including the total number of heatwave days and the intensity of those events.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-more-hot-days-meant-faster-aging">More hot days meant faster aging</h2>



Each interquartile range increase in cumulative heatwave exposure was associated with a 0.023 to 0.031 year rise in biological <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/why-some-people-age-better-hundreds-of-genes-identified/">age</a> acceleration. 



That is about 8 to 11 days of extra biological aging for the amount of heat that separates the middle half of exposures in the population.



The total number of heatwave days stood out as the most important driver. Intensity mattered too, but simple counts of hot days carried the strongest signal in this dataset.



The cohort showed some adaptation over the 15 year span, yet the aging effect remained. The pattern suggests communities can adjust, but heat still leaves a mark that adds up over time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-heatwaves-speed-up-age">How heatwaves speed up age</h2>



Heat is a physiological stress that forces cells to respond. Heat shock <a href="https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC11113869/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">proteins</a> help keep other proteins from misfolding and assist in repair when temperatures climb.



Sustained heat can also raise oxidative stress and cause DNA damage. Those hits accumulate across tissues and nudge multiple systems toward older states.



Biological age acceleration captures this broad wear and tear. It rolls many signals into a single number that tracks future health risk more closely than birthdays do.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-us-studies-confirm-heatwaves-and-age-link">US studies confirm heatwaves and age link</h2>



The Taiwan findings match results in older American adults. A national US <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/sciadv.adr0616" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">analysis</a> used blood based epigenetic clocks to test the link between outdoor heat and aging in 3,686 people.



Short and mid term windows of more heat days aligned with higher PhenoAge acceleration by about 1.07 years, while longer windows showed a 2.48 year rise for one clock and consistent increases across other clocks. 



“These findings provide insights into the biological underpinnings linking heat to aging-related morbidity and mortality risks,” wrote Eun Young Choi, <a href="https://www.usc.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Southern California</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-smarter-ways-to-stay-cool">Smarter ways to stay cool</h2>



Access to air conditioning lowers immediate heat risks, but it also releases added heat outside. 



A seven city Japanese <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/37951014/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">study</a> estimated that AC use can prevent a large share of heat related deaths while a small fraction of deaths may be attributable to the extra outdoor heat it creates.



That tradeoff points to better cooling strategies, not less protection. More shade, reflective roofs, better building ventilation, and efficient cooling lower indoor temperatures while cutting waste heat and power demand.



Policies should follow the data. Manual workers saw around three times the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/defying-time-three-ways-to-slow-biological-aging/">aging</a> impact for the same heat exposure, and rural residents with fewer air conditioners were also hit harder.



This research shows that protections must prioritize those groups with targeted cooling and work practice changes.



The study is published in <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41558-025-02407-w.epdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Climate Change</a>.



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Frequent heatwaves are pushing human bodies to age faster

Sweltering heat does more than make people miserable. Repeated exposure...

For years, scientists have asked whether fossils record how ocean ecosystems actually worked, not just which species were there. A new study answers that question with a careful field test along the North Carolina coast.



The researchers found that the functional makeup of marine communities can be read from the fossil record with surprising accuracy. In other words, many marine species have performed the same jobs for millions of years. 



That result matters because managers often need a trustworthy baseline for restoration in places that have been altered for centuries. If fossils preserve which ecological jobs were present, then restoration targets can be set with more confidence.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-functional-diversity-of-marine-species">Functional diversity of marine species</h2>



The study was led by Carrie L. Tyler of the University of Nevada, Las Vegas (<a href="https://www.unlv.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">UNLV</a>), with collaborators from the University of Florida. 



Tyler’s group focused on functional diversity, the variety of ecological roles in a community, such as feeding modes and mobility, rather than only <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-an-ocean-of-fire-shaped-early-earths-core-according-to-a-new-study/">species</a> lists.



Across ecology, evidence suggests that functional information can sharpen how we judge stability, productivity, and resilience. The emerging field of conservation paleobiology uses geologic archives to set realistic baselines and to guide restoration in today’s stressed ecosystems.



Scientists did not reach this point overnight. Decades of <a href="https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.1403660112" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">work</a> comparing living seafloor communities to their nearby accumulations of shells and hard parts, called a death assemblage, showed that these remains often mirror local diversity patterns. 



That line of work helped build trust that nearshore fossils can serve as credible yardsticks of past conditions.



“Most of what we know, in terms of biases in the fossil record, is based on mollusks. We designed our study to determine whether those biases are consistent when you include many types of organisms, not just mollusks,” said Tyler. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-testing-fossils-against-living-species">Testing fossils against living species</h2>



The team surveyed 51 coastal sites in Onslow Bay, North Carolina. They sampled the live benthic community, the sympatric death assemblage on the seafloor, and the subset of species known to occur as fossils in the region.



The researchers cataloged more than 200 <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-model-reveals-dramatic-swings-in-ancient-sea-levels/">species</a> spanning six major invertebrate groups. For each species, they recorded traits that drive ecosystem processes, including feeding type, motility, and where an animal lives relative to the sediment.



From those traits, they computed a set of widely used functional metrics. These included how much trait space is occupied by the community, how evenly that space is filled, and how many unique functions are covered by one species versus many.



The researchers then asked a simple question. Do the dead and fossil subsets recover the same functional structure as the living community in the same places and habitats?



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-marine-species-kept-their-jobs">Marine species kept their jobs</h2>



The answer was yes, and not by a hair. Functional groups present in the living community were also present in the death and fossil samples, and the pattern of how many species filled each function was closely aligned.



The correlations between live, dead, and fossil functional groupings were strong, with reported rank concordance exceeding 0.85 and with P values far below 0.001 in formal tests. 



Functional richness, evenness, divergence, and dispersion were highly congruent across assemblages, with only modest contraction in the fossil subset.



Importantly, the traits that matter for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ancient-sunken-oceans-discovered-between-earth-core-and-mantle/">ecosystem</a> processes were retained. Suspension feeders, burrowers, and predators each maintained their footprint in trait space, which means trophic structure and sediment interaction roles were not washed out by preservation filters.



The team also evaluated functional vulnerability. When they treated functions with two or fewer species as vulnerable, the fossil subset approximated the vulnerability seen in the live community - a practical detail for risk assessment.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-it-matters-for-conservation">Why it matters for conservation</h2>



Modern baselines are often shifted by centuries of harvesting, pollution, and warming. Functional reconstructions drawn from the youngest fossil archives can show which ecological roles have been lost and, crucially, which roles still have redundancy to buffer change.



This trait focus is powerful for setting restoration goals that match how systems actually work. It helps managers ask not only which species are missing, but which functions are absent and need reintroduction or support.



Independent syntheses point in the same direction. Previous reviews have outlined how geohistorical data can clarify extinction risk, recovery windows, and the feasibility of rebuilding ecosystem functions in coastal habitats.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-study-limitations-and-next-steps">Study limitations and next steps</h2>



No single study can cover all settings. Communities dominated by soft-bodied organisms, or places with unusually patchy preservation, may show lower functional fidelity and need case by case checks.



The authors also caution about abundance weighting at small habitat scales. In their data, heavy weighting by a few abundant taxa suppressed some evenness metrics in specific <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earth-was-once-a-green-marble-before-its-oceans-turned-blue/">habitats</a>, so presence absence trait analyses may often be the more robust first pass.



There is room to expand these tests into reef, delta, and deep shelf systems where trait distributions differ. Applying the same framework can reveal where fossil baselines are reliable enough to guide restoration targets.



“There are no pristine ecosystems left on the planet, so when you are trying to restore an ecosystem that can be a difficult and challenging task without having any idea of what it looked like before,” said Tyler. 



“It hasn’t been free of human impacts or pristine for thousands of years, so we don’t have records of what that ecosystem is ‘supposed’ to look like. This study shows the fossil record can be used to give us an idea of what that ecosystem used to look like, and what functions are needed to keep it healthy.”



The study is published in <a href="https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.2405727122" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a>.



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Some marine species have had the same jobs for millions of years

For years, scientists have asked whether fossils record how ocean...

Everyone is aware that large volcanic eruptions have the power to cool the Earth. But here’s something you might not have anticipated: they can also affect floods - and not only locally, but globally.



New studies have discovered that when a volcano erupts and expels gas high into the air, it has the potential to alter global rainfall patterns in a way that soaks or dries out entire areas. And the location of the volcano - especially in relation to the equator - makes all the difference.



It's not <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fresh-lava-from-deep-earth-mantle-pulses-burst-onto-land-where-new-ocean-is-forming/">lava</a> flows or ash clouds covering the sky. It’s about what occurs miles in the air, in the upper atmosphere, where invisible gas molecules alter the way that Earth transmits heat and moisture.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-happens-after-a-major-eruption">What happens after a major eruption</h2>



When a big volcano erupts, it tends to release tremendous quantities of sulfur dioxide gas into the stratosphere. There, the gas condenses into tiny particles that are referred to as <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-small-aerosols-influence-cloud-formation/">aerosols</a>. 



The aerosols deflect sunlight and trap heat, cooling the Earth's surface and heating the upper atmosphere. That temperature difference alters air's circulation patterns around the globe.



The main player in all of this is something known as the Inter-Tropical Convergence Zone, or ITCZ. It's a ring of thunderstorms and clouds that surrounds the Earth just north of the equator where trade winds from the north and the south come together. 



This zone is responsible for heavy tropical rains, and it drifts north or south based on the season.



Volcanic eruptions can nudge the weather band out of its normal position. When that happens, areas that usually get soaked might dry up - and places that are normally dry could suddenly flood.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-volcano-effect-splits-at-the-equator">The volcano effect splits at the equator</h2>



To understand how this works, <a href="https://www.princeton.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Princeton University</a> researchers looked at three major eruptions over the past century: Santa Maria in Guatemala (1902), Agung in Indonesia (1963), and Pinatubo in the Philippines (1991). 



Each one of these eruptions affected flooding in a different way. When Santa Maria erupted in the northern hemisphere, it caused a 25% increase in sites with peak <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/coastal-flooding-is-happening-far-more-often-than-we-thought/">flooding</a> in the southern hemisphere’s tropics and a 35% increase in sites with decreased flows in the northern tropics. 



Agung, in the southern hemisphere, had almost the reverse effect: 50% of stream gauges in the southern tropics showed reduced flooding, while 40% in the northern tropics showed an increase.



Both <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/why-are-volcanoes-in-indonesia-so-dangerous/">volcanoes</a> had one thing in common - their gas plumes stayed mostly in their own hemispheres. That caused the ITCZ to shift away from the eruption, pulling rainfall and flooding with it.



The effects didn’t last forever. "The effects of the increased rainfall are generally strongest in the year after the eruption and lessen after several years," said Gabriele Villarini, one of the study's lead researchers.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-an-eruption-that-flips-the-script">An eruption that flips the script</h2>



Pinatubo was different. Its 1991 eruption sent aerosols into both hemispheres pretty evenly, which led to a different pattern.



Instead of shifting the ITCZ, the eruption cooled the planet more evenly and kicked off a different type of circulation shift. In this case, tropical regions in both hemispheres got less flooding - peak flows dropped at 20% of sites in the southern tropics and at 35% of sites in the northern tropics.



But in very dry places, things got wetter. About 35% of arid-region sites saw an increase in peak flows. This change was probably linked to what’s known as monsoon-desert coupling. 



"Air sinks over Asian monsoon regions and rises over nearby arid regions. The rising air pulls moisture upward, causing greater rainfall in the arid areas," said Hanbeen Kim, lead author of the research paper.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-not-just-a-climate-problem">Not just a climate problem</h2>



What’s important here isn’t just the science - it’s what it means for people. These shifts in rainfall can lead to flooding disasters in places where no one expected it. And that matters for planning, especially as some scientists consider using artificial ways to cool the Earth that mimic volcanic effects.



The authors of the study said their results indicate that climate shifts - whether natural or human-induced - can cause a broad array of impacts. And it’s not only warming and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/volcanic-eruptions-will-lose-their-cooling-effects-on-a-warmer-planet/">cooling</a>, but how water circulates across the Earth.



By connecting volcanic eruptions to flood patterns across the world, this study adds another piece in the puzzle of how we interpret Earth’s systems. It’s not just smoke and ash we need to watch out for - it’s how the invisible gases impact the skies above and the rivers below.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41561-025-01782-5">Nature Geoscience</a>.



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Volcanic eruptions can affect flooding patterns worldwide

Everyone is aware that large volcanic eruptions have the power...

When people think of armored dinosaurs, images of lumbering creatures with clubbed tails and heavy plates come to mind. But the discovery of Spicomellus afer in Morocco has rewritten that image in ways scientists never imagined.



New research published in the journal Nature reveals this unusual <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/large-and-ornate-sail-on-istiorachis-dinosaurs-head-may-have-been-used-for-mating/">dinosaur</a> carried a unique set of weapons and ornaments that predate similar features in other species by more than 30 million years.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-discovery-of-spicomellus">Discovery of Spicomellus</h2>



Spicomellus lived about 165 million years ago in the Middle Jurassic near what is now Boulemane, Morocco. It is the earliest known ankylosaur and the first discovered on the African continent. 



Originally described in 2021 from a single rib bone, the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dinosaur-extinction-theories-are-challenged-by-new-research/">species</a> has now been fleshed out by new remains that reveal extraordinary features.



The dinosaur’s ribs fused with long spikes, some nearly 87 centimeters, creating a collar of outward-pointing blades around its neck. No other vertebrate, living or extinct, is known to share this adaptation.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-armor-like-no-other">Armor like no other</h2>



“To find such elaborate armor in an early ankylosaur changes our understanding of how these dinosaurs evolved. It shows just how significant Africa’s <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/life-on-earth-before-during-and-after-the-dinosaur-killing-asteroid-strike-mosasaurs/">dinosaurs</a> are, and how important it is to improve our understanding of them,” noted Susannah Maidment, a professor at the <a href="https://www.birmingham.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Birmingham</a>.



The new fossils highlight just how extreme this armor truly was. Spicomellus did not only carry spikes on its ribs but displayed a wide variety of protective and ornamental features across its body. Professor Maidment noted that nothing like this has ever been seen in any other animal.



“Spicomellus had a diversity of plates and spikes extending from all over its body, including meter-long neck spikes, huge upwards-projecting spikes over the hips, and a whole range of long, blade-like spikes, pieces of armor made up of two long spikes, and plates down the shoulder."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-puzzling-spicomellus-traits">Puzzling Spicomellus traits</h2>



What makes this especially odd is the timing. “It’s particularly strange as this is the oldest known ankylosaur, so we might expect that a later species might have inherited similar features, but they haven’t,” noted Professor Maidment.



Professor Richard Butler of the University of Birmingham echoed the shock of discovery. He said that seeing and studying the Spicomellus fossils for the first time was spine-tingling. 



"We just couldn’t believe how weird it was and how unlike any other <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/giant-dinosaur-skulls-reveal-unique-hunting-strategies/">dinosaur</a>, or indeed any other animal we know of alive or extinct," noted Professor Butler.



"It turns much of what we thought we knew about ankylosaurs and their evolution on its head and demonstrates just how much there still is to learn about dinosaurs."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-purpose-of-the-spikes">Purpose of the spikes</h2>



Scientists suggest the extravagant spikes likely played a role in attracting mates or intimidating rivals, rather than in defense. 



Later ankylosaurs shifted to simpler, tougher armor, probably in response to the rise of large predators such as advanced theropods, mammals, crocodiles, and snakes during the Cretaceous.



Despite these changes, one trait may have endured. Evidence from fused vertebrae in the tail hints that Spicomellus already had a primitive club, a weapon previously thought to appear only much later.



The combination of a spiked shield and potential tail weapon suggests that many defining features of ankylosaurs emerged earlier than paleontologists believed. 



This revelation highlights the role of the fossil record in tracking how survival strategies adapted across deep time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-local-and-global-importance">Local and global importance</h2>



Professor Driss Ouarhache of&nbsp;<a href="https://www.usmba.ac.ma/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Université Sidi Mohamed Ben Abdellah</a>, who co-led the Moroccan team, emphasized the importance of regional discoveries.



“This study is helping to drive forward Moroccan science. We’ve never seen dinosaurs like this before, and there’s still a lot more this region has to offer,” said Professor Ouarhache.



The remains were carefully prepared at the <a href="https://www.fsdmfes.ac.ma/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Department of Geology</a>, Dhar El Mahraz Faculty of Sciences in Fez, Morocco, with support from the University of Birmingham. They now remain preserved there for future study.



Spicomellus afer may be gone for over 160 million years, but its spikes and plates still spark wonder. Each fossil fragment reminds us how much remains hidden in Earth’s deep history, waiting for science to bring it to light.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-025-09453-6" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature</a>.



Image Credit: Matthew Dempsey



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World's weirdest dinosaur had a spike collar and secret tail weapon

When people think of armored dinosaurs, images of lumbering creatures...

Tiny, strange-looking, and almost impossible to spot in the wild, pygmy seahorses are one of nature’s most impressive masters of disguise. 



No bigger than your thumbnail, these tiny creatures cling to coral in the western Pacific Ocean. But don’t expect to find one easily - they’ve practically vanished into their surroundings.



What makes them nearly invisible isn’t just luck. It’s the result of millions of years of extreme evolutionary fine-tuning. 



A recent study finally cracked part of the code behind camouflage in pygmy seahorses, revealing surprising clues in their DNA.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-pygmy-seahorses-built-for-invisibility">Pygmy seahorses: Built for invisibility</h2>



Pygmy seahorses were not found until 1969, and it's no surprise they remained concealed for so long. Their bodies have tiny bumps that are the same texture as coral polyps. They're colored just like the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/what-grazing-halos-and-parrotfish-reveal-about-coral-reef-health/">coral</a>. 



The snouts of pygmy seahorses are even short and stubby - like the small coral knobs they call home. They do not resemble their larger relatives, which have tube-like, long snouts. 



Pygmy seahorses appear to be the same as the coral they attach themselves to, blending as though they are a part of it. Their camouflage is so strong that in the wild, they are virtually untrackable, and keeping them captive has proven to be a challenge.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-genetic-secrets-revealed">Genetic secrets revealed </h2>



The study was led by researchers from the <a href="https://www.uni-konstanz.de/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Konstanz</a> in Germany and the South China Sea Institute of Oceanology in Guangzhou, China. 



The team set out to answer a question that had puzzled scientists: How does a pygmy seahorse end up looking so much like coral?



To find out, the researchers studied the animals’ gene activity at different stages of development. They focused on one odd feature - the pygmy seahorse’s short snout. 



Normally, all seahorses start off with a baby-like face. But as they grow, most develop the long snout that gives them their name. Pygmy seahorses never go through that growth spurt.



“Normally, a combination of different genetic components causes the snout of a seahorse to grow proportionally faster than other parts of the body from a certain age and thus become elongated," noted study lead author Professor Axel Meyer.



"In the pygmy seahorse, however, we have now discovered that these different growth rates are suppressed because the hoxa2b gene has been lost."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-childlike-stage-of-life">A childlike stage of life</h2>



The team confirmed the gene was missing by using CRISPR <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rewriting-evolution-can-gene-editing-save-endangered-species/">gene-editing</a> technology on <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/secrets-of-zebrafish-heart-regeneration-could-transform-human-cardiac-care/">zebrafish</a>. The experiments showed that when the hoxa2b gene was removed, the fish retained shorter, baby-like features - just like the pygmy seahorse.



“The head of the pygmy seahorse remains stuck in the ‘childlike’ earlier stage of development. This shape mimicks the coral perfectly and makes it more difficult for predators to detect these animals on the corals,” explained Professor Meyer. 



“With its short snout, the pygmy seahorse merges visually with the coral. A long nose, on the other hand, would stand out and make camouflage less perfect.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-genes-tied-to-the-immune-system">Genes tied to the immune system</h2>



The snout isn’t the only thing that changed. The study also revealed that pygmy seahorses have lost a huge number of genes compared to their larger relatives. That includes genes tied to the immune system.



The researchers believe this happened for a reason. Coral can release toxins, and being able to tolerate those chemicals may actually help pygmy seahorses avoid harmful <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/23-new-marine-bacteria-species-discovered-that-influence-global-ocean-cycles/">bacteria</a>. In that case, a strong immune system isn’t as necessary.



“This is probably due to the fact that coral toxins can be tolerated by the pygmy seahorses and even provide them with protection against microbes. Consequently, their immune system no longer needs the corresponding genes,” said Professor Meyer.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-benefits-for-reproduction">Benefits for reproduction </h2>



There’s another twist. In seahorses, it’s the males that carry the eggs in a special pouch. Normally, the immune system would attack anything inside the body that doesn’t match its own cells. 



But if the immune system is weakened or altered, the male can carry the eggs without triggering a rejection.



“As, however, the eggs are not genetically identical to the cells of the male’s body, they would normally be attacked as foreign tissue. Losing immune-system genes was necessary to weaken the corresponding immune response,” said Meyer.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-evolution-of-the-pygmy-seahorse">Evolution of the pygmy seahorse </h2>



The changes seen in pygmy seahorses are an example of evolution at work. Some traits disappear, while others get stronger. Over time, these changes add up to something completely new.



“In all of these <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/for-the-first-time-climate-change-adaptation-is-discovered-at-the-genetic-level/">adaptations</a>, we see examples of massive gene losses and a seemingly paradoxical release of evolutionary creativity, which ultimately explains the unusual appearance and remarkable biology of these creatures,” said Professor Meyer.



Pygmy seahorses may be small, but they offer big insights into the surprising ways that life can evolve on Earth. By losing what they did not need to retain, these organisms developed something remarkable - the capacity to all but disappear in their own environment.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.2423818122">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a>.



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How pygmy seahorses became invisible to predators

Tiny, strange-looking, and almost impossible to spot in the wild,...

Most of us breathe without a second thought. But change the rhythm, add music, and something unexpected happens. 



A new study shows that high ventilation breathwork (HVB) paired with music can shift blood flow in the brain and create powerful <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/one-psychedelic-dose-may-improve-brain-flexibility/">emotional states</a>.



The work, led by Amy Amla Kartar at <a href="https://www.bsms.ac.uk/index.aspx" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Brighton and Sussex Medical School</a>, was published in the journal PLOS One.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-breathwork-interest-is-growing">Why breathwork interest is growing</h2>



Breathwork is gaining ground as a tool for stress and emotional struggles. Unlike psychedelics, it needs no prescription and faces no legal hurdles. 



Practitioners report experiences that resemble drug-induced altered <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/magic-mushrooms-are-the-most-popular-psychedelic-drug/">states</a>: euphoria, unity, even bliss. 



Researchers see HVB as a potential therapy, but until now, the biology behind these effects remained a mystery.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-testing-the-effects-of-breathwork">Testing the effects of breathwork</h2>



Kartar’s team studied 42 experienced practitioners across three settings: online at home, inside a lab, and during MRI scans. 



Each participant performed about half an hour of continuous cyclic breathing while listening to music.



Soon after, the participants answered questions about mood, fear, and their state of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/study-shows-psilocybin-from-magic-mushrooms-delays-aging-and-significantly-extends-lifespan/">consciousness</a>. The researchers then compared brain scans and body signals to these reports.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-less-fear-and-more-unity">Less fear and more unity</h2>



Fear dropped and negative emotions eased. Discomfort rose a little, especially in the MRI machine, but no one experienced panic attacks. 



The most common response was Oceanic Boundlessness, a feeling of unity, insight, and bliss.



Freud described this state more than a century ago. Psychedelic users know it well. Here, breathwork produced it reliably without drugs.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-shifts-in-the-brain">Shifts in the brain</h2>



The brain told its own story. Global blood flow fell sharply during HVB, which fits with what hyperventilation usually does. But certain regions behaved differently. 



Flow to the posterior insula and parietal operculum dropped, and those decreases linked directly to feelings of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/psychedelic-ibogaine-can-now-be-produced-without-rare-plants/">bliss</a> and unity.



At the same time, the right amygdala and hippocampus lit up with more blood flow. These regions process emotional memory. 



The combination suggests HVB loosens the sense of self while opening access to deep emotional material.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-body-under-stress">The body under stress</h2>



The body reacted as if stressed. Heart rate variability fell, showing a shift toward sympathetic activation. Normally, this signals pressure or strain. Yet participants reported relief, not distress. 



Scientists point to hormesis, the idea that brief stress makes us stronger. Here, the physical demand of rapid breathing may actually create psychological release.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-breathwork-effects-vary-by-setting">Breathwork effects vary by setting</h2>



Not every setting worked the same. Participants in the quiet lab reported stronger states than those at home. The MRI group showed more discomfort, probably from the scanner’s noise and tight space. 



These differences echo psychedelic research, where set and setting often shape the entire experience.



The findings hint at why HVB could help people with trauma or depression. Reduced <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/psychedelic-use-linked-to-higher-risk-of-schizophrenia/">activity</a> in the insula may dissolve rigid self-boundaries, while increased activity in memory and emotion circuits may help people process difficult experiences. 



Together, these shifts might explain why breathwork leaves many feeling lighter and more open.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-significance-of-breathwork">Significance of breathwork</h2>



“Our research is the first to use neuroimaging to map the neurophysiological changes that occur during breathwork. Our key findings include that breathwork can reliably evoke profound psychedelic states,” noted the experts.



“We believe that these states are linked to changes in the function of specific brain regions involved in self-awareness, and fear and emotional memory processing. 



According to the researchers, they found that more profound changes in blood flow in specific brain areas were linked to deeper sensations of unity, bliss, and emotional release, collectively known as "oceanic boundlessness."



This insight highlights how HVB may influence not just mood but the very circuits that shape how we process memory and emotion. It shows why participants often describe the experience as deeply moving, even transformative.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-research-on-breathwork">Future research on breathwork</h2>



“Conducting this research was a fantastic experience. It was thrilling to explore such a novel area," said study lead author Amy Kartar.



"While many people anecdotally recognize the health benefits of breathwork, this style of fast-paced breathing has received very little scientific attention. We are very grateful to our participants for making this work possible." 



The study offers a starting point for future work, especially with larger groups and more diverse settings.



“Breathwork is a powerful yet natural tool for neuromodulation, working through the regulation of metabolism across the body and brain," noted Dr. Alessandro Colasanti, the study's principal investigator.



"It holds tremendous promise as a transformative therapeutic intervention for conditions that are often both distressing and disabling."



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0329411" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">PLOS One</a>.



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Breathwork creates psychedelic states without drugs

Most of us breathe without a second thought. But change...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE
</div></figure>



On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop and sunlight barely penetrates through the polar winter. It was here, however, that an international team of scientists found <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/predatory-worms-were-terror-beasts-half-a-billion-years-ago/#google_vignette" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evidence of sea monsters</a> that would change our understanding of ocean life in the past.



This video captures the discovery of Timorebestia fossils that had been hidden for more than 500 million years in the Sirius Passet formation. The "terror beasts," as they are called, are a hidden chapter in the evolutionary history of <a href="https://www.earth.com" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Earth</a>, showing that sophisticated predator-prey interactions occurred much earlier than previously envisioned.



Dr. Jakob Vinther and his research team at the <a href="https://www.bristol.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Bristol</a>, in collaboration with researchers at the <a href="https://eng.kopri.re.kr/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Korean Polar Research Institute</a>, braved extreme weather conditions at 82.5 north latitude to locate these giant creatures. Using sophisticated electron microprobe analysis, they revealed the detailed anatomy of the animals, including their muscle and nerve tissues.



The find upsets the traditional timeline of sea predators. Although we've long appreciated that Cambrian oceans were at one time ruled by <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jWI3-UgA3_o&amp;list=PL1QLQMW9MWDwpkFOnvgAmu7wT6rZmYqdJ&amp;index=19" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">arthropods</a>, these discoveries indicate that relatives of arrow worms were first to dominate the seas. These worms were building sophisticated food webs several million years before other predator groups arose.



Each fossil is a story of ancient hunger, with fossil stomach contents revealing these meter-long beasts dined on heavily armored arthropods regularly, cementing their place as the ocean's first apex predators.



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Worms dominated seas before dinosaurs

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">New York is the site of the world's oldest forest.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-385-million-year-old-trees-discovered">385-million-year-old trees discovered</h2>



Scientists have uncovered something extraordinary just two hours north of New York City. The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/worlds-oldest-forest-discovered-close-to-new-york-city/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">world's oldest forest</a>, dating back 385 million years, offers a window into how Earth's first complex forests shaped our planet's atmosphere.



Located near <a href="https://townofcairo.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cairo, New York</a>, in Greene County, these weren't merely primitive plants struggling to survive. These were sophisticated trees with root systems remarkably similar to modern forests. This ancient woodland predates dinosaurs by 140 million years.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-cairo-forest-discovery">The Cairo forest discovery</h2>



385 million years ago, upstate New York was a tropical paradise near the equator. Thanks to continental drift, this ancient forest has traveled thousands of miles to its current location.



The fossil forest sits in an abandoned quarry, roughly half the size of a football field. This represents just a slice of what was likely a massive forest system stretching from New York into Pennsylvania.



Charles Ver Straeten, curator of sedimentary rocks at the <a href="https://www.nysm.nysed.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">New York State Museum</a>, made the discovery in 2009. While scouting the former highway department property, his trained eye spotted wandering patterns in the stone that looked like marine features.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-revolutionary-age-and-preservation">Revolutionary age and preservation</h2>



The site contains 385-million-year-old rocks with fossilized woody roots forming horizontal patterns up to 18 feet (5.5 meters) wide. As Christopher Berry, a paleobotanist at Cardiff University, explains: "You are walking through the roots of ancient trees."



This discovery pushes back advanced tree evolution by millions of years. The research, published in <a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/home" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Current Biology</a> in December 2019, fundamentally changes our understanding of when complex forests first emerged.



Researchers believe a massive flood buried the forest floor, creating perfect fossilization conditions. Over millions of years, sediment hardened into rock, preserving these root patterns like nature's time capsule.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-meet-archaeopteris-the-first-modern-tree">Meet Archaeopteris: the first modern tree</h2>



The star of this ancient forest is Archaeopteris – not to be confused with the feathered dinosaur Archaeopteryx. This tree was far older and more revolutionary.



William Stein from <a href="https://www.binghamton.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Binghamton University</a> describes the roots as "strikingly modern, essentially what you'd see outside in my yard right now." These weren't simple root systems you'd expect from ancient plants.



Some fossilized roots are six inches (15 centimeters) in diameter, forming 36-foot-wide (11-meter) patterns. These giants grew up to 65 feet (20 meters) tall with five-foot-diameter (1.5-meter) trunks.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-changing-impact">Climate-changing impact</h2>



These trees fundamentally changed Earth's environment. Kevin Boyce, a Stanford University geoscientist, explains how their deep roots triggered "weathering," chemical reactions that pulled carbon dioxide from the atmosphere.



This process dropped atmospheric CO2 levels from 10-15 times higher than today to roughly modern concentrations. These ancient trees helped create atmospheric conditions that made complex life possible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ancient-forest-ecosystem">Ancient forest ecosystem</h2>



The forest was remarkably diverse. Scientists identified Eospermatopteris, palm tree-like plants with short roots that reached 30 feet (9 meters) tall but lacked woody structure. The forest also housed cladoxylopsids and a mysterious third species still being studied.



All reproduced through spores rather than seeds – millions of years before seeds evolved. This tropical environment had no grass, flowers, or flying insects, just towering trees creating Earth's first complex forest canopy.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-scientific-significance">Scientific significance</h2>



Before this finding, the Gilboa forest, located 25 miles (40 kilometers) away, held the "oldest forest" title. Cairo's trees are 2-3 million years older, showing that complex forest ecosystems developed much faster than scientists believed possible.



Patricia Gensel, a <a href="https://www.unc.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of North Carolina</a> paleobotanist, notes: "The size of those root systems is really changing the picture. Even 20 years ago, researchers assumed trees with such complex root systems didn't evolve so early."



The Cairo site presents three unique root systems, suggesting Devonian period forests were diverse ecosystems with different trees occupying different environmental niches, much like today's forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-modern-preservation-efforts">Modern preservation efforts</h2>



In 2022, New York State Senator Michelle Hinchey secured a $170,000 grant for the town of Cairo to construct specialized fencing around the fossil forest site. The town plans to conduct a feasibility study exploring the possibility of creating an educational center and working lab on-site.



Joe Hasenkopf, chair of the Cairo Planning Board, hopes to partner with educational institutions to create a research facility serving scientists, students, and the public.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lessons-for-today-s-climate">Lessons for today's climate</h2>



Why does a 385-million-year-old forest matter today? It shows how dramatically forests can change Earth's climate. These ancient woodlands created the atmospheric conditions supporting complex life.



Understanding how prehistoric forests transformed the planet helps us appreciate modern forests' critical role in addressing climate change. Forests remain Earth's most effective carbon capture systems.



These prehistoric trees changed Earth's atmosphere by pulling massive amounts of carbon dioxide from the air. As we face modern climate challenges, this ancient forest reminds us of trees' incredible power to transform our planet's environment.



The next time you walk through a forest, remember you're experiencing an ecosystem whose blueprint was established 385 million years ago in upstate New York. These ancient pioneers didn't just survive – they thrived and changed the world forever.



The full study was published in the journal Current Biology.



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Earth's oldest forest found in the United States

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ New York is the site of the world's oldest...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Acid rain and a crisis solved.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-don-t-we-ever-hear-about-acid-rain-anymore-the-environmental-crisis-that-was-solved">Why don't we ever hear about "acid rain" anymore? The environmental crisis that was solved</h2>



Remember the 1980s when acid rain dominated headlines? Dire warnings about rain eating buildings, killing fish, and destroying forests filled every news cycle. Then, almost like magic, acid rain vanished from public discourse. What happened? Did we actually solve one of the late 20th century's most pressing environmental challenges?



The answer might surprise you. Unlike many environmental issues that drag on indefinitely, acid rain represents one of modern history's most successful ecological recovery stories. It's a tale of science, politics, and technology working together to tackle what seemed impossible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What was acid rain?</h2>



Acid rain isn't regular rain having a bad day – it's precipitation that became significantly more acidic due to air pollution. When power plants, factories, and vehicles burn fossil fuels, they release sulfur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides (NOx) into the atmosphere.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The science behind it</h2>



Think of acid rain as nature's chemistry experiment gone wrong. These compounds react with water, oxygen, and other chemicals to form sulfuric and nitric acids. When mixed with water vapor in clouds, they create precipitation with dangerously low pH levels.



While clean rain has a pH of about 5.6, acid rain could drop as low as 4.2 to 4.4 – roughly as acidic as tomato juice or coffee. According to US Geological Survey documentation, Scottish chemist Angus Smith first coined "acid rain" in 1872, but it didn't become a household phrase until the 1960s and 1970s when Swedish scientist Svante Odén documented its devastating effects on Scandinavian lakes and European forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The crisis at its peak</h2>



During the height of public concern, environmental damage was both widespread and visible. This wasn't some abstract future threat – people could see destruction happening in real-time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Environmental devastation</h2>



The most dramatic impacts were impossible to ignore. Research documented by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation and the New York State Department of Environmental Conservation shows that in the Adirondack Mountains, more than 200 lakes became so acidic they couldn't support fish life. The Adirondack Council reports that 409 lakes once supported brook trout, but many lost their fish populations due to acid rain.



By 1976, when scientists cataloged all acidified lakes in the Adirondack Park, researchers found that half of the lakes over 2,000 feet above sea level had no fish, according to studies published in environmental journals. The acidification process worked like a slow-motion disaster. As acid rain fell into watersheds, it gradually lowered pH levels. Fish couldn't survive in acidic water, and their food sources died off too.



Trees at high elevations showed stress directly linked to acid rain. It weakened them by leaching nutrients and making them susceptible to disease. Historical records show Germany's Black Forest saw nearly half its trees damaged by the mid-1980s.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Economic impact</h2>



Acid rain wasn't just environmental – it was expensive. Acidic precipitation corroded infrastructure, buildings, and monuments. Historic stone structures deteriorated at accelerated rates. Tourism suffered as lakes became fishless and forests declined. EPA economic analyses from the period documented repair costs mounting into billions annually.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The solution: government action and technology</h2>



Transformation from crisis to success required unprecedented cooperation between governments, industries, and environmental groups.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The Clean Air Act of 1990</h2>



The turning point came with the Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990, signed by President George H.W. Bush. This represented a fundamentally new approach to environmental regulation, as documented in EPA historical records.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Cap-and-trade success</h2>



Instead of mandating specific technologies, the 1990 amendments introduced something revolutionary: a cap-and-trade system for sulfur dioxide emissions. EPA program documentation shows this market-based approach set overall limits but allowed companies to trade emission allowances.



The genius was harnessing market forces to find cost-effective pollution reduction. Companies reducing emissions cheaply could sell excess allowances to those facing higher costs. Research published in environmental economics journals and EPA progress reports shows this resulted in dramatic SO2 reduction at a fraction of projected costs.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Technology advances</h2>



Policy provided the framework, but technology made reductions possible. Studies in atmospheric science journals document the widespread adoption of flue gas desulfurization systems ("scrubbers") that removed sulfur dioxide before it reached the atmosphere. By the 2000s, new installations could remove over 95% of SO2 emissions, according to EPA technical reports.



The push coincided with cleaner energy development. Natural gas produces fewer sulfur compounds than coal. Wind and solar, emerging in the 1990s, captured growing market share, reducing reliance on high-sulfur coal.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-we-don-t-hear-about-it-today">Why we don't hear about it today</h2>



Why did acid rain disappear from headlines? Simple: the problem was largely solved.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Success doesn't make news</h2>



There's an old journalism saying: "If it bleeds, it leads." Environmental success stories don't generate urgency like crisis reporting. Media attention shifted to other challenges: climate change, plastic pollution, and biodiversity loss. There's only so much environmental anxiety the public can absorb, and newer concerns replaced acid rain.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Mission accomplished</h2>



The primary reason is beautifully simple: interventions worked. EPA monitoring data shows sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990. Academic research published in environmental science journals confirms pH levels in formerly affected areas returned closer to normal. This represents one of history's most dramatic environmental recoveries. Studies by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation show fishless lakes now support healthy populations. Forests recovered, and building damage slowed dramatically.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-is-it-really-gone">Is it really gone?</h2>



The crisis is largely resolved, but monitoring data shows the problem isn't completely eliminated – it's managed to acceptable levels. Some areas still experience occasional events during high pollution periods. International environmental research indicates that rapidly industrializing Asian countries face similar problems to what we experienced decades ago, though they're implementing successful strategies.



EPA research shows nitrogen oxide emissions proved more challenging than sulfur dioxide, coming from vehicles and mobile sources. Climate science studies suggest changing weather patterns add complexity to how acid rain forms and falls.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What this teaches us</h2>



The acid rain experience proves that seemingly intractable environmental problems can be solved with scientific understanding, political will, and technological innovation. Environmental monitoring data shows recovery speed was remarkable – within a decade, measurable improvements appeared in air quality and ecosystem health.



Success came from bipartisan support across party lines. Policy analysis studies show the market-based approach appealed to those preferring economic incentives while achieving environmental goals. This support created lasting policy surviving political changes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Conclusion</h2>



Acid rain's disappearance from public consciousness represents environmental science's greatest success stories. Through effective regulation, technological innovation, and international cooperation, we transformed an overwhelming crisis into a manageable challenge.



Today's silence isn't because we forgot – it's because we solved it. The 1990 Clean Air Act, combined with technology and energy market changes, reduced acid rain emissions over 90%, according to comprehensive EPA data analysis.



This success offers hope for current challenges. It proves complex problems can be solved when science, policy, and technology work together. As we face climate change and plastic pollution, acid rain reminds us that dramatic positive change is possible.



Next time someone asks whether environmental regulations work, remember acid rain. It's proof that sometimes, we get it right.



<hr class="wp-block-separator has-alpha-channel-opacity"/>



Sources: This article draws from EPA official documentation and progress reports, peer-reviewed research published in environmental and atmospheric science journals, historical data from the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation, New York State Department of Environmental Conservation records, US Geological Survey publications, policy analysis studies, and environmental monitoring data collected over three decades.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Frequently Asked Questions</h2>



1. Is acid rain completely gone? No, but EPA monitoring shows it's reduced to manageable levels. US sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990, making acid rain much less severe than the 1980s crisis.



2. How long did solving take? Environmental monitoring data shows significant improvements began within 5-10 years of 1990s emission controls. Full ecosystem recovery took longer – some areas need 20-30 years for complete recovery.



3. What made the solution successful? Clear scientific understanding, visible damage motivating action, bipartisan support, available technology, and innovative market-based policies like cap-and-trade.



4. Do other countries have acid rain problems? Yes, particularly rapidly industrializing Asian countries. However, international environmental research shows many implement similar successful control strategies.



5. Could acid rain return? Potentially, if regulations weaken or we return to high-sulfur coal without controls, though effects would take years to become severe according to environmental projections.



6. Can you recommend any teaching tools on the subject of "acid rain"? The United States Environmental Protection Agency produced a wonderful teacher's guide for ages 14 and under that you can find on the EPA website here: <a href="https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf</a>



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The environmental problem we actually solved

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk Acid rain and a crisis solved. Why don't we...

Fresh,Radish,Harvest,On,Soil,In,Garden.

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://youtu.be/Fi2OeEwuzRM?si=vTyd2m9FMmtyWkex
</div></figure>







Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving fall garden, and this guide lays out the best vegetables and herbs to plant now for a fruitful autumn harvest. 



Fast-growing leafy greens such as spinach, lettuce, kale, and arugula perform especially well in the waning summer heat, with harvests beginning as soon as 30 days. 



These cool-season crops relish the transition into fall, offering repeated yields with cut-and-come-again methods.



Root vegetables like radishes, carrots, and beets also excel during this period. Radishes deliver satisfaction in under a month, while carrots and beets mature in about two months. Employing succession planting ensures a continuous stream of produce deep into the cooler months. 



For a boost of fresh flavor, herbs like cilantro, basil, dill, and chervil are excellent picks. These heat-loving varieties flourish in July’s warmth and are harvest-ready in about 30 days, especially when sown continuously.



Gardeners in zones 6 through 9 can benefit from planting bush beans and snap peas, which don’t require trellising and are ideal for compact plots. 



Maturing in 50–60 days, they’re a smart choice for quick, protein-rich harvests. For those in hotter regions, heat-tolerant crops such as okra and southern peas provide reliable yields and thrive in scorching conditions.



This guide emphasizes more than crop selection—it highlights the importance of timing, soil preparation, and ongoing sowing techniques. 



With thoughtful planning and attention to regional climate needs, even late-summer gardeners can enjoy fresh salads, hearty stews, and the satisfaction of a robust, homegrown harvest well into fall.



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What to plant in your garden in mid-July

https://youtu.be/Fi2OeEwuzRM?si=vTyd2m9FMmtyWkex Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving...

Green,Ecoduct,Over,An,Empty,Highway,During,Sunset.

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://youtu.be/XYgiPzmNBTU?si=eFYY7gPHU1JznLvU
</div></figure>



A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that wildlife tunnels significantly reduce amphibian road mortality during seasonal migrations. 



Frogs and salamanders often cross roads to reach breeding ponds each spring, but many are killed by vehicles. 



Researchers from the <a href="https://www.uvm.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Vermont</a>, in collaboration with local citizens and the Vermont Agency of Natural Resources, installed two underpass tunnels in 2015. 



Over a 12-year monitoring period, they observed an 80.2% reduction in amphibian deaths, and up to 94% for non-climbing species like salamanders. 



The study used a before-after-control-impact design and documented more than 5,200 amphibians, highlighting the tunnels’ effectiveness even in nearby buffer zones.



Funded at $342,397 - far cheaper than wildlife crossings for large mammals - the project showcased the power of community-led conservation.



Local groups initiated the effort after observing mass amphibian deaths. Wildlife cameras later captured over 2,200 amphibians using a tunnel in just one spring, along with other species like raccoons and bobcats, indicating wider ecosystem benefits.



This marks the first peer-reviewed, long-term data set in the northeastern U.S. confirming amphibian-specific underpasses work. 



The study urges transportation departments to incorporate these designs into road planning and highlights how community action, thoughtful infrastructure, and persistence can make a real difference for biodiversity.



The full study was published in the <a href="https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1617138125000780" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal for Nature Conservation</a>.



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-----

Wildlife tunnels save millions of amphibians

https://youtu.be/XYgiPzmNBTU?si=eFYY7gPHU1JznLvU A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that...

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing it with probiotics and prebiotics, aiming to create a treat that satisfies cravings while supporting gut health. 



The challenge lies in maintaining chocolate's beloved texture and flavor while adding health benefits.



<figure class="wp-block-embed aligncenter is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://youtu.be/Ug657J67iEo?si=w96YjGMsg939LD_3
</div></figure>



Probiotics - beneficial microbes that balance gut bacteria and aid digestion - are typically fragile and can be destroyed by stomach acid or processing. 



Prebiotics act as food for these microbes, helping them thrive. Together, they form "synbiotics," a powerful health combination.



Researchers Smriti Gaur and Shubhi Singh from India's Jaypee Institute of Information Technology took an innovative approach, using natural prebiotics like corn and honey instead of complex processing methods. 



They created five chocolate varieties: a control and four synbiotic versions containing different combinations of prebiotics, probiotics (Lactobacillus strains), and flavor enhancers (cinnamon or orange).



Laboratory simulations of human digestion showed the probiotics remained viable for over five hours, suggesting they could survive long enough to benefit gut health.



Taste tests were positive, with researchers particularly enjoying the orange-flavored variety, describing it as having "vibrant citrus notes" complementing the "rich cocoa" with a "luxurious" texture.



This research represents just the beginning. With further refinement of strains, textures, and flavors, chocolate could evolve beyond mere indulgence to become a functional food that nourishes while it delights.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.4c00741" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ACS Food Science &amp; Technology</a>.

Is chocolate the next nutritional powerhouse?

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

[sendtonews key="0ynNMYkMKa-2340414-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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How does salt makes things taste better?

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Santiago, Chile in South America

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Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.



According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."



Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;



ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. 



Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

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Earth,Like,Exoplanet,3d,Render

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

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Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes Earth’s interconnected systems, and how this network is affected by rising temperatures.&nbsp;



During 2020, average global temperatures matched the hottest year on record. The hurricane season was also record-breaking, with many of the storms intensifying at extraordinary speeds. Hot water in the ocean is fuel for hurricanes. The satellite data shows that it's all one interconnected system showing how Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected.



According to NASA, dust swept up from Northern Africa plays a major role in the formation of hurricanes, and is also a key source of fertilization in the Amazon rainforest. As a result of<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seagrass-wasting-disease-is-fueled-by-climate-change/"> climate</a> change, dust plumes are expected to decline, which will have an effect on vegetation far away.&nbsp;



Images from Earth-observing satellites show how the world’s plant life is affected by natural disasters, fires, and deforestation. Satellites also reveal how widespread changes in vegetation impact waterways,&nbsp; the climate, air quality. Satellites communicate by using radio waves to send signals to the antennas on the Earth. "Earth From Space" is a groundbreaking two-hour special that reveals a spectacular new space-based vision of our planet. 



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected

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