Young aspen trees in Yellowstone are doing something they have not done in almost 100 years. Rather than sprouting and being eaten back to nubs by elk and bison, they're actually growing into tall, adult forest trees rising up towards the canopy.



This matters more than it might seem, because it shows what happens when a missing piece of an ecosystem returns.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-yellowstone-aspens-and-elk">Yellowstone, aspens, and elk</h2>



In the 1920s, people <a href="https://www.yellowstone.org/wolf-project/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">eliminated wolves in Yellowstone</a>. At the time, with limited scientific knowledge, managers believed it was the right thing to do.



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/from-wolves-to-dogs-did-domestication-begin-without-human-help/">Without wolves</a>, elk herds grew very large. Elk love to eat aspen shoots - the tender young growth is highly palatable to them.



For roughly 70 years, elk browsed aspen sprouts down to stub height, and the trees couldn't grow. 



If you had walked through Yellowstone in the 1980s, you would have seen many tiny aspen shoots covering the ground, but almost no young trees gaining height. 



The forest's regeneration was stalled. Old trees died, and no new ones replaced them.



In 1995 and 1996, park managers reintroduced wolves into the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/yellowstone-supervolcano-eruption-study-sparks-new-debate-on-where-and-when-it-will-erupt/">Yellowstone Park ecosystem</a>. Scientists hoped and wondered whether this would change anything for the trees.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-aspen-matter-to-yellowstone">Why aspen matter to Yellowstone</h2>



Aspen groves provide habitat for many species. Birds nest in them. Beavers eat the bark and use the wood for dams. Butterflies and moths lay eggs on the leaves. 



Their canopy admits enough light for wildflowers and shrubs to grow beneath. When it rains, aspen groves hold water in the soil better than some other forest types.



In short, when aspen return, dozens of other species benefit. More trees support more insects, which in turn support more birds, enriching the ecosystem.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-checking-the-trees-three-decades-later">Checking the trees three decades later</h2>



<a href="https://fwcs.oregonstate.edu/users/luke-painter" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Luke Painter</a>, an ecologist at <a href="https://oregonstate.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Oregon State University</a>, sought clear answers. His team returned to 87 aspen stands across Yellowstone that scientists had previously surveyed. 



They measured thousands of young trees, looked for bite marks, and counted how many stems were tall enough that elk could no longer reach the tips.



About a third of these stands now have many tall young aspens pushing toward the canopy. 



"About 26 of the 87 aspen stands we examined had large numbers of tall saplings throughout, a remarkable change from the 1990s when surveys found none at all," Painter said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-wolves-matter-to-yellowstone-aspens">Why wolves matter to Yellowstone aspens</h2>



Breaking it all down, the conclusions of this study are pretty simple. 



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/wolves-move-pups-across-mountains-to-adapt-to-climate-pressure/">Wolves hunt elk</a>. When wolves came back, two things happened. First, elk numbers declined from unusually high levels. Second, elk changed their behavior. They spent less time in the same areas feeding.



With fewer elk and shorter feeding bouts, more aspen shoots survived long enough to exceed the browsing zone - about six to seven feet high. 



Once a sapling reaches that height, elk cannot easily reach the growing tip. The tree continues to grow.



"The reintroduction of large carnivores has initiated a recovery process that had been shut down for decades," Painter explained.



Scientists call this a <a href="https://www.nature.com/scitable/knowledge/library/trophic-cascades-across-diverse-plant-ecosystems-80060347/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">trophic cascade</a> - when adding or removing one species causes changes that ripple through the whole system.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-some-places-recover-others-don-t">Some places recover, others don't</h2>



Unfortunately, not every aspen stand has recovered yet. Some valleys still have many short, heavily browsed shoots, because it's not only elk eating them anymore. 



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/yellowstones-iconic-bison-have-merged-into-a-single-herd/">Bison herds have grown</a>, and bison browse on aspen as well. They are strong enough to break young trees. 



"Increasing numbers of bison may be emerging as a new constraint to aspen in some areas," Painter confirmed.



Additionally, winter snow depth varies; droughts stress trees; bears and mountain lions also hunt elk; and hunting outside the park influences elk distribution. 



All of these factors interact, which is why some sites show strong recovery, others show moderate recovery, and a few have changed very little.



The key pattern is that places with many tall saplings experience little browsing, and aspen groves that remain popular eating grounds today stay short. 



This fact is the strongest indication that tree recovery is linked directly to wolf presence, not solely to weather or soil conditions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-proof-in-the-measurements">Proof in the measurements</h2>



Painter's team did not rely on casual observation. They used the same methods as earlier researchers, measuring the same plots. 



They counted recruitment - when young trees surpass browsing height and begin progressing toward maturity. This measure is crucial. Sprouts are insufficient if they never grow; without recruitment, the forest cannot replace itself.



The results are robust. After being stalled for most of a century, Yellowstone's aspens are increasing in height. In recovering stands today, you will see saplings - six, eight, or ten feet tall - that were not present in the 1990s.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-future-of-yellowstone-s-aspens">The future of Yellowstone's aspens</h2>



"This is a remarkable case of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/giant-viruses-found-in-yellowstones-hot-springs-may-be-near-the-root-of-all-life-on-earth/">ecological restoration</a>," Painter concluded. "Wolf reintroduction is yielding long-term ecological changes contributing to increased biodiversity and habitat diversity."



Trees grow slowly, so even with wolves restored, it will take decades for these young aspens to form a full-grown forest. 



Some areas might never fully recover if bison numbers continue to rise or if the climate becomes too hot and dry.



Thanks to the work of Painter and his team, scientists are now certain that restoring the Yellowstone predator has restarted aspen forest regeneration. Not everywhere and not perfectly, but enough to be measured, creating hope for the future.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0378112725004499?via%3Dihub" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Forest Ecology and Management</a>.



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Yellowstone's aspen trees are growing again thanks to the reintroduction of wolves

Young aspen trees in Yellowstone are doing something they have not done in almost 100 years. Rather than sprouting and being eaten back to nubs by elk and bison, they're actually growing into tall, adult forest trees rising up towards the canopy. This matters more than it might seem, because it shows what happens when a missing piece of an ecosystem returns. Yellowstone, aspens, and elk In the 1920s, people eliminated wolves in Yellowstone. At the time, with limited scientific knowledge, managers believed it was the right...

We don't give much thought to what happens to our eyes when we sleep. Our eyelids close, and the world around us recedes into darkness. But below those closed lids, a lot more is happening than you might think.



Researchers have found that the size of our pupils changes constantly while we sleep - sometimes expanding, sometimes contracting, and sometimes switching back and forth in a matter of seconds.



Researchers at <a href="https://ethz.ch/en.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ETH Zurich</a> have been investigating these changes, and their research undermines a widely accepted assumption regarding sleep.



“These dynamics reflect the state of arousal, or the level of brain activation in regions that are responsible for sleep-wake regulation. These observations contradict the previous assumption that, essentially, the level of arousal during sleep is low," said Caroline Lustenberger, one of the researchers involved in the study.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-significance-of-pupil-size">Significance of pupil size </h2>



Many assume that sleep is a low-energy state, but this study challenges that notion. The researchers found that even in resting states, our brains fluctuate between different levels of activation.



This is similar to what other studies have found in rodents, which also show slow shifts in activation levels while <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/humans-brains-can-subconsciously-respond-to-verbal-communication-while-sleeping/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">asleep</a>.



To measure these changes, the scientists developed a new method for observing pupil movements in sleeping individuals. 



Since the brain regions that regulate activation levels are deep within the brainstem, they have been difficult to measure directly. 



Pupil size is known to reflect activation levels when we’re awake, so it serves as a useful marker for activity in these deep brain areas during different states of consciousness.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-pupil-size-and-brain-activity">Pupil size and brain activity</h2>



Measuring <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/pupil-size-during-sleep-decides-if-new-or-old-memories-are-replayed/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">pupil</a> movement in sleeping people is tricky - after all, our eyes naturally close when we drift off.



To address this, the researchers devised an unusual approach. They used a special adhesive technique with a transparent plaster to keep the test subjects’ <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/eyes-serve-as-an-early-warning-system-for-stroke-risk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">eyes</a> open for several hours while they slept.



“Our main concern was that the test subjects would be unable to sleep with their eyes open. But in a dark room, most people forget that their eyes are still open and they are able to sleep,” explained study lead author Manuel Carro Domínguez.



The data collected from these experiments showed a strong connection between <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/pupil-size-reveals-hidden-cognitive-fatigue/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">pupil size</a> and different sleep stages. 



The researchers found that changes in pupil size corresponded with specific patterns of brain activity, such as sleep spindles and deep sleep waves - both of which play key roles in memory consolidation and sleep stability.



Interestingly, they also discovered that the brain’s response to sounds varies in intensity depending on the level of activation reflected in the pupil.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-pupil-changes-and-brain-activity">Pupil changes and brain activity</h2>



One of the brain regions believed to regulate these changes is the locus coeruleus, a tiny area in the brainstem. In animals, this structure is known to help control <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sleep-reboots-the-brain-making-room-for-new-memories/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">sleep stages</a> and wakefulness.



While the researchers could not directly prove that the locus coeruleus is responsible for the pupil changes they observed, they suspect it plays a role.



“We are simply observing pupil changes that are related to the level of brain activation and heart activity,” said Lustenberger.



To investigate this further, the team plans to conduct follow-up studies using medication to influence the activity of the locus coeruleus. 



This will help them determine whether it directly controls pupil dynamics during sleep and how these shifts in activation impact sleep quality and function.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-pupils-and-sleep-disorders">Pupils and sleep disorders</h2>



Beyond basic research, understanding how pupils change during sleep could have practical applications.



The researchers believe these findings could help in diagnosing and treating sleep disorders and other conditions linked to brain arousal dysfunctions.



The experts are particularly interested in whether pupil changes during sleep might indicate disorders such as insomnia, post-traumatic stress disorder, or even Alzheimer’s disease.



“These are just hypotheses that we want to investigate in the future,” said Lustenberger.



Another potential application is in hospital settings, where this method could be used to monitor wakefulness in coma patients or to improve the accuracy of sleep disorder diagnoses. 



By using the pupil as a “window” into brain activity, this approach could open new doors in sleep medicine and neuroscience.



The study highlights an important truth: sleep is far from a passive state. Even as we rest, our brains are busy regulating activity levels - something we can now see reflected in the ever-changing size of our pupils.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-025-57289-5" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Communications</a>.



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Pupils reveal how active the brain is - even during sleep

We don't give much thought to what happens to our...

The Arctic is changing fast. Ancient ice is melting, glaciers are shrinking, and seasons are shifting. Below the surface, vast kelp forests sway along rocky coasts, hidden from sight.



These marine giants are more than plants. They are the architects of entire ecosystems, offering shelter, food, and stability to countless <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sea-otters-help-kelp-forests-recover-but-theres-more-to-the-story/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">marine species</a>. But as the Arctic transforms, so its kelp forests change too.



A recent study shows that melting glaciers and permafrost are changing kelp ecosystems by increasing freshwater run-off. The research was conducted by scientists from EU projects FACE-IT, ECOTIP, and SEA-Quester.



What the experts found is both startling and deeply revealing: shifts in water chemistry, microbial communities in flux, and an unexpected entanglement with heavy metals.



The story of Arctic kelp is not just an ecological tale - it is an economic and social one, reaching far beyond the cold northern seas.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-warming-arctic-a-changing-coastline">A warming Arctic, a changing coastline</h2>



The Arctic is heating up - faster than anywhere else on the planet. This isn’t a slow, creeping shift; it’s a rapid and relentless <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/pacific-kelp-forests-existed-32-million-years-ago/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">transformation</a>.



With glaciers melting and permafrost thawing, vast amounts of freshwater are flooding into coastal seas. It’s a deluge that doesn’t just mix and disappear. The chemistry of the water shifts, salinity drops and light struggles to penetrate as suspended sediments cloud the once-clear depths.



For kelp, these changes aren’t trivial. They depend on stable conditions that include sunlight, salt, and predictable nutrient flows.



But with sediments thickening the water, photosynthesis becomes a challenge. Light barely reaches their fronds, stalling their growth. And the run-off doesn’t just bring fresh water; it carries something far more sinister - metals, both essential and toxic.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-heavy-metals-in-the-water">Heavy metals in the water</h2>



What happens when <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthpedia-articles/kelp-forest/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">kelp</a> absorbs the very waters that nourish them? The answer lies in their elemental makeup. 



The research team studied kelps from various locations - some in areas with heavy runoff and others in clearer waters. Their findings were striking. Kelps from high-run-off areas contained significantly elevated levels of metals like cadmium, lead, and mercury.



Mercury in these kelps was 72% higher than in cleaner areas. That’s a serious warning. Kelp supports Arctic marine life, but when it absorbs metals, the pollution spreads through the ecosystem.



Small marine creatures graze on kelp, larger predators consume them, and over time, toxic elements creep their way up the food chain. Eventually, they land on the plates of Arctic communities that rely on seafood. 



What begins in a hidden kelp forest could have consequences that reach dinner tables far from the icy shores.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-microbial-world-living-on-kelp">Microbial world living on kelp</h2>



A blade of kelp is covered in bacteria, fungi, and other life forms. These microbes play many important roles. They shape kelp health, aid in nutrient cycling, and offer a first line of defense against pathogens. But just like the kelp itself, they are sensitive to change.



The researchers found that run-off is rewriting the microbial landscape. The balance of bacteria living on kelp is shifting, and with it, the very functions that keep these marine plants thriving.



Some microbes that help break down organic matter are disappearing, while metal-tolerant ones are growing. This shift could disrupt kelp, the animals that rely on it, and the entire marine ecosystem.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-potential-of-arctic-kelp-cultivation">Potential of Arctic kelp cultivation</h2>



But there’s another side to this story. While heavy metal accumulation spells trouble for marine life, it also points to an unexpected opportunity. Kelp is a natural sponge, pulling metals from the water with remarkable efficiency. Could this ability be harnessed?



Scientists are looking into something called phytomining - using plants and algae to pull valuable metals from the environment. Arctic waters hold rare earth metals, crucial for tech like wind turbines. Could kelp be the answer? Maybe.



If managed correctly, kelp cultivation could offer a sustainable way to harvest these elements, reducing reliance on traditional mining, which scars landscapes and pollutes ecosystems.



At the same time, kelp could serve as a living sensor, a way to track pollution levels in Arctic waters. By monitoring changes in its elemental composition, researchers might be able to map contamination hotspots and predict where <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/world-wildlife-day-2025-a-global-call-to-protect-nature/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">environmental threats</a> are most severe.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-future-of-arctic-kelp">The future of Arctic kelp</h2>



The future of Arctic kelp remains uncertain. With the Arctic warming, run-off levels will only increase. 



The delicate balance that has sustained these underwater forests for millennia is shifting in ways scientists are only beginning to grasp.



Will kelp adapt, or will these forests shrink, taking with them the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sea-otters-have-protected-california-kelp-forests-for-a-century/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">biodiversity</a> they support?



One thing is clear: kelp is at a crossroads. It is both a victim and a potential solution - threatened by climate change yet offering a key to understanding and mitigating its impacts.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-024-82287-w" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Scientific Reports</a>.



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Arctic kelp is absorbing toxic metals from melting glaciers

The Arctic is changing fast. Ancient ice is melting, glaciers...

Earth has faced many climate challenges, but none compare to the catastrophe that unfolded 250 million years ago. The End-Permian Event (EPE) stands as the most severe extinction in history, wiping out more than 80% of marine species and devastating life on land. 



Scientists have extensively studied its effects on ocean ecosystems, but the impact of mass extinction on forests remains less clear.



A team of researchers from University College Cork (<a href="https://www.ucc.ie/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">UCC</a>), the <a href="https://uconn.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Connecticut</a>, and the <a href="https://www.nhm-wien.ac.at" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Natural History Museum</a> of Vienna has uncovered how plants responded to this crisis. 



Their findings reveal that ecosystem recovery was slow, complex, and shaped by extreme climate swings. 



By studying fossilized plants and rocks from the Sydney Basin in Australia, the team reconstructed a multi-million-year journey of forest <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/natures-climate-solutions-mixed-forests-store-more-carbon/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">survival</a>, extinction, and eventual regrowth.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-worst-mass-extinction-in-history">Worst mass extinction in history</h2>



The End-Permian Event, which occurred around 252.3 to 251.9 million years ago, caused the collapse of gymnosperm-supported ecosystems. 



Over 80% of ocean species vanished, making it the most severe mass extinction ever recorded. While its effects on marine life are well documented, its impact on land <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/forests-play-an-overlooked-role-in-the-climate-system/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ecosystems</a> has remained unclear.



Researchers examined fossilized plants and rocks from eastern Australia’s Sydney Basin, a region that was once located near the South Pole (∼70°S). 



Using sedimentology, biostratigraphy, and stable carbon isotope analysis, they traced the timing and sequence of gymnosperm reestablishment across different latitudes. 



The results of the analysis highlight the staggered nature of recovery, rather than a smooth, uninterrupted process.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cooler-temperatures-helped-forests-recover">Cooler temperatures helped forests recover</h2>



After the End-Permian Event, the first plants to return were peltasperm seed ferns. They managed to build stable ecosystems, holding on for about 200,000 years. 



But <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/forests-are-still-fighting-climate-change-against-all-odds/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">nature</a> didn’t stand still. Over time, voltzialean conifers took over, spreading across the land and thriving for an impressive 1.5 million years.



Then, disaster struck again. Around 250.3 to 249.6 million years ago, global temperatures soared during the "Late Smithian Thermal Maximum."



The heat was too much for the conifer forests, and they collapsed. Their disappearance left space for a new kind of survivor - pleuromeian lycophytes. These plants were tough. They didn’t need much to grow, making them perfect for harsh conditions.



For 800,000 years, these small, shrubby plants dominated the land. But nothing lasts forever. 



As temperatures finally began to drop during the "Smithian-Spathian Event" around 249.6 to 249.2 million years ago, the environment shifted once again, opening the door for a new wave of plant life to reshape the world.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-forests-recover-but-extinction-is-forever">Forests recover, but extinction is forever</h2>



The SSE brought much-needed relief to struggling <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/forests-rich-tree-diversity-adapt-better-changing-climate/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ecosystems</a>. 



As the climate cooled, a new kind of plant took over - umkomasialean seed ferns. These plants thrived and spread across the high-latitude forests of Gondwana, shaping the landscapes of the Middle and Late Triassic. They helped stabilize ecosystems that had been in chaos for millions of years.



But recovery didn’t happen the same way everywhere. In many parts of the world, pleuromeian lycophytes - a type of tough, shrubby plant - quickly spread after the End-Permian Event. However, in the polar south, this process was much slower.



It took around 1.7 million years for these plants to finally establish themselves. This delay reveals that recovery from mass extinction wasn’t simple or predictable. Some places rebounded faster than others, while some struggled for much longer.



Even though forests eventually grew dense again, they were not the same. The plants that filled these new <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/trees-are-relocating-in-a-race-against-global-warming/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ecosystems</a> were completely different from those that had dominated before the extinction. Nature rebuilt itself, but in a way no one could have expected.



“The term ‘recovery’ can be misleading. Forests recover eventually, but extinction is forever," said Dr. Chris Mays, leader of the Mass Extinction Group at University College Cork.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lessons-from-ancient-forest-extinction">Lessons from ancient forest extinction</h2>



Studying how ancient ecosystems recovered from extreme climate shifts gives us clues about what might happen to plants today. The way they adapted back then can help scientists predict how modern plant life will respond to environmental changes.



Plants do much more than just grow. They form the foundation of nature’s balance, providing food for animals and humans alike. 



They also help regulate the Earth's climate by absorbing carbon dioxide and producing oxygen. When plants thrive, ecosystems stay stable. When they struggle, the entire planet feels the impact.



“This research highlights how crucial plants are, not just as the base of land food chains, but also as natural carbon sinks that stabilize Earth’s climate,” explained UCC researcher Marcos Amores, the study’s lead author.



“The disruption of these systems can have impacts lasting hundreds of thousands of years, so protecting today’s <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/forests-face-rising-damage-risks-as-their-diversity-dwindles/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ecosystems</a> is more important than ever.”



Earth’s past reveals a clear lesson: nature can recover, but it takes time. The resilience of plant life has shaped the world we know today, making conservation efforts essential for the future of our ecosystems.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.geoscienceworld.org/gsa/gsabulletin/article-abstract/doi/10.1130/B38017.1/652555/Age-controlled-south-polar-floral-trends-show-a?redirectedFrom=fulltext" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Geological Society of America Bulletin</a>.



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How forests rose again after the planet’s most extreme extinction

Earth has faced many climate challenges, but none compare to...

Smokers and e-cigarette advocates often believe that vaping helps people to quit the use of tobacco. However, new research provides strong evidence contradicting this belief, challenging the widely held assumption.



The research was conducted by a team of scientists at the Herbert Wertheim School of Public Health and Human Longevity Science, and at Moores Cancer Center at the <a href="https://ucsd.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of California, San Diego</a>.



Their significant results have recently been published in the Journal of the American Medical Association (JAMA).



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-vaping-vs-smoking">Vaping vs. smoking</h2>



“Most smokers think vaping will help you quit <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/quitting-smoking-at-any-age-brings-big-and-immediate-health-benefits/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">smoking</a>,” stated John P. Pierce, Ph.D., Distinguished Professor in the Herbert Wertheim School of Public Health (<a href="https://hwsph.ucsd.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">HWSPH</a>), and one of the study's co-authors.



“However, this belief is not supported by science to date. While some researchers have suggested that smokers who switch to daily vaping will be more successful in quitting smoking, we studied quitting success among both daily and non-daily vapers and came up with a quite definitive answer.”



More than 6,000 U.S. smokers took part in the study, of which 943 were also smokers who vaped.



One striking finding from this study was that quitting smoking was less successful among vapers than among <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/smokers-have-weaker-hearts-that-pump-less-blood/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">smokers</a> who didn't vape. 



Daily vape users were 4.1% less successful at quitting smoking, and occasional vape users were 5.3% less successful.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-misleading-perception-of-vaping">Misleading perception of vaping</h2>



The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) states that close to one out of every five Americans consumes <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/tobacco-bans-could-help-prevent-1-2-million-lung-cancer-deaths/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">tobacco</a> products. 



Most tobacco consumers are cigarette smokers although, in recent times, there has been a shift towards vaping, mostly because people feel that it is safer than smoking cigarettes.



This perception of safety reinforces the illusion that vaping can aid a smoker to get weaned off <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/smoking-cigarettes-accelerates-aging/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cigarettes</a>.



Interestingly, researchers took note of the potential dangers of vaping, and asserted that e-cigarettes are not benign.



“The adverse health effects of cigarette smoking become obvious after people have smoked for 20 years. While vapes generally don’t contain the same harmful chemicals as cigarette smoke, they have other risks, and we just don’t yet know what the health consequences of vaping over 20 to 30 years will be,” shared Pierce.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-smoking-and-vaping-definitive-study">Smoking and vaping - definitive study</h2>



One particular strength of the research is its capacity to adjust for a large number of variables that are understood to impact the cessation of smoking.



The scientists carefully controlled for variables such as smoking frequency, levels of interest in quitting, having a smoke-free household, and socioeconomic status.



This way, they were able to ensure that what they found wasn't confounded by outside factors, and therefore the conclusions drawn would be stronger.



“For example, if a smoker is already very interested in quitting, has a smoke-free home, and does not smoke daily, they are much more likely to successfully quit, regardless of whether they vape or not,” said senior author Karen Messer, Ph.D., professor of biostatistics at the Herbert Wertheim School of Public Health.



“We matched each smoker/vaper on such characteristics. You have to make very sure you’re comparing like with like, and that’s why this analysis is so definitive.”



According to the researchers, previous studies that failed to account for these confounding factors have contributed to the persistent misconception that vaping aids smoking cessation. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-informing-public-health-policy">Informing public health policy</h2>



The findings also have significant implications for public health policy, particularly in connection with the marketing of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/e-cigarettes-linked-to-increased-risk-of-heart-failure/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">e-cigarettes</a>.



Young people are often the target of marketing campaigns and may find themselves using e-cigarettes as a stepping stone to nicotine addiction.



“There’s still a lot we don’t know about the impact of vaping on people,” commented Natalie Quach, &nbsp;a third-year&nbsp;biostatistics Ph.D.&nbsp;student at the Herbert Wertheim School of Public Health, and the study’s first author.



“But what we do know is that the idea that vaping helps people quit isn’t actually true. It is more likely that it keeps them addicted to nicotine.”



Messer emphasized the importance of rigorous research in shaping public health strategies. 



“As the public health community continues to grapple with the complexities of tobacco control, it is essential that we rely on rigorous scientific evidence to inform our policies and interventions,” she stated.



“Our research shows that misleading associations between vaping and smoking cessation routinely occur unless confounding characteristics are carefully accounted for.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-this-study-matters">Why this study matters</h2>



These findings highlight the importance of evidence-based policymaking, particularly as e-cigarette use continues to increase.



Without careful consideration of the full range of influences on smoking behavior, the public may continue to be misled about the role of vaping in tobacco cessation.



The full study was published in the <a href="https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jamanetworkopen/fullarticle/2831011" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">JAMA</a>.



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Does vaping help people stop smoking cigarettes? New study has answers

Smokers and e-cigarette advocates often believe that vaping helps people...

Meandering,Bends,Of,The,Lower,Padma,River.,The,Lower,Portion

Rivers, lava, and ice carve through landscapes in twisting, meandering channels. At first glance, their bends appear similar. 



However, a recent study from researchers at <a href="https://www.utexas.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">The University of Texas</a> at Austin reveals that rivers form curves differently than lava or ice channels.



The exact forces shaping these channels remain unclear. However, past research suggests that the interaction between the fluid and the surrounding terrain plays a crucial role. 



This study builds on those ideas by analyzing thousands of bends formed by different <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/shanay-timpishka-river-amazon-rainforest-is-so-hot-that-it-literally-boils-destroying-nearby-biodiversity/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">natural processes</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-science-behind-the-river-bends">Science behind the river bends</h2>



In <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/what-amount-of-water-do-earths-rivers-hold/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">rivers</a>, centrifugal force plays a major role. Water moves faster along the outer edges of a curve and slows down along the inner edges. 



This causes erosion on the outer banks while depositing sediment on the inner banks, which gradually intensifies the bends.



Volcanic and ice channels, however, behave differently. These channels erode through melting rather than by carrying and depositing sediments. 



Because of this, erosion occurs mainly on the outer edge of a bend, resulting in smaller curves when compared to rivers.



“This distinction sets up a great natural experiment for us to see if the shape, or size, of bends in rivers is distinct from those in volcanic or ice channels,” said Tim Goudge, a co-author on the study and an assistant professor at the <a href="https://www.jsg.utexas.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Jackson School of Geosciences</a>, Department of Earth and Planetary Sciences.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-beyond-earth">Implications beyond Earth</h2>



This research could help scientists analyze sinuous <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/atmospheric-rivers-are-shifting-with-global-climate-impacts/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">channels</a> on other planets and moons, where the origin of fluids remains uncertain. Without direct access to these channels, their shapes may provide clues about their formation.



The study, published in Geology, was led by Juan Vazquez, who completed his undergraduate degree at the Jackson School in 2024. 



He worked alongside Goudge to analyze thousands of bends in rivers on Earth, volcanic channels on the Moon, and ice channels on glaciers.



Vazquez initially believed he had made an error when analyzing the data. However, he soon realized that river bends were significantly more extreme than those of lava and ice.



“It wasn’t until the parameters for the code we had set for the volcanic channels on the Moon kept failing for the rivers on Earth that we realized, ‘Oh, that’s not a fault of the code. It’s an intrinsically different amplitude,’” Vazquez related.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-identifying-channel-origins">Identifying channel origins</h2>



The study also found that volcanic and ice channels tend to have a higher proportion of downstream-accentuated bends compared to rivers. 



This pattern could help distinguish different types of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/planning-for-an-uncertain-future-in-the-colorado-river-basin/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">channels</a> on planetary bodies like Titan, Saturn’s largest moon.



On Earth, scientists can observe the fluids or study geological evidence to determine a channel’s origin. 



However, on Titan, liquid ethane and methane carve through ice, making it difficult to determine whether channels form like rivers or through melting and dissolution.



Mars presents a similar challenge. Several billion years ago, the planet had flowing rivers and active volcanoes. 



Today, sinuous channels appear on the sides of Martian volcanoes. Some scientists believe these formed from lava, while others argue that melting snow created them.



“There are these sinuous channels on the sides of Martian volcanos. Some people have interpreted them as volcanic channels, and some people have interpreted them as rivers that formed when maybe snowpack on the top of the volcano melted,” said Goudge. 



“We’re saying that because volcanic channel bends are so distinct, you can measure those channels to find out.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-research-on-river-bend-patterns">Future research on river bend patterns</h2>



Goudge cautions that this research should not be seen as a strict rule for identifying the origin of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/international-day-of-action-for-rivers-lifelines-of-our-planet/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">channels</a>. 



Natural channels, whether formed by rivers, lava, or ice, can vary widely due to different environmental conditions. Because of this variability, the method may not always provide clear answers.



Before scientists can confidently use these findings to determine whether a channel was created by water, lava, or ice, more data needs to be collected. 



Further studies and analysis of additional channels are necessary to confirm the reliability of this approach.



By refining this research, scientists may unlock a new way to study planetary surfaces, helping them to decode the histories of distant worlds.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.geoscienceworld.org/gsa/geology/article-abstract/doi/10.1130/G52706.1/652506/Upstream-bend-skewing-in-alluvial-meandering?redirectedFrom=fulltext" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Geology</a>.



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Discovery about Earth's rivers could help us find water on other planets

Rivers, lava, and ice carve through landscapes in twisting, meandering...

The Kuiper belt, a distant region of icy bodies beyond Neptune, is home to many celestial wonders. Among them, one particular trio of space rocks has recently caught the attention of scientists.



Cosmic systems involving three orbiting bodies have always challenged astronomers as it is difficult to predict the paths of the three gravitationally bound objects. 



Interactions between the gravitational fields of the three bodies tend to lead to chaotic dynamics, which has given rise to the "<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/finding-order-in-the-chaos-of-the-three-body-problem/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">three-body problem</a>."



The discovery that a previously identified binary system in the Kuiper belt may actually involve three bodies could reshape our understanding of how objects in the Kuiper belt form and evolve.



The research team that have identified the system claim to have found a stable group of three bodies, which is highly unusual but not entirely unheard of. This would marking a significant breakthrough in planetary science.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-astronomers-found">What astronomers found</h2>



Researchers from the <a href="https://www.byu.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Brigham Young University</a> in Provo, Utah, believe they've uncovered the second trio of space rocks ever identified in the Kuiper belt. 



If verified, this suggest that there may be other three body systems present. It adds credence to a unique theory on the history of our solar system and the formation of Kuiper belt objects (KBOs).



"The universe is filled with a range of three-body systems, including the closest stars to Earth, the Alpha Centauri star system, and we're finding that the Kuiper belt may be no exception," says the study's lead author, Maia Nelsen, a physics and astronomy graduate of BYU.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-are-kuiper-belt-objects">What are Kuiper Belt objects?</h2>



Catalogued in 1992, KBOs are primordial icy remains from the very beginnings of our solar system. The belt where these objects are found lies well beyond Neptune's orbit.



To date, scientists have recorded over 3,000 KBOs and predict a possible number in the hundreds of thousands if they include those bigger than 10 miles (16 kilometers) in diameter.



Dwarf planet <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/pluto-may-not-be-real-planet-but-has-real-big-ocean/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Pluto</a> ranks as the biggest KBO.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-formation-of-kuiper-belt-objects">Formation of Kuiper belt objects</h2>



The new Hubble breakthrough offers key insights into a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/space-snowman-arrokoth-celestial-objects-become-ice-bombs/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">KBO formation</a> theory in which the three small, rocky bodies would not have formed as the result of collision in the busy Kuiper belt, but rather from the gravitational collapse of matter in the disk of material surrounding the newly formed Sun.



This likely happened around 4.5 billion years ago.



By comparison, stars are known to form by the gravitational collapse of gas, often in pairs or triples. 



The notion that celestial bodies in the Kuiper belt form similarly is a fascinating concept that is currently under review.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-insights-into-the-altjira-system">Insights into the Altjira system</h2>



Located in the outer realms of our solar system, some 44 times the distance between Earth and the Sun, the Altjira System is the subject of this compelling research. 



Though two KBOs were seen in Hubble images of this system, scientists now believe the inner object is, in fact, a pair of bodies that appears as one due to their close proximity and their great distance from observers on Earth. 



The scientists explain that differentiating the two tiny bodies at such a great distance requires non-imaging methods. 



The team monitored the Altjira system over a 17-year period, observing the unique co-orbital movement of the outer object. Over time, they noticed subtle shift in orbit that was not expected.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-multiple-hypotheses-for-the-altjira-system">Multiple hypotheses for the Altjira system</h2>



In analyzing the Hubble footage, the team found that the strongest evidence supported the idea of a triple system.



They also considered that the inner object could be a contact binary (two separate bodies so close that they touch each other) or an irregularly flat object reminiscent of a pancake.



Currently, the researchers estimate there are around 40 <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mors-somnus-provides-clues-neptune-evolution/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">binary objects</a> in the Kuiper belt.



With the discovery of a potential second triple system, it is possible that these systems are not single eccentricities but rather examples of an entire population of three-body systems formed under similar conditions.



Historically, the only KBOs studied in detail are Pluto and the smaller object Arrokoth, which were explored by NASA's New Horizons missions in 2015 and 2019, respectively.



Arrokoth is a contact binary, a pair of objects that have moved ever closer to each other and assumed a peanut shape.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-happens-next">What happens next?</h2>



The team describes Altjira as a close relative of Arrokoth, as it hails from the same Kuiper belt group.



They estimate Altjira to be approximately ten times larger though, with a diameter of 124 miles (200 kilometers).



Even though there's no planned mission to see Altjira as closely as Arrokoth was observed, the researchers gleefully await an upcoming opportunity for further study. 



Over the next decade, they will get the chance to observe the outer body passing in front of the central body, which will give them a chance to learn more about this intriguing system and other aspects of the <a href="http://arth.com/news/webb-telescope-confirms-hubble-constant-our-understanding-of-universe-expansion-very-wrong/">universe</a>



In addition, NASA’s James Webb Space Telescope will join the study in its upcoming Cycle 3 observations, and it will add new evidence about these three frosted cosmic bodies.



The study was published in <a href="https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.3847/PSJ/ad864d">The Planetary Science Journal</a>.



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'Streaming instability' hypothesis: What is it and how is Hubble involved?

The Kuiper belt, a distant region of icy bodies beyond...

For centuries, Mars has captivated human curiosity, from early astronomers to modern scientists. The Red Planet remains a source of mystery, and with the possibility of human exploration on the horizon, understanding its environment is more crucial than ever.



While its mountains and valleys get much attention, the atmosphere of Mars is just as interesting and complex.



Recent research, including contributions from the <a href="https://www.u-tokyo.ac.jp/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Tokyo</a>, has shed new light on how Mars' atmosphere behaves. Scientists have discovered that atmospheric gravity waves play a crucial role in shaping latitudinal air currents, particularly in the middle and upper layers of the planet’s atmosphere.



This discovery helps us understand <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/nasa-seeks-a-faster-way-to-bring-mars-samples-to-earth/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Mars</a>' weather better and may also improve climate predictions on Earth.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-behavior-of-mars-atmosphere">Behavior of Mars' atmosphere </h2>



To grasp the significance of these findings, it is important to understand how Mars' atmosphere differs from our own. 



Earth has a thick atmosphere full of nitrogen and oxygen, making it suitable for life. <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/detecting-life-on-mars-a-breakthrough-in-space-research/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Mars</a>, on the other hand, has very thin air, mostly made of carbon dioxide. This major difference causes Mars' atmosphere to behave in unique ways.



Even though they are different, both planets have air movements caused by their rotation and heat from the Sun. 



"On Earth, large-scale atmospheric waves caused by the planet’s rotation, known as Rossby waves, are the primary influence on the way air circulates in the stratosphere, or the lower part of the middle atmosphere," said Professor Kaoru Sato from the Department of Earth and Planetary Science. 



"But our study shows that on Mars, gravity waves (GWs) have a dominant effect at the mid and high latitudes of the middle atmosphere."



“Rossby waves are large-scale atmospheric waves, or resolved waves, whereas GWs are unresolved waves, meaning they are too fine to be directly measured or modeled and must be estimated by more indirect means.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-are-gravity-waves">What are gravity waves?</h2>



Gravity waves are a type of movement in the air. They happen when air moves up and down like waves in the ocean because of differences in air pressure and buoyancy. These waves are different from gravitational waves, which come from space events like black hole collisions.



Since gravity waves are small and hard to see directly, scientists have struggled to measure their effects in Mars' atmosphere. 



To solve this problem, Professor Sato and her team used a special dataset called the Ensemble Mars Atmosphere Reanalysis System (<a href="https://www.datacommons.psu.edu/download/meteorology/greybush/emars-1p0/a_landing_page.html#:~:text=EMARS%20uses%20the%20Local%20Ensemble,Sounder%20(MCS)%20temperature%20retrievals." target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EMARS</a>). This dataset combines information collected from spacecraft over many years, helping researchers study how these waves influence Mars’ weather and climate.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-new-perspective-on-mars-atmosphere">New perspective on Mars' atmosphere</h2>



The study revealed that gravity waves transport angular momentum rapidly, affecting north-south circulation patterns in Mars’ middle atmosphere.



"We found something interesting, that GWs facilitate the rapid vertical transfer of angular momentum, significantly influencing the meridional, or north-south, in the middle atmosphere circulations on Mars," said graduate student Anzu Asumi. 



"It’s interesting because it more closely resembles the behavior seen in Earth’s mesosphere rather than in our stratosphere. This suggests existing <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/nasa-collects-26th-rock-sample-on-mars-plans-to-bring-them-all-to-earth-for-study/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Martian</a> atmospheric circulation models may need to be refined to better incorporate these wave effects, potentially improving future climate and weather simulations."



This discovery challenges previous assumptions about <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/wave-ripples-discovered-mars-surface-indicate-liquid-water-present-4-billion-years-ago/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Mars</a>’ atmospheric circulation and highlights the need for updated models. If researchers can refine simulations based on these findings, future climate predictions for Mars will be more accurate.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-improving-weather-predictions-on-earth">Improving weather predictions on Earth</h2>



Studying Mars helps scientists learn more about how <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-year-on-mars-avalanches-icy-explosions-and-the-arrival-of-spring/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">weather</a> works on different planets. 



Mars and Earth have some similarities, like how fast they spin and how they tilt as they orbit the Sun. These similarities make Mars a useful place to study how atmospheres behave.



However, Mars is also very different. Its air is much thinner than Earth's and mostly made of carbon dioxide. It also has extreme seasons that change the planet’s weather in unusual ways. These differences give scientists a chance to see how various factors shape a planet’s climate.



By comparing Mars and Earth, researchers can improve their understanding of how atmospheres work in general. This knowledge might even help improve weather predictions and climate models for Earth. 



As scientists develop better ways to study planetary weather, their findings could be useful for both space exploration and life on our own planet.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-exploring-the-role-of-dust-storms">Exploring the role of dust storms</h2>



“Looking ahead, we plan to investigate the impact of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/did-mars-once-host-life-we-finally-know-where-to-look/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Martian</a> dust storms on atmospheric circulation. So far, our analysis has focused on years without major dust storms,” said Sato. 



“However, these storms dramatically alter atmospheric conditions, and we suspect they may intensify the role of GWs in circulation. Our research lays the groundwork for forecasting Martian weather, which will be essential for ensuring the success of future Mars missions."



Future studies will examine how these storms on Mars reshape global atmospheric patterns. If scientists can predict these changes with precision, mission planners will be able to prepare astronauts for the planet’s extreme weather. 



With each new breakthrough, the dream of reliable <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mars-has-spectacular-glowing-clouds-at-sunset/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Martian</a> weather forecasting moves closer to reality.



The study is published in the <a href="https://doi.org/10.1029/2023JE008137" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal of Geophysical Research Planets</a>.



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Secrets of Mars' atmosphere may improve weather predictions

For centuries, Mars has captivated human curiosity, from early astronomers...

Blood,Moon,-,This,Is,A,Photo,Of,The,Moon

March’s night sky is alive with motion - planets shift, the Moon changes, and Mercury makes a fleeting appearance before disappearing again. 



Whether or not you're an avid <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/january-2025-stargazing-a-parade-of-bright-planets/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">stargazer</a>, March has something extraordinary in store. Some of this month's astronomical events will last weeks - others just minutes. 



With skywatching tips from <a href="https://science.nasa.gov/solar-system/skywatching/whats-up-march-2025-skywatching-tips-from-nasa/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NASA</a>, you'll know just what to look for.



The universe keeps changing, whether we watch or not. But if you do take the time, March's night sky will reward you.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mercury-at-sunset">Mercury at sunset</h2>



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bepicolombo-spacecraft-captures-high-definition-images-of-mercury-during-close-flyby/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Mercury</a> is a tricky planet to see because it stays close to the Sun. Most of the time, the Sun's brightness hides it, making it one of the hardest planets to spot without a telescope. 



However, for a few days in early March, you have a rare chance to see it with your own eyes.



To find Mercury, look towards the western sky about 30 minutes after sunset. It will appear as a tiny bright dot just below <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/venus-was-never-capable-of-supporting-life-as-we-know-it/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Venus</a>. 



But don’t wait too long - each night, Mercury moves lower and gets harder to see. By mid-March, it will sink into the Sun’s glare and won’t be visible for months in the night sky.



For the best view, go to a place with a clear horizon, like a beach, an open field, or a hilltop. Trees, buildings, and city lights can block your view, making it even harder to spot. 



If you do manage to see Mercury before it disappears, enjoy the moment - because it won’t last long.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-planetary-shuffle">The planetary shuffle</h2>



While Mercury will be tricky to spot, the other planets will have their own stories to tell in March’s night sky.



Venus, the unmistakable “evening star,” will start the month low in the western sky. But its time will be short. Venus will sink lower each night and by mid-March, it will be gone.



Mars, however, will hold its ground. High in the east after sunset, it will linger late into the night, not setting until around 3 a.m. If you stay up past midnight, you will still see its reddish glow overhead.



Jupiter, the giant of our solar system, will dominate the western <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/four-planets-will-align-this-week-during-a-rare-nighttime-spectacle-heres-how-to-see-them/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">sky</a> once night falls. Its bright, steady light will make it one of the easiest planets to spot, even in light-polluted areas.



But like Venus, it will eventually fade, setting around 1 a.m. And when that happens, the morning sky will be planet-free for the first time in a year.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-blood-red-moon-in-the-march-sky">Blood-red Moon in the March sky</h2>



And then, there’s the main event - the total lunar eclipse on the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/venus-mars-and-bodes-galaxy-will-light-up-februarys-night-sky/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">night</a> of March 13th into the 14th.



Unlike a solar eclipse, which requires protective eyewear, this event is safe to watch with your own eyes. No equipment is needed - just step outside, find the Moon, and enjoy the show.



At first, you’ll notice a shadow creeping across its surface, like a slow-moving bite taken out of a cookie. As the eclipse deepens, the Moon won’t vanish - it will turn an eerie, deep red. This crimson is the Earth’s atmosphere at work.



If you were standing on the Moon during the eclipse, you’d see something incredible - a fiery ring around Earth, made up of all the sunrises and sunsets happening at that moment.



That reddish light bends through Earth’s air and spills onto the Moon, giving it the signature blood-red hue.



Then, just as it appeared, the shadow slowly retreats. The deep red hue fades, the darkened edge shrinks, and the Moon regains its usual glow. 



Another cycle ends, and another celestial event is etched into the ever-changing story of March's night sky.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-s-on-the-dark-side-of-the-moon">What’s on the dark side of the Moon?</h2>



The phrase “dark side of the Moon” is a bit misleading. It makes it sound like there’s a half of the Moon that never sees sunlight - an eternal night locked in place. But that’s not the case.



The Moon does have a far side, the part we never see from Earth. This happens because it’s tidally locked, meaning one side always faces us. 



But just like Earth, the Moon rotates. Every part of its surface gets bathed in sunlight at some point. There’s no permanent darkness, only the changing light of the lunar day.



The far side of the Moon only faces Earth when the Moon is new. That’s when the Moon is positioned between us and the Sun - so close to the Sun’s light that we can’t see it at all. Unless, of course, there’s a solar eclipse.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-optimal-view-of-march-s-night-sky">Optimal view of March's night sky</h2>



March 29th marks the new moon - a night of darkness, and a golden opportunity for stargazers.



Without the Moon’s glare washing out the sky, faint celestial objects suddenly become visible. The Milky Way stretches across the heavens. Distant galaxies, usually hidden, start to emerge. 



<a href="https://esahubble.org/wordbank/nebula/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nebulae</a>, those swirling clouds of cosmic dust and gas, become easier to photograph.



If you own a telescope, now’s the time to use it. If you don’t, all you really need is a clear, dark sky. Find a spot far from city lights and let your eyes adjust. 



March reminds us that the sky is always changing. Mercury appears briefly, then vanishes.



Venus fades away, followed by Jupiter. The Moon transforms into a deep red during the eclipse, only to return to its usual glow. And with the new moon, the night sky reveals sights you may have never noticed before.



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March 2025 stargazing: A red moon and a vanishing planet

March’s night sky is alive with motion - planets shift,...

The European Space Agency's (ESA) International Gamma-Ray Astrophysics Laboratory (Integral) was launched on October 17, 2002 from the Baikonur Cosmodrome in Kazakhstan. Its mission was to observe the extreme and ever-changing cosmos.



“For over two decades, Integral has shown us time and time again how important it is to look at the sky in gamma-ray light,” noted Jan-Uwe Ness, ESA’s Integral <a href="https://www.esa.int/Science_Exploration/Space_Science/Integral" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Project</a> Scientist.



“Some of the bursts of light associated with extreme physical events in our <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-detect-more-than-20-mysterious-radio-signals-from-space/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Universe</a> can only be fully understood if we catch the rays that come from the very core of the blasts: the gamma rays.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-integral-reveals-cosmic-mysteries">Integral reveals cosmic mysteries</h2>



Unlike visible and radio light, which ground-based telescopes can observe, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/strange-object-discovered-in-space-should-never-have-been-there/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cosmic</a> gamma rays must be captured in space. Earth's atmosphere acts as a shield and protects us from these harmful rays.



“Integral has transformed our understanding of the dynamic, high-energy Universe and physics in extreme conditions,” added Prof. Carole Mundell, <a href="https://www.esa.int" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ESA</a> Director of Science.



“That Integral’s spacecraft and instrumentation have performed so exquisitely well for so many years is testament to the quality of the technology developed by the European scientific community and space industry at the turn of the millennium, and the science and engineering teams at ESA who have operated this mission ever since. Congratulations to all our communities for their dedication and achievements,” Mundell enthused.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-integral-helped-explain-powerful-space-explosions">Integral helped explain powerful space explosions</h2>



Integral has played a key role in solving the mysteries of gamma-ray bursts (GRBs). These energetic flashes appear in the sky about once per day, often outshining all other gamma-ray sources combined.



Scientists now know that longer GRBs, which last several seconds, result from the collapse of massive stars into supernovae. Shorter bursts happen when neutron stars or black holes collide.



“What I find impressive about Integral are its unexpected discoveries,” remarks Jan-Uwe Ness.



“It turned out that Integral was ideal for tasks not at all foreseen when the mission was conceived. An example is its ability to track down the sources in the sky that generated some of the gravitational waves and ultrahigh-energy neutrinos caught by specialised instruments on the ground.”



When Integral launched, scientists were unsure whether gravitational waves could ever be directly detected. The first confirmed observation came 13 years later, in 2015, by the LIGO detectors in the U.S.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-discoveries-that-shaped-astronomy">Discoveries that shaped astronomy</h2>



Integral’s breakthroughs continued. Just in the past two years, it captured the most powerful gamma-ray burst ever observed. The blast even affected Earth’s protective ozone layer.



“This GRB took place in a galaxy almost two billion light-years away – it is mind-boggling to think that Earth can be affected by an event that took place in a remote corner of the Universe, two billion years ago,” marveled Ness.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/03/Integral-mission_spacecraft-instruments_ESA_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/03/Integral-mission_spacecraft-instruments_ESA_1s.webp" alt="Integral has two detectors on board: an imager and a spectrometer. These instruments are supported by two monitor instruments: an X-ray monitor and an optical camera. All four instruments are co-aligned and will observe the same region of the sky simultaneously. This allows scientists to clearly identify gamma-ray sources, a key feature in studying high-energy processes in the violent Universe. Credit: ESA" class="wp-image-1961733"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Integral has two detectors on board: an imager and a spectrometer. These instruments are supported by two monitor instruments: an X-ray monitor and an optical camera. All four instruments are co-aligned and will observe the same region of the sky simultaneously. This allows scientists to clearly identify gamma-ray sources, a key feature in studying high-energy processes in the violent Universe. Credit: ESA</figcaption></figure>



Recent discoveries also include a rare 0.1-second magnetar outburst, which emitted as much energy as the Sun produces in half a million years. Integral also found that thermonuclear explosions power jets in a neutron star.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-pioneering-observatory">A pioneering observatory</h2>



At the time of its launch, Integral was the most advanced gamma-ray observatory available. It was the first space-based observatory capable of observing <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mysterious-tiny-red-spots-discovered-in-space/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">celestial objects</a> in gamma rays, X-rays, and visible light simultaneously.



Three features made Integral’s discoveries possible: its large field of view, its ability to capture detailed images and spectra at high energies, and its monitoring capability with X-ray and optical cameras. These elements helped pinpoint gamma-ray sources with unprecedented precision.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-final-chapter">The final chapter</h2>



“After 2886 orbits and 22 years gazing into the depths of our cosmos, today Integral’s sensitive instruments will stop collecting scientific data. But the legacy of ESA’s gamma-ray observatory will serve scientists for many more years to come,” concluded Matthias Ehle, Integral’s Mission Manager at ESA.



&nbsp;“The wealth of data collected over two decades will be stored at the Integral Science Legacy Archive. It will be essential for future research and to inspire a new generation of astronomers and engineers to develop exciting new missions.”



The scientists adjusted Integral's orbit in 2015 so that it would gradually move into a position to ensure a safe re-entry into Earth's atmosphere, in early 2029. This aligns with the ESA's commitment to reducing <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ancient-cosmic-explosion-changes-what-we-know-about-space/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">space</a> debris. 



During the next four years, ESA engineers will monitor the spacecraft, even though its scientific operations will have ceased. 



Integral’s mission may be ending, but its impact on high-energy astrophysics will endure for generations.



Information for this article was obtained from an ESA <a href="https://www.esa.int/Science_Exploration/Space_Science/Integral/Mission_accomplished_for_Integral_ESA_s_gamma-ray_telescope">press release</a>.



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Integral gamma-ray telescope mission was a brilliant success

The European Space Agency's (ESA) International Gamma-Ray Astrophysics Laboratory (Integral) was...

Researchers examining British Labrador retrievers have identified multiple genes connected to canine obesity. The investigations revealed that these same genes, including one called DENND1B, are associated with obesity in humans as well.&nbsp;



The findings mark a significant advance in understanding how biological mechanisms in dogs can shed light on human weight regulation.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-genes-linked-to-obesity">Genes linked to obesity </h2>



The gene DENND1B emerged as the strongest <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/why-is-obesity-difficult-to-reverse-it-starts-in-the-brain/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">obesity</a>-linked variant in Labradors. DENND1B was found to have a direct impact on a brain pathway responsible for regulating the energy balance in the body, called the leptin melanocortin pathway. 



Four additional genes showing a weaker association with canine obesity were likewise mapped to human genes.



Study co-first author Alyce McClellan is an expert in the <a href="https://www.pdn.cam.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Department of Physiology, Development and Neuroscience</a> at the University of Cambridge.



“These genes are not immediately obvious targets for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/weight-loss-drugs-linked-to-unexpected-benefits-and-risks/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">weight-loss drugs</a>, because they control other key biological processes in the body that should not be interfered with. But the results emphasise the importance of fundamental brain pathways in controlling appetite and body weight,” said McClellan.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-body-s-energy-regulation-system">The body's energy regulation system </h2>



An essential outcome of the research was confirming that DENND1B is present not only in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/probiotics-help-overweight-dogs-shed-pounds/">dogs</a> but also in humans, where it is linked to obesity.&nbsp;



By focusing on this gene in Labrador retrievers, scientists could zero in on how it impacts the body’s energy regulation system. They hope the insights gained from working with dogs will help clarify how certain neural pathways affect human eating behaviors and metabolic processes.



The researchers stress that while these genes are important for understanding appetite and weight gain, they do not present a straightforward target for obesity treatments. This is because the relevant genes are tied to other crucial functions in the body; tampering with them might create unwanted side effects.&nbsp;



Instead, the study highlights the complexity of regulating appetite and energy balance at a genetic level, reinforcing the importance of the leptin melanocortin pathway - a well-known system controlling satiety and hunger.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-food-motivation-and-obesity-risk">Food motivation and obesity risk</h2>



Among the most striking findings, the researchers noted behavioral differences in dogs that carry the genes most strongly associated with obesity.&nbsp;



“We found that dogs at high genetic risk of obesity were more interested in food,” said co-first author Natalie Wallis, a researcher in the same department.



“We measured how much dogs pestered their owners for food and whether they were fussy eaters. Dogs at high genetic risk of obesity showed signs of having higher appetite, as has also been shown for people at high genetic risk of obesity.”



This link between genetic risk and food motivation underscores a significant parallel with human cases: individuals who harbor certain genetic profiles may experience stronger cravings for food and need more discipline to maintain healthy body weight.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-counteracting-genetic-obesity-risks">Counteracting genetic obesity risks</h2>



Interestingly, the study showed that even Labradors with a high genetic propensity for obesity could stay slim if their owners enforced rigorous diet and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/exercise-in-a-pill-is-now-closer-to-reality/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">exercise</a> routines. This is similar to what happens in humans.&nbsp;



People carrying particular genetic variants are more prone to weight gain, yet they can avoid obesity by strictly controlling their caloric intake and staying active.



“Studying the dogs showed us something really powerful: owners of slim dogs are not morally superior. The same is true of slim people. If you have a high genetic risk of obesity, then when there’s lots of food available you’re prone to overeating and gaining weight unless you put a huge effort into not doing so,” said senior author Eleanor Raffan, a scientist at Cambridge.



“By studying dogs we could measure their desire for food separately from the control owners exerted over their dog’s diet and exercise. In human studies, it’s harder to study how genetically driven appetite requires greater willpower to remain slim, as both are affecting the one person.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-broader-issue-of-obesity">The broader issue of obesity</h2>



The current obesity crisis is affecting both people and their pets. Between 40-60% of domestic dogs are believed to be overweight or obese, a situation mirrored in humans. The problems range from heightened risk of chronic illnesses to reduced quality of life.&nbsp;



Because dogs live alongside people and share many of the same dietary and lifestyle influences, they serve as a strong model for studying how genetics interacts with the environment to determine body weight.



In this project, researchers gathered data from pet owners, measuring each dog’s body fat and “greediness,” then collecting saliva samples to analyze DNA.&nbsp;



Comparing various obesity markers with each dog’s genetic makeup allowed them to pinpoint which genes correlated with weight gain. The most powerful variant, DENND1B, was tied to about 8% more body fat in the dogs carrying it.



Subsequent tests confirmed that the same gene variants also show relevance to weight issues in human populations, particularly in groups where single genetic alterations can cause severe, early-onset obesity.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-practical-steps-for-owners-nbsp">Practical steps for owners&nbsp;</h2>



Given that dogs with high-risk genes are especially food-motivated, the researchers advise owners to spread out daily food rations or use puzzle feeders that slow consumption. They also suggest choosing nutrient compositions that help dogs feel full longer.&nbsp;



Parallel recommendations exist for people, highlighting the benefits of portion control, diet quality, and strategies to combat overeating cues.



“This work shows how similar dogs are to humans genetically. Studying the dogs meant we had reason to focus on this particular gene, which has led to a big advance in understanding how our own brain controls our eating behavior and energy use,” Raffan said.



The scientists consider these discoveries a springboard for deeper investigations into how genes shape appetite and metabolism, in both animals and people.&nbsp;



While the genes identified here may not be immediate targets for obesity drugs, they provide essential clues about the biochemical pathways that drive weight gain. This, in turn, might eventually guide more refined strategies for managing and preventing obesity.



The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1126/science.ads2145" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Science</a>.



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Humans and dogs share genes linked to obesity

Researchers examining British Labrador retrievers have identified multiple genes connected...

Butterflies are currently disappearing in the United States with alarming speed. A new study estimates that overall butterfly abundance in the continental United States dropped by 22% between 2000 and 2020. 



Researchers warn that without immediate action, these vibrant insects - essential for pollination, nutrient cycling, and food webs - could continue to vanish at a rate with unsettling consequences for ecosystems and agriculture alike.



“Action must be taken,” said Elise Zipkin, a professor of quantitative ecology at <a href="https://msu.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Michigan State University</a> and a co-author of the paper. “To lose 22 percent of butterflies across the continental U.S. in just two decades is distressing and shows a clear need for broad-scale conservation interventions.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-largest-ever-compilation-of-butterfly-data">Largest-ever compilation of butterfly data</h2>



In the past, scientists have typically focused on one species (like the monarch) or on a limited geography. This study, however, brings together more than 76,000 surveys of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/grassland-butterflies-declining-all-over-europe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">butterfly populations</a> spanning the lower 48 states.&nbsp;



The researchers incorporated data from 35 separate monitoring programs and compiles records of over 12.6 million butterflies, enabling analysts to develop a nationwide snapshot of butterfly abundance trends and species richness.



To clarify changes, the research team examined 554 different species, comparing population sizes in 2000 with those in 2020. They discovered that for every five butterflies present at the start of the century, only four remained after two decades.&nbsp;



The average annual decline of 1.3% highlights the widespread nature of the downturn, with fewer butterflies appearing in backyards, open meadows, and nearly everywhere in between.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-increasing-decline-of-butterflies">Increasing decline of butterflies</h2>



Nick Haddad, a professor of integrative biology at Michigan State and one of the study’s co-authors, has been closely involved in charting the precarious state of U.S. butterflies. He combines scientific expertise with a practical, on-the-ground perspective.&nbsp;



While many declines involve species we rarely encounter, Haddad stresses that losses can also be noticed close to home.



“My neighbors notice it,” Haddad said. “Unprompted, they’ll say, ‘I’m seeing fewer butterflies in my garden, is that real?’ My neighbors are right. And it’s so shocking.”



Such observations confirm broader findings: average people are detecting changes in butterfly abundance without relying on official numbers. Now, large-scale data affirm that this anecdotal evidence reflects a genuine, countrywide shift.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-definitive-study-on-u-s-butterflies">The definitive study on U.S. butterflies</h2>



“This is the definitive study of butterflies in the U.S.,” said Collin Edwards, the study’s lead author. “For those who were not already aware of insect declines, this should be a wake-up call.”



“We urgently need both local- and national-scale conservation efforts to support butterflies and other insects. We have never had as clear and compelling a picture of butterfly declines as we do now.”



Edwards, formerly a postdoctoral research associate at <a href="https://www.vancouver.wsu.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Washington State University, Vancouver</a>, now works with the <a href="https://wdfw.wa.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Washington Department of Fish and Wildlife</a>.&nbsp;



He and his colleagues designed methods to integrate sometimes-variable data sets. By analyzing changes in “butterfly abundances, they aimed to see how species fared individually, regionally, and collectively.



Though the Pacific Northwest seemed to buck the national trend by showing a 10% overall gain in butterfly numbers, that apparent uptick is traced mainly to a single species, the California tortoiseshell, which had a population spike unlikely to last.&nbsp;



Elsewhere, the standard pattern of decline holds true, demonstrating that the national losses are part of a deeper, multi-regional shift.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-urgent-need-for-solutions">Urgent need for solutions</h2>



By studying 554 species, the team highlights just how widespread the problem is. Many species had never been systematically analyzed at such a scale. The numbers show that 13 times more species declined than increased, with 107 species losing over half their populations.



According to Zipkin and Haddad, butterflies are more than fluttering symbols of freedom and beauty. They serve as <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/urban-expansion-linked-to-global-decline-of-wild-pollinators/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">pollinators</a> - alongside bees and flies - supporting a portion of the country’s agriculture and a source of food for numerous animals, including birds.&nbsp;



Indeed, bird populations have dropped by nearly three billion over the last 50 years, at a rate that parallels butterfly declines.



The researchers highlight that policymakers and the public should view these insects not just as ornaments but as key contributors to ecological balance.&nbsp;



If butterflies continue to disappear, pollination services may weaken, predator-prey relationships will be altered, and many plants reliant on butterfly pollination could suffer.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lessons-from-past-findings-nbsp">Lessons from past findings&nbsp;</h2>



Haddad’s earlier work, published in 2024 in <a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0304319" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">PLOS ONE</a>, determined that insecticide use was a leading cause of butterfly mortality. Although habitat destruction and climate change are also major factors, the findings suggest that widespread pesticide application does extraordinary harm.&nbsp;



Profligate use of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/butterfly-decline-in-american-midwest-linked-to-insecticides/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">insecticides</a> - often deployed as a sort of “insurance” by farmers - can, ironically, result in minimal gains in crop yields while doing maximum damage to insect populations.



Haddad believes that a shift to more strategic, evidence-based pesticide use would give many butterfly species a fighting chance to rebound.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-slowing-the-decline-of-butterflies">Slowing the decline of butterflies </h2>



Zipkin describes the current data as a strong warning to national leaders: “People depend on plants, microbes, and animals for the air we breathe, the water we drink, and the food we eat. Yet, we are losing species at rates that rival the major mass extinction events on our planet,” she said.



Zipkin said that the United States can take meaningful steps, from local habitat management to large-scale legislative action, to protect not just butterflies but the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/what-are-the-biggest-drivers-of-biodiversity-loss/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">biodiversity</a> that underpins human health and well-being.&nbsp;



Edwards hopes individuals and local governments will commit resources to planting pollinator-friendly vegetation, curtailing pesticide use, and supporting land conservation measures.



While time is short, the researchers remain cautiously optimistic: the data highlight just how urgent the task is, but it also provides a roadmap for remedying the losses.&nbsp;



Through improved policy, targeted restoration programs, and mindful insecticide management, the decline of these “fluttering symbols” might be slowed, or even reversed - restoring butterflies to gardens, fields, and wildlands across the nation.



The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1126/science.adp4671" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Science</a>.



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A country without butterflies: Rapid decline in U.S. populations

Butterflies are currently disappearing in the United States with alarming...

Imagine biting into a juicier, tastier tomato or cooking with an eggplant that’s not just flavorful but also larger. Scientists have made a discovery that could bring this to reality by identifying genes that control fruit size.



Researchers at Johns Hopkins University (<a href="https://www.jhu.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">JHU</a>) and Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory (<a href="https://www.cshl.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">CSHL</a>) have mapped genetic sequences in tomatoes and eggplants, paving the way for the development of new, improved varieties.



Their findings, published in Nature, could transform agriculture, particularly in regions where local varieties are too small to support commercial production.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-understanding-gene-modification-the-basics">Understanding gene modification - the basics</h2>



Gene modification for plants is basically science giving nature a little upgrade. Scientists tweak plant DNA to make crops stronger, more nutritious, or resistant to pests and harsh weather. 



Instead of waiting generations for traditional breeding to get the perfect traits, genetic engineering speeds up the process. 



For example, some modified crops can <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/insect-populations-dramatically-declining-around-the-world-rising-temperatures/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">fight off insects</a> without needing pesticides, while others grow in salty soil or survive droughts. 



In this instance, modifying the genes of tomato plants will provide bigger and better tomatoes.



This tech has already changed farming, making it more efficient and reducing the need for chemical sprays that can harm the environment.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-changing-agriculture-with-one-seed">Changing agriculture with one seed</h2>



“Once you’ve done the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/boosting-crop-colors-with-gene-editing-can-improve-weed-control/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">gene editing</a>, all it takes is one seed to start a revolution,” said Michael Schatz, a geneticist at Johns Hopkins University and co-lead author of the study. 



“With the right approvals, we could mail an engineered seed to Africa or anywhere it’s needed and open up entirely new agricultural markets. There’s huge potential to translate these advances into real-world impact.”



The study is part of a larger initiative to map the full genomes of 22 crop plants within the nightshade family, which includes tomatoes, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/crops-of-the-future-potatoes-that-thrive-in-heatwaves/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">potatoes</a>, and eggplants.



The researchers used computational analysis to compare genetic maps and track how genes evolved. They discovered that, over time, more than half of these genes had been duplicated.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tracing-genetic-changes-over-time">Tracing genetic changes over time</h2>



“Over tens of millions of years, there’s this constant churn of DNA sequences being added and lost,” Schatz explained. 



“The same process can occur for gene sequences, where entire genes duplicate or disappear. When we started looking, we noticed these changes were very widespread, but we didn’t yet know what those changes meant for the plants.”



To answer that question, researchers at the Boyce Thomson Institute used CRISPR-Cas9 technology to edit these genes. Scientists at Cold Spring Harbor then grew the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/engineered-gmo-plants-make-baby-formula-healthy-as-breast-milk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">engineered plants</a> to observe the results.



The duplicated genes, known as paralogs, turned out to be essential for traits like fruit size, shape, and flowering time. 



One experiment involved turning off both copies of a gene called CLV3 in the forest nightshade, a plant native to Australia. 



The result was that misshapen, “weird, bubbly, disorganized” fruits were formed. These wouldn’t be viable for grocery stores. However, tweaking just one copy of the gene led to plants with larger fruits.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-genetic-treasure-map-for-tomatoes">Genetic treasure map for tomatoes</h2>



“Having full genome sequences for these species is like having a new treasure map,” said Katharine Jenike, who helped assemble the genome sequences as a Ph.D. student in Schatz’s lab.



“We can see where and when one genetic path diverges from another and then explore that place in the genetic information where we wouldn’t have thought to look. This allowed us to find the size-genes in a really unexpected place.”



One of the most exciting discoveries came from the African eggplant, a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/engineered-plant-microbiomes-the-future-of-crop-protection/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">crop</a> grown across Africa and Brazil. Scientists identified a gene, SaetSCPL25-like, which controls the number of seed cavities, or locules, inside the fruit. 



When they edited this gene in tomatoes, they found that increasing the number of locules resulted in larger tomatoes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tomatoes-eggplants-and-genes">Tomatoes, eggplants, and genes</h2>



These findings suggest that careful gene editing could lead to larger, more commercially viable tomatoes and eggplants.



“This work shows the importance of studying many species together. We leveraged decades of work in tomato genetics to rapidly advance African eggplants, and along the way we found entirely new genes in African eggplants that reciprocally advance tomatoes," Schatz explained.



"We call this ‘pan-genetics,’ and it opens endless opportunities to bring many new fruits, foods, and flavors to dinner plates around the world.”



With continued research and the right regulatory steps, these discoveries could change how we grow and consume some of our favorite fruits and vegetables in the years ahead.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-of-tomato-plants-and-gene-editing">Future of tomato plants and gene editing</h2>



Beyond simply increasing fruit size, this research has broader implications for global agriculture. 



In many parts of the world, farmers struggle with low-yield crops that are not suitable for large-scale farming. 



With gene editing, scientists could tailor plants to specific environments, making them more resistant to climate change, pests, and diseases.



By using advanced genetic tools, researchers hope to create crops that not only grow larger but also require fewer resources, such water and fertilizers.



This could make <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mixed-cover-crops-may-be-the-future-of-sustainable-farming/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">farming more sustainable</a> and reduce environmental impacts.



Future studies may focus on improving taste, nutritional value, and shelf life, which would ensure that these new varieties don’t just benefit farmers but also provide better food options for consumers.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-025-08619-6" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature</a>.



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Gene modification can create bigger, better tomatoes, but should we do it?

Imagine biting into a juicier, tastier tomato or cooking with...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2E0mn5mTvhQ
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">'Death Star' moon Mimas conceals a 15-million-year-old ocean that scientists never expected.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hidden-waters-beneath-ancient-craters">Hidden waters beneath ancient craters</h2>



Scientists have made a startling discovery that challenges everything we thought we knew about <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/saturn-moon-mimas-has-remarkably-young-ocean/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Saturn's moon Mimas</a>. Beneath the heavily cratered surface that earned it the nickname "Death Star" lies a global ocean that formed just 5 to 15 million years ago—a remarkably young age by cosmic standards.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cassini-data-reveals-orbital-secrets">Cassini data reveals orbital secrets</h2>



The discovery, led by Dr. Valéry Lainey of the <a href="https://observatoiredeparis.psl.eu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Observatoire de Paris</a>, emerged from careful analysis of <a href="https://www.nasa.gov" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NASA</a>'s Cassini spacecraft data. By studying subtle irregularities in Mimas's orbit around Saturn, researchers detected the gravitational signature of liquid water hidden 20 to 30 kilometers beneath the moon's icy shell.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-an-unlikely-ocean-world">An unlikely ocean world</h2>



At only 400 kilometers in diameter, Mimas seemed like the least likely candidate to harbor a subsurface ocean. Unlike other ocean moons such as Europa and Enceladus, which show clear surface signs of internal activity, Mimas displays no obvious hints of the liquid water beneath its ancient, crater-scarred exterior.



"Mimas is a small moon, and its heavily cratered surface gave no hint of the hidden ocean beneath," explained Dr. Nick Cooper from <a href="https://www.qmul.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Queen Mary University of London</a>, a study co-author.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-astrobiology">Implications for astrobiology</h2>



The ocean's recent formation makes Mimas a prime target for studying how oceans develop and potentially support life. This discovery adds another member to the exclusive club of ocean worlds in our solar system, each offering unique insights into the conditions necessary for habitability.



The research, published in <a href="https://www.nature.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature</a> journal, demonstrates how advanced orbital analysis can reveal hidden features of celestial bodies, opening new possibilities for understanding ocean formation throughout the cosmos.



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Scientists discover unexpected young ocean on Saturn's cratered moon Mimas

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2E0mn5mTvhQ 'Death Star' moon Mimas conceals a 15-million-year-old ocean that...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE
</div></figure>



On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop and sunlight barely penetrates through the polar winter. It was here, however, that an international team of scientists found <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/predatory-worms-were-terror-beasts-half-a-billion-years-ago/#google_vignette" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evidence of sea monsters</a> that would change our understanding of ocean life in the past.



This video captures the discovery of Timorebestia fossils that had been hidden for more than 500 million years in the Sirius Passet formation. The "terror beasts," as they are called, are a hidden chapter in the evolutionary history of <a href="https://www.earth.com" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Earth</a>, showing that sophisticated predator-prey interactions occurred much earlier than previously envisioned.



Dr. Jakob Vinther and his research team at the <a href="https://www.bristol.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Bristol</a>, in collaboration with researchers at the <a href="https://eng.kopri.re.kr/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Korean Polar Research Institute</a>, braved extreme weather conditions at 82.5 north latitude to locate these giant creatures. Using sophisticated electron microprobe analysis, they revealed the detailed anatomy of the animals, including their muscle and nerve tissues.



The find upsets the traditional timeline of sea predators. Although we've long appreciated that Cambrian oceans were at one time ruled by <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jWI3-UgA3_o&amp;list=PL1QLQMW9MWDwpkFOnvgAmu7wT6rZmYqdJ&amp;index=19" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">arthropods</a>, these discoveries indicate that relatives of arrow worms were first to dominate the seas. These worms were building sophisticated food webs several million years before other predator groups arose.



Each fossil is a story of ancient hunger, with fossil stomach contents revealing these meter-long beasts dined on heavily armored arthropods regularly, cementing their place as the ocean's first apex predators.



-----



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Worms dominated seas before dinosaurs

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">New York is the site of the world's oldest forest.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-385-million-year-old-trees-discovered">385-million-year-old trees discovered</h2>



Scientists have uncovered something extraordinary just two hours north of New York City. The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/worlds-oldest-forest-discovered-close-to-new-york-city/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">world's oldest forest</a>, dating back 385 million years, offers a window into how Earth's first complex forests shaped our planet's atmosphere.



Located near <a href="https://townofcairo.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cairo, New York</a>, in Greene County, these weren't merely primitive plants struggling to survive. These were sophisticated trees with root systems remarkably similar to modern forests. This ancient woodland predates dinosaurs by 140 million years.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-cairo-forest-discovery">The Cairo forest discovery</h2>



385 million years ago, upstate New York was a tropical paradise near the equator. Thanks to continental drift, this ancient forest has traveled thousands of miles to its current location.



The fossil forest sits in an abandoned quarry, roughly half the size of a football field. This represents just a slice of what was likely a massive forest system stretching from New York into Pennsylvania.



Charles Ver Straeten, curator of sedimentary rocks at the <a href="https://www.nysm.nysed.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">New York State Museum</a>, made the discovery in 2009. While scouting the former highway department property, his trained eye spotted wandering patterns in the stone that looked like marine features.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-revolutionary-age-and-preservation">Revolutionary age and preservation</h2>



The site contains 385-million-year-old rocks with fossilized woody roots forming horizontal patterns up to 18 feet (5.5 meters) wide. As Christopher Berry, a paleobotanist at Cardiff University, explains: "You are walking through the roots of ancient trees."



This discovery pushes back advanced tree evolution by millions of years. The research, published in <a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/home" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Current Biology</a> in December 2019, fundamentally changes our understanding of when complex forests first emerged.



Researchers believe a massive flood buried the forest floor, creating perfect fossilization conditions. Over millions of years, sediment hardened into rock, preserving these root patterns like nature's time capsule.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-meet-archaeopteris-the-first-modern-tree">Meet Archaeopteris: the first modern tree</h2>



The star of this ancient forest is Archaeopteris – not to be confused with the feathered dinosaur Archaeopteryx. This tree was far older and more revolutionary.



William Stein from <a href="https://www.binghamton.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Binghamton University</a> describes the roots as "strikingly modern, essentially what you'd see outside in my yard right now." These weren't simple root systems you'd expect from ancient plants.



Some fossilized roots are six inches (15 centimeters) in diameter, forming 36-foot-wide (11-meter) patterns. These giants grew up to 65 feet (20 meters) tall with five-foot-diameter (1.5-meter) trunks.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-changing-impact">Climate-changing impact</h2>



These trees fundamentally changed Earth's environment. Kevin Boyce, a Stanford University geoscientist, explains how their deep roots triggered "weathering," chemical reactions that pulled carbon dioxide from the atmosphere.



This process dropped atmospheric CO2 levels from 10-15 times higher than today to roughly modern concentrations. These ancient trees helped create atmospheric conditions that made complex life possible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ancient-forest-ecosystem">Ancient forest ecosystem</h2>



The forest was remarkably diverse. Scientists identified Eospermatopteris, palm tree-like plants with short roots that reached 30 feet (9 meters) tall but lacked woody structure. The forest also housed cladoxylopsids and a mysterious third species still being studied.



All reproduced through spores rather than seeds – millions of years before seeds evolved. This tropical environment had no grass, flowers, or flying insects, just towering trees creating Earth's first complex forest canopy.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-scientific-significance">Scientific significance</h2>



Before this finding, the Gilboa forest, located 25 miles (40 kilometers) away, held the "oldest forest" title. Cairo's trees are 2-3 million years older, showing that complex forest ecosystems developed much faster than scientists believed possible.



Patricia Gensel, a <a href="https://www.unc.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of North Carolina</a> paleobotanist, notes: "The size of those root systems is really changing the picture. Even 20 years ago, researchers assumed trees with such complex root systems didn't evolve so early."



The Cairo site presents three unique root systems, suggesting Devonian period forests were diverse ecosystems with different trees occupying different environmental niches, much like today's forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-modern-preservation-efforts">Modern preservation efforts</h2>



In 2022, New York State Senator Michelle Hinchey secured a $170,000 grant for the town of Cairo to construct specialized fencing around the fossil forest site. The town plans to conduct a feasibility study exploring the possibility of creating an educational center and working lab on-site.



Joe Hasenkopf, chair of the Cairo Planning Board, hopes to partner with educational institutions to create a research facility serving scientists, students, and the public.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lessons-for-today-s-climate">Lessons for today's climate</h2>



Why does a 385-million-year-old forest matter today? It shows how dramatically forests can change Earth's climate. These ancient woodlands created the atmospheric conditions supporting complex life.



Understanding how prehistoric forests transformed the planet helps us appreciate modern forests' critical role in addressing climate change. Forests remain Earth's most effective carbon capture systems.



These prehistoric trees changed Earth's atmosphere by pulling massive amounts of carbon dioxide from the air. As we face modern climate challenges, this ancient forest reminds us of trees' incredible power to transform our planet's environment.



The next time you walk through a forest, remember you're experiencing an ecosystem whose blueprint was established 385 million years ago in upstate New York. These ancient pioneers didn't just survive – they thrived and changed the world forever.



The full study was published in the journal Current Biology.



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Earth's oldest forest found in the United States

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ New York is the site of the world's oldest...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Acid rain and a crisis solved.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-don-t-we-ever-hear-about-acid-rain-anymore-the-environmental-crisis-that-was-solved">Why don't we ever hear about "acid rain" anymore? The environmental crisis that was solved</h2>



Remember the 1980s when acid rain dominated headlines? Dire warnings about rain eating buildings, killing fish, and destroying forests filled every news cycle. Then, almost like magic, acid rain vanished from public discourse. What happened? Did we actually solve one of the late 20th century's most pressing environmental challenges?



The answer might surprise you. Unlike many environmental issues that drag on indefinitely, acid rain represents one of modern history's most successful ecological recovery stories. It's a tale of science, politics, and technology working together to tackle what seemed impossible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What was acid rain?</h2>



Acid rain isn't regular rain having a bad day – it's precipitation that became significantly more acidic due to air pollution. When power plants, factories, and vehicles burn fossil fuels, they release sulfur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides (NOx) into the atmosphere.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The science behind it</h2>



Think of acid rain as nature's chemistry experiment gone wrong. These compounds react with water, oxygen, and other chemicals to form sulfuric and nitric acids. When mixed with water vapor in clouds, they create precipitation with dangerously low pH levels.



While clean rain has a pH of about 5.6, acid rain could drop as low as 4.2 to 4.4 – roughly as acidic as tomato juice or coffee. According to US Geological Survey documentation, Scottish chemist Angus Smith first coined "acid rain" in 1872, but it didn't become a household phrase until the 1960s and 1970s when Swedish scientist Svante Odén documented its devastating effects on Scandinavian lakes and European forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The crisis at its peak</h2>



During the height of public concern, environmental damage was both widespread and visible. This wasn't some abstract future threat – people could see destruction happening in real-time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Environmental devastation</h2>



The most dramatic impacts were impossible to ignore. Research documented by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation and the New York State Department of Environmental Conservation shows that in the Adirondack Mountains, more than 200 lakes became so acidic they couldn't support fish life. The Adirondack Council reports that 409 lakes once supported brook trout, but many lost their fish populations due to acid rain.



By 1976, when scientists cataloged all acidified lakes in the Adirondack Park, researchers found that half of the lakes over 2,000 feet above sea level had no fish, according to studies published in environmental journals. The acidification process worked like a slow-motion disaster. As acid rain fell into watersheds, it gradually lowered pH levels. Fish couldn't survive in acidic water, and their food sources died off too.



Trees at high elevations showed stress directly linked to acid rain. It weakened them by leaching nutrients and making them susceptible to disease. Historical records show Germany's Black Forest saw nearly half its trees damaged by the mid-1980s.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Economic impact</h2>



Acid rain wasn't just environmental – it was expensive. Acidic precipitation corroded infrastructure, buildings, and monuments. Historic stone structures deteriorated at accelerated rates. Tourism suffered as lakes became fishless and forests declined. EPA economic analyses from the period documented repair costs mounting into billions annually.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The solution: government action and technology</h2>



Transformation from crisis to success required unprecedented cooperation between governments, industries, and environmental groups.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The Clean Air Act of 1990</h2>



The turning point came with the Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990, signed by President George H.W. Bush. This represented a fundamentally new approach to environmental regulation, as documented in EPA historical records.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Cap-and-trade success</h2>



Instead of mandating specific technologies, the 1990 amendments introduced something revolutionary: a cap-and-trade system for sulfur dioxide emissions. EPA program documentation shows this market-based approach set overall limits but allowed companies to trade emission allowances.



The genius was harnessing market forces to find cost-effective pollution reduction. Companies reducing emissions cheaply could sell excess allowances to those facing higher costs. Research published in environmental economics journals and EPA progress reports shows this resulted in dramatic SO2 reduction at a fraction of projected costs.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Technology advances</h2>



Policy provided the framework, but technology made reductions possible. Studies in atmospheric science journals document the widespread adoption of flue gas desulfurization systems ("scrubbers") that removed sulfur dioxide before it reached the atmosphere. By the 2000s, new installations could remove over 95% of SO2 emissions, according to EPA technical reports.



The push coincided with cleaner energy development. Natural gas produces fewer sulfur compounds than coal. Wind and solar, emerging in the 1990s, captured growing market share, reducing reliance on high-sulfur coal.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-we-don-t-hear-about-it-today">Why we don't hear about it today</h2>



Why did acid rain disappear from headlines? Simple: the problem was largely solved.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Success doesn't make news</h2>



There's an old journalism saying: "If it bleeds, it leads." Environmental success stories don't generate urgency like crisis reporting. Media attention shifted to other challenges: climate change, plastic pollution, and biodiversity loss. There's only so much environmental anxiety the public can absorb, and newer concerns replaced acid rain.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Mission accomplished</h2>



The primary reason is beautifully simple: interventions worked. EPA monitoring data shows sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990. Academic research published in environmental science journals confirms pH levels in formerly affected areas returned closer to normal. This represents one of history's most dramatic environmental recoveries. Studies by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation show fishless lakes now support healthy populations. Forests recovered, and building damage slowed dramatically.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-is-it-really-gone">Is it really gone?</h2>



The crisis is largely resolved, but monitoring data shows the problem isn't completely eliminated – it's managed to acceptable levels. Some areas still experience occasional events during high pollution periods. International environmental research indicates that rapidly industrializing Asian countries face similar problems to what we experienced decades ago, though they're implementing successful strategies.



EPA research shows nitrogen oxide emissions proved more challenging than sulfur dioxide, coming from vehicles and mobile sources. Climate science studies suggest changing weather patterns add complexity to how acid rain forms and falls.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What this teaches us</h2>



The acid rain experience proves that seemingly intractable environmental problems can be solved with scientific understanding, political will, and technological innovation. Environmental monitoring data shows recovery speed was remarkable – within a decade, measurable improvements appeared in air quality and ecosystem health.



Success came from bipartisan support across party lines. Policy analysis studies show the market-based approach appealed to those preferring economic incentives while achieving environmental goals. This support created lasting policy surviving political changes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Conclusion</h2>



Acid rain's disappearance from public consciousness represents environmental science's greatest success stories. Through effective regulation, technological innovation, and international cooperation, we transformed an overwhelming crisis into a manageable challenge.



Today's silence isn't because we forgot – it's because we solved it. The 1990 Clean Air Act, combined with technology and energy market changes, reduced acid rain emissions over 90%, according to comprehensive EPA data analysis.



This success offers hope for current challenges. It proves complex problems can be solved when science, policy, and technology work together. As we face climate change and plastic pollution, acid rain reminds us that dramatic positive change is possible.



Next time someone asks whether environmental regulations work, remember acid rain. It's proof that sometimes, we get it right.



<hr class="wp-block-separator has-alpha-channel-opacity"/>



Sources: This article draws from EPA official documentation and progress reports, peer-reviewed research published in environmental and atmospheric science journals, historical data from the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation, New York State Department of Environmental Conservation records, US Geological Survey publications, policy analysis studies, and environmental monitoring data collected over three decades.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Frequently Asked Questions</h2>



1. Is acid rain completely gone? No, but EPA monitoring shows it's reduced to manageable levels. US sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990, making acid rain much less severe than the 1980s crisis.



2. How long did solving take? Environmental monitoring data shows significant improvements began within 5-10 years of 1990s emission controls. Full ecosystem recovery took longer – some areas need 20-30 years for complete recovery.



3. What made the solution successful? Clear scientific understanding, visible damage motivating action, bipartisan support, available technology, and innovative market-based policies like cap-and-trade.



4. Do other countries have acid rain problems? Yes, particularly rapidly industrializing Asian countries. However, international environmental research shows many implement similar successful control strategies.



5. Could acid rain return? Potentially, if regulations weaken or we return to high-sulfur coal without controls, though effects would take years to become severe according to environmental projections.



6. Can you recommend any teaching tools on the subject of "acid rain"? The United States Environmental Protection Agency produced a wonderful teacher's guide for ages 14 and under that you can find on the EPA website here: <a href="https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf</a>



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The environmental problem we actually solved

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk Acid rain and a crisis solved. Why don't we...

Fresh,Radish,Harvest,On,Soil,In,Garden.

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://youtu.be/Fi2OeEwuzRM?si=vTyd2m9FMmtyWkex
</div></figure>







Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving fall garden, and this guide lays out the best vegetables and herbs to plant now for a fruitful autumn harvest. 



Fast-growing leafy greens such as spinach, lettuce, kale, and arugula perform especially well in the waning summer heat, with harvests beginning as soon as 30 days. 



These cool-season crops relish the transition into fall, offering repeated yields with cut-and-come-again methods.



Root vegetables like radishes, carrots, and beets also excel during this period. Radishes deliver satisfaction in under a month, while carrots and beets mature in about two months. Employing succession planting ensures a continuous stream of produce deep into the cooler months. 



For a boost of fresh flavor, herbs like cilantro, basil, dill, and chervil are excellent picks. These heat-loving varieties flourish in July’s warmth and are harvest-ready in about 30 days, especially when sown continuously.



Gardeners in zones 6 through 9 can benefit from planting bush beans and snap peas, which don’t require trellising and are ideal for compact plots. 



Maturing in 50–60 days, they’re a smart choice for quick, protein-rich harvests. For those in hotter regions, heat-tolerant crops such as okra and southern peas provide reliable yields and thrive in scorching conditions.



This guide emphasizes more than crop selection—it highlights the importance of timing, soil preparation, and ongoing sowing techniques. 



With thoughtful planning and attention to regional climate needs, even late-summer gardeners can enjoy fresh salads, hearty stews, and the satisfaction of a robust, homegrown harvest well into fall.



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What to plant in your garden in mid-July

https://youtu.be/Fi2OeEwuzRM?si=vTyd2m9FMmtyWkex Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving...

Green,Ecoduct,Over,An,Empty,Highway,During,Sunset.

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://youtu.be/XYgiPzmNBTU?si=eFYY7gPHU1JznLvU
</div></figure>



A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that wildlife tunnels significantly reduce amphibian road mortality during seasonal migrations. 



Frogs and salamanders often cross roads to reach breeding ponds each spring, but many are killed by vehicles. 



Researchers from the <a href="https://www.uvm.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Vermont</a>, in collaboration with local citizens and the Vermont Agency of Natural Resources, installed two underpass tunnels in 2015. 



Over a 12-year monitoring period, they observed an 80.2% reduction in amphibian deaths, and up to 94% for non-climbing species like salamanders. 



The study used a before-after-control-impact design and documented more than 5,200 amphibians, highlighting the tunnels’ effectiveness even in nearby buffer zones.



Funded at $342,397 - far cheaper than wildlife crossings for large mammals - the project showcased the power of community-led conservation.



Local groups initiated the effort after observing mass amphibian deaths. Wildlife cameras later captured over 2,200 amphibians using a tunnel in just one spring, along with other species like raccoons and bobcats, indicating wider ecosystem benefits.



This marks the first peer-reviewed, long-term data set in the northeastern U.S. confirming amphibian-specific underpasses work. 



The study urges transportation departments to incorporate these designs into road planning and highlights how community action, thoughtful infrastructure, and persistence can make a real difference for biodiversity.



The full study was published in the <a href="https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1617138125000780" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal for Nature Conservation</a>.



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Wildlife tunnels save millions of amphibians

https://youtu.be/XYgiPzmNBTU?si=eFYY7gPHU1JznLvU A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that...

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing it with probiotics and prebiotics, aiming to create a treat that satisfies cravings while supporting gut health. 



The challenge lies in maintaining chocolate's beloved texture and flavor while adding health benefits.



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Probiotics - beneficial microbes that balance gut bacteria and aid digestion - are typically fragile and can be destroyed by stomach acid or processing. 



Prebiotics act as food for these microbes, helping them thrive. Together, they form "synbiotics," a powerful health combination.



Researchers Smriti Gaur and Shubhi Singh from India's Jaypee Institute of Information Technology took an innovative approach, using natural prebiotics like corn and honey instead of complex processing methods. 



They created five chocolate varieties: a control and four synbiotic versions containing different combinations of prebiotics, probiotics (Lactobacillus strains), and flavor enhancers (cinnamon or orange).



Laboratory simulations of human digestion showed the probiotics remained viable for over five hours, suggesting they could survive long enough to benefit gut health.



Taste tests were positive, with researchers particularly enjoying the orange-flavored variety, describing it as having "vibrant citrus notes" complementing the "rich cocoa" with a "luxurious" texture.



This research represents just the beginning. With further refinement of strains, textures, and flavors, chocolate could evolve beyond mere indulgence to become a functional food that nourishes while it delights.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.4c00741" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ACS Food Science &amp; Technology</a>.

Is chocolate the next nutritional powerhouse?

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

[sendtonews key="G9bUoxcjr4-2511624-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

[sendtonews key="LvS8v8bp9z-2564889-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How does salt makes things taste better?

[sendtonews key="X0f6OHYoI4-2310561-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Santiago, Chile in South America

[sendtonews key="JRaP49ISmm-2357509-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.



According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."



Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;



ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. 



Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

[sendtonews key="uV9Lh2fQbV-1760058-12187" type="single"] Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

[sendtonews key="oL4FnPTGCV-2384527-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

[sendtonews key="6HyfrAJTBI-1831843-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

Earth,Like,Exoplanet,3d,Render

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

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