Young aspen trees in Yellowstone are doing something they have not done in almost 100 years. Rather than sprouting and being eaten back to nubs by elk and bison, they're actually growing into tall, adult forest trees rising up towards the canopy.



This matters more than it might seem, because it shows what happens when a missing piece of an ecosystem returns.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-yellowstone-aspens-and-elk">Yellowstone, aspens, and elk</h2>



In the 1920s, people <a href="https://www.yellowstone.org/wolf-project/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">eliminated wolves in Yellowstone</a>. At the time, with limited scientific knowledge, managers believed it was the right thing to do.



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/from-wolves-to-dogs-did-domestication-begin-without-human-help/">Without wolves</a>, elk herds grew very large. Elk love to eat aspen shoots - the tender young growth is highly palatable to them.



For roughly 70 years, elk browsed aspen sprouts down to stub height, and the trees couldn't grow. 



If you had walked through Yellowstone in the 1980s, you would have seen many tiny aspen shoots covering the ground, but almost no young trees gaining height. 



The forest's regeneration was stalled. Old trees died, and no new ones replaced them.



In 1995 and 1996, park managers reintroduced wolves into the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/yellowstone-supervolcano-eruption-study-sparks-new-debate-on-where-and-when-it-will-erupt/">Yellowstone Park ecosystem</a>. Scientists hoped and wondered whether this would change anything for the trees.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-aspen-matter-to-yellowstone">Why aspen matter to Yellowstone</h2>



Aspen groves provide habitat for many species. Birds nest in them. Beavers eat the bark and use the wood for dams. Butterflies and moths lay eggs on the leaves. 



Their canopy admits enough light for wildflowers and shrubs to grow beneath. When it rains, aspen groves hold water in the soil better than some other forest types.



In short, when aspen return, dozens of other species benefit. More trees support more insects, which in turn support more birds, enriching the ecosystem.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-checking-the-trees-three-decades-later">Checking the trees three decades later</h2>



<a href="https://fwcs.oregonstate.edu/users/luke-painter" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Luke Painter</a>, an ecologist at <a href="https://oregonstate.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Oregon State University</a>, sought clear answers. His team returned to 87 aspen stands across Yellowstone that scientists had previously surveyed. 



They measured thousands of young trees, looked for bite marks, and counted how many stems were tall enough that elk could no longer reach the tips.



About a third of these stands now have many tall young aspens pushing toward the canopy. 



"About 26 of the 87 aspen stands we examined had large numbers of tall saplings throughout, a remarkable change from the 1990s when surveys found none at all," Painter said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-wolves-matter-to-yellowstone-aspens">Why wolves matter to Yellowstone aspens</h2>



Breaking it all down, the conclusions of this study are pretty simple. 



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/wolves-move-pups-across-mountains-to-adapt-to-climate-pressure/">Wolves hunt elk</a>. When wolves came back, two things happened. First, elk numbers declined from unusually high levels. Second, elk changed their behavior. They spent less time in the same areas feeding.



With fewer elk and shorter feeding bouts, more aspen shoots survived long enough to exceed the browsing zone - about six to seven feet high. 



Once a sapling reaches that height, elk cannot easily reach the growing tip. The tree continues to grow.



"The reintroduction of large carnivores has initiated a recovery process that had been shut down for decades," Painter explained.



Scientists call this a <a href="https://www.nature.com/scitable/knowledge/library/trophic-cascades-across-diverse-plant-ecosystems-80060347/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">trophic cascade</a> - when adding or removing one species causes changes that ripple through the whole system.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-some-places-recover-others-don-t">Some places recover, others don't</h2>



Unfortunately, not every aspen stand has recovered yet. Some valleys still have many short, heavily browsed shoots, because it's not only elk eating them anymore. 



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/yellowstones-iconic-bison-have-merged-into-a-single-herd/">Bison herds have grown</a>, and bison browse on aspen as well. They are strong enough to break young trees. 



"Increasing numbers of bison may be emerging as a new constraint to aspen in some areas," Painter confirmed.



Additionally, winter snow depth varies; droughts stress trees; bears and mountain lions also hunt elk; and hunting outside the park influences elk distribution. 



All of these factors interact, which is why some sites show strong recovery, others show moderate recovery, and a few have changed very little.



The key pattern is that places with many tall saplings experience little browsing, and aspen groves that remain popular eating grounds today stay short. 



This fact is the strongest indication that tree recovery is linked directly to wolf presence, not solely to weather or soil conditions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-proof-in-the-measurements">Proof in the measurements</h2>



Painter's team did not rely on casual observation. They used the same methods as earlier researchers, measuring the same plots. 



They counted recruitment - when young trees surpass browsing height and begin progressing toward maturity. This measure is crucial. Sprouts are insufficient if they never grow; without recruitment, the forest cannot replace itself.



The results are robust. After being stalled for most of a century, Yellowstone's aspens are increasing in height. In recovering stands today, you will see saplings - six, eight, or ten feet tall - that were not present in the 1990s.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-future-of-yellowstone-s-aspens">The future of Yellowstone's aspens</h2>



"This is a remarkable case of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/giant-viruses-found-in-yellowstones-hot-springs-may-be-near-the-root-of-all-life-on-earth/">ecological restoration</a>," Painter concluded. "Wolf reintroduction is yielding long-term ecological changes contributing to increased biodiversity and habitat diversity."



Trees grow slowly, so even with wolves restored, it will take decades for these young aspens to form a full-grown forest. 



Some areas might never fully recover if bison numbers continue to rise or if the climate becomes too hot and dry.



Thanks to the work of Painter and his team, scientists are now certain that restoring the Yellowstone predator has restarted aspen forest regeneration. Not everywhere and not perfectly, but enough to be measured, creating hope for the future.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0378112725004499?via%3Dihub" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Forest Ecology and Management</a>.



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Yellowstone's aspen trees are growing again thanks to the reintroduction of wolves

Young aspen trees in Yellowstone are doing something they have not done in almost 100 years. Rather than sprouting and being eaten back to nubs by elk and bison, they're actually growing into tall, adult forest trees rising up towards the canopy. This matters more than it might seem, because it shows what happens when a missing piece of an ecosystem returns. Yellowstone, aspens, and elk In the 1920s, people eliminated wolves in Yellowstone. At the time, with limited scientific knowledge, managers believed it was the right...

A branching coral under pressure from heat and physical damage appears to gain crucial support from a particular reef-dwelling crab, offering fresh insight into how positive species relationships can shield corals from multiple hazards.&nbsp;



These findings reveal a protective role for the crustaceans when corals face intense stress, highlighting the possibility that cooperative interactions may bolster the resilience of vulnerable reef habitats.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-reef-dwelling-crabs-and-foundation-corals">Reef-dwelling crabs and foundation corals </h2>



Published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rspb.2024.2936" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Proceedings of the Royal B Biological Sciences</a>, the study emphasizes that corals are what ecologists call “foundation species,” forming the bedrock of entire ecosystems.&nbsp;



Study first author Julianna Renzi conducted the research as a graduate student at the Duke University Marine Laboratory, part of the <a href="https://nicholas.duke.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nicholas School of the Environment</a>.



“Foundation species like <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/breaks-in-ancient-coral-growth-reveal-earths-climate-past/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">corals</a> create the base of an ecosystem: They form structures that other species use for shelter, they modify the local environment, and they provide food for other organisms,” said Renzi.



“Learning how these species respond to stress can help us design better strategies to conserve them - and, in turn, other species that rely on them - in an era of global change.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mutualism-and-overlapping-stressors">Mutualism and overlapping stressors </h2>



Renzi concentrates on the concept of mutualism, in which two species each benefit from interacting with the other. Much existing research focuses on how one beneficial partnership mitigates a single threat, such as higher ocean temperatures. 



However, few studies have explored whether such alliances can ease multiple overlapping stressors. 



In this case, the team selected a branching coral known as Acropora aspera from a research zone in Australia’s <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/coral-bleaching-has-reached-catastrophic-levels-on-the-great-barrier-reef/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Great Barrier Reef</a> during a period of elevated water temperatures.&nbsp;



Within controlled seawater tanks, the scientists subjected coral samples to different stress combinations, including physical wounding, harmful algae, and the presence of Cyclodius ungulatus (the hoof-clawed reef crab).&nbsp;



Coral tissue loss over a month served as the main measure of coral health, allowing the team to see precisely which factors worsened damage and which helped the coral endure.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-unexpected-benefits-for-wounded-corals">Unexpected benefits for wounded corals</h2>



The data indicated that high temperatures alone instigated tissue loss, but the extent depended heavily on other conditions. 



Corals placed alongside harmful algae were six times more likely to suffer serious tissue loss, while those housed with reef crabs had more than a 60% lower chance of severe damage. 



Even more unexpected was how strongly the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/hidden-crab-diversity-discovered-in-coral-reefs/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">crabs</a>’ presence helped corals that had sustained wounds. Those corals displayed significantly less tissue loss than uninjured corals sharing tanks with crabs, and also less tissue loss than wounded corals without crab companions.&nbsp;



While corals lacking crabs sometimes saw injuries expand, corals with crab neighbors rarely experienced further deterioration around the wounds.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-reef-crabs-removing-algae">Reef crabs removing algae</h2>



To unravel what motivated the crabs to linger near wounded coral, the researchers examined their behavior in more detail. They noticed that, in laboratory tests, the crustaceans avoided live coral tissue, instead feeding in regions where tissue had recently been lost.&nbsp;



Observations on the reef revealed that areas of algae disappeared faster around corals with wounds, leading the investigators to suggest that reef crabs and other organisms might be methodically removing algae in these damaged spots, effectively tidying up the coral surface.



Another key question arose: what attracts crabs to fresh wounds in the first place? Renzi and colleagues propose that the injured coral releases a nutritious mucus that proves enticing.&nbsp;



“Corals probably experience small wounds, like the ones we used in this study, relatively frequently from fish bites and physical abrasion. These wounds are probably not super detrimental, but they may be enough to release this mucus and attract coral-associated organisms, like C. ungulatus,” said Renzi.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mutualism-and-heat-stress-resistance">Mutualism and heat stress resistance</h2>



The conclusions back an ecological view that beneficial interspecies interactions, or mutualisms, can become particularly vital when the environment imposes significant hardships.&nbsp;



“This work challenges a paradigm about corals,” said Brian Silliman, Rachel Carson Distinguished Professor of Marine Conservation Biology at the Nicholas School, who advised Renzi during her master’s work.&nbsp;



“The temperature at which corals succumb to heat stress is generally thought to be innate and inflexible. But this work shows that an intricate biological partnership greatly increases the ability of corals to resist heat stress. The crabs don’t affect heat tolerance directly - rather, they appear to remove the stress of injury by cleaning coral wounds.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-reef-crabs-working-under-pressure">Reef crabs working under pressure </h2>



The researchers note that these discoveries hold promise for coral reef restoration, since introducing mutualistic crabs to newly planted colonies could reduce tissue loss from infection and disease. 



One broader lesson is that nature sometimes operates more cooperatively than commonly assumed. 



“We often think of the world as ‘dog-eat-dog’ and assume organisms are constantly competing against each other in effort to survive,” Renzi said. “But in cases like these, positive species interactions may be really important for survival. Evolutionarily, looking out for number 1 may also mean looking out for number 2.”



Altogether, this study suggests that reef-dwelling crabs could prove key to helping certain branching corals remain healthy, even under the combined pressures of heat and injury. 



By highlighting such mutually beneficial partnerships, the findings pave the way for innovative approaches to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/protecting-coral-reefs-is-a-matter-of-humans-rights/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">reef conservation</a> and underline the value of collaborative ties in the marine realm.



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Reef crabs help heat-stressed corals survive

A branching coral under pressure from heat and physical damage...

Severe weather events have become more frequent and intense globally, threatening public health significantly. Of these events, heatwaves are particularly notable for their silent but lethal effects. 



Heatwaves are frequently underestimated in comparison to events that are more obviously destructive, such as hurricanes or floods.



A recent study from <a href="https://www.uq.edu.au/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">The University of Queensland</a> has revealed dire trends. The researchers investigated increased exposure to heat, particularly in urban settings, as a result of the exacerbating effects of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/astonishing-global-heat-in-january-2025-defied-climate-expectations/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">climate change</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-heatwave-mortality-in-a-hotter-climate">Heatwave mortality in a hotter climate</h2>



Heat-related deaths are a rising issue globally, and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-earth-energy-imbalance-temperature-rise/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">climate</a> change is a major contributing factor.



The Queensland study confirms that human-driven climate change has increased heatwave deaths by 20 percent. The findings highlight the critical need to be more proactive about addressing climate-related health threats.



Professor Nicholas Osborne, an associate in UQ School of Public Health, emphasized the value of preparedness.



"Our results suggest heatwaves with associated periods of higher mortality will occur more often than they did in the past," said Professor Osborne.



"These higher mortality rates associated with extreme temperature heatwaves are projected to continue, and we hope our research will help communities be better prepared for heatwaves."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cities-face-highest-heatwave-risks">Cities face highest heatwave risks</h2>



Urban areas are particularly at risk from heatwaves due to high population densities and large infrastructure like roads, buildings, and transport systems.



The UQ team examined 20 years of information on <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/extreme-heat-is-pushing-parts-of-earth-beyond-human-survival/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">temperature</a> and death rates throughout Australia, using the internationally accepted Heatwave Vulnerability Index.



Study lead author Patrick Amoatey said city dwellers are considerably more at risk when there is severe heat.



"We used an index mapping tool to assess how human populations will fare under a range of heat scenarios," related Amoatey. "We found the Heatwave Vulnerability Index, frequently used in other countries, could reliably predict heatwave-related deaths in Australia."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-who-is-most-vulnerable">Who is most vulnerable?</h2>



Based on a detailed data analysis of over 2,000 suburbs, the researchers were able to identify certain factors that greatly elevated vulnerability.



Urban dwellers with lower incomes, less education, diabetes, and limited healthcare access were especially vulnerable to heat surges.



Australia's capital cities, which are home to about 70% of the country's population, have a high concentration of residents with these risk factors. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-recognizing-the-heat-island-effect">Recognizing the heat island effect</h2>



One major contributor to increased risks in urban centers is the "heat island effect," in which cities store and absorb heat more than outlying or rural areas. 



"We believe the risk is higher in cities because of the 'heat island effect,' as there are more heat-absorbing surfaces like roads, buildings, and railway lines," said Amoatey.



The heat island effect intensifies temperature extremes and significantly affects residents' health during heatwaves. Understanding this effect is crucial for urban planning and developing strategies to prevent heat-related fatalities.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-global-heatwave-responses">Global heatwave responses</h2>



Amoatey emphasized the successful implementation of the Heatwave Vulnerability Index. In London, the index effectively predicted increases in ambulance calls and death rates during heat surges.



"This is helpful for health authorities and something we could use in Australia," said Amoatey. 



Incorporating the heatwave index into current frameworks would substantially improve community preparedness and resilience, while delivering real-time intelligence to health authorities.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-impact-of-climate-change-in-australia">Impact of climate change in Australia</h2>



A study by UQ and <a href="https://www.anu.edu.au" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Australian National University</a> researchers found a link between climate change and deaths during the 2009 heatwave in southeastern Australia.



The disaster was estimated to have caused 374 excess fatalities as temperatures hit a record 12-15 degrees above the average. 



"Human-induced climate change had increased the excess heatwave-related mortality in the 2009 event by 20%. These findings were in line with other research that shows heat-related deaths are increasing due to human-induced climate change," Dr. Osborne noted.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-preparedness-for-future-events">Preparedness for future events</h2>



In light of these alarming <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mapping-marine-heatwaves-to-understand-their-impacts/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">trends</a>, experts call for urgent health infrastructure and workforce preparedness. 



"From a public health perspective, our studies and further research can provide guidance on the need for adequate health infrastructure and workforce that might be needed to cope with higher demand for health services during heatwaves," said Dr. Osborne. 



Preparation could greatly lower future mortality rates and enhance community resilience against unavoidable climate-related issues in the future.



The Heatwave Vulnerability Index study appears in <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0195925525000095?via%3Dihub" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Environmental Impact Assessment Review</a>, while the climate change and mortality study is published in <a href="https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.1088/2752-5295/ada8cd" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Environmental Research: Climate</a>.



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Climate change has made heatwaves more deadly

Severe weather events have become more frequent and intense globally,...

In many parts of the world, people are too poor to afford energy options such as gas or electricity. In addition, the supply of more conventional fuels, such as wood, may be insufficient for the population size. 



People in this position are increasingly turning to plastics to provide energy for heating and cooking. This dangerous practice has the potential to hurt millions due to the effects of toxic emissions on health.



Growing urban populations make energy demands higher, but policies in support of cheap, cleaner fuel alternatives also fall short of requirements, particularly in developing countries.



In densely populated areas of Africa, Asia, and Latin America, scientists have charted patterns of energy consumption. The information indicates an alarming trend - a significant majority of the population is unable to pay for clean energy options. 



With few choices, many families turn to whatever combustible material is available, which further reinforces the cycle of pollution and illness.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-urbanization-fuels-the-crisis">Urbanization fuels the crisis</h2>



The rapid expansion of urban areas in developing nations has exacerbated the plastic-burning crisis. 



Traditional fuels such as wood and charcoal, once readily available in rural settings, have become increasingly scarce within sprawling cities. 



Meanwhile, inadequate waste management has led to a surplus of plastic waste which is seen as a readily accessible - albeit hazardous - fuel source.



A new study led by researchers at <a href="https://www.curtin.edu.au/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Curtin University</a> highlights the growing severity of this issue. The experts are calling for urgent action to curb the use of plastic for fuel.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-health-risks-of-burning-plastic">Health risks of burning plastic </h2>



Lead researcher Dr. Bishal Bharadwaj warns that burning plastic exposes millions to toxic emissions, which can have severe health consequences.



“Burning plastic releases harmful chemicals such as dioxins, furans and heavy metals into the air, which can have a range of health and welfare impacts such as <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/low-levels-of-air-pollution-increase-the-risk-of-heart-and-lung-disease/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">lung diseases</a>,” noted Dr. Bharadwaj.



The risks are particularly severe for women and children, who spend more time indoors and are thus more exposed to airborne pollutants. However, the consequences are far-reaching and can affect entire neighborhoods and cities.



The research highlights the scale of the problem, and reveals alarming statistics from different regions.



“In a survey, 13 percent of Nigerian households reported using garbage as a cooking fuel, while soil and food samples in Indonesia have revealed dangerous toxin levels linked to burning plastic,” said Dr. Bharadwaj.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-trends-in-plastic-consumption">Trends in plastic consumption </h2>



This issue is all the more distressing since it affects millions of people who already struggle with the effects of poverty and inequality. 



Furthermore, trends predict an exponential growth in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-disease-found-in-seabirds-is-caused-by-plastic-consumption/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">plastic consumption</a> and urban population sizes.



“By 2050, two-thirds of the world’s population will live in urban areas and many cities already struggle to provide basic services such as <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/international-day-of-zero-waste-a-global-commitment-to-a-sustainable-future/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">waste collection</a>," explained Dr. Bharadwaj. 



"This will be a growing problem, given global plastic consumption is expected to triple by 2060 and inequality will deepen with rapid, unmanaged urbanisation in developing countries.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-addressing-the-issue-effectively">Addressing the issue effectively</h2>



According to Professor Peta Ashworth, solving this crisis will require a multi-pronged approach.



Effective government intervention is essential, but current policies often do not take into account the needs of the communities most affected by plastic burning. 



“Many governments are not addressing the issue effectively because it’s usually concentrated in areas such as slums, which are often neglected. A ban on plastic burning might not help if people have no other option to keep warm and cook their food,” noted Professor Ashworth.



Instead, the study emphasizes the need for practical and inclusive solutions that provide alternative energy options to vulnerable communities.



“Possible ways to address the problem include subsidies for cleaner fuels to make them affordable for poorer families, better waste management to prevent plastic from piling up in slum areas, education campaigns to inform communities about the dangers of burning plastic, and alternative low-cost, innovative <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/clean-cooking-could-save-half-a-million-lives-each-year/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cooking solutions</a> tailored to lower-income areas,” said Professor Ashworth.



As we move forward, it is clear that comprehensive studies and collaborative efforts are essential to grasp the full magnitude of this crisis and develop realistic solutions. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ripple-effects-of-plastic-burning">Ripple effects of plastic burning</h2>



While the plastic-burning crisis is most prevalent in developing nations, its effects extend far beyond the communities directly involved. 



The toxic <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/microplastics-can-make-other-pollutants-more-toxic/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">pollutants</a> released into the air contribute to global atmospheric pollution, which can worsen respiratory diseases and environmental degradation.



International organizations, policymakers, and researchers must work together to develop sustainable, long-term solutions.



Strengthening global waste management policies, investing in alternative energy technologies, and promoting cross-border collaborations will be crucial steps toward mitigating the crisis.



As the world moves toward a more urbanized future, the challenge is clear - without bold, immediate action, millions will continue to suffer from the consequences of this silent crisis.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s44284-025-00201-5" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Cities</a>.



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Burning plastic as fuel for cooking is becoming a big global problem

In many parts of the world, people are too poor...

Understanding the apparent paradox of "stress as a strength" has led to a recent discovery that could well change the way we perceive biological communities and their resilience.



In a world characterized by rapid environmental change, comprehending the complex relationship between genetic diversity and environmental stress is more critical than ever.



The breakthrough challenges conventional views by suggesting that, under certain conditions, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/some-plants-thrive-under-environmental-stress/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">stress</a> may actually drive the adaptive processes essential for survival.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-adapting-to-changing-environments">Adapting to changing environments</h2>



A recent study from <a href="https://www.mcgill.ca/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">McGill University</a> has explored the complexities of how natural communities react and adapt to changing environmental scenarios. The research was led by Professor Rowan Barrett and Charles Xu, a recent PhD graduate.



The results indicated that not all stress is harmful. In fact, a moderated level of environmental stress equips these communities with a robust defense mechanism against severe threats.



This newfound understanding may turn out to be a crucial factor in managing <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/global-biodiversity-crisis-is-actually-worse-than-we-thought/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">biodiversity</a> amid growing anthropogenic stressors, such as pollution and climate change.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-is-environmental-stress">What is environmental stress?</h2>



Environmental stress is defined as external forces that disturb the balance of biological processes.



The stressors are either natural in origin - such as high temperatures, droughts, and flooding - or anthropogenic, such as pollution, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/global-deforestation-crisis-how-can-we-stop-massive-forest-losses/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">deforestation</a>, and global warming.



Understanding these environmental stressors is crucial for identifying the challenges an ecosystem faces and developing effective conservation and management strategies to safeguard biodiversity.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-simulating-environmental-stress">Simulating environmental stress </h2>



The experiment was conducted at a special site known as the Large Experimental Array of Ponds (LEAP), which is located within the university’s nature reserve.



The team exposed microbial communities to a progressive acidification process, thus emulating the type of environmental stressors found in real-world <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/silent-invasion-how-microplastics-are-disrupting-land-ecosystems/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ecosystems</a>.



The study revealed that prior exposure to mild stressors served as a protective shield against subsequent stress.



Communities previously exposed to low-level stressors demonstrated impressive survival rates, maintaining a diverse pool of species, even under more severe stress conditions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-natural-selection-and-evolutionary-change">Natural selection and evolutionary change </h2>



At the heart of this study lie the processes of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/lifes-rules-natural-selection-change-significantly-often-daphnia/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">natural selection</a> and evolutionary change in freshwater bacterial communities.



Natural selection ensures survival and success of the individuals within a species that are best adapted for a particular environment.



Evolutionary change, on the other hand, involves genetic modifications (over generations) that result in new variants or species that can thrive in their specific habitats.



The scientists used metagenomic analysis to track changes that occurred within the microbial communities.



The findings indicated that the toughest species, the ones that survived the stress, evolved over time to become even stronger against stress.



This dual process guarantees the survival and diversity of the community under conditions of extreme stress.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-research-directions">Future research directions </h2>



"This research underscores the need to consider both ecological and evolutionary forces when predicting how natural communities will respond to environmental stress," said Barrett.



Incorporating these evolutionary responses into models can significantly improve predictive accuracy concerning changes in biodiversity, and thereby enhance conservation efforts.



With this new knowledge in hand, the research team plans to investigate the long-term evolution of these microbial communities and assess the impact of different environmental stressors on genetic adaptation.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-environmental-stress-and-ecosystem-health">Environmental stress and ecosystem health</h2>



The results provide a new perspective on the mechanisms that can lead to ecosystem resilience from environmental stress.



Further research may enhance our knowledge about whether such adaptability is replicated in different types of biological communities and environmental scenarios.



By extending research into such dynamics, researchers will be able to reveal overall principles that inform useful conservation and management strategies.



While the mechanisms behind these adaptive responses continue to be investigated, the study serves as a reminder that not all stress is harmful.



These emerging insights encourage a reevaluation of how stress might be integrated, in a controlled manner, into broader efforts to preserve biodiversity and maintain ecological balance.



The research highlights the potential for leveraging natural adaptive processes to enhance ecosystem health and paves the way for innovative conservation efforts.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0960982225000673" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Current Biology</a>.



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How environmental stress strengthens ecosystems

Understanding the apparent paradox of "stress as a strength" has...

Anxiety is a common mental health disorder that affects millions of people all over the world. It has long been the subject of intense scientific study.



Recently, researchers have stumbled upon an unexpected ally in the fight against this prevalent condition - the humble gut microbe. 



It appears that gut microbes, in their natural habitat, produce compounds known as indoles, which are crucial for regulating the brain activity associated with anxiety.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tiny-microbes-big-impacts">Tiny microbes, big impacts</h2>



The researchers, who were based at <a href="https://www.duke-nus.edu.sg/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Duke-NUS Medical School</a> and the National Neuroscience Institute, set out to investigate the role that gut microbes play in regulating anxious behavior.



The findings are truly eye-opening. Not only do <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/gut-microbes-affect-how-we-handle-everyday-stress/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">microbes in the gut</a> influence brain activity, they may also hold the key to potential treatments for mental health issues such as anxiety and depression.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-gut-microbes-and-anxiety">Gut microbes and anxiety </h2>



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/151-million-americans-have-mental-health-disorders-linked-to-leaded-gasoline/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Mental health disorders</a> are becoming increasingly prevalent in today's world. In Singapore, for instance, 1 in 7 people has experienced a mental health issue.



The most common conditions include <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/confirmed-magic-mushrooms-can-effectively-treat-depression/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">depression</a> and anxiety, which contribute significantly to the disease burden in many countries.



The research team set out to explore how the presence of microbes affects the anxious behavior of mice.



In germ-free mice that had not been exposed to any living microbes, observable anxiety-related behavior increased significantly compared to the behavior of mice that had been exposed to microbes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-from-the-gut-to-the-brain">From the gut to the brain</h2>



Upon further study, the researchers linked this increased anxiety to heightened activity in the basolateral <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/where-do-fear-and-anxiety-reside-in-the-brain-new-cells-identified/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">amygdala</a> (BLA) - a part of the brain responsible for processing emotions such as fear and anxiety.



More specifically, the team identified the role of specialized proteins within brain cells, referred to as calcium-dependent SK2 channels, which regulate anxiety behavior.



"Our findings reveal the specific and intricate neural process that links microbes to mental health," said co-lead author Professor Shawn Je.



"Those without any live microbes showed higher levels of anxious behavior than those with live bacteria. Essentially, the lack of these microbes disrupted the way their brains functioned, particularly in areas that control fear and anxiety, leading to anxious behavior."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-gut-microbes-and-mental-balance">Gut microbes and mental balance </h2>



The researchers extended their investigation by introducing live microbes to germ-free mice.



With live microbes reintroduced, the heightened neuronal activity in the basolateral amygdala was significantly reduced, and the rodents showed less anxiety-related behavior.



Additionally, treating these germ-free mice with indoles - metabolites produced by certain microbes - resulted in similar effects, confirming a direct link between the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/gut-bacteria-have-an-impact-on-brain-health/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">gut microbiota</a> and mental balance.



"Establishing hunger signals and controlling hunger is an evolutionarily conserved defense mechanism. The physiological switch at birth, can therefore, be viewed as a first major wave of anxiety exposure for the newborn, which simply says, 'If you don’t eat, you will die,'" explained co-lead author Professor Sven Pettersson.



"Additionally, birth is associated with exposure to breast milk, known to contain microbes that can produce molecules known as indoles." 



"Indoles are known to be secreted in plants when they are exposed to stress or malnutrition (drought) and in this paper we report a similar mechanism in which indoles can regulate anxiety levels in mammals."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-new-era-of-anxiety-treatments">A new era of anxiety treatments</h2>



This breakthrough suggests that targeting the gut-brain axis could pave the way for new anxiety treatments, either through dietary indole supplementation or introduction of indole-producing microbes as probiotics. 



Professor Patrick Tan, Senior Vice-Dean for Research at Duke-NUS said that the findings underscore the deep evolutionary links between microbes, nutrition, and brain function. 



"This has huge potential for people suffering from stress-related conditions, such as sleep disorders or those unable to tolerate standard psychiatric medications. It’s a reminder that mental health is not just in the brain - it’s in the gut too," said Professor Tan.



Next, the researchers will test their findings in clinical trials and examine the efficacy of indole-based probiotics or supplements as a natural anxiety treatment in humans.



If these trials are successful, we may be on the brink of a new era in mental health care, where gut microbes play a pivotal role in maintaining mental health balance.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.embopress.org/doi/full/10.1038/s44321-024-00179-y" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EMBO Molecular Medicine</a>.



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Gut microbes have an unexpected link to anxiety

Anxiety is a common mental health disorder that affects millions...

Birds and feathers are closely tied together - feathers enable flight, provide insulation, and make courtship displays possible. Yet the origin of these remarkable structures predates birds.



Feathered dinosaurs were first reported in the 1990s, but many mysteries remain about how and when feathers emerged. Did all dinosaurs share a feathered ancestor, or did feathers appear multiple times in different lineages?&nbsp;



A new study co-authored by Paul Barrett and Xu Xing from the <a href="https://www.nhm.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Natural History Museum</a> attempts to consolidate the latest knowledge and move us closer to an answer.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-feathers-of-the-distant-past">Feathers of the distant past</h2>



Fossil evidence has revealed that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/modern-bird-feathers-contain-traces-of-dinosaur-feathers/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">feathers</a> are not exclusive to modern birds and their immediate relatives. Dinosaurs with feathers existed in the distant past, showing that these structures are much more ancient than once believed.&nbsp;



However, broad questions endure: Are feathers found only in meat-eating <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/large-theropod-dinosaurs-thrived-in-polar-environments/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">theropods</a> close to birds, or could they have been more widespread across the dinosaur family tree?



“While dozens of feathered dinosaurs have been identified since Sinosauropteryx was first unveiled in the 1990s, they’re mainly meat-eaters that are close relatives of birds,” Barrett explained. 



“Everyone agrees that these dinosaurs had feathers, but there’s little consensus beyond that.”



“To settle these disagreements, we need more fossils and to define what a feather is. If we can sort this out, it could reveal where feathers first came from and whether they predate the dinosaurs themselves.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-conflicting-theories-on-feather-origins">Conflicting theories on feather origins</h2>



Some scientists propose that feathers originated in a common ancestor of dinosaurs and pterosaurs, suggesting all later descendants inherited the potential to grow feathers - though some lost it over time.&nbsp;



Others argue that pterosaurs did not have true feathers, meaning the structures observed on them might be something else. 



A third viewpoint holds that feathers emerged solely within theropods, the group that includes well-known predators like Velociraptor and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/t-rex-may-have-had-brains-and-brawn/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Tyrannosaurus</a>.



To resolve these debates, better fossil evidence from earlier time periods is essential. Most known feathered dinosaur fossils date to the Cretaceous, yet feathers may have evolved well before then.&nbsp;



Finding older specimens could clarify whether feathers appeared at the dawn of dinosaur evolution or surfaced in only one branch of the family tree.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-did-early-dinosaurs-have-feathers">Did early dinosaurs have feathers?</h2>



Professor Barrett emphasized the importance of discovering prehistoric remains from much earlier geological periods.&nbsp;



“We need to find new sites with fossilized feathers, particularly from the Jurassic and the Triassic,” he said. “The Triassic is especially important, as finding feathered dinosaurs at this early time in dinosaur evolution would suggest that all dinosaurs had an ancestor with feathers.”



“If feathered dinosaurs aren’t found among early <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dinosaurs-evolved-feathers-for-much-more-than-just-flying/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dinosaurs</a>, then it makes it more likely feathers were an innovation among later groups.”



Such discoveries could shift perceptions of the entire dinosaur lineage. Were feathers a universal trait that some species shed over time, or did they evolve independently in separate groups?



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-defining-a-true-feather">Defining a "true feather"</h2>



Another challenge paleontologists face involves the definition of a “true feather.” 



Modern bird feathers have distinct chemical and structural characteristics, including growth from a follicle in the skin. Ancient dinosaur feathers may have looked different, reflecting earlier evolutionary stages.



“To identify a true feather from a living bird, we’d look to see what it’s made out of, and its structure,” Barrett explained. “One of the characteristics we have to identify is that the feather grows out of a follicle in the skin.”



“It’s possible, however, that follicles and other modern characteristics might not have been present in all dinosaur feathers. Detailed anatomical work at a microscopic level to compare preserved skin and feathers with examples from living birds could help to resolve this.”



Fossilized skin can also offer important clues. Some specimens display bird-like tissues, hinting that the common ancestor of certain dinosaurs and birds shared these traits.&nbsp;



But other dinosaurs show more reptilian textures, indicating the possibility that feathers evolved separately in multiple lineages.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-unraveling-the-history-of-feathers">Unraveling the history of feathers</h2>



For the moment, experts remain divided on how feathers took hold in dinosaur evolution. The challenge lies in discovering enough well-preserved fossils from the right time periods and reaching a clear consensus on what counts as a feather.&nbsp;



From tantalizing glimpses in existing fossils to ongoing searches in promising new sites, researchers continue to piece together this ancient puzzle.



Ultimately, answers about the origins of feathers may transform how scientists understand dinosaur evolution - and the emergence of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bird-evolution-timeline-pushed-back-20-million-years-by-baminornis-zhenghensis-discovery/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">birds</a>.&nbsp;



Until then, paleontologists will continue to search the world for the fossils which can finally settle this decades-old debate. 



Each new find has the potential to reshape our perception of the prehistoric world and the ancestors of the birds we see in our skies today.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rsbl.2024.0517" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Biology Letters</a>.



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From dinosaurs to birds, the origin of feathers remains a mystery

Birds and feathers are closely tied together - feathers enable...

The Amazon rainforest, known as "the lungs of the Earth," faces continuous threats from deforestation. 



The Amazon's unique biodiversity, extensive carbon storage capabilities, and significant role in regulating the Earth's climate highlight the urgent need to fully understand the consequences of deforestation.



Scientists, activists, and global citizens have been increasingly concerned about changes in rainfall patterns. However, emerging research challenges previously held assumptions about rainfall <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/the-amazon-rainforest-is-approaching-widespread-collapse/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dynamics</a> in this vital ecosystem.



The concept of a "tipping point" - a threshold beyond which the Amazon could irreversibly degrade into savannah - has dominated environmental discussions. 



But now, recent studies have begun to question the accuracy of this alarming scenario, bringing new insights into the resilience of the region's rainfall patterns.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-is-the-amazon-rainforest-stable">Is the Amazon rainforest stable?</h2>



Scientists from the Max Planck Institute for Meteorology (<a href="https://mpimet.mpg.de/en/homepage" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">MPI-M</a>) have made a significant breakthrough, revealing that the Amazon may sustain its rainfall even in extreme cases of deforestation. 



Published in the journal Geophysical Research Letters, the findings challenge earlier scientific consensus about the region’s vulnerability to rainfall disruption.



Previously, researchers emphasized the critical role of vegetation in maintaining Amazonian <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/nearly-40-of-climate-critical-amazon-rainforest-is-unprotected/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">rainfall</a> through evapotranspiration - the process where plants transfer moisture from soil to the atmosphere.



This cycle, scientists warned, would weaken dramatically if widespread deforestation occurred, significantly reducing rainfall and destabilizing the region.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-oversimplified-climate-models">Oversimplified climate models</h2>



These earlier predictions, however, depended heavily on models that oversimplified or overlooked key atmospheric processes. 



Most relied on global climate models that inadequately represented convection, the atmospheric mechanism crucial for rainfall. Alternatively, regional models were unable to account for how large-scale atmospheric circulation might adapt to deforestation.



Such limitations cast doubt on earlier predictions, necessitating a more sophisticated approach to better understand the complex <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-extremes-will-boost-methane-emissions-in-the-amazon/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dynamics</a> involved.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-new-modeling-approach">A new modeling approach</h2>



Experts at MPI-M, including Arim Yoon and Cathy Hohenegger, adopted an advanced approach using the global storm-resolving ICON model.



This model directly resolves atmospheric convection with extraordinary precision. They conducted their simulation globally over three years, operating at an exceptionally detailed resolution of five kilometers, a significant methodological advancement over previous research.



The findings revealed that rainfall in the Amazon isn't predominantly determined by evapotranspiration, as previously believed. Instead, large-scale atmospheric circulation substantially compensates for any loss of moisture due to deforestation.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ocean-winds-maintain-moisture-levels">Ocean winds maintain moisture levels</h2>



"The wind at about three kilometers altitude carries enough moisture from the ocean into the region to make up for the decline in evapotranspiration," said Yoon.



The calculations demonstrated little to no change in annual rainfall, even under conditions of complete deforestation, contrasting sharply with earlier findings.



This unexpected resilience suggests that earlier assessments of deforestation impacts may have overstated the Amazon’s vulnerability.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-signs-of-a-more-stable-amazon">Signs of a more stable Amazon </h2>



"Precipitation over land seems more tightly coupled to the large-scale circulation than to evapotranspiration in our global storm-resolving simulation if compared to state-of-the-art climate models currently used in the IPCC assessment reports," noted Hohenegger.



"This fact is exciting as it asks for the revisitation of some of the things we thought we knew about precipitation over land and its sensitivity."



This research shifts scientific understanding towards a more nuanced view of rainfall dynamics in the Amazon.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rainfall-patterns-and-seasonal-variability">Rainfall patterns and seasonal variability</h2>



Despite the optimistic findings regarding total annual precipitation, significant changes remain in rainfall distribution throughout the year.



"Just using one indicator to assess the future of the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/the-amazon-rainforest-and-the-looming-threat-of-drought/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Amazon rainforest</a> isn't enough. The details of the rainfall patterns can make a big difference," said Yoon.



Seasonal variability could profoundly impact the ecosystem, agriculture, and communities dependent on predictable rainfall patterns.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-consequences-of-deforestation">Consequences of deforestation </h2>



The MPI-M scientists aim to further refine their analysis by examining whether extreme rainfall events or prolonged droughts might increase in frequency or intensity under conditions of deforestation. 



Understanding these patterns will provide critical insights into the real-world impacts of deforestation on Amazonian ecosystems and human livelihoods.



Although total rainfall might remain stable in the Amazon, deforestation inevitably disrupts ecological balance and climate stability. 



Changes in rainfall distribution, coupled with habitat loss and climate shifts, remain a threat to biodiversity, ecosystem health, and human communities relying on the Amazon.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1029/2024GL110503" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Geophysical Research Letters</a>.&nbsp;



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Amazon rainforest may be much more stable than we thought

The Amazon rainforest, known as "the lungs of the Earth,"...

This bright blue creature might look like a single jellyfish drifting on the water, but it is actually a community of specialized polyps all working in unison. This <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/agricultural-and-biological-sciences/hydrozoa" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">hydrozoan</a>, known as the Blue Button jellyfish or Porpita porpita, appears delicate but displays a cunning strategy for survival.



Its float usually measures only a few inches across, yet it hosts an impressive mini-collective where each polyp plays a unique role. 



Some feed, some defend, and others handle reproduction - all of which contribute to the colony’s <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/world-jellyfish-day-2024-protecting-the-health-of-our-oceans/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">success</a>.



Marine biologist Dr. Shi from the <a href="https://www.ysfri.ac.cn/ENGLISH.htm" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Yellow Sea Fisheries Research Institute</a> has <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/39591675/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">documented</a> notable appearances of these organisms in new locations along coastal regions.



Studies have suggested that changes in ocean temperatures and currents may explain why this small floater is popping up in places where it once was rare.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-floating-colony-not-a-jellyfish">A floating colony, not a jellyfish</h2>



The upper part of the colony looks like a thin disk that can be a brilliant blue or sometimes greenish-brown. This disk is a gas-filled float that keeps the group on the water’s surface as currents move it around.



Circling beneath the float are hundreds of tentacle-like structures that are actually bundled <a href="https://sussexwildlifetrust.org.uk/news/hydroids-and-bryozoans-the-weird-and-wonderful">polyps</a>. They branch off in different lengths, forming a fringe that does much of the colony’s work.



Some polyps specialize in gathering food from the water. Others focus on warding off would-be predators with stinging cells called nematocysts that are designed to deter an attacker.



This layered teamwork sets Porpita porpita apart from most solitary <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/jellyfish-more-than-just-a-snack-for-predatory-fish/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">jelly-like creatures</a>. Its structure is so integrated that it can function almost like a single being.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-porpita-have-a-mild-sting">Porpita have a mild sting</h2>



Most casual swimmers who brush up against this floating cluster feel little more than a mild irritation. The sting is gentle compared to that of more notorious marine animals, yet those with sensitive skin might notice some redness or itching.



The sting is still a defense that helps the colony survive. Small fish and other drifting animals think twice before nibbling on those tentacles!



Many beachgoers mistake the Blue Button for a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/comb-jellyfish-can-fuse-with-a-friend-and-become-one-creature-after-injury/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">jellyfish</a> because of its overall shape and bright hue. Careful observers soon realize, however, that this is a colonial hydrozoan rather than a single organism.



A separate <a href="https://www.lajar.cl/index.php/rlajar/article/view/vol51-issue4-fulltext-3070" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">analysis</a> suggests that sightings along the Mexican Atlantic have increased as more people venture into coastal areas. 



Researchers are using open-access data and field surveys to keep tabs on the spread of the species.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tiny-but-tough">Tiny but tough</h2>



This group of polyps may look fragile on the surface, yet it handles varied conditions surprisingly well. The float’s gas chamber helps the colony remain buoyant even during moderate waves.



It drifts passively, riding the currents without any directed swimming. Some ocean wanderers break apart easily if disturbed, but Porpita porpita remains intact unless hit by rough surf or beached.



It appears that this species adapts to changing waters by relying on wind and sea flows. Despite its delicate look, the colony endures journeys over wide stretches of ocean.



Scientists have found that population size can fluctuate with seasonal shifts in temperature. During certain months, cooler water encourages healthy growth, while extreme heat might reduce their numbers in shallower areas.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-porpita-grows-and-reproduces">How Porpita grows and reproduces</h2>



Porpita porpita individuals have both male and female reproductive structures, making them hermaphrodites that are capable of different forms of reproduction. 



Some references describe an intriguing developmental process where larvae transform into floating colonies without a typical polyp stage.



This means new generations can appear if conditions are right, causing occasional clusters to show up unexpectedly on sunny beaches. 



The young start off as tiny forms, then expand into an enchanting blue disk with busy polyps attached.



These polyps may adopt distinct tasks almost immediately. In many cases, protective tentacles appear early, ensuring the colony has a built-in guard system even in its youth.



Studying early developmental stages offers clues about how these colonies adapt to diverse temperatures and salinity levels. More work is underway to map their genetic makeup and clarify potential regional differences.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-does-any-of-this-matter">Why does any of this matter?</h2>



While Porpita porpita itself poses little harm to people, its presence can indicate shifts in local ecology. 



Changes in temperature or currents can carry these creatures beyond their usual routes, raising questions about broader marine health.



They also serve as food for certain sea slugs, snails, and sea turtles, linking them to larger food webs. Observing their distribution can reveal patterns in how smaller marine <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/arctic-invasion-jellyfish-are-moving-north-in-a-warming-climate/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">predators</a> and grazers behave.



Some researchers believe continued sightings of the Blue Button in unfamiliar waters may reflect oceanic warming trends. Analyzing these subtle movements becomes a way to understand broader environmental influences.



Effective monitoring hinges on both academic efforts and everyday beachgoers who spot unusual clusters near shorelines. 



Citizen science projects are increasingly vital for gathering valuable data and strengthening the record of occurrences.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-s-next-for-porpita-studies">What's next for Porpita studies?</h2>



Porpita porpita will likely keep surprising those who stroll along the beach and catch sight of a vivid blue disk washed ashore. Although harmless for most, its mild sting and unusual look cause many to marvel at what it really is.



Future investigations will show whether increased frequency of sightings correlates with patterns of warming seas and shifting currents. 



Understanding these drifting colonies may help scientists see how oceans are responding to constant environmental change.



Marine scientists who study the Blue Button view it as a subtle biological indicator of the world’s changing waters. 



They aim to gather more details about its genetic variations and possible global distribution patterns.



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This 'blue button jellyfish' isn't actually a jellyfish, so what is it?

This bright blue creature might look like a single jellyfish...

Memory plays a critical role in learning and survival across species. Particularly in primates, social interaction significantly shapes how memory develops and functions. 



Primates, from monkeys to great apes, spend substantial time in social environments, making it crucial for them to observe and learn from others effectively.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-social-interactions-among-primates">Social interactions among primates</h2>



Primates live closely together in groups. They rely heavily on noticing social signals from others, like facial expressions and gestures.



From birth, primates naturally focus more on interacting with each other than with objects or things.



This strong preference for social interaction helps them develop important skills, especially in how they learn and remember information. 



Paying attention to others is crucial for their brain development and memory formation, influencing how primates learn and adapt throughout life.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-social-interactions-boost-ape-memory">Social interactions boost ape memory</h2>



A team of researchers from the Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology in Leipzig, Germany, examined how social interactions affect memory in great apes.



They presented both young and adult apes with videos showing a human hand (social model) or a mechanical claw (non-social model) constructing a tower.



"We found that apes better remembered a tower when they saw a hand building it rather than a mechanical claw. This is because they paid more attention to the actions of a social being rather than a machine," noted Marie Padberg, the first author of the study.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-attention-improves-social-memory">Attention improves social memory</h2>



To understand this better, the researchers partnered with the <a href="https://www.unisa.edu.au" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of South Australia</a>. They used artificial intelligence (AI) to analyze regular video recordings of the apes. 



The AI technology measured the apes' heart rates to determine their attention levels during the experiment.



The results showed that apes paid more attention during social demonstrations. Higher attention was directly linked to better memory, showing how closely attention and memory are connected.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-processing-social-stimuli">Processing social stimuli</h2>



Interestingly, improved memory for social events was evident only in adult apes. Younger apes, including juveniles and infants, did not show memory enhancement when viewing social models. 



This outcome differs from humans, who exhibit superior social memory from infancy. These findings suggest a developmental difference between humans and other apes in processing social stimuli.



Study senior author Daniel Haun is the director of the Department of Comparative Cultural Psychology at the Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology.



"Non-human ape infants and juveniles did not show superior memory for social events. There could be several reasons for this, including the nature of the objects, the complexity of the task, or the duration of the videos," noted Haun.



"Further research is needed to determine whether superior social memory at younger ages is truly a uniquely human phenomenon."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-developmental-timing-and-memory">Developmental timing and memory</h2>



This study highlights how important the timing of cognitive development is in primates. It suggests that non-human primates, like apes, might only show improved memory from social interactions as they grow older.



Younger apes do not experience this benefit early in life, unlike human infants who show strong social memory from birth. 



By understanding these differences in developmental timing, scientists can better distinguish how human thinking differs from that of other primates.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-social-memory-across-apes">Social memory across apes</h2>



The research took place at the <a href="https://www.eva.mpg.de/comparative-cultural-psychology/studying-non-human-primates/wolfgang-koehler-primate-research-center/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Wolfgang Köhler Primate Research Center</a> in Leipzig, Germany. 



The scientists studied 42 great apes, including chimpanzees, bonobos, gorillas, and orangutans. These apes ranged in age from as young as 3 months to as old as 47 years.



This study is the first to investigate how social memory develops as apes grow older. The results represent an important step forward in understanding similarities and differences between human and ape psychology.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-research-directions">Future research directions</h2>



The detailed results are published in the journal Animal Behaviour. They show how paying attention to social interactions helps improve memory in different species.



Future research may explore how the difficulty of tasks, familiarity with objects, and interactions within social groups affect memory. These studies will help scientists understand more clearly how both humans and other primates develop and use social memory.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0003347225000089?via%3Dihub" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Animal Behaviour</a>.



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Social interactions have a surprising influence on memory in great apes

Memory plays a critical role in learning and survival across...

The natural environment is repeatedly reinventing itself with dynamic processes which have a tendency to continue on for millions of years. Extinction events are among the strongest forces which not only kill specific life forms but also offer the basis for fresh avenues of evolution. 



A recent study evokes a fascinating image of the process, revealing how the death of the largest dinosaurs indirectly created the fruit-rich habitats which were so important to our primate ancestors.



The research was led by Christopher Doughty, an ecoinformatics professor at <a href="https://nau.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Northern Arizona University</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-prehistoric-legacy">A prehistoric legacy</h2>



Sauropods, the long-necked, plant-munching dinosaurs of the ancient world, had a massive influence on the world around them. These hulking dinosaurs knocked over trees on a routine basis and munched through tons of plant matter. 



When Sauropods went extinct some 66 million years ago, their loss profoundly changed ecosystems. Forests rebounded and closed up, which decreased the amount of sunlight on the ground and paved the way for an impressive evolutionary shift.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-sauropods-and-ecological-change">Sauropods and ecological change</h2>



The extinction of Sauropods enabled trees to evolve without interruptions. The forests became denser, and tree competition for light intensified. 



Trees developed larger fruits and seeds to dominate others, and these provided their offspring with an advantage over others by supplying them with additional energy and greater survival chances in shaded conditions.



"At first glance, the darker forest understory caused by dinosaur extinctions may seem unimportant, but it could have directly led to the evolution of our fruit-eating primate ancestors," said Professor Doughty.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-dinosaur-fruit-connection">The dinosaur-fruit connection</h2>



Before the dinosaurs went extinct, fruits were scarce, and seeds were small. But with the ecological niche left open by the sauropods, plants evolved immediately. 



Stronger seedlings, with larger seeds, were able to compete for limited sunlight. In addition, fleshy fruits evolved as an incredibly efficient way of enticing animals to scatter seeds and reproduce.



Even though this evolution scenario was previously theorized, no fossil records existed to conform the hypothesis.



To investigate, Professor Doughty and his team developed a cutting-edge model of seed and fruit size evolution after the dinosaurs became extinct. The model precisely replicated fossil records for the last 65 million years and decisively substantiated the hypothesis.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-reversal-of-dinosaur-driven-fruit-trends">Reversal of dinosaur-driven fruit trends</h2>



Interestingly, the model also forecasted a future reversal of seed evolutionary patterns. 



Seeds began to shrink about 35 million years ago. This coincided with the appearance of new large mammals that were successful in duplicating, though on a smaller scale, the forest-clearing behavior previously shown by sauropods.



"Our model predicted these animals would open the forest enough that sufficient light began to enter the understory, and larger seeds were no longer successful over smaller seeds," explained Doughty. 



"The evolutionary pressure for seed size to increase began to diminish. Thus, we were able to explain the trends in seed size over time without resorting to external influences such as climate change."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-megafauna-extinction-and-ecological-reset">Megafauna extinction and ecological reset</h2>



About 50,000 years ago, large mammals like mammoths went extinct. These animals previously opened forests by knocking down trees and clearing vegetation. Their extinction allowed forests to become dense and dark again. 



With less sunlight reaching the forest floor, plants adapted by producing larger seeds. This highlights how big animals shape their environment, influencing the evolution of plants.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-humans-as-ecosystem-shapers">Humans as ecosystem shapers </h2>



Modern human activity mimics the prehistoric impacts of the giants. Current selective forest harvesting mimics the prehistoric pressure imposed by dinosaurs on seed size and dispersal.



But if humans stop modifying forest structure and are not substituted by other megafauna, forests will shift back to more dense, dark structures, and this may trigger another evolutionary adjustment towards larger seeds. 



"These results provide a striking example of how large dinosaurs - and their eventual extinction - not only shaped their contemporary environment but also triggered cascading effects on ecosystems for millions of years," said Benjamin Wiebe, an NAU researcher.



"The next time you're eating fruit or pondering, 'why am I here,' consider the impact of the dinosaur extinctions."



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/epdf/10.1111/pala.70002" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Palaeontology</a>.



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How dinosaur extinction influenced fruit evolution

The natural environment is repeatedly reinventing itself with dynamic processes...

Gas,Methane,Bubbles,Frozen,In,Winter,Ice,Of,Lake,Baikal,

These frozen bubbles of methane gas are eerily beautiful, but don't let appearances fool you. Methane is a powerful greenhouse gas that is often overshadowed by carbon dioxide in discussions on climate change, even though the impact of methane is far more serious.



The effects of industrial pollution, car emissions, deforestation and agriculture are usually central when we consider the forces driving climate change. 



However, researchers have now uncovered an unexpected and significant source of methane emissions, hidden beneath the icy landscapes of the Arctic.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-methane-is-a-potent-climate-driver">Methane is a potent climate driver</h2>



As powerhouse greenhouse gas, methane doesn’t get as much attention as <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/global-carbon-dioxide-emissions-hit-a-record-high-in-2023/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">carbon dioxide</a>. However, it’s way more potent - about 80 times more effective at trapping heat in the atmosphere over 20 years. 



Methane comes from natural sources like wetlands and termites, but human activities crank up emissions big time. 



Livestock, landfills, and oil and gas operations release massive amounts of methane into the air. Cows, for example, burp out methane as they digest food (yep, cow burps are a real climate problem). 



Meanwhile, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rising-methane-emissions-threaten-earths-habitability/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">leaks from fossil fuel</a> extraction and pipelines quietly pump methane into the atmosphere, making the issue even worse.



The problem? Methane doesn’t stick around as long as CO₂ - only about 12 years - but in that short time, it does serious damage. 



Cutting methane emissions could quickly slow global warming, making it one of the fastest ways to fight climate change.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-investigating-methane-leaks-from-glaciers">Investigating methane leaks from glaciers</h2>



Gabrielle Kleber and Leonard Magerl, postdoctoral researchers from <a href="https://ic3.uit.no/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">UiT</a>, The Arctic University of Norway’s iC3 (Centre for Ice, Cryosphere, Carbon, and Climate), have discovered that Arctic glaciers are not as innocent as they may seem.



Beneath their icy veneer, these glaciers are leaking substantial amounts of methane into the atmosphere. 



This revelation stems from studies conducted at Vallåkrabreen, a small valley glacier that is situated in central Svalbard.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-glaciers-and-methane-levels">Glaciers and methane levels</h2>



The researchers measured methane levels in groundwater springs and the melt river that drains from the glacier. The findings were remarkable.



The methane levels in the melt river were found to be up to 800 times higher than the equilibrium level in the atmosphere, hitting a peak concentration of 3,170 nanomolar early in the melt season.



"We expected to see some methane in the meltwater, but the concentrations we measured were surprisingly high," explained Gabrielle, highlighting the unexpected magnitude of the problem.



"Our isotopic analysis showed that this methane is geologic in origin and is released as the glacier retreats and glacial meltwater flushes through fractures in the rock." 



Interestingly, the source of this methane was not microbial activity beneath the ice, which had been suspected in research in other glacial settings.



Instead, the methane originated from ancient <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/knipovich-ridge-new-hydrothermal-field-arctic-intense-geological-activity/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">geological formations</a>, and had been trapped in the region for millions of years.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-methane-and-glacial-fracking">Methane and "glacial fracking"</h2>



The further the researchers ventured into their investigation, the more they discovered about the role of glaciers in methane emissions. 



The scientists have likened the process to a natural form of fracking, coining the term "glacial fracking" to describe this phenomenon, whereby the glaciers essentially act as colossal covers that bury methane under the ground. 



However, as they melt, the water flushes the gas through cracks in the bedrock, ushering the methane above ground and into the atmosphere.



This process is not limited to just one glacier. 



The researchers estimated that similar mechanisms could be in effect at hundreds of other glaciers across Svalbard, with over 1,400 land-terminating glaciers situated on the archipelago, many of which overlie methane-rich bedrock.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-feedback-loop">Climate feedback loop</h2>



The implications of this research extend far beyond Svalbard as well, to the broader Arctic region and, indeed, the whole planet.



The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/arctic-ocean-warming-four-times-faster-than-global-average/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Arctic is experiencing warming</a> at a rate four times the global average, and its glaciers are retreating at an alarming pace.



As they shrink, more methane could be released, setting up what scientists call a positive feedback loop, where warming accelerates glacial melting, setting free more methane, which then intensifies warming and further melting.



"Methane is a much more powerful <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/greenhouse-gas-emissions-reach-another-all-time-high/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">greenhouse gas</a> than carbon dioxide over short timescales. Even though these emissions are seasonal, they could add up as more glaciers retreat," warned the research team, emphasizing the potential global climate repercussions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-s-next-for-glaciers-and-methane">What's next for glaciers and methane?</h2>



These findings highlight the importance of understanding the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/arctic-waters-are-emitting-more-carbon-as-they-continue-to-warm/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Arctic carbon cycle</a> and the impact climate change has on it. 



Future research will aim to reassess methane budgets in the Arctic, incorporating glacial emissions alongside permafrost thaw and wetland methane fluxes. 



While this study represents a significant first step, more research is needed in order to discern the full scale of the problem.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://bg.copernicus.org/articles/22/659/2025/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Biogeosciences</a>.



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Massive new source of leaking methane gas emissions discovered

These frozen bubbles of methane gas are eerily beautiful, but...

Nature’s fury is most vividly displayed in hurricanes - powerful storms that can devastate coastal communities. As climate patterns shift and environmental changes accelerate, these storms pose an increasing threat.



Effective forecasting and preparedness remain critical tools to safeguard vulnerable populations, infrastructure, and economies from <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/the-next-big-solar-storm-could-plunge-us-into-darkness/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">devastating impacts</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hurricane-activity-is-set-to-increase">Hurricane activity is set to increase</h2>



A recent study from the University of Reading concludes that hurricanes will strengthen and become more frequent in the Atlantic and the eastern Pacific within the next decade.



The coasts of North and Central America, which have already experienced severe <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/hurricane-helene-a-glimpse-into-the-future-of-natural-disasters/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">weather conditions</a>, must prepare to face more dangers. This means that accurate long-term forecasts are essential for timely precautionary measures.



Using sophisticated forecasting computer programs developed by the <a href="https://www.metoffice.gov.uk" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">UK Met Office</a>, scientists were able to successfully predict hurricane activity ten years ahead. The findings indicate tropical cyclone activity in the Atlantic would be over twice that of the 1970s.



At the same time, hurricane counts in the eastern Pacific would increase by over a third, leading to a dramatic surge in storm threats to coastal communities.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-storm-energy-will-double">Storm energy will double</h2>



Apart from frequency, the researchers indicated an increase in the total storm energy predicted. Storm energy, with consideration to frequency, intensity, and hurricane duration, captures the full view of hurricane risks. 



The experts predict that storm energy in the North Atlantic will double compared to the 1970s, creating more powerful and devastating <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-has-amplified-hurricane-strength/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">storms</a>.



Paul-Arthur Monerie, the lead scientist at the <a href="https://www.reading.ac.uk" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Reading</a>'s National Centre for Atmospheric Science, emphasized the value of enhanced forecasting.



"Until now, hurricane predictions have been like trying to see through a dense fog as we could only make out what was directly ahead of us," he noted.



"Better forecasting clears that fog away, revealing patterns years into the future. This advancement gives coastal communities precious time to prepare. Our study shows hurricane activity is set to increase through 2030, giving everyone more time to prepare and protect themselves."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-warmer-oceans-fuel-hurricane-activity">Warmer oceans fuel hurricane activity</h2>



The researchers approached the study in a direct fashion by monitoring specific hurricanes through climate model simulations.



Previous long-range hurricane prediction relied on indirect measures like sea surface temperature or atmospheric pressure trends. Real-time storm monitoring maximizes precision and offers valuable data regarding impending hurricane <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/coastal-cities-are-increasingly-vulnerable-to-hurricanes/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">activity</a>.



Higher ocean surface temperatures, particularly in the Atlantic, are driving the increase in hurricane activity. Higher temperatures provide the additional energy needed for storms to form and intensify.



With warmer ocean water, the hurricanes intensify faster and produce more powerful and destructive storms.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-changing-winds-and-coastal-infrastructure">Changing winds and coastal infrastructure</h2>



Another important factor in the projected rise in hurricane activity is changing atmospheric wind patterns. Variations in wind speed and direction at different altitudes of the atmosphere are conducive to the formation and strengthening of hurricanes.



Changes in the atmosphere are governed by natural climate variability and longer-term climate trends associated with global warming.



The projected increase in hurricane activity poses catastrophic threats to coastal infrastructure. Greater storm intensity and frequency have the potential to result in widespread damage to homes, roads, power lines, and critical services.



Planned infrastructure adaptation, including resilient building techniques and enhanced drainage, will increasingly play a vital role in reducing future <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/coastal-hurricanes-are-intensifying-faster-due-to-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">storm effects</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-emergency-management-strategies">Emergency management strategies </h2>



Societies exposed to heightened hurricane threats need to enhance their emergency management strategies. 



This involves well-established evacuation procedures, strong emergency communication systems, and comprehensive public education campaigns.



Proper management and preparedness can significantly minimize casualties and economic losses despite heightened hurricane threats. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-call-for-immediate-action">Call for immediate action</h2>



The research offers valuable information to communities to inform planning. Long-term forecasts enable communities to establish metrics for improving resilience and reducing damage.



Integrating science research into community planning enables local governments to manage and reduce hurricane hazards. 



With the urgent forecasts, governments, policymakers, and communities should take immediate action. Investments must be made in disaster preparedness, climate resilience, and adaptation.



With reliable forecasting now serving as unmistakable warning, communities have a rare opportunity to anticipate and prepare to safeguard themselves from increasingly menacing hurricane and storm threats.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41612-025-00919-y" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">npj Climate and Atmospheric Science</a>.



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How hurricane activity will change over the next decade

Nature’s fury is most vividly displayed in hurricanes - powerful...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2E0mn5mTvhQ
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">'Death Star' moon Mimas conceals a 15-million-year-old ocean that scientists never expected.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hidden-waters-beneath-ancient-craters">Hidden waters beneath ancient craters</h2>



Scientists have made a startling discovery that challenges everything we thought we knew about <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/saturn-moon-mimas-has-remarkably-young-ocean/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Saturn's moon Mimas</a>. Beneath the heavily cratered surface that earned it the nickname "Death Star" lies a global ocean that formed just 5 to 15 million years ago—a remarkably young age by cosmic standards.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cassini-data-reveals-orbital-secrets">Cassini data reveals orbital secrets</h2>



The discovery, led by Dr. Valéry Lainey of the <a href="https://observatoiredeparis.psl.eu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Observatoire de Paris</a>, emerged from careful analysis of <a href="https://www.nasa.gov" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NASA</a>'s Cassini spacecraft data. By studying subtle irregularities in Mimas's orbit around Saturn, researchers detected the gravitational signature of liquid water hidden 20 to 30 kilometers beneath the moon's icy shell.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-an-unlikely-ocean-world">An unlikely ocean world</h2>



At only 400 kilometers in diameter, Mimas seemed like the least likely candidate to harbor a subsurface ocean. Unlike other ocean moons such as Europa and Enceladus, which show clear surface signs of internal activity, Mimas displays no obvious hints of the liquid water beneath its ancient, crater-scarred exterior.



"Mimas is a small moon, and its heavily cratered surface gave no hint of the hidden ocean beneath," explained Dr. Nick Cooper from <a href="https://www.qmul.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Queen Mary University of London</a>, a study co-author.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-astrobiology">Implications for astrobiology</h2>



The ocean's recent formation makes Mimas a prime target for studying how oceans develop and potentially support life. This discovery adds another member to the exclusive club of ocean worlds in our solar system, each offering unique insights into the conditions necessary for habitability.



The research, published in <a href="https://www.nature.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature</a> journal, demonstrates how advanced orbital analysis can reveal hidden features of celestial bodies, opening new possibilities for understanding ocean formation throughout the cosmos.



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Scientists discover unexpected young ocean on Saturn's cratered moon Mimas

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2E0mn5mTvhQ 'Death Star' moon Mimas conceals a 15-million-year-old ocean that...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE
</div></figure>



On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop and sunlight barely penetrates through the polar winter. It was here, however, that an international team of scientists found <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/predatory-worms-were-terror-beasts-half-a-billion-years-ago/#google_vignette" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evidence of sea monsters</a> that would change our understanding of ocean life in the past.



This video captures the discovery of Timorebestia fossils that had been hidden for more than 500 million years in the Sirius Passet formation. The "terror beasts," as they are called, are a hidden chapter in the evolutionary history of <a href="https://www.earth.com" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Earth</a>, showing that sophisticated predator-prey interactions occurred much earlier than previously envisioned.



Dr. Jakob Vinther and his research team at the <a href="https://www.bristol.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Bristol</a>, in collaboration with researchers at the <a href="https://eng.kopri.re.kr/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Korean Polar Research Institute</a>, braved extreme weather conditions at 82.5 north latitude to locate these giant creatures. Using sophisticated electron microprobe analysis, they revealed the detailed anatomy of the animals, including their muscle and nerve tissues.



The find upsets the traditional timeline of sea predators. Although we've long appreciated that Cambrian oceans were at one time ruled by <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jWI3-UgA3_o&amp;list=PL1QLQMW9MWDwpkFOnvgAmu7wT6rZmYqdJ&amp;index=19" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">arthropods</a>, these discoveries indicate that relatives of arrow worms were first to dominate the seas. These worms were building sophisticated food webs several million years before other predator groups arose.



Each fossil is a story of ancient hunger, with fossil stomach contents revealing these meter-long beasts dined on heavily armored arthropods regularly, cementing their place as the ocean's first apex predators.



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Worms dominated seas before dinosaurs

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">New York is the site of the world's oldest forest.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-385-million-year-old-trees-discovered">385-million-year-old trees discovered</h2>



Scientists have uncovered something extraordinary just two hours north of New York City. The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/worlds-oldest-forest-discovered-close-to-new-york-city/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">world's oldest forest</a>, dating back 385 million years, offers a window into how Earth's first complex forests shaped our planet's atmosphere.



Located near <a href="https://townofcairo.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cairo, New York</a>, in Greene County, these weren't merely primitive plants struggling to survive. These were sophisticated trees with root systems remarkably similar to modern forests. This ancient woodland predates dinosaurs by 140 million years.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-cairo-forest-discovery">The Cairo forest discovery</h2>



385 million years ago, upstate New York was a tropical paradise near the equator. Thanks to continental drift, this ancient forest has traveled thousands of miles to its current location.



The fossil forest sits in an abandoned quarry, roughly half the size of a football field. This represents just a slice of what was likely a massive forest system stretching from New York into Pennsylvania.



Charles Ver Straeten, curator of sedimentary rocks at the <a href="https://www.nysm.nysed.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">New York State Museum</a>, made the discovery in 2009. While scouting the former highway department property, his trained eye spotted wandering patterns in the stone that looked like marine features.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-revolutionary-age-and-preservation">Revolutionary age and preservation</h2>



The site contains 385-million-year-old rocks with fossilized woody roots forming horizontal patterns up to 18 feet (5.5 meters) wide. As Christopher Berry, a paleobotanist at Cardiff University, explains: "You are walking through the roots of ancient trees."



This discovery pushes back advanced tree evolution by millions of years. The research, published in <a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/home" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Current Biology</a> in December 2019, fundamentally changes our understanding of when complex forests first emerged.



Researchers believe a massive flood buried the forest floor, creating perfect fossilization conditions. Over millions of years, sediment hardened into rock, preserving these root patterns like nature's time capsule.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-meet-archaeopteris-the-first-modern-tree">Meet Archaeopteris: the first modern tree</h2>



The star of this ancient forest is Archaeopteris – not to be confused with the feathered dinosaur Archaeopteryx. This tree was far older and more revolutionary.



William Stein from <a href="https://www.binghamton.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Binghamton University</a> describes the roots as "strikingly modern, essentially what you'd see outside in my yard right now." These weren't simple root systems you'd expect from ancient plants.



Some fossilized roots are six inches (15 centimeters) in diameter, forming 36-foot-wide (11-meter) patterns. These giants grew up to 65 feet (20 meters) tall with five-foot-diameter (1.5-meter) trunks.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-changing-impact">Climate-changing impact</h2>



These trees fundamentally changed Earth's environment. Kevin Boyce, a Stanford University geoscientist, explains how their deep roots triggered "weathering," chemical reactions that pulled carbon dioxide from the atmosphere.



This process dropped atmospheric CO2 levels from 10-15 times higher than today to roughly modern concentrations. These ancient trees helped create atmospheric conditions that made complex life possible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ancient-forest-ecosystem">Ancient forest ecosystem</h2>



The forest was remarkably diverse. Scientists identified Eospermatopteris, palm tree-like plants with short roots that reached 30 feet (9 meters) tall but lacked woody structure. The forest also housed cladoxylopsids and a mysterious third species still being studied.



All reproduced through spores rather than seeds – millions of years before seeds evolved. This tropical environment had no grass, flowers, or flying insects, just towering trees creating Earth's first complex forest canopy.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-scientific-significance">Scientific significance</h2>



Before this finding, the Gilboa forest, located 25 miles (40 kilometers) away, held the "oldest forest" title. Cairo's trees are 2-3 million years older, showing that complex forest ecosystems developed much faster than scientists believed possible.



Patricia Gensel, a <a href="https://www.unc.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of North Carolina</a> paleobotanist, notes: "The size of those root systems is really changing the picture. Even 20 years ago, researchers assumed trees with such complex root systems didn't evolve so early."



The Cairo site presents three unique root systems, suggesting Devonian period forests were diverse ecosystems with different trees occupying different environmental niches, much like today's forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-modern-preservation-efforts">Modern preservation efforts</h2>



In 2022, New York State Senator Michelle Hinchey secured a $170,000 grant for the town of Cairo to construct specialized fencing around the fossil forest site. The town plans to conduct a feasibility study exploring the possibility of creating an educational center and working lab on-site.



Joe Hasenkopf, chair of the Cairo Planning Board, hopes to partner with educational institutions to create a research facility serving scientists, students, and the public.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lessons-for-today-s-climate">Lessons for today's climate</h2>



Why does a 385-million-year-old forest matter today? It shows how dramatically forests can change Earth's climate. These ancient woodlands created the atmospheric conditions supporting complex life.



Understanding how prehistoric forests transformed the planet helps us appreciate modern forests' critical role in addressing climate change. Forests remain Earth's most effective carbon capture systems.



These prehistoric trees changed Earth's atmosphere by pulling massive amounts of carbon dioxide from the air. As we face modern climate challenges, this ancient forest reminds us of trees' incredible power to transform our planet's environment.



The next time you walk through a forest, remember you're experiencing an ecosystem whose blueprint was established 385 million years ago in upstate New York. These ancient pioneers didn't just survive – they thrived and changed the world forever.



The full study was published in the journal Current Biology.



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Earth's oldest forest found in the United States

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ New York is the site of the world's oldest...

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https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Acid rain and a crisis solved.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-don-t-we-ever-hear-about-acid-rain-anymore-the-environmental-crisis-that-was-solved">Why don't we ever hear about "acid rain" anymore? The environmental crisis that was solved</h2>



Remember the 1980s when acid rain dominated headlines? Dire warnings about rain eating buildings, killing fish, and destroying forests filled every news cycle. Then, almost like magic, acid rain vanished from public discourse. What happened? Did we actually solve one of the late 20th century's most pressing environmental challenges?



The answer might surprise you. Unlike many environmental issues that drag on indefinitely, acid rain represents one of modern history's most successful ecological recovery stories. It's a tale of science, politics, and technology working together to tackle what seemed impossible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What was acid rain?</h2>



Acid rain isn't regular rain having a bad day – it's precipitation that became significantly more acidic due to air pollution. When power plants, factories, and vehicles burn fossil fuels, they release sulfur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides (NOx) into the atmosphere.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The science behind it</h2>



Think of acid rain as nature's chemistry experiment gone wrong. These compounds react with water, oxygen, and other chemicals to form sulfuric and nitric acids. When mixed with water vapor in clouds, they create precipitation with dangerously low pH levels.



While clean rain has a pH of about 5.6, acid rain could drop as low as 4.2 to 4.4 – roughly as acidic as tomato juice or coffee. According to US Geological Survey documentation, Scottish chemist Angus Smith first coined "acid rain" in 1872, but it didn't become a household phrase until the 1960s and 1970s when Swedish scientist Svante Odén documented its devastating effects on Scandinavian lakes and European forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The crisis at its peak</h2>



During the height of public concern, environmental damage was both widespread and visible. This wasn't some abstract future threat – people could see destruction happening in real-time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Environmental devastation</h2>



The most dramatic impacts were impossible to ignore. Research documented by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation and the New York State Department of Environmental Conservation shows that in the Adirondack Mountains, more than 200 lakes became so acidic they couldn't support fish life. The Adirondack Council reports that 409 lakes once supported brook trout, but many lost their fish populations due to acid rain.



By 1976, when scientists cataloged all acidified lakes in the Adirondack Park, researchers found that half of the lakes over 2,000 feet above sea level had no fish, according to studies published in environmental journals. The acidification process worked like a slow-motion disaster. As acid rain fell into watersheds, it gradually lowered pH levels. Fish couldn't survive in acidic water, and their food sources died off too.



Trees at high elevations showed stress directly linked to acid rain. It weakened them by leaching nutrients and making them susceptible to disease. Historical records show Germany's Black Forest saw nearly half its trees damaged by the mid-1980s.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Economic impact</h2>



Acid rain wasn't just environmental – it was expensive. Acidic precipitation corroded infrastructure, buildings, and monuments. Historic stone structures deteriorated at accelerated rates. Tourism suffered as lakes became fishless and forests declined. EPA economic analyses from the period documented repair costs mounting into billions annually.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The solution: government action and technology</h2>



Transformation from crisis to success required unprecedented cooperation between governments, industries, and environmental groups.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The Clean Air Act of 1990</h2>



The turning point came with the Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990, signed by President George H.W. Bush. This represented a fundamentally new approach to environmental regulation, as documented in EPA historical records.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Cap-and-trade success</h2>



Instead of mandating specific technologies, the 1990 amendments introduced something revolutionary: a cap-and-trade system for sulfur dioxide emissions. EPA program documentation shows this market-based approach set overall limits but allowed companies to trade emission allowances.



The genius was harnessing market forces to find cost-effective pollution reduction. Companies reducing emissions cheaply could sell excess allowances to those facing higher costs. Research published in environmental economics journals and EPA progress reports shows this resulted in dramatic SO2 reduction at a fraction of projected costs.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Technology advances</h2>



Policy provided the framework, but technology made reductions possible. Studies in atmospheric science journals document the widespread adoption of flue gas desulfurization systems ("scrubbers") that removed sulfur dioxide before it reached the atmosphere. By the 2000s, new installations could remove over 95% of SO2 emissions, according to EPA technical reports.



The push coincided with cleaner energy development. Natural gas produces fewer sulfur compounds than coal. Wind and solar, emerging in the 1990s, captured growing market share, reducing reliance on high-sulfur coal.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-we-don-t-hear-about-it-today">Why we don't hear about it today</h2>



Why did acid rain disappear from headlines? Simple: the problem was largely solved.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Success doesn't make news</h2>



There's an old journalism saying: "If it bleeds, it leads." Environmental success stories don't generate urgency like crisis reporting. Media attention shifted to other challenges: climate change, plastic pollution, and biodiversity loss. There's only so much environmental anxiety the public can absorb, and newer concerns replaced acid rain.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Mission accomplished</h2>



The primary reason is beautifully simple: interventions worked. EPA monitoring data shows sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990. Academic research published in environmental science journals confirms pH levels in formerly affected areas returned closer to normal. This represents one of history's most dramatic environmental recoveries. Studies by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation show fishless lakes now support healthy populations. Forests recovered, and building damage slowed dramatically.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-is-it-really-gone">Is it really gone?</h2>



The crisis is largely resolved, but monitoring data shows the problem isn't completely eliminated – it's managed to acceptable levels. Some areas still experience occasional events during high pollution periods. International environmental research indicates that rapidly industrializing Asian countries face similar problems to what we experienced decades ago, though they're implementing successful strategies.



EPA research shows nitrogen oxide emissions proved more challenging than sulfur dioxide, coming from vehicles and mobile sources. Climate science studies suggest changing weather patterns add complexity to how acid rain forms and falls.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What this teaches us</h2>



The acid rain experience proves that seemingly intractable environmental problems can be solved with scientific understanding, political will, and technological innovation. Environmental monitoring data shows recovery speed was remarkable – within a decade, measurable improvements appeared in air quality and ecosystem health.



Success came from bipartisan support across party lines. Policy analysis studies show the market-based approach appealed to those preferring economic incentives while achieving environmental goals. This support created lasting policy surviving political changes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Conclusion</h2>



Acid rain's disappearance from public consciousness represents environmental science's greatest success stories. Through effective regulation, technological innovation, and international cooperation, we transformed an overwhelming crisis into a manageable challenge.



Today's silence isn't because we forgot – it's because we solved it. The 1990 Clean Air Act, combined with technology and energy market changes, reduced acid rain emissions over 90%, according to comprehensive EPA data analysis.



This success offers hope for current challenges. It proves complex problems can be solved when science, policy, and technology work together. As we face climate change and plastic pollution, acid rain reminds us that dramatic positive change is possible.



Next time someone asks whether environmental regulations work, remember acid rain. It's proof that sometimes, we get it right.



<hr class="wp-block-separator has-alpha-channel-opacity"/>



Sources: This article draws from EPA official documentation and progress reports, peer-reviewed research published in environmental and atmospheric science journals, historical data from the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation, New York State Department of Environmental Conservation records, US Geological Survey publications, policy analysis studies, and environmental monitoring data collected over three decades.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Frequently Asked Questions</h2>



1. Is acid rain completely gone? No, but EPA monitoring shows it's reduced to manageable levels. US sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990, making acid rain much less severe than the 1980s crisis.



2. How long did solving take? Environmental monitoring data shows significant improvements began within 5-10 years of 1990s emission controls. Full ecosystem recovery took longer – some areas need 20-30 years for complete recovery.



3. What made the solution successful? Clear scientific understanding, visible damage motivating action, bipartisan support, available technology, and innovative market-based policies like cap-and-trade.



4. Do other countries have acid rain problems? Yes, particularly rapidly industrializing Asian countries. However, international environmental research shows many implement similar successful control strategies.



5. Could acid rain return? Potentially, if regulations weaken or we return to high-sulfur coal without controls, though effects would take years to become severe according to environmental projections.



6. Can you recommend any teaching tools on the subject of "acid rain"? The United States Environmental Protection Agency produced a wonderful teacher's guide for ages 14 and under that you can find on the EPA website here: <a href="https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf</a>



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The environmental problem we actually solved

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk Acid rain and a crisis solved. Why don't we...

Fresh,Radish,Harvest,On,Soil,In,Garden.

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</div></figure>







Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving fall garden, and this guide lays out the best vegetables and herbs to plant now for a fruitful autumn harvest. 



Fast-growing leafy greens such as spinach, lettuce, kale, and arugula perform especially well in the waning summer heat, with harvests beginning as soon as 30 days. 



These cool-season crops relish the transition into fall, offering repeated yields with cut-and-come-again methods.



Root vegetables like radishes, carrots, and beets also excel during this period. Radishes deliver satisfaction in under a month, while carrots and beets mature in about two months. Employing succession planting ensures a continuous stream of produce deep into the cooler months. 



For a boost of fresh flavor, herbs like cilantro, basil, dill, and chervil are excellent picks. These heat-loving varieties flourish in July’s warmth and are harvest-ready in about 30 days, especially when sown continuously.



Gardeners in zones 6 through 9 can benefit from planting bush beans and snap peas, which don’t require trellising and are ideal for compact plots. 



Maturing in 50–60 days, they’re a smart choice for quick, protein-rich harvests. For those in hotter regions, heat-tolerant crops such as okra and southern peas provide reliable yields and thrive in scorching conditions.



This guide emphasizes more than crop selection—it highlights the importance of timing, soil preparation, and ongoing sowing techniques. 



With thoughtful planning and attention to regional climate needs, even late-summer gardeners can enjoy fresh salads, hearty stews, and the satisfaction of a robust, homegrown harvest well into fall.



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What to plant in your garden in mid-July

https://youtu.be/Fi2OeEwuzRM?si=vTyd2m9FMmtyWkex Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving...

Green,Ecoduct,Over,An,Empty,Highway,During,Sunset.

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https://youtu.be/XYgiPzmNBTU?si=eFYY7gPHU1JznLvU
</div></figure>



A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that wildlife tunnels significantly reduce amphibian road mortality during seasonal migrations. 



Frogs and salamanders often cross roads to reach breeding ponds each spring, but many are killed by vehicles. 



Researchers from the <a href="https://www.uvm.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Vermont</a>, in collaboration with local citizens and the Vermont Agency of Natural Resources, installed two underpass tunnels in 2015. 



Over a 12-year monitoring period, they observed an 80.2% reduction in amphibian deaths, and up to 94% for non-climbing species like salamanders. 



The study used a before-after-control-impact design and documented more than 5,200 amphibians, highlighting the tunnels’ effectiveness even in nearby buffer zones.



Funded at $342,397 - far cheaper than wildlife crossings for large mammals - the project showcased the power of community-led conservation.



Local groups initiated the effort after observing mass amphibian deaths. Wildlife cameras later captured over 2,200 amphibians using a tunnel in just one spring, along with other species like raccoons and bobcats, indicating wider ecosystem benefits.



This marks the first peer-reviewed, long-term data set in the northeastern U.S. confirming amphibian-specific underpasses work. 



The study urges transportation departments to incorporate these designs into road planning and highlights how community action, thoughtful infrastructure, and persistence can make a real difference for biodiversity.



The full study was published in the <a href="https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1617138125000780" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal for Nature Conservation</a>.



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Wildlife tunnels save millions of amphibians

https://youtu.be/XYgiPzmNBTU?si=eFYY7gPHU1JznLvU A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that...

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing it with probiotics and prebiotics, aiming to create a treat that satisfies cravings while supporting gut health. 



The challenge lies in maintaining chocolate's beloved texture and flavor while adding health benefits.



<figure class="wp-block-embed aligncenter is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://youtu.be/Ug657J67iEo?si=w96YjGMsg939LD_3
</div></figure>



Probiotics - beneficial microbes that balance gut bacteria and aid digestion - are typically fragile and can be destroyed by stomach acid or processing. 



Prebiotics act as food for these microbes, helping them thrive. Together, they form "synbiotics," a powerful health combination.



Researchers Smriti Gaur and Shubhi Singh from India's Jaypee Institute of Information Technology took an innovative approach, using natural prebiotics like corn and honey instead of complex processing methods. 



They created five chocolate varieties: a control and four synbiotic versions containing different combinations of prebiotics, probiotics (Lactobacillus strains), and flavor enhancers (cinnamon or orange).



Laboratory simulations of human digestion showed the probiotics remained viable for over five hours, suggesting they could survive long enough to benefit gut health.



Taste tests were positive, with researchers particularly enjoying the orange-flavored variety, describing it as having "vibrant citrus notes" complementing the "rich cocoa" with a "luxurious" texture.



This research represents just the beginning. With further refinement of strains, textures, and flavors, chocolate could evolve beyond mere indulgence to become a functional food that nourishes while it delights.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.4c00741" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ACS Food Science &amp; Technology</a>.

Is chocolate the next nutritional powerhouse?

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

[sendtonews key="0ynNMYkMKa-2340414-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

[sendtonews key="G9bUoxcjr4-2511624-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="3upvlAaHgO-2256633-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

[sendtonews key="3upvlAaHgO-2256633-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

[sendtonews key="LvS8v8bp9z-2564889-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How does salt makes things taste better?

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Santiago, Chile in South America

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Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.



According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."



Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;



ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. 



Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

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Earth,Like,Exoplanet,3d,Render

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

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