Young aspen trees in Yellowstone are doing something they have not done in almost 100 years. Rather than sprouting and being eaten back to nubs by elk and bison, they're actually growing into tall, adult forest trees rising up towards the canopy.



This matters more than it might seem, because it shows what happens when a missing piece of an ecosystem returns.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-yellowstone-aspens-and-elk">Yellowstone, aspens, and elk</h2>



In the 1920s, people <a href="https://www.yellowstone.org/wolf-project/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">eliminated wolves in Yellowstone</a>. At the time, with limited scientific knowledge, managers believed it was the right thing to do.



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/from-wolves-to-dogs-did-domestication-begin-without-human-help/">Without wolves</a>, elk herds grew very large. Elk love to eat aspen shoots - the tender young growth is highly palatable to them.



For roughly 70 years, elk browsed aspen sprouts down to stub height, and the trees couldn't grow. 



If you had walked through Yellowstone in the 1980s, you would have seen many tiny aspen shoots covering the ground, but almost no young trees gaining height. 



The forest's regeneration was stalled. Old trees died, and no new ones replaced them.



In 1995 and 1996, park managers reintroduced wolves into the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/yellowstone-supervolcano-eruption-study-sparks-new-debate-on-where-and-when-it-will-erupt/">Yellowstone Park ecosystem</a>. Scientists hoped and wondered whether this would change anything for the trees.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-aspen-matter-to-yellowstone">Why aspen matter to Yellowstone</h2>



Aspen groves provide habitat for many species. Birds nest in them. Beavers eat the bark and use the wood for dams. Butterflies and moths lay eggs on the leaves. 



Their canopy admits enough light for wildflowers and shrubs to grow beneath. When it rains, aspen groves hold water in the soil better than some other forest types.



In short, when aspen return, dozens of other species benefit. More trees support more insects, which in turn support more birds, enriching the ecosystem.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-checking-the-trees-three-decades-later">Checking the trees three decades later</h2>



<a href="https://fwcs.oregonstate.edu/users/luke-painter" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Luke Painter</a>, an ecologist at <a href="https://oregonstate.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Oregon State University</a>, sought clear answers. His team returned to 87 aspen stands across Yellowstone that scientists had previously surveyed. 



They measured thousands of young trees, looked for bite marks, and counted how many stems were tall enough that elk could no longer reach the tips.



About a third of these stands now have many tall young aspens pushing toward the canopy. 



"About 26 of the 87 aspen stands we examined had large numbers of tall saplings throughout, a remarkable change from the 1990s when surveys found none at all," Painter said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-wolves-matter-to-yellowstone-aspens">Why wolves matter to Yellowstone aspens</h2>



Breaking it all down, the conclusions of this study are pretty simple. 



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/wolves-move-pups-across-mountains-to-adapt-to-climate-pressure/">Wolves hunt elk</a>. When wolves came back, two things happened. First, elk numbers declined from unusually high levels. Second, elk changed their behavior. They spent less time in the same areas feeding.



With fewer elk and shorter feeding bouts, more aspen shoots survived long enough to exceed the browsing zone - about six to seven feet high. 



Once a sapling reaches that height, elk cannot easily reach the growing tip. The tree continues to grow.



"The reintroduction of large carnivores has initiated a recovery process that had been shut down for decades," Painter explained.



Scientists call this a <a href="https://www.nature.com/scitable/knowledge/library/trophic-cascades-across-diverse-plant-ecosystems-80060347/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">trophic cascade</a> - when adding or removing one species causes changes that ripple through the whole system.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-some-places-recover-others-don-t">Some places recover, others don't</h2>



Unfortunately, not every aspen stand has recovered yet. Some valleys still have many short, heavily browsed shoots, because it's not only elk eating them anymore. 



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/yellowstones-iconic-bison-have-merged-into-a-single-herd/">Bison herds have grown</a>, and bison browse on aspen as well. They are strong enough to break young trees. 



"Increasing numbers of bison may be emerging as a new constraint to aspen in some areas," Painter confirmed.



Additionally, winter snow depth varies; droughts stress trees; bears and mountain lions also hunt elk; and hunting outside the park influences elk distribution. 



All of these factors interact, which is why some sites show strong recovery, others show moderate recovery, and a few have changed very little.



The key pattern is that places with many tall saplings experience little browsing, and aspen groves that remain popular eating grounds today stay short. 



This fact is the strongest indication that tree recovery is linked directly to wolf presence, not solely to weather or soil conditions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-proof-in-the-measurements">Proof in the measurements</h2>



Painter's team did not rely on casual observation. They used the same methods as earlier researchers, measuring the same plots. 



They counted recruitment - when young trees surpass browsing height and begin progressing toward maturity. This measure is crucial. Sprouts are insufficient if they never grow; without recruitment, the forest cannot replace itself.



The results are robust. After being stalled for most of a century, Yellowstone's aspens are increasing in height. In recovering stands today, you will see saplings - six, eight, or ten feet tall - that were not present in the 1990s.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-future-of-yellowstone-s-aspens">The future of Yellowstone's aspens</h2>



"This is a remarkable case of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/giant-viruses-found-in-yellowstones-hot-springs-may-be-near-the-root-of-all-life-on-earth/">ecological restoration</a>," Painter concluded. "Wolf reintroduction is yielding long-term ecological changes contributing to increased biodiversity and habitat diversity."



Trees grow slowly, so even with wolves restored, it will take decades for these young aspens to form a full-grown forest. 



Some areas might never fully recover if bison numbers continue to rise or if the climate becomes too hot and dry.



Thanks to the work of Painter and his team, scientists are now certain that restoring the Yellowstone predator has restarted aspen forest regeneration. Not everywhere and not perfectly, but enough to be measured, creating hope for the future.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0378112725004499?via%3Dihub" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Forest Ecology and Management</a>.



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Yellowstone's aspen trees are growing again thanks to the reintroduction of wolves

Young aspen trees in Yellowstone are doing something they have not done in almost 100 years. Rather than sprouting and being eaten back to nubs by elk and bison, they're actually growing into tall, adult forest trees rising up towards the canopy. This matters more than it might seem, because it shows what happens when a missing piece of an ecosystem returns. Yellowstone, aspens, and elk In the 1920s, people eliminated wolves in Yellowstone. At the time, with limited scientific knowledge, managers believed it was the right...

Heatwaves aren’t just a seasonal inconvenience anymore. They’re longer, hotter, and deadlier than ever before. Millions feel their effects, from power outages to hospital visits. 



But beyond the obvious effects of extreme heat - dehydration, heat stroke, and exhaustion - there’s something more insidious happening beneath the surface:&nbsp;accelerated aging.



A new study from the <a href="https://gero.usc.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">USC Leonard Davis School of Gerontology</a> suggests extreme heat may be speeding up the aging process at the biological level.



It is well documented that extreme temperatures can strain the body, but now, there’s growing evidence that prolonged heat exposure might make people age faster. If true, climate change isn’t just a crisis of weather - it’s a crisis of time itself.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-heat-changes-the-aging-process">How heat changes the aging process</h2>



Aging isn’t just about counting birthdays. A person’s chronological age tells one story, but their biological age? That’s the real measure of health. 



Biological age reflects how well cells, tissues, and organs function. When it’s higher than chronological age, disease risks increase, and life expectancy drops.



Jennifer Ailshire, senior author of the study, explained that people living in hotter regions tend to experience faster biological aging than those in cooler areas. Scientists have suspected heat plays a role in declining health, but its direct link to aging has been unclear.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-link-between-heat-and-aging">Link between heat and aging</h2>



To investigate, the researchers examined data from over 3,600 individuals aged 56 and older, all participants in the Health and Retirement Study.



Over a six-year span, scientists collected blood samples, analyzing them for epigenetic changes - chemical modifications that influence how genes behave. One major process in this field is DNA methylation, which can switch genes on or off without altering the genetic code itself.



Study co-author Eunyoung Choi noted that the team used epigenetic clocks to monitor these molecular shifts. These clocks detect methylation patterns and estimate biological age.



The researchers then compared biological <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/organ-aging-can-predict-diseases-decades-in-advance/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">aging rates</a> with historical heat index data from 2010 to 2016, uncovering a strong correlation.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-counts-as-extreme-heat">What counts as "extreme heat"?</h2>



The National Weather Service defines extreme heat using the heat index - a combination of temperature and humidity.



Extreme heat is broken down into three categories. The "Caution" level ranges from 80°F to 90°F. The "Extreme Caution" category spans 90°F to 103°F. The most dangerous level, simply called "Danger," starts at 103°F and goes up to 124°F.



This study included all three levels, examining how frequent exposure to each affected <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-discover-a-protein-that-reverses-cellular-aging/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">biological age</a>. More days of extreme heat meant faster aging at a cellular level. 



The pattern remained strong even after adjusting for lifestyle choices, income, and other demographic factors.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-heat-exposure-alters-aging">Heat exposure alters aging</h2>



Where a person lives plays a crucial role in how heat impacts them. Some regions endure long stretches of brutal temperatures, and the effect on residents' <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ai-can-detect-if-your-brain-is-aging-too-quickly/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">biological aging</a> is staggering.



"Participants living in areas where heat days, as defined as Extreme Caution or higher levels (≥90°F), occur half the year, such as Phoenix, Arizona, experienced up to 14 months of additional biological aging compared to those living in areas with fewer than 10 heat days per year," Choi said. 



"Even after controlling for several factors, we found this association. Just because you live in an area with more heat days, you're aging faster biologically."



To confirm their findings, the researchers used three different epigenetic clocks - PCPhenoAge, PCGrimAge, and DunedinPACE. 



All pointed to the same conclusion: heat exposure accelerated aging over one to six years. PCPhenoAge even detected changes within weeks or months.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-older-adults-have-a-greater-risk">Older adults have a greater risk</h2>



Ailshire emphasized that older adults face even higher risks. The study factored in the heat index instead of just air temperature, which proved critical. Humidity can worsen heat’s effects by making it harder for sweat to evaporate, leaving the body struggling to cool down.



"It's really about the combination of heat and humidity, particularly for older adults, because older adults don't sweat the same way. We start to lose our ability to have the skin-cooling effect that comes from that evaporation of sweat," said Ailshire.



"If you’re in a high humidity place, you don’t get as much of that cooling effect. You have to look at your area’s temperature and your humidity to really understand what your risk might be."



Since older adults sweat less, they are more prone to heat exhaustion and heatstroke. Prolonged exposure to extreme temperatures may also compromise immune function, increasing vulnerability to illness.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-research-directions">Future research directions </h2>



The study raises new questions about how heat reshapes health over time. Scientists aim to pinpoint additional factors that increase vulnerability to heat-driven aging. 



They also want to explore whether this accelerated aging process is reversible - or if it permanently alters long-term health outcomes.



Beyond research, the findings signal a need for immediate action. Cities and policymakers may need to rethink urban infrastructure. More shaded walkways, cooling stations, and heat-resistant building designs could become necessities, not luxuries.



Ailshire believes that ignoring the issue is not an option. "If everywhere is getting warmer and the population is aging, and these people are vulnerable, then we need to get really a lot smarter about these mitigation strategies."



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/sciadv.adr0616" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Science Advances</a>.



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Extreme heat can accelerate aging at a cellular level

Heatwaves aren’t just a seasonal inconvenience anymore. They’re longer, hotter,...

Scientists have uncovered a type of sideways motion in bubbles that hints at surprising ways to control <a href="https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/journal-of-fluid-mechanics" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">fluids</a>.



In a recent study, researchers have demonstrated that a simple vertical shake can push these pockets of air horizontally. The study was led by Pedro Sáenz, principal investigator and professor of applied mathematics at <a href="https://math.unc.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">UNC-Chapel Hill</a>.



The unexpected behavior of bubbles may open fresh possibilities for practical uses in electronics and other fields.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-unexpected-movement-of-bubbles">Unexpected movement of bubbles</h2>



"Here we introduce bubbles that spontaneously start to ‘gallop’ along horizontal surfaces inside a vertically-vibrated fluid chamber, self-propelled by a resonant interaction between their shape oscillation modes," wrote the researchers.



Vertical vibrations somehow trigger steady sideways motion in bubbles, even though it defies common physics instincts that expect up-and-down movement only.



“Our research not only answers a fundamental scientific question but also inspires curiosity and exploration of the fascinating, unseen world of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ai-being-tested-to-prevent-stalls-and-reduce-air-turbulence-for-smoother-flights/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">fluid</a> motion. After all, the smallest things can sometimes lead to the biggest changes,” said Professor Sáenz.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-new-approach-to-controlling-bubbles">New approach to controlling bubbles</h2>



The shapes of these energetic bubbles can change by shifting the frequency and intensity of the vertical shaking. Adjusting those conditions can make them move in a straight line, spin in a circle, or scramble around in a zigzag pattern similar to the random search used by microbes.



Study co-author Connor Magoon is a graduate student in mathematics at UNC-Chapel Hill.



“This discovery transforms our understanding of bubble <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earths-missing-elements-were-lost-in-violent-collisions-during-formation/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dynamics</a>, which is usually unpredictable, into a controlled and versatile phenomenon with far-reaching applications in heat transfer, microfluidics, and other technologies,” explained Magoon.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-potential-use-in-microgravity">Potential use in microgravity</h2>



Space-based electronics can overheat if air pockets linger on heated surfaces without buoyancy to lift them away. According to NASA, <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/centers/glenn/shuttlestation/station/microgex.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">microgravity</a> means the force of gravity is nearly undetectable, which can hinder heat removal.



The new galloping behavior offers an alternative that doesn’t rely on gravity. By simply shaking the liquid in satellites or space experiments, these agile bubbles can be coaxed to move off critical spots.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cleaner-surfaces-and-fresh-possibilities">Cleaner surfaces and fresh possibilities</h2>



When bubbles were tested on dusty surfaces, their bouncing and sidestepping cleared grime in proof-of-concept demonstrations. This approach may pave the way for new strategies in industrial cleaning or even targeted drug delivery, where controlling bubble paths is key.



Saiful Tamim is a joint author of the study and a postdoctoral research assistant at UNC-Chapel Hill.&nbsp;



“The newly discovered self-propulsion mechanism allows bubbles to travel distances and gives them an unprecedented capacity to navigate intricate <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/from-rain-to-saturns-rings-new-equations-push-the-boundaries-of-fluid-dynamics/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">fluid</a> networks. This could offer solutions to long-standing challenges in heat transfer, surface cleaning, and even inspire new soft robotic systems,” said Tamim.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-complex-behavior-of-bubbles">Complex behavior of bubbles</h2>



The American Physical Society acknowledged this fascinating bubble motion by <a href="https://gfm.aps.org/meetings/dfd-2024/673e5f58d88f375e670eb4e2" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">featuring the work</a> in its Gallery of Fluid Motion, a showcase of captivating and insightful fluid flow videos. 



This recognition from top experts highlights the increasing interest in leveraging the bubble phenomenon for practical applications.



Study co-author Jian Hui Guan is a postdoctoral research assistant at UNC-Chapel Hill.



“It’s fascinating to see something as simple as a bubble reveal such complex and surprising behavior," said Hui Guan. "By harnessing a new method to move bubbles, we’ve unlocked possibilities for innovation in fields ranging from microfluidics to heat transfer." 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-vibrating-bubbles-may-change-future-tech">Vibrating bubbles may change future tech</h2>



<a href="https://shop.elsevier.com/books/leonardo-da-vincis-elements-of-the-science-of-man/keele/978-0-12-403980-3" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Leonardo da Vinci</a> made early notes about odd twists in how air pockets glide through water. Now, modern researchers have taken an additional stride by showing that shaking alone can be an effective steering tool.



"Bubbles often appear to have a life of their own. Da Vinci was a pioneer in documenting their capricious behavior, observing how rising bubbles spontaneously abandon straight paths for mesmerizing helices - a paradox that has persisted for centuries," noted the study authors.



As technology advances, tapping into galloping bubbles may shape new approaches to cooling systems, flexible robotic designs, and even space exploration.



"Given the multifaceted physics of bubbles, harnessing their dynamics may be challenging but holds significant potential rewards," said the researchers.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-025-56611-5" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Communications</a>.



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Bubbles don’t just rise - they can 'gallop' sideways

Scientists have uncovered a type of sideways motion in bubbles...

For years, exoplanets have captured our imagination. When one of these distant worlds exhibits unusual wind and weather patterns, scientists pay close attention.



<a href="https://science.nasa.gov/exoplanet-catalog/wasp-121-b/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">WASP-121b</a> is one such world, identified as an ultra-hot Jupiter due to its intensely heated environment.



In a recent study, astronomers mapped the exoplanet’s winds and chemical elements in three dimensions. The research was led by Dr. Julia Victoria Seidel at the <a href="https://www.eso.org/public/about-eso/esoglance/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">European Southern Observatory</a> in Chile.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-exoplanet-with-a-fierce-wind-pattern">Exoplanet with a fierce wind pattern</h2>



WASP-121b is about 900 light years from Earth, but that distance did not deter the <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-025-08664-1" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">researchers</a>. They used innovative spectroscopic tools to analyze shifting gases, and provide a fresh perspective on atmospheric motion.



One of the most intriguing details is the presence of iron in different layers. A fierce wind pattern hauls the element across the planet, creating distinct <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/alien-weather-exoplanet-wasp-121-b-has-a-dynamic-atmosphere/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">weather zones</a>.



This kind of multi-layered wind has rarely been seen before around an <a href="https://science.nasa.gov/exoplanets/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">exoplanet</a>. According to the researchers, the atmosphere is "wild and challenging" to explain using standard models.



It is rare to obtain a 3D map of a planet’s weather, especially one that is orbiting so close to its star. This arrangement means the daylight side could reach blistering temperatures, while the night side remains far cooler.



Scientists wonder if such extreme temperature contrasts might fuel the planet’s unusual wind speeds. They hope further observations will clarify how energy is distributed in this bizarre <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/first-3d-view-of-an-exoplanet-atmosphere-reveals-chaotic-alien-weather/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">environment</a>.



Debates continue over whether powerful winds might also trigger the formation of clouds in certain regions. If so, these clouds could shield some chemicals from external detection.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-probing-the-exoplanet-s-atmosphere">Probing the exoplanet’s atmosphere</h2>



The Very Large Telescope (<a href="https://www.eso.org/public/teles-instr/paranal-observatory/vlt/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">VLT</a>) in Chile contributed crucial insights by letting scientists combine data from four independent modules. This amplified the signal, enabling the detection of fainter atmospheric details.



“The VLT enabled us to probe three different layers of the exoplanet’s atmosphere in one fell swoop,” noted study co-author Dr. Leonardo dos Santos from the <a href="https://www.stsci.edu/home" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Space Telescope Science Institute</a>. The team observed how elements shift position in various vertical slices, giving them a step-by-step look at the planet’s climate.



Combining telescope units is no small feat. Each one must synchronize precisely, or the collected data lose resolution.



Astronomers have embraced these multi-instrument techniques to push the limits of observation. Some exoplanet <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/first-3d-view-of-an-exoplanet-atmosphere-reveals-chaotic-alien-weather/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">signals</a> are barely detectable above background noise, so every photon counts.



This method has already sparked interest among observers seeking to examine more distant planets. Many hope it will evolve into a standard approach for characterizing atmospheric layers.



The researchers also took advantage of the <a href="https://www.eso.org/sci/facilities/paranal/instruments/espresso.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ESPRESSO instrument</a>, which was designed to measure tiny shifts in starlight. This precision helped the experts pinpoint how fast each gas was moving across various altitudes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-exoplanet-winds-and-hidden-metals">Exoplanet winds and hidden metals </h2>



Another compelling piece of the puzzle is titanium. <a href="https://www.aanda.org/articles/aa/full_html/2025/02/aa52405-24/aa52405-24.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Scientists</a> identified it just below a swift jet stream, even though earlier studies suggested its absence.



This discovery came alongside a clue that elements might circulate differently at specific altitudes. The unusual distribution indicates that certain chemicals remain hidden until advanced instruments expose them.



“It’s truly mind-blowing that we’re able to study details like the chemical makeup and weather patterns of a planet at such a vast distance,” said Bibiana Prinoth, a PhD student at <a href="https://www.lunduniversity.lu.se" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Lund University</a> and ESO.



The unexpected titanium detection also raises questions about how quickly the jet stream mixes material from different latitudes.



Titanium was once assumed to be locked in lower atmospheric layers where temperatures drop. The new detection suggests that powerful winds could loft heavier elements upward if the conditions are right.



Future surveys might reveal more metals behaving in unexpected ways. Such discoveries could reshape assumptions about temperature gradients and chemical mixing in extreme gas giants.



Tracking heavier elements can reveal whether the planet’s magnetic field plays a part. Some scientists think charged metals might migrate differently under strong magnetic influences.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-new-insight-into-atmospheric-circulation">New insight into atmospheric circulation </h2>



These results lay the groundwork for studying other alien climates. Researchers plan to push the limits with next-generation telescopes that offer even sharper views.



Instruments like <a href="https://elt.eso.org/instrument/ANDES/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ANDES</a> and ESO’s future <a href="https://elt.eso.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Extremely Large Telescope</a> could reveal smaller molecules in thinner atmospheres - a capability that might eventually help pinpoint truly habitable worlds.



Understanding these features may also help refine estimates of how planets form. Each discovery adds context to how gas giants take shape around distant stars.



Ground-based facilities have proven effective in capturing fine details. Large apertures and new detector technology will expand possibilities for future high-precision <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/exoplanet-kmt-2020-blg-0414-reveals-fate-of-earth-eight-billion-years-from-now/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">observations</a>.



Scientists anticipate that improved data quality will bridge the gap between theoretical models and actual measurements. They believe more robust simulations will emerge once these advanced telescopes come online.



This unusual exoplanet challenges traditional views of atmospheric circulation. Experts suspect that the interplay between fierce winds, temperature extremes, and unexpected chemical layers will shape new models of planetary <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/six-planet-system-hd110067-discovered-that-moves-in-perfect-mathematical-harmony/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">weather</a>.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-025-08664-1" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature</a>.



Image Credit:&nbsp;NASA/ESA/G. Bacon (STScI)/N. Madhusudhan (UC)



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Raging winds and hidden metals: The wild weather of a distant exoplanet

For years, exoplanets have captured our imagination. When one of...

Giraffes are well-known for their towering height, which lets them munch on leaves from tall trees with ease. For a long time, experts assumed their unique diets shaped the communities of bacteria in their intestines.



But now, researchers have discovered something different. They found that the type of <a href="https://www.genome.gov/genetics-glossary/Microbiome" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">microbiome</a> is more closely tied to the giraffe’s <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/giraffes-hate-slopes-and-its-threatening-their-survival/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">species</a> than to the specific plants it consumes.



“We expected that giraffes with similar diets would also have similar microbiomes, but we found no such connection. Instead, we saw that giraffes seem to maintain species-specific microbiomes,” said Elin Videvall from <a href="https://www.uu.se/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Uppsala University</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-studying-giraffe-diets">Studying giraffe diets</h2>



In a joint effort with researchers from Brown University, the <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2351989425000812" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">team</a> compared samples from reticulated, Masai, and northern giraffes in Kenya. By analyzing DNA traces of plants in droppings, they got a snapshot of which vegetation each individual had eaten.



Similar <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/srep14567" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">approaches</a> have been used in other ruminants to see how gut bacteria adjust based on different foraging behavior. However, these giraffes turned out to challenge the typical assumption that diet directly shapes the bacterial makeup in the digestive tract.



The giraffes showed wide variation in the plants they had consumed. Despite this variety, their gut bacterial communities stayed linked to their respective <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/giraffes-are-suffering-a-silent-extinction-and-need-more-protection/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">species</a>.



Scientists suggest there might be a genetic or evolutionary explanation behind this pattern. It raises questions about how each species manages to keep its own microbial signature, even under different local conditions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-vital-role-of-gut-microbes">The vital role of gut microbes</h2>



The <a href="https://www.cambridge.org/us/universitypress/subjects/life-sciences/animal-behaviour/giraffe-biology-behaviour-and-conservation?format=HB&amp;isbn=9781107034860" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ruminant digestive</a> system depends on bacteria to break down tough fibers and release nutrients from plant cells. Giraffes belong to this group, and their gut microbes helps them thrive on foliage.



Variation in these microorganisms can influence a giraffe’s health in surprising ways. They might affect anything from metabolism to disease resistance.



All three species involved in the <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2351989425000812" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">study</a> are endangered. Identifying their diet preferences can guide wildlife managers in preserving vital plant species for giraffe forage.



Protecting feeding grounds that hold the right foliage will help to maintain stable populations of these threatened species. Knowledge of their dietary patterns could also shape decisions on habitat restoration.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-giraffe-diets-are-adaptable">Giraffe diets are adaptable</h2>



The scientists noted that each giraffe <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/giraffes-gained-their-long-necks-for-food-not-sex/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">species</a> adapts to the resources available in its territory. This adaptation means two groups of the same species can end up eating quite different plants.



Geographical factors like rainfall patterns and soil composition influence the vegetation. Those factors, in turn, affect the daily diet of these tall browsers.



Many people assume that giraffes are just one species with a few variations, but that’s not the case. Each <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0960982216307874">group</a> has its own traits, including distinct coat patterns.



These differences apparently go deeper than appearances. Their gut microbiomes also seems to diverge in ways that reflect evolutionary paths rather than dietary patterns.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-new-insight-into-giraffe-diets">New insight into giraffe diets</h2>



This research has practical benefits for wildlife caretakers. If a sick or rescued giraffe needs a diet plan, understanding species-specific gut bacteria may help.



Efforts that keep giraffes in reserves or sanctuaries may rely on more targeted feeding. That could reduce digestive problems and raise survival rates for those under human care.



“We began this study as an international collaboration between academics and conservation professionals. We hope our research can provide better insight into giraffe diets and help support the conservation of giraffes,” said Tyler Kartzinel from Brown University.



Working together across different institutions can push research forward. It also aligns resources so that threatened animals can get the help they need when it matters most.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-research-directions">Future research directions</h2>



Scientists continue to explore how environment and genetics influence the microbiome in other large herbivores. This knowledge could apply to related <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/world-giraffe-day-2024-a-towering-celebration-of-the-gentle-giants/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">species</a> that face similar challenges in the wild.



There is also an interest in harnessing gut bacteria to support reintroduction programs. If certain microbes enhance survival, that might be a tool for future conservation efforts.



Giraffes remain a treasured part of the African landscape, and preserving them involves more than just fences and guard patrols. It requires understanding how their bodies function at every level.



This study highlights that a giraffe’s inner workings may not follow the rules we see in other animals. Figuring out what drives this pattern is a puzzle researchers plan to keep investigating.



The study is published in <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2351989425000812" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Global Ecology and Conservation</a>.



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Giraffes have gut bacteria that are unaffected by their diet

Giraffes are well-known for their towering height, which lets them...

Studies have explored the paradox of chasing happiness for more than a decade, showing that focusing too hard on being happy can leave people feeling deflated.



Researchers are now offering an explanation that is rooted in mental fatigue. A study led by Professor Sam Maglio from the <a href="https://www.utsc.utoronto.ca/home/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Toronto Scarborough</a> sheds new light on why our <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/overall-people-feel-better-about-life-in-the-morning/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">attempts at happiness</a> can zap our willpower.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-forcing-happiness-drains-your-energy">Forcing happiness drains your energy</h2>



The paradox highlights how actively striving for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/who-is-happier-being-single-men-or-women/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">joy</a> can bring about the opposite result. People imagine that more happiness means fewer problems, yet forcing a cheerful outlook can become mentally draining.



This mental drain saps the self-control needed to stick with good habits. It also increases the chances of giving in to temptations that chip away at well-being.



Constantly watching emotional ups and downs puts the spotlight on every dip in mood. This extra attention can turn small challenges into major concerns.



The additional layer of willpower required for staying upbeat can feel like juggling too many tasks at once. When these resources run low, it’s easy to slip into choices that feel good in the moment but hurt overall happiness.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-chasing-happiness-weakens-self-control">Chasing happiness weakens self-control</h2>



<a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/39887923/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Evidence</a> from hundreds of participants suggests that trying to boost happiness demands serious mental energy. One test used a subtle “happiness” prompt and then measured how often people indulged in a tasty treat.



The group exposed to that cue ate more of the snack than those who weren’t prompted. This pattern suggested their self-regulation took a hit when happiness became the priority.



Chasing a pleasant emotional state can mean ignoring other tasks that require discipline. Instead of focusing on daily responsibilities, some individuals get stuck in a cycle of searching for a constant high.



This tug-of-war of chasing happiness drains mental resources needed for balanced decisions. Over time, it leads to more frustration when things don’t go as expected.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-happiness-as-a-resource-hog">Happiness as a resource hog</h2>



Describing happiness like an unlimited commodity puts pressure on people to acquire it at any cost. When that pursuit gets tangled with personal identity, it can feel like failure if every day isn’t brimming with delight.



Emotional energy isn’t bottomless. Prioritizing joy at all times means less brainpower for resisting impulses, solving problems, or managing stress.



“Just chill. Don't try to be super happy all the time,” said Maglio, who co-authored the research with Aekyoung Kim of the University of Sydney. 



Professor Maglio emphasized the need to accept the good moments that come naturally without forcing them.



The research, supported by the <a href="https://www.sshrc-crsh.gc.ca/home-accueil-eng.aspx" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council of Canada</a>, adds another layer to the growing evidence that happiness is tricky to micromanage. Instead of viewing it as something to stockpile, the experts suggest a more balanced outlook.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-daily-life-implications">Daily life implications </h2>



Tuning in to what sparks genuine contentment often works better than hyper-focusing on each wave of emotion. Small pleasures, meaningful relationships, and mindful relaxation can boost mental health without draining your coping skills.



Allowing yourself to have ups and downs can make those bright moments feel more authentic. Avoiding a relentless hunt for positive feelings keeps self-control stronger when temptations pop up.



A little acceptance can go a long way. <a href="https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC3160511/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Studies</a> show that being kind to yourself increases resilience, even if the day doesn’t look perfect.



People who let happiness unfold naturally often conserve enough mental power to pursue long-term goals. This steady approach pays off when unexpected challenges arise.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-to-stop-chasing-happiness">How to stop chasing happiness </h2>



Everyday <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/judging-your-happiness-makes-you-less-happy/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">contentment</a> can involve enjoying simple routines, embracing supportive friends, and celebrating small wins. Searching for a blissful state at every turn might only wear you down.



Choosing meaningful activities over chasing happiness with a forced grin can strengthen self-regulation. Feeling relaxed about happiness helps you avoid falling into a mental trap.



Taking breaks from the push to be happier may free up vital energy. Stepping back lowers the emotional workload and supports a clearer perspective.



Learning to recognize that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/can-a-four-day-work-week-boost-happiness-and-productivity/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">happiness</a> can’t always be willed into existence may reduce stress. Accepting occasional low moods might improve your capacity to handle daily tasks.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-accepting-ups-and-downs">Accepting ups and downs </h2>



Letting go of the idea that chasing happiness means constant joy allows room for natural mood shifts. When self-control remains intact, it’s easier to resist quick fixes that undermine well-being.



People who avoid linking their worth to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/happiness-influences-online-shopping-habits/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">constant cheer</a> might find simpler ways to stay balanced. They may enjoy everyday experiences more when they stop policing every moment for perfection.



Ultimately, the research suggests that striving too hard for happiness can deplete the energy needed for maintaining healthy habits, leading to greater dissatisfaction over time.



Letting go of rigid expectations may help preserve emotional resources and promote a deeper sense of contentment.



The study is published in <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/aphw.70000" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Applied Psychology: Health and Well-Being</a>.



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Why chasing happiness makes you feel worse

Studies have explored the paradox of chasing happiness for more...

Giant pandas are full of contradictions. Their distinctive black-and-white fur makes them instantly recognizable, yet it's their diet that puzzles scientists the most. Despite having a digestive system adapted for meat, they survive almost entirely on bamboo.



For most animals, diet follows anatomy. Herbivores have complex stomachs to break down plant fibers, while carnivores have short, simple intestines for digesting protein-rich meat. 



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/national-panda-day-recognizing-the-beauty-and-fragility-of-wildlife/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Pandas</a>, though, seem to defy this rule. Their guts resemble those of meat-eaters, yet they munch on bamboo for hours every day.



How do they pull this off? Over time, they’ve developed physical features - pseudo thumbs for gripping stalks, flat molars for crushing tough fibers. But physical traits alone don’t explain how they extract enough nutrition from such a limited diet.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-can-genes-adapt-to-diet">Can genes adapt to diet?</h2>



Every living thing runs on genetic instructions. DNA stores the blueprint, while RNA carries out the tasks. Among the many types of RNA, one stands out in this case: microRNA (miRNA). Tiny but powerful, microRNA is capable of controlling which genes get activated.



Scientists recently made a startling discovery - miRNA from plants can enter <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/animals-secretly-reshape-landscapes-in-powerful-ways/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">animals</a>’ bodies through food. 



This raises an intriguing question: Could bamboo-derived miRNA influence giant pandas at the genetic level? If so, their diet might be reshaping their biology in ways no one had expected.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-bamboo-s-influence-on-pandas">Bamboo’s influence on pandas</h2>



A team of Chinese researchers set out to investigate whether plant miRNA from bamboo makes its way into pandas’ blood and affects their genes.



“We showed that plant-derived miRNAs are present in the blood of giant pandas. Our study proved that bamboo used as food for giant pandas does affect the change of giant pandas’ feeding habits," said Dr. Feng Li of <a href="https://www.cwnu.edu.cn" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">China West Normal University</a>.



This suggests something incredible - <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ancestors-of-giant-pandas-had-a-completely-different-diet/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">pandas</a> aren’t just physically adapted to eating bamboo. Their genes might be changing in response to their diet.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-bamboo-alters-panda-biology">How bamboo alters panda biology</h2>



The researchers didn’t just speculate. They took blood samples from seven pandas - three adult females, three adult males, and one young female. 



When the experts analyzed the samples, they found 57 different miRNAs that likely came from bamboo.



“MiRNA in bamboo can enter giant pandas’ bodies through diet, be absorbed by the intestine, enter the blood circulation, and then regulate when the giant panda’s RNA transfers information, thus playing a role in regulating the gene expression of giant pandas,” explained Dr. Li.



This means that plant-derived miRNAs don’t just float around uselessly in the bloodstream. They take part in critical biological processes - growth, metabolism, immune response. More than that, they seem to influence how pandas experience food itself.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-regulation-of-taste-and-smell">Regulation of taste and smell</h2>



For pandas, taste and smell are essential. Their diet consists of a single food source, so choosing the right bamboo - nutrient-rich, fresh, and safe to eat - is a matter of survival. It turns out miRNA may be helping with that, too.



“MiRNA in bamboo is also involved in the regulation of smell, taste, and dopamine pathways of giant pandas, all of which are related to their feeding habits,” said Dr. Li.



As pandas eat more bamboo, certain miRNAs build up in their system. Over time, these molecules fine-tune their ability to detect the best bamboo - perhaps even making them crave it. 



This could explain how pandas, despite being genetically wired for a carnivorous diet, have fully embraced their bamboo-based lifestyle.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-not-all-pandas-are-affected-equally">Not all pandas are affected equally</h2>



One of the most intriguing aspects of this study? The differences between <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/meet-melita-panda-the-black-and-white-crustacean-shrimp/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">pandas</a>. 



The researchers found that miRNA levels varied depending on the panda’s age and sex. Some miRNAs, particularly those involved in reproduction, were only present in certain groups.



“Only miRNAs that can specifically play a role in regulating gene expression can remain in the body, and those that do not play a role will be expelled,” noted Dr. Li.



This suggests that miRNA doesn’t affect every panda in the same way. Some molecules influence feeding habits, while others may shape reproductive health or immune function. 



The idea that diet-derived miRNA could have such wide-ranging effects is opening up new possibilities for research.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-could-this-change-animal-science">Could this change animal science?</h2>



If bamboo miRNA affects the genes of pandas, could other plants influence other species? Could certain foods help regulate immune responses, metabolism, or even disease resistance in animals?



“Plant miRNAs may also participate in regulating the animal immune system, enhancing animals’ disease resistance,” said Dr. Li.



If scientists can understand how plant-derived miRNA works, they might develop better diets for endangered animals - or even improve human nutrition. Imagine eating food not just for calories and vitamins, but for its ability to directly influence genetic expression.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-research-on-pandas-and-bamboo">Future research on pandas and bamboo</h2>



There’s still so much left to learn. Scientists need larger studies, more samples, and deeper genetic analysis to fully confirm the role of plant miRNA in pandas. Right now, the evidence is compelling, but not conclusive.



“The giant panda is a very precious national treasure in our country, and blood samples are not easy to get. If possible, we hope to collect blood samples of young pandas who have not yet eaten bamboo for research, and perhaps get more surprising results," concluded Dr. Li.



This research hints at a new frontier in biology - where diet doesn’t just influence health but actively shapes genetic expression. The story of pandas and bamboo is still unfolding, and it may be just the beginning of a much bigger scientific breakthrough.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/veterinary-science/articles/10.3389/fvets.2025.1509698/full" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Frontiers in Veterinary Science</a>.



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Giant pandas' taste for bamboo is literally written in their genes

Giant pandas are full of contradictions. Their distinctive black-and-white fur...

At first glance, giant glacier ice sheets may seem like immovable barriers. In reality, these colossal formations have quietly shaped the face of our planet through massive floods.



New findings reveal the surprising extent of their power in sculpting landscapes. This sets the stage for how <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/earth-and-planetary-sciences/neoproterozoic-era" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Neoproterozoic</a> conditions might have sparked shifts in ocean chemistry.



The study, led by Professor Chris Kirkland from Curtin University’s Frontier Institute for Geoscience Solutions, explains the link between melting ice and mineral release. 



Professor Kirkland and his colleagues observed that as <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/melting-glaciers-threaten-global-water-security/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">glacial</a> erosion scoured deeper layers of rock, key elements found their way into ancient oceans.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-glacier-floods-reshaped-earth-s-surface">Glacier floods reshaped Earth’s surface</h2>



<a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.281.5381.1342" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Scientists</a> once believed <a href="https://www.astronomy.com/science/snowball-earth-the-times-our-planet-was-covered-in-ice/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Snowball Earth</a> events occurred when ice covered much of the planet’s surface, reducing normal weathering. Fresh data suggests glaciers may have done more than merely blanket continents.



One recent <a href="https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.2014378117?utm_source=chatgpt.com" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">analysis</a> showed how subglacial grinding exposed buried minerals, including uranium. This brought about new avenues for chemical reactions in Earth’s early seas.



During these ancient <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/glacier-melting-threatens-global-water-supplies-and-coastal-communities/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">meltdown periods</a>, floods released dissolved metals that altered marine environments. This shift gave evolving life forms new resources for metabolic processes.



When the ice receded, nutrient levels surged, and ocean conditions changed. Many researchers suggest that these transformations opened the door for more complex organisms to emerge.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-glaciers-impact-on-ancient-floods">Glaciers' impact on ancient floods</h2>



To test these ideas, the team analyzed <a href="https://pubs.geoscienceworld.org/gsw/lithosphere/article/3/4/304/145596/Detrital-zircon-geochronology-and-sedimentary" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">detrital zircon</a> grains found in certain rock layers. These zircon crystals recorded a jump in older sedimentary input at glaciogenic boundaries.



Evidence points to a spike in uranium content during peak erosion. This suggests that glacial movement dramatically influenced how radioactive minerals cycled through marine systems.



“This research is a stark reminder that while Earth itself will endure, the conditions that make it habitable can change dramatically. These ancient climate shifts demonstrate that environmental changes, whether natural or human-driven, have profound and lasting impacts,” said Professor Kirkland. 



As massive ice sheets melted, they unleashed vast floods that carried minerals and chemical elements, including uranium, into the oceans. This surge of materials altered ocean chemistry during a period when more complex life was beginning to emerge.



Ancient floods may have rearranged entire ecosystems across continents. Experts point out that similar environmental upheavals occurred at various points in Earth’s history. Recognizing them helps experts build more accurate models for our future climate.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-modern-implications-of-the-research">Modern implications of the research</h2>



Changes happening today might shift habitats in unpredictable ways. Many scientists emphasize the importance of learning from these events to plan sustainable strategies.



<a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-020-20627-w?utm_source=chatgpt.com" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Researchers</a> see parallels between ancient glacial retreats and modern-day ice loss in places like Greenland. When massive ice bodies shrink, large volumes of minerals and metals enter the oceans.



Experts believe that understanding these drastic shifts can help us anticipate possible consequences of current global warming. Various teams are now investigating how nutrient cycles might respond to rising temperatures.



“Understanding these past events can help us better predict how today’s climate changes might reshape our world,” said Professor Kirkland. Such insights continue to shape environmental science and guide long-term decision-making.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-earth-s-interconnected-systems">Earth’s interconnected systems</h2>



The concept of tight links between land, sea, and atmosphere is a recurring theme in geology. A subtle change in one sphere can trigger unexpected responses in another.



<a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/nature17145" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">High-latitude ice coverage</a> once spanned hundreds of miles, drastically reducing temperatures worldwide. Experts attribute subsequent sea-level rise and oceanic turnover to the meltdown of these immense ice <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/antarctica-has-a-bizarre-dark-red-waterfall-nicknamed-the-blood-falls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">formations</a>.



These revelations encourage a deeper look at how quickly environments can shift. Even gradual processes can set off dramatic outcomes given enough time.



Communities today may not see glacier floods on the scale of ancient times. Nevertheless, tracking modern ice dynamics can shed light on possible long-term trends.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-glacier-floods-changed-earth">Glacier floods changed Earth</h2>



Researchers remain cautious, pointing out that while Earth’s processes are slow, they can still produce major results over millions of years. Lessons from the Neoproterozoic era remind us that adaptation is key to survival.



Further studies are planned to investigate younger <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/astonishing-glacier-retreat-in-the-arctic-signals-climate-disaster/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">glacial episodes</a>. Teams hope to identify patterns of erosion and mineral release in more recent geological periods.



Refining these datasets could clarify how climate shifts have historically coincided with bursts of biological innovation. This knowledge might prove relevant as humans grapple with rapid environmental transformations.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.geoscienceworld.org/gsa/geology/article/doi/10.1130/G52887.1/652370/The-Neoproterozoic-glacial-broom" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Geology</a>.



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Ancient glaciers unleashed floods that reshaped the planet

At first glance, giant glacier ice sheets may seem like...

Mars has fascinated observers for centuries with its striking red hue, shining brightly in our night skies. Research from multiple space agencies suggests that this distinctive color comes primarily from iron in the planet's rocks, which contributes to its dusty appearance.



Despite decades of exploration, we still do not know exactly why the surface of Mars appears red. A new study suggests that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/nasa-seeks-a-faster-way-to-bring-mars-samples-to-earth/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Mars’s earliest environment</a> may hold the key to understanding its famous color.



Adomas Valantinas, a postdoctoral researcher at <a href="https://www.brown.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Brown University</a>, began this research at the <a href="https://www.unibe.ch/index_eng.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Bern</a> in Switzerland. 



“What we want to understand is the ancient Martian climate, the chemical processes on Mars - not only ancient - but also present,” explained Valantinas. 



“Then there’s the habitability question: Was there ever life? To understand that, you need to understand the conditions that were present during the time of this mineral formation.”



Along with collaborators, he compared data from multiple spacecraft and tested basalt mixtures with various iron oxides in the lab.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mars-s-red-dust-may-come-from-water">Mars’s red dust may come from water</h2>



Scientists have often linked Mars’s color to hematite, a type of iron oxide believed to form under dry conditions. 



However, the latest <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-025-56970-z" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">research</a> points to ferrihydrite, a water-rich iron mineral that can only arise in the presence of cool liquid water.



Ferrihydrite can retain hints of water in its molecular structure, providing a record of damp conditions long ago. 



By testing rock powders in a specialized laboratory setup, the team discovered that ferrihydrite, combined with basalt, replicated <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-year-on-mars-avalanches-icy-explosions-and-the-arrival-of-spring/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Martian</a> dust more convincingly than other mixes.



“These new findings point to a potentially habitable past for Mars and highlight the value of coordinated research between NASA and its international partners when exploring fundamental questions about our solar system and the future of space exploration,” said Geronimo Villanueva from NASA’s <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Goddard Space Flight Center</a> in Greenbelt, Maryland, and co-author of this study.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-shifting-environment-of-mars">Shifting environment of Mars</h2>



“We were trying to create a replica <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mars-has-spectacular-glowing-clouds-at-sunset/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Martian</a> dust in the laboratory using different types of iron oxide,” said Valantinas.&nbsp;&nbsp;



If ferrihydrite took shape when Mars had a thicker atmosphere and steady surface water, then the planet’s environment transitioned earlier than scientists once believed. 



This suggests Mars was once very different from its dry, cold self today, noted the researchers.



Mars now has a thin atmosphere that makes liquid water on its surface improbable for long stretches. 



Past rover missions including <a href="https://mars.nasa.gov/msl/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Curiosity</a> and Opportunity found signs of ancient streams and lakes, but current conditions are much less forgiving.



The presence of ferrihydrite indicates that water likely existed on Mars when the mineral first formed. 



Many experts believe that these liquid conditions faded away several billion years ago as Mars lost much of its atmospheric protection.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-spread-of-red-dust-on-mars">Spread of red dust on Mars</h2>



Wind is still a dominant force on Mars, shaping and distributing dust across vast distances. Over time, these movements broke down iron oxides and spread them around the planet.



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dust-storms-can-engulf-the-entire-planet-of-mars-but-how/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Persistent dust storms</a> continue to swirl, obscuring ground views and leaving rovers coated in fine debris. 



Despite the harsh environment, the original water-rich signature of ferrihydrite may remain locked in the dust grains.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/02/mars_why-is-it-red_dust-replica-lab_credit-NASA_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/02/mars_why-is-it-red_dust-replica-lab_credit-NASA_1s.webp" alt="Laboratory sample showing simulated Martian dust. The ochre color is characteristic of iron-rich ferrihydrite, a mineral that provides crucial insights into ancient water activity and environmental conditions on Mars. The fine-powder mixture consists of ferrihydrite and ground basalt with particles less than one micrometer in size (1/100th diameter of a human hair) (Sample scale: 1 inch across). Credit: Adam Valantinas" class="wp-image-1961055"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Laboratory sample showing simulated Martian dust. The ochre color is characteristic of iron-rich ferrihydrite, a mineral that provides crucial insights into ancient water activity and environmental conditions on Mars. The fine-powder mixture consists of ferrihydrite and ground basalt with particles less than one micrometer in size (1/100th diameter of a human hair) (Sample scale: 1 inch across). Credit: Adam Valantinas</figcaption></figure>



The <a href="https://www.esa.int/ESA_Multimedia/Videos/2022/11/Bringing_Mars_rock_samples_back_to_Earth" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NASA-ESA Mars Sample Return program</a> aims to gather Martian rocks, dust, and regolith for deeper inspection on Earth. 



Scientists hope to confirm the exact mineral makeup of these samples and see if ferrihydrite dominates the red dust.



Probing collected material with high-precision instruments could pin down when water was truly abundant. 



Such details may refine our picture of whether early Mars had <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/wave-ripples-discovered-mars-surface-indicate-liquid-water-present-4-billion-years-ago/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">conditions</a> that could have supported life.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-red-dust-points-to-life-and-water-on-mars">Red dust points to life and water on Mars</h2>



Several lines of <a href="https://science.nasa.gov/planetary-science/programs/mars-exploration/science-goals/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evidence</a>, including ancient lakebeds, clay minerals, and valley networks, point to a past where water was not a fleeting visitor. 



This latest ferrihydrite finding strengthens the argument that Mars underwent a cool and moist period well before it dried out.



The researchers noted that understanding these iron minerals unlocks a chapter in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/nasa-collects-26th-rock-sample-on-mars-plans-to-bring-them-all-to-earth-for-study/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Mars</a>’s history that we’re just beginning to unravel. 



The color we see today might hide clues about a time when oxygen and water were abundant.



“We eagerly await the results from upcoming missions like ESA’s Rosalind Franklin rover,” said Colin Wilson, ESA’s <a href="https://www.esa.int/Science_Exploration/Space_Science/Mars_Express" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Mars Express</a> project scientist. He expects the future findings to shed more light on Mars’s watery transformation.



Many questions remain about how this wet period influenced the potential for simple life-forms to emerge. 



Researchers across the world will keep watching, testing, and wondering what else Mars has hidden in its dusty past.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-025-56970-z" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Communications</a>.



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Why is Mars red? Scientists think they figured it out

Mars has fascinated observers for centuries with its striking red...

In the hidden corners of the world, caterpillars and ants have a remarkably specialized relationship. The caterpillars secrete a sweet, nectar-like substance that ants feed on, and the ants often protect the growing caterpillars from predators.



This interesting relationship, which exists between ants and the larvae of some species of the Riodinidae family (metalmark butterflies), is so particular that each species of caterpillar interacts with only one species of ant.



Scientists have now investigated the complex mechanisms of this mutualistic partnership. 



They show that chemical signals and sweet secretions determine whether the ant response is one of protection or destruction.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-caterpillar-protection-from-ants">Caterpillar protection from ants</h2>



In tropical forests, caterpillars provide an important food source to many insectivores. Caterpillar mortality is inevitably high, unless the adult butterfly lays its eggs on a plant that is inhabited by the correct species of ant. 



The research was conducted by Luan Dias Lima during her postdoctoral studies at the University of São Paulo’s Ribeirão Preto School of Philosophy, Sciences, and Letters (<a href="https://www.ffclrp.usp.br/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">FFCLRP-USP</a>). 



The ants and caterpillars were collected at the Serra das Araras Ecological Station in the Brazilian state of Mato Grosso.



The researchers analyzed the chemical signals produced by caterpillars. The goal was to understand how ants can identify specific types of caterpillars as those to protect or those to kill.



The findings suggest that this relationship is delicately balanced as each <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/treasure-map-will-help-experts-find-new-ant-species/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">species of ant</a> recognizes only one species of caterpillar as worthy of protection. 



The ants will kill any other caterpillars, even if they secrete the sweet liquid that is believed to promote protection.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-chemical-signals-and-sweet-secretions">Chemical signals and sweet secretions</h2>



In the experiments, the researchers focused on caterpillars of the species&nbsp;Juditha molpe, which live in harmony with ants of the species&nbsp;Dolichoderus bispinosus.



The team also studied caterpillars of the species&nbsp;Nymphidium chione, which are found only where there are ants of the species&nbsp;Pheidole biconstricta.



They analyzed the cuticular hydrocarbons (CHCs) present on the ants, caterpillars and plants. CHCs are chemical compounds that are found in the coverings of plants and insects, and play a vital function in waterproofing, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/natures-silent-language-decoding-the-chemical-signals-of-insects/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">communication</a>, and species recognition.



"We found insect and plant CHCs to be quite different from each other. In caterpillars, they signal food for ants. The caterpillars in our experiment offered a sweet secretion, allowing them to be recognized and protected by specific ant species," explained Lima, the study’s first author. 



This sugary secretion not only promotes recognition but also cements the partnership between these species by offering the ants a source of food. 



In return for the nectar, the ants defend the caterpillars from predators, thus improving their chances of survival.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-when-ants-turn-hostile">When ants turn hostile</h2>



However, when the researchers mixed up the ant-caterpillar pairings, the harmonious alliance turned hostile, and destroyed the delicate balance that sustains this <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-do-symbiotic-relationships-evolve-between-species/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">symbiotic relationship</a>.



At first, the unfamiliar ants showed little interest in the caterpillars, seemingly indifferent to their presence. They ignored them until they discovered the caterpillar organ that secretes the nectar, which momentarily piqued the ants' curiosity.



Their curiosity soon turned to aggression, however, and they began to behave erratically, opening their mandibles and biting the larvae. What started as a potential new alliance quickly devolved into a deadly confrontation.



"Almost all of the caterpillars were killed during this pair-switching treatment. Soldiers of the species P. biconstricta even used their strong mandibles to cut J. molpe into pieces," said Lima.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-importance-of-the-right-partnership">The importance of the right partnership </h2>



Why are caterpillars relying on ants when things can go so badly wrong? It turns out that ant protection is so important to the caterpillars that adult female butterflies lay eggs only on plant species colonized by the right ant species.



The life of the developing young caterpillars depends on their protection from ants. Without this protection, predators would destroy them.



In the future, the scientists aim to investigate whether CHCs also serve as a deterrent against other natural enemies like parasitoids.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-evolution-of-caterpillar-ant-relationships">Evolution of caterpillar-ant relationships </h2>



The exclusivity of these caterpillar-ant partnerships raises intriguing questions about their evolutionary origins. 



Scientists suggest that these relationships may have developed through a long process of co-evolution, where both species adapted to each other over time.



One theory proposes that ancestral caterpillars, once vulnerable to predation, evolved the ability to secrete nectar as a survival strategy, and gradually refined their chemical signals to align perfectly with specific ant species.



In turn, ants learned to recognize these caterpillars as a valuable food source, strengthening the mutual dependence between them.



The evolution of such specialized interactions likely resulted from a long history of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/lifes-rules-natural-selection-change-significantly-often-daphnia/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">natural selection</a>. 



Caterpillars that failed to match their chemical profiles to local ants faced higher risks of mortality, while those that adapted found a niche where they could thrive.



By studying these ancient alliances, researchers hope to uncover broader patterns in insect evolution and symbiosis, and to shed light on how cooperation between different species shapes ecosystems.



Also contributing to the study were <a href="https://www5.usp.br/english/institutional/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of São Paulo</a>, the <a href="http://www.ufrgs.br/english/home" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul</a>, and the <a href="https://ufal.br/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Federal University of Alagoas</a>.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/1744-7917.13474" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Insect Science</a>.



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Ants and caterpillars have a great working relationship, until it isn't

In the hidden corners of the world, caterpillars and ants...

Few ocean mysteries capture as much fascination as&nbsp;whale songs, the melodies produced by giant sea creatures. Recent findings suggest these&nbsp;whale songs&nbsp;can offer unique clues about shifting conditions deep below the surface.



Scientists have long recognized that <a href="https://us.whales.org/whales-dolphins/what-is-baleen/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">baleen whales</a> emit structured <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-whales-use-songs-to-hide-from-predators/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">sound signals</a> to maintain contact across staggering distances. 



These signals may also serve as a key to understanding variations in whale foraging patterns, according to a new study led by John Ryan from the Monterey Bay Aquarium Research Institute (<a href="https://www.mbari.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">MBARI</a>).



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-understanding-whale-songs-the-basics">Understanding whale songs - the basics</h2>



Whales are prodigious singers, creating long, complex melodies that can last for hours and even change over time, almost like a hit song evolving. 



Scientists believe whales use these songs to attract mates, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-whales-use-songs-to-hide-from-predators/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">signal danger</a>, or even just socialize. What’s wild is that these sounds can travel for miles underwater, thanks to the way sound waves move through the ocean.



But whale songs aren’t just about romance and chit-chat - they also reveal a lot about ocean health. 



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/humpback-whales-have-moved-their-singing-rituals-away-from-shorelines/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Noise pollution</a> from ships, drilling, and sonar disrupts whale communication, making it harder for them to find each other and navigate. 



Some researchers even think whales might be adjusting their songs to compete with human-made noise. 



Studying these songs helps scientists understand whale behavior, migration patterns, and even changes in the environment.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-whale-songs-and-prey-availability">Whale songs and prey availability </h2>



The researchers monitored the songs of blue, fin, and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ai-helps-humans-have-20-minute-conversation-with-humpback-whale-named-twain/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">humpback whales</a> for six years. Their analyses uncovered major fluctuations in how frequently these songs appeared, pointing to links between shifting prey availability and whale vocal behavior.



One significant discovery involved <a href="https://www.fisheries.noaa.gov/species/humpback-whale" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">humpback whales</a>, whose song detections rose from 34% to 76% of days over the study period. 



The experts noted that this shift coincided with local jumps in key prey resources, such as krill and anchovy, and took place as humpbacks demonstrated an ability to switch food sources.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-monitoring-shifts-in-whale-songs">Monitoring shifts in whale songs</h2>



Whale vocalizations are recorded by <a href="https://oceanservice.noaa.gov/facts/hydrophone.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">hydrophones</a>, which are underwater microphones designed to pick up <a href="https://www.fisheries.noaa.gov/tags/acoustics" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">sounds</a> traveling through the ocean. 



These instruments have become vital tools for conservation efforts, because they operate around the clock and can capture subtle changes in whale presence.



Some whales produce <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1748-7692.2008.00208.x" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">songs</a> not only for social bonding but also as a way to sense one another’s proximity and intentions. 



Shifts in these signals can reveal how whales cope with changing ocean temperatures, prey availability, and competition.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-feeding-habits-in-flux">Feeding habits in flux</h2>



The new findings highlight how dynamic <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/whale-songs-share-very-similar-patterns-with-human-language/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">whale</a> diets really are. Humpbacks, in particular, are known to pivot between different types of prey when certain species decline or relocate.



The investigators found that rising anchovy stocks eventually joined earlier surges in krill populations. This sudden turn in food supply matched an upward trend in humpback whale songs.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-whale-songs-and-ocean-health">Whale songs and ocean health</h2>



“Surprisingly, the acoustic behavior of baleen whales provides insights about which species can better adapt to changing <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ai-helps-humans-have-20-minute-conversation-with-humpback-whale-named-twain/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ocean conditions</a>. Our findings can help resource managers and policymakers better protect endangered whales,” said Ryan.



Although song patterns can be influenced by whale migration schedules and local population sizes, the strongest factor was the allure of abundant prey. 



This correlation suggests that whale songs might function as an unexpected barometer of ecosystem health.



These results may motivate future projects to use passive acoustic monitoring as an early alert system for changes in marine life. 



Interpreting whale song data in real time could help managers identify potential feeding hotspots or track unusual shifts in the food web.



Whales occupy higher levels in the food chain. When something affects their prey, whales respond in noticeable ways that can reverberate across the entire ecosystem.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-research-directions">Future research directions </h2>



The study’s approach might encourage researchers to explore additional ocean basins for similar patterns. 



Gathering data from many regions could strengthen our grasp on how large-scale events, such as warming water or temporary food shortages, alter whale behavior.



Other investigations might look at the interplay between <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/acoustic-tagging-helps-decode-whale-communication/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">whale</a> communication and environmental stressors. 



Since whales project sound across great distances, these vocalizations can offer clues on changing conditions far beyond the immediate listening area.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-bridging-humans-and-whales">Bridging humans and whales</h2>



Whale songs offer a unique way to engage the public in ocean health, resonating even with those on land. 



These vocalizations emphasize whales' reliance on a balanced food chain, promoting a deeper connection to marine ecosystems.



Scientists emphasize that new acoustic methods open doors for more frequent and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/humpback-whale-travels-farther-than-any-mammal-ever-recorded/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">less intrusive monitoring</a>. This technology can strengthen marine conservation and give whales a better chance to thrive.



Beyond assessing whales, hydrophone systems also detect an array of ocean sounds. Ships, seismic activity, and the movements of other marine creatures all appear in audio recordings.



Each acoustic signal contributes to a growing library of ocean noise. As we learn to interpret the data, these songs and calls can fill in the blanks about habitat quality and species interactions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-whale-songs-reveal-ocean-changes">Whale songs reveal ocean changes</h2>



Studying year-to-year changes in whale songs reveals not just the presence of these huge, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/add-humpback-whales-to-list-of-animals-that-build-and-use-tools/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">highly-intelligent animals</a> but also the stability of their feeding grounds. 



These musical signals can serve as markers of subtle transformations in an ecosystem that is often hidden from casual view.



Researchers hope continued listening efforts will help people appreciate how finely tuned whale populations are to changes in their environment. 



With more attention on acoustic monitoring, we may eventually predict and manage the obstacles faced by these gentle giants.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0318624" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">PLOS One</a>.



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Whale song complexity continues to astound scientists with each new discovery

Few ocean mysteries capture as much fascination as&nbsp;whale songs, the...

Smiling,Young,Couple,Embracing,While,Looking,At,Smartphone.,Multiethnic,Couple

Love is often seen as a driving force in human relationships, but could it also shape intelligence in the animal kingdom? Scientists have uncovered a surprising connection between cognitive abilities and mating success.



These tiny fish, originally from Central America, are now found in waters worldwide. The new research suggests that intelligence in males plays a crucial role in reproductive success, much like in human relationships where wit and charm often make a difference.



The study reveals that male mosquitofish with better problem-solving skills are more successful in finding mates. This challenges traditional ideas that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-study-intelligent-life-is-likely-very-common-throughout-the-universe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">intelligence</a> in animals primarily evolves for survival. 



Instead, it suggests that brainpower can be just as valuable in securing a mate as it is in avoiding predators or finding food.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-role-of-male-intelligence-in-reproduction">Role of male intelligence in reproduction</h2>



Male mosquitofish are not just competing for food and shelter; they are also competing for partners. 



<a href="https://www.anu.edu.au" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Australian National University (ANU)</a> researchers found that males capable of solving complex tasks had a higher chance of mating than their less-intelligent counterparts. This suggests that intelligence provides a direct reproductive advantage.



Lead author Dr. Ivan Vinogradov explained that cognitive abilities likely evolved because they helped males locate and attract females, increasing their chances of producing offspring. 



This process, known as sexual selection, plays a crucial role in shaping intelligence in certain <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/large-flightless-birds-are-more-intelligent-than-we-realized/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">species</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-intelligence-beyond-survival">Intelligence beyond survival</h2>



For many years, scientists believed that intelligence in animals evolved primarily through natural selection. Smarter animals had better chances of survival because they could find food, escape predators, and adapt to new environments.



“Evolution of intelligence in animals has long been thought to have been driven by natural selection. Animals that were better at problem solving were more adept at gathering food, finding shelter, and avoiding predators and hence lived longer,” Dr. Vinogradov explained.



“They then passed on these genes to their offspring, helping future generations become smarter over time."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-bottom-line-intelligence-is-attractive">Bottom line - Intelligence is attractive</h2>



But there is another possible explanation for the evolution of intelligence: the quality of braininess is attractive to the opposite sex. 



A better brain might help an <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/if-aliens-could-detect-earth-what-would-they-see/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">animal</a> find more mates, have more sex, and eventually produce more offspring.



Dr. Vinogradov and his collaborators suggest that intelligence in mosquitofish may partly have evolved through sexual selection as well. 



Usually, the pressure of sexual selection is stronger on males than females because, at any given time, there are more males seeking mates than there are females ready to breed.



During this form of selection, traits that boost mating and fertilization success become more common over generations, as the genes for the traits are passed on to offspring. 



“Our study suggests that intelligence in mosquitofish isn’t only driven by their need to find food or avoid predators, but also by the complex challenges of finding love. This shows that, much like humans, love conquers all,” remarked Dr. Vinogradov.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cognitive-abilities-of-mosquitofish">Cognitive abilities of mosquitofish</h2>



To understand how male intelligence affects mating success, researchers designed a series of underwater tests. These tests assessed the problem-solving abilities of male mosquitofish. 



The fish had to navigate mazes, figure out how to move around transparent barriers, and remember different colored spots. Those that completed the challenges were rewarded.



The study tracked the reproductive success of each male over two months. The researchers recorded how many offspring each fish produced when competing for mates. 



The results were striking - mosquitofish that excelled at problem-solving tasks had significantly higher reproductive success than those that struggled with the challenges.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-smarter-males-more-offspring">Smarter males, more offspring</h2>



After performing over 2,000 paternity tests, the scientists confirmed their hypothesis. Intelligence scores were positively correlated with reproductive success in male mosquitofish. 



The males that performed well in cognitive tests mated with more females and produced more offspring than those that failed the tests.



“Our findings imply that the evolution of cognitive abilities may have been driven by sexual selection for males who gained more mating opportunities,” study co-author Professor Michael Jennions said.



“Something about these males seemingly gave them an edge in securing mating opportunities. Perhaps females recognized and preferred smarter males, or maybe smarter males were better at chasing the females and forcing them to mate, a common, if unpleasant, practice in mosquitofish."



More observations and analyses are needed in order to establish differences in the mating behavior of the smarter males. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-evolutionary-biology">Implications for evolutionary biology</h2>



These findings challenge traditional views on how intelligence evolves. While many scientists have focused on its survival advantages, this study highlights the potential role of mate selection in shaping <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/what-animal-will-replace-humans-as-earths-dominant-species-this-scientist-has-an-idea/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cognitive traits</a>.



Intelligence may not only be about problem-solving for survival but also about improving an individual’s chances of reproduction.



The study also raises questions about how females perceive intelligence in potential mates. If smarter males are more successful in mating, it suggests that females may have preferences that go beyond physical traits. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-research-on-male-intelligence">Future research on male intelligence</h2>



The study, published in Nature Ecology and Evolution, was conducted by researchers from Australia, Germany, and South Africa. 



The next step is to investigate how, exactly, intelligence influences mating success. Do females recognize intelligence in a mate, or do smarter males use their cognitive skills to outmaneuver their rivals?



Future research could explore whether this pattern holds in other species. If intelligence plays a role in mate selection beyond mosquitofish, it could reshape our understanding of how cognitive abilities evolve in the animal kingdom.



This research suggests that intelligence is not just about survival - it is also about attraction. 



Much like in human relationships, wit and problem-solving skills may help individuals find love and pass on their genes. In mosquitofish, as in life, intelligence may be one of the most valuable traits a male can have.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41559-025-02645-3" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Ecology and Evolution</a>.&nbsp;



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Animal intelligence did not evolve due to natural selection

Love is often seen as a driving force in human...

Belly fat - most people want less of it. It is linked to heart disease, diabetes, and other health risks. But what if losing too much of it could also have unexpected downsides for the brain?



New research from <a href="https://global.toho-u.ac.jp" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Toho University</a> in Japan suggests that visceral fat - the deep fat stored around organs - does more than just pad the waistline. It may actually help keep the brain functioning as we age.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-not-all-belly-fat-is-bad">Not all belly fat is bad</h2>



The study, published in&nbsp;GeroScience, challenges the idea that all fat is bad. While excess visceral fat remains dangerous, a moderate amount might be critical for brain health.



Forgetfulness, slower thinking, and difficulty focusing are some of the frustrating aspects of cognitive decline that often come with aging. 



Particularly interesting is the role that belly fat plays in this process. The researchers found that belly fat communicates with the brain via chemical signals. 



One of these influential messengers is a protein called CX3CL1, tasked with preserving memory and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/long-term-exercise-can-make-belly-fat-healthy/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cognitive function</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-role-of-belly-fat-in-brain-function">Role of belly fat in brain function</h2>



An essential molecule in brain science is the BDNF (brain-derived neurotrophic factor). It aids neurons in growing, surviving, and building new connections - all of which are critical for learning and memory.



However, with aging, BDNF levels naturally decrease, leading to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/subtle-dna-changes-shaped-human-brain-evolution/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cognitive slowing</a>, memory loss, and a higher risk of neurodegenerative diseases. 



CX3CL1 production in belly fat was found to help keep BDNF levels stable, but with age, both CX3CL1 and BDNF levels decline.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-belly-fat-and-brain-health-are-linked">Belly fat and brain health are linked</h2>



To validate the fat-brain link, the Toho University scientists manipulated CX3CL1 levels in mice through experiments. 



When they artificially lowered CX3CL1 in younger mice, signs of premature brain aging were noted, as BDNF levels dropped considerably. On the other hand, when older mice were injected with extra CX3CL1, BDNF levels rose again, restoring some of the brain's youthful resilience. 



This indicates that CX3CL1 and BDNF play crucial roles in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-time-and-space-interact-in-the-brain/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">brain</a> aging.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-role-of-stress-hormones">The role of stress hormones</h2>



The reasons behind a decline in CX3CL1 production are linked to stress hormones - cortisol in humans and corticosterone in mice. These hormones regulate various bodily functions, including CX3CL1 production.



"Glucocorticoids boost CX3CL1 production. An enzyme in belly fat called 11β-HSD1 reactivates inactive forms of glucocorticoids and keeps them active in cells, promoting glucocorticoid-dependent expression of CX3CL1," noted Dr. Yoshinori Takei, one of the study's authors. 



However, with aging, 11β-HSD1 levels decline, leading to a slowdown in CX3CL1 production, a drop in BDNF levels, and consequent cognitive decline.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-changing-perception-of-belly-fat">Changing perception of belly fat</h2>



This discovery shifts our traditional views on belly fat. While it is linked to serious conditions like diabetes, high blood pressure, and heart disease, this research suggests that visceral fat is not just a storage unit. It plays an active role in brain function. 



The researchers stress the importance of balance. Maintaining a healthy range of visceral fat is key. Too little can diminish brain-protecting signals, while too much increases the risk of severe metabolic diseases.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-belly-fat-and-brain-boosting-treatments">Belly fat and brain-boosting treatments</h2>



The findings raise many intriguing questions about future treatments for cognitive decline. 



Could doctors develop therapies to preserve or enhance CX3CL1 production in order to maintain BDNF levels? Is it possible to slow cognitive decline by focusing on the fat-brain link?



While the research is in its early stages, it reminds us that the body works as an interconnected system. What happens in one part can influence the whole, including the brain.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-practical-implications-for-health">Practical implications for health</h2>



While scientists explore these potential treatments, individuals can undertake certain lifestyle practices to support <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/male-and-female-brains-are-wired-completely-differently/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">brain health</a>. Regular exercise, a nourishing diet, and effective stress management are all vital.



Since chronic stress disrupts hormone balance, impacting both CX3CL1 and BDNF levels, these proactive measures can play a significant role in maintaining cognitive health.



This research questions the simple narratives about belly fat and its role in brain health. While excess visceral fat remains harmful, a certain amount is crucial for maintaining cognitive sharpness. 



The relationship between belly fat and brain health turns out to be more complex than previously thought. The body has its own way of maintaining balance - and sometimes, the solutions are hidden in unexpected places.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s11357-025-01546-4" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">GeroScience</a>.



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Moderate belly fat may actually boost brain health

Belly fat - most people want less of it. It...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2E0mn5mTvhQ
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">'Death Star' moon Mimas conceals a 15-million-year-old ocean that scientists never expected.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hidden-waters-beneath-ancient-craters">Hidden waters beneath ancient craters</h2>



Scientists have made a startling discovery that challenges everything we thought we knew about <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/saturn-moon-mimas-has-remarkably-young-ocean/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Saturn's moon Mimas</a>. Beneath the heavily cratered surface that earned it the nickname "Death Star" lies a global ocean that formed just 5 to 15 million years ago—a remarkably young age by cosmic standards.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cassini-data-reveals-orbital-secrets">Cassini data reveals orbital secrets</h2>



The discovery, led by Dr. Valéry Lainey of the <a href="https://observatoiredeparis.psl.eu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Observatoire de Paris</a>, emerged from careful analysis of <a href="https://www.nasa.gov" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NASA</a>'s Cassini spacecraft data. By studying subtle irregularities in Mimas's orbit around Saturn, researchers detected the gravitational signature of liquid water hidden 20 to 30 kilometers beneath the moon's icy shell.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-an-unlikely-ocean-world">An unlikely ocean world</h2>



At only 400 kilometers in diameter, Mimas seemed like the least likely candidate to harbor a subsurface ocean. Unlike other ocean moons such as Europa and Enceladus, which show clear surface signs of internal activity, Mimas displays no obvious hints of the liquid water beneath its ancient, crater-scarred exterior.



"Mimas is a small moon, and its heavily cratered surface gave no hint of the hidden ocean beneath," explained Dr. Nick Cooper from <a href="https://www.qmul.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Queen Mary University of London</a>, a study co-author.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-astrobiology">Implications for astrobiology</h2>



The ocean's recent formation makes Mimas a prime target for studying how oceans develop and potentially support life. This discovery adds another member to the exclusive club of ocean worlds in our solar system, each offering unique insights into the conditions necessary for habitability.



The research, published in <a href="https://www.nature.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature</a> journal, demonstrates how advanced orbital analysis can reveal hidden features of celestial bodies, opening new possibilities for understanding ocean formation throughout the cosmos.



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Scientists discover unexpected young ocean on Saturn's cratered moon Mimas

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2E0mn5mTvhQ 'Death Star' moon Mimas conceals a 15-million-year-old ocean that...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE
</div></figure>



On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop and sunlight barely penetrates through the polar winter. It was here, however, that an international team of scientists found <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/predatory-worms-were-terror-beasts-half-a-billion-years-ago/#google_vignette" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evidence of sea monsters</a> that would change our understanding of ocean life in the past.



This video captures the discovery of Timorebestia fossils that had been hidden for more than 500 million years in the Sirius Passet formation. The "terror beasts," as they are called, are a hidden chapter in the evolutionary history of <a href="https://www.earth.com" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Earth</a>, showing that sophisticated predator-prey interactions occurred much earlier than previously envisioned.



Dr. Jakob Vinther and his research team at the <a href="https://www.bristol.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Bristol</a>, in collaboration with researchers at the <a href="https://eng.kopri.re.kr/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Korean Polar Research Institute</a>, braved extreme weather conditions at 82.5 north latitude to locate these giant creatures. Using sophisticated electron microprobe analysis, they revealed the detailed anatomy of the animals, including their muscle and nerve tissues.



The find upsets the traditional timeline of sea predators. Although we've long appreciated that Cambrian oceans were at one time ruled by <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jWI3-UgA3_o&amp;list=PL1QLQMW9MWDwpkFOnvgAmu7wT6rZmYqdJ&amp;index=19" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">arthropods</a>, these discoveries indicate that relatives of arrow worms were first to dominate the seas. These worms were building sophisticated food webs several million years before other predator groups arose.



Each fossil is a story of ancient hunger, with fossil stomach contents revealing these meter-long beasts dined on heavily armored arthropods regularly, cementing their place as the ocean's first apex predators.



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Worms dominated seas before dinosaurs

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">New York is the site of the world's oldest forest.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-385-million-year-old-trees-discovered">385-million-year-old trees discovered</h2>



Scientists have uncovered something extraordinary just two hours north of New York City. The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/worlds-oldest-forest-discovered-close-to-new-york-city/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">world's oldest forest</a>, dating back 385 million years, offers a window into how Earth's first complex forests shaped our planet's atmosphere.



Located near <a href="https://townofcairo.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cairo, New York</a>, in Greene County, these weren't merely primitive plants struggling to survive. These were sophisticated trees with root systems remarkably similar to modern forests. This ancient woodland predates dinosaurs by 140 million years.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-cairo-forest-discovery">The Cairo forest discovery</h2>



385 million years ago, upstate New York was a tropical paradise near the equator. Thanks to continental drift, this ancient forest has traveled thousands of miles to its current location.



The fossil forest sits in an abandoned quarry, roughly half the size of a football field. This represents just a slice of what was likely a massive forest system stretching from New York into Pennsylvania.



Charles Ver Straeten, curator of sedimentary rocks at the <a href="https://www.nysm.nysed.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">New York State Museum</a>, made the discovery in 2009. While scouting the former highway department property, his trained eye spotted wandering patterns in the stone that looked like marine features.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-revolutionary-age-and-preservation">Revolutionary age and preservation</h2>



The site contains 385-million-year-old rocks with fossilized woody roots forming horizontal patterns up to 18 feet (5.5 meters) wide. As Christopher Berry, a paleobotanist at Cardiff University, explains: "You are walking through the roots of ancient trees."



This discovery pushes back advanced tree evolution by millions of years. The research, published in <a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/home" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Current Biology</a> in December 2019, fundamentally changes our understanding of when complex forests first emerged.



Researchers believe a massive flood buried the forest floor, creating perfect fossilization conditions. Over millions of years, sediment hardened into rock, preserving these root patterns like nature's time capsule.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-meet-archaeopteris-the-first-modern-tree">Meet Archaeopteris: the first modern tree</h2>



The star of this ancient forest is Archaeopteris – not to be confused with the feathered dinosaur Archaeopteryx. This tree was far older and more revolutionary.



William Stein from <a href="https://www.binghamton.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Binghamton University</a> describes the roots as "strikingly modern, essentially what you'd see outside in my yard right now." These weren't simple root systems you'd expect from ancient plants.



Some fossilized roots are six inches (15 centimeters) in diameter, forming 36-foot-wide (11-meter) patterns. These giants grew up to 65 feet (20 meters) tall with five-foot-diameter (1.5-meter) trunks.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-changing-impact">Climate-changing impact</h2>



These trees fundamentally changed Earth's environment. Kevin Boyce, a Stanford University geoscientist, explains how their deep roots triggered "weathering," chemical reactions that pulled carbon dioxide from the atmosphere.



This process dropped atmospheric CO2 levels from 10-15 times higher than today to roughly modern concentrations. These ancient trees helped create atmospheric conditions that made complex life possible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ancient-forest-ecosystem">Ancient forest ecosystem</h2>



The forest was remarkably diverse. Scientists identified Eospermatopteris, palm tree-like plants with short roots that reached 30 feet (9 meters) tall but lacked woody structure. The forest also housed cladoxylopsids and a mysterious third species still being studied.



All reproduced through spores rather than seeds – millions of years before seeds evolved. This tropical environment had no grass, flowers, or flying insects, just towering trees creating Earth's first complex forest canopy.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-scientific-significance">Scientific significance</h2>



Before this finding, the Gilboa forest, located 25 miles (40 kilometers) away, held the "oldest forest" title. Cairo's trees are 2-3 million years older, showing that complex forest ecosystems developed much faster than scientists believed possible.



Patricia Gensel, a <a href="https://www.unc.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of North Carolina</a> paleobotanist, notes: "The size of those root systems is really changing the picture. Even 20 years ago, researchers assumed trees with such complex root systems didn't evolve so early."



The Cairo site presents three unique root systems, suggesting Devonian period forests were diverse ecosystems with different trees occupying different environmental niches, much like today's forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-modern-preservation-efforts">Modern preservation efforts</h2>



In 2022, New York State Senator Michelle Hinchey secured a $170,000 grant for the town of Cairo to construct specialized fencing around the fossil forest site. The town plans to conduct a feasibility study exploring the possibility of creating an educational center and working lab on-site.



Joe Hasenkopf, chair of the Cairo Planning Board, hopes to partner with educational institutions to create a research facility serving scientists, students, and the public.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lessons-for-today-s-climate">Lessons for today's climate</h2>



Why does a 385-million-year-old forest matter today? It shows how dramatically forests can change Earth's climate. These ancient woodlands created the atmospheric conditions supporting complex life.



Understanding how prehistoric forests transformed the planet helps us appreciate modern forests' critical role in addressing climate change. Forests remain Earth's most effective carbon capture systems.



These prehistoric trees changed Earth's atmosphere by pulling massive amounts of carbon dioxide from the air. As we face modern climate challenges, this ancient forest reminds us of trees' incredible power to transform our planet's environment.



The next time you walk through a forest, remember you're experiencing an ecosystem whose blueprint was established 385 million years ago in upstate New York. These ancient pioneers didn't just survive – they thrived and changed the world forever.



The full study was published in the journal Current Biology.



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Earth's oldest forest found in the United States

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ New York is the site of the world's oldest...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Acid rain and a crisis solved.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-don-t-we-ever-hear-about-acid-rain-anymore-the-environmental-crisis-that-was-solved">Why don't we ever hear about "acid rain" anymore? The environmental crisis that was solved</h2>



Remember the 1980s when acid rain dominated headlines? Dire warnings about rain eating buildings, killing fish, and destroying forests filled every news cycle. Then, almost like magic, acid rain vanished from public discourse. What happened? Did we actually solve one of the late 20th century's most pressing environmental challenges?



The answer might surprise you. Unlike many environmental issues that drag on indefinitely, acid rain represents one of modern history's most successful ecological recovery stories. It's a tale of science, politics, and technology working together to tackle what seemed impossible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What was acid rain?</h2>



Acid rain isn't regular rain having a bad day – it's precipitation that became significantly more acidic due to air pollution. When power plants, factories, and vehicles burn fossil fuels, they release sulfur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides (NOx) into the atmosphere.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The science behind it</h2>



Think of acid rain as nature's chemistry experiment gone wrong. These compounds react with water, oxygen, and other chemicals to form sulfuric and nitric acids. When mixed with water vapor in clouds, they create precipitation with dangerously low pH levels.



While clean rain has a pH of about 5.6, acid rain could drop as low as 4.2 to 4.4 – roughly as acidic as tomato juice or coffee. According to US Geological Survey documentation, Scottish chemist Angus Smith first coined "acid rain" in 1872, but it didn't become a household phrase until the 1960s and 1970s when Swedish scientist Svante Odén documented its devastating effects on Scandinavian lakes and European forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The crisis at its peak</h2>



During the height of public concern, environmental damage was both widespread and visible. This wasn't some abstract future threat – people could see destruction happening in real-time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Environmental devastation</h2>



The most dramatic impacts were impossible to ignore. Research documented by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation and the New York State Department of Environmental Conservation shows that in the Adirondack Mountains, more than 200 lakes became so acidic they couldn't support fish life. The Adirondack Council reports that 409 lakes once supported brook trout, but many lost their fish populations due to acid rain.



By 1976, when scientists cataloged all acidified lakes in the Adirondack Park, researchers found that half of the lakes over 2,000 feet above sea level had no fish, according to studies published in environmental journals. The acidification process worked like a slow-motion disaster. As acid rain fell into watersheds, it gradually lowered pH levels. Fish couldn't survive in acidic water, and their food sources died off too.



Trees at high elevations showed stress directly linked to acid rain. It weakened them by leaching nutrients and making them susceptible to disease. Historical records show Germany's Black Forest saw nearly half its trees damaged by the mid-1980s.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Economic impact</h2>



Acid rain wasn't just environmental – it was expensive. Acidic precipitation corroded infrastructure, buildings, and monuments. Historic stone structures deteriorated at accelerated rates. Tourism suffered as lakes became fishless and forests declined. EPA economic analyses from the period documented repair costs mounting into billions annually.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The solution: government action and technology</h2>



Transformation from crisis to success required unprecedented cooperation between governments, industries, and environmental groups.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The Clean Air Act of 1990</h2>



The turning point came with the Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990, signed by President George H.W. Bush. This represented a fundamentally new approach to environmental regulation, as documented in EPA historical records.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Cap-and-trade success</h2>



Instead of mandating specific technologies, the 1990 amendments introduced something revolutionary: a cap-and-trade system for sulfur dioxide emissions. EPA program documentation shows this market-based approach set overall limits but allowed companies to trade emission allowances.



The genius was harnessing market forces to find cost-effective pollution reduction. Companies reducing emissions cheaply could sell excess allowances to those facing higher costs. Research published in environmental economics journals and EPA progress reports shows this resulted in dramatic SO2 reduction at a fraction of projected costs.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Technology advances</h2>



Policy provided the framework, but technology made reductions possible. Studies in atmospheric science journals document the widespread adoption of flue gas desulfurization systems ("scrubbers") that removed sulfur dioxide before it reached the atmosphere. By the 2000s, new installations could remove over 95% of SO2 emissions, according to EPA technical reports.



The push coincided with cleaner energy development. Natural gas produces fewer sulfur compounds than coal. Wind and solar, emerging in the 1990s, captured growing market share, reducing reliance on high-sulfur coal.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-we-don-t-hear-about-it-today">Why we don't hear about it today</h2>



Why did acid rain disappear from headlines? Simple: the problem was largely solved.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Success doesn't make news</h2>



There's an old journalism saying: "If it bleeds, it leads." Environmental success stories don't generate urgency like crisis reporting. Media attention shifted to other challenges: climate change, plastic pollution, and biodiversity loss. There's only so much environmental anxiety the public can absorb, and newer concerns replaced acid rain.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Mission accomplished</h2>



The primary reason is beautifully simple: interventions worked. EPA monitoring data shows sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990. Academic research published in environmental science journals confirms pH levels in formerly affected areas returned closer to normal. This represents one of history's most dramatic environmental recoveries. Studies by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation show fishless lakes now support healthy populations. Forests recovered, and building damage slowed dramatically.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-is-it-really-gone">Is it really gone?</h2>



The crisis is largely resolved, but monitoring data shows the problem isn't completely eliminated – it's managed to acceptable levels. Some areas still experience occasional events during high pollution periods. International environmental research indicates that rapidly industrializing Asian countries face similar problems to what we experienced decades ago, though they're implementing successful strategies.



EPA research shows nitrogen oxide emissions proved more challenging than sulfur dioxide, coming from vehicles and mobile sources. Climate science studies suggest changing weather patterns add complexity to how acid rain forms and falls.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What this teaches us</h2>



The acid rain experience proves that seemingly intractable environmental problems can be solved with scientific understanding, political will, and technological innovation. Environmental monitoring data shows recovery speed was remarkable – within a decade, measurable improvements appeared in air quality and ecosystem health.



Success came from bipartisan support across party lines. Policy analysis studies show the market-based approach appealed to those preferring economic incentives while achieving environmental goals. This support created lasting policy surviving political changes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Conclusion</h2>



Acid rain's disappearance from public consciousness represents environmental science's greatest success stories. Through effective regulation, technological innovation, and international cooperation, we transformed an overwhelming crisis into a manageable challenge.



Today's silence isn't because we forgot – it's because we solved it. The 1990 Clean Air Act, combined with technology and energy market changes, reduced acid rain emissions over 90%, according to comprehensive EPA data analysis.



This success offers hope for current challenges. It proves complex problems can be solved when science, policy, and technology work together. As we face climate change and plastic pollution, acid rain reminds us that dramatic positive change is possible.



Next time someone asks whether environmental regulations work, remember acid rain. It's proof that sometimes, we get it right.



<hr class="wp-block-separator has-alpha-channel-opacity"/>



Sources: This article draws from EPA official documentation and progress reports, peer-reviewed research published in environmental and atmospheric science journals, historical data from the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation, New York State Department of Environmental Conservation records, US Geological Survey publications, policy analysis studies, and environmental monitoring data collected over three decades.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Frequently Asked Questions</h2>



1. Is acid rain completely gone? No, but EPA monitoring shows it's reduced to manageable levels. US sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990, making acid rain much less severe than the 1980s crisis.



2. How long did solving take? Environmental monitoring data shows significant improvements began within 5-10 years of 1990s emission controls. Full ecosystem recovery took longer – some areas need 20-30 years for complete recovery.



3. What made the solution successful? Clear scientific understanding, visible damage motivating action, bipartisan support, available technology, and innovative market-based policies like cap-and-trade.



4. Do other countries have acid rain problems? Yes, particularly rapidly industrializing Asian countries. However, international environmental research shows many implement similar successful control strategies.



5. Could acid rain return? Potentially, if regulations weaken or we return to high-sulfur coal without controls, though effects would take years to become severe according to environmental projections.



6. Can you recommend any teaching tools on the subject of "acid rain"? The United States Environmental Protection Agency produced a wonderful teacher's guide for ages 14 and under that you can find on the EPA website here: <a href="https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf</a>



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The environmental problem we actually solved

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk Acid rain and a crisis solved. Why don't we...

Fresh,Radish,Harvest,On,Soil,In,Garden.

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https://youtu.be/Fi2OeEwuzRM?si=vTyd2m9FMmtyWkex
</div></figure>







Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving fall garden, and this guide lays out the best vegetables and herbs to plant now for a fruitful autumn harvest. 



Fast-growing leafy greens such as spinach, lettuce, kale, and arugula perform especially well in the waning summer heat, with harvests beginning as soon as 30 days. 



These cool-season crops relish the transition into fall, offering repeated yields with cut-and-come-again methods.



Root vegetables like radishes, carrots, and beets also excel during this period. Radishes deliver satisfaction in under a month, while carrots and beets mature in about two months. Employing succession planting ensures a continuous stream of produce deep into the cooler months. 



For a boost of fresh flavor, herbs like cilantro, basil, dill, and chervil are excellent picks. These heat-loving varieties flourish in July’s warmth and are harvest-ready in about 30 days, especially when sown continuously.



Gardeners in zones 6 through 9 can benefit from planting bush beans and snap peas, which don’t require trellising and are ideal for compact plots. 



Maturing in 50–60 days, they’re a smart choice for quick, protein-rich harvests. For those in hotter regions, heat-tolerant crops such as okra and southern peas provide reliable yields and thrive in scorching conditions.



This guide emphasizes more than crop selection—it highlights the importance of timing, soil preparation, and ongoing sowing techniques. 



With thoughtful planning and attention to regional climate needs, even late-summer gardeners can enjoy fresh salads, hearty stews, and the satisfaction of a robust, homegrown harvest well into fall.



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What to plant in your garden in mid-July

https://youtu.be/Fi2OeEwuzRM?si=vTyd2m9FMmtyWkex Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving...

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A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that wildlife tunnels significantly reduce amphibian road mortality during seasonal migrations. 



Frogs and salamanders often cross roads to reach breeding ponds each spring, but many are killed by vehicles. 



Researchers from the <a href="https://www.uvm.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Vermont</a>, in collaboration with local citizens and the Vermont Agency of Natural Resources, installed two underpass tunnels in 2015. 



Over a 12-year monitoring period, they observed an 80.2% reduction in amphibian deaths, and up to 94% for non-climbing species like salamanders. 



The study used a before-after-control-impact design and documented more than 5,200 amphibians, highlighting the tunnels’ effectiveness even in nearby buffer zones.



Funded at $342,397 - far cheaper than wildlife crossings for large mammals - the project showcased the power of community-led conservation.



Local groups initiated the effort after observing mass amphibian deaths. Wildlife cameras later captured over 2,200 amphibians using a tunnel in just one spring, along with other species like raccoons and bobcats, indicating wider ecosystem benefits.



This marks the first peer-reviewed, long-term data set in the northeastern U.S. confirming amphibian-specific underpasses work. 



The study urges transportation departments to incorporate these designs into road planning and highlights how community action, thoughtful infrastructure, and persistence can make a real difference for biodiversity.



The full study was published in the <a href="https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1617138125000780" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal for Nature Conservation</a>.



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Wildlife tunnels save millions of amphibians

https://youtu.be/XYgiPzmNBTU?si=eFYY7gPHU1JznLvU A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that...

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing it with probiotics and prebiotics, aiming to create a treat that satisfies cravings while supporting gut health. 



The challenge lies in maintaining chocolate's beloved texture and flavor while adding health benefits.



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Probiotics - beneficial microbes that balance gut bacteria and aid digestion - are typically fragile and can be destroyed by stomach acid or processing. 



Prebiotics act as food for these microbes, helping them thrive. Together, they form "synbiotics," a powerful health combination.



Researchers Smriti Gaur and Shubhi Singh from India's Jaypee Institute of Information Technology took an innovative approach, using natural prebiotics like corn and honey instead of complex processing methods. 



They created five chocolate varieties: a control and four synbiotic versions containing different combinations of prebiotics, probiotics (Lactobacillus strains), and flavor enhancers (cinnamon or orange).



Laboratory simulations of human digestion showed the probiotics remained viable for over five hours, suggesting they could survive long enough to benefit gut health.



Taste tests were positive, with researchers particularly enjoying the orange-flavored variety, describing it as having "vibrant citrus notes" complementing the "rich cocoa" with a "luxurious" texture.



This research represents just the beginning. With further refinement of strains, textures, and flavors, chocolate could evolve beyond mere indulgence to become a functional food that nourishes while it delights.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.4c00741" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ACS Food Science &amp; Technology</a>.

Is chocolate the next nutritional powerhouse?

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

[sendtonews key="G9bUoxcjr4-2511624-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

[sendtonews key="3upvlAaHgO-2256633-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

[sendtonews key="LvS8v8bp9z-2564889-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How does salt makes things taste better?

[sendtonews key="X0f6OHYoI4-2310561-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Santiago, Chile in South America

[sendtonews key="JRaP49ISmm-2357509-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

[sendtonews key="e4ZG0Jawp3-2374785-12187" type="single"] Astronomers at Johns Hopkins University have created...

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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.



According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."



Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;



ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. 



Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

[sendtonews key="uV9Lh2fQbV-1760058-12187" type="single"] Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

[sendtonews key="qjvhBOBnY8-2426650-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

[sendtonews key="oL4FnPTGCV-2384527-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

[sendtonews key="0879czfG3k-1785905-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from NASA...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

[sendtonews key="6HyfrAJTBI-1831843-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

Earth,Like,Exoplanet,3d,Render

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

[sendtonews key="QIoVYJqRBi-2434608-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from NASA...

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