Young aspen trees in Yellowstone are doing something they have not done in almost 100 years. Rather than sprouting and being eaten back to nubs by elk and bison, they're actually growing into tall, adult forest trees rising up towards the canopy.



This matters more than it might seem, because it shows what happens when a missing piece of an ecosystem returns.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-yellowstone-aspens-and-elk">Yellowstone, aspens, and elk</h2>



In the 1920s, people <a href="https://www.yellowstone.org/wolf-project/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">eliminated wolves in Yellowstone</a>. At the time, with limited scientific knowledge, managers believed it was the right thing to do.



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/from-wolves-to-dogs-did-domestication-begin-without-human-help/">Without wolves</a>, elk herds grew very large. Elk love to eat aspen shoots - the tender young growth is highly palatable to them.



For roughly 70 years, elk browsed aspen sprouts down to stub height, and the trees couldn't grow. 



If you had walked through Yellowstone in the 1980s, you would have seen many tiny aspen shoots covering the ground, but almost no young trees gaining height. 



The forest's regeneration was stalled. Old trees died, and no new ones replaced them.



In 1995 and 1996, park managers reintroduced wolves into the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/yellowstone-supervolcano-eruption-study-sparks-new-debate-on-where-and-when-it-will-erupt/">Yellowstone Park ecosystem</a>. Scientists hoped and wondered whether this would change anything for the trees.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-aspen-matter-to-yellowstone">Why aspen matter to Yellowstone</h2>



Aspen groves provide habitat for many species. Birds nest in them. Beavers eat the bark and use the wood for dams. Butterflies and moths lay eggs on the leaves. 



Their canopy admits enough light for wildflowers and shrubs to grow beneath. When it rains, aspen groves hold water in the soil better than some other forest types.



In short, when aspen return, dozens of other species benefit. More trees support more insects, which in turn support more birds, enriching the ecosystem.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-checking-the-trees-three-decades-later">Checking the trees three decades later</h2>



<a href="https://fwcs.oregonstate.edu/users/luke-painter" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Luke Painter</a>, an ecologist at <a href="https://oregonstate.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Oregon State University</a>, sought clear answers. His team returned to 87 aspen stands across Yellowstone that scientists had previously surveyed. 



They measured thousands of young trees, looked for bite marks, and counted how many stems were tall enough that elk could no longer reach the tips.



About a third of these stands now have many tall young aspens pushing toward the canopy. 



"About 26 of the 87 aspen stands we examined had large numbers of tall saplings throughout, a remarkable change from the 1990s when surveys found none at all," Painter said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-wolves-matter-to-yellowstone-aspens">Why wolves matter to Yellowstone aspens</h2>



Breaking it all down, the conclusions of this study are pretty simple. 



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/wolves-move-pups-across-mountains-to-adapt-to-climate-pressure/">Wolves hunt elk</a>. When wolves came back, two things happened. First, elk numbers declined from unusually high levels. Second, elk changed their behavior. They spent less time in the same areas feeding.



With fewer elk and shorter feeding bouts, more aspen shoots survived long enough to exceed the browsing zone - about six to seven feet high. 



Once a sapling reaches that height, elk cannot easily reach the growing tip. The tree continues to grow.



"The reintroduction of large carnivores has initiated a recovery process that had been shut down for decades," Painter explained.



Scientists call this a <a href="https://www.nature.com/scitable/knowledge/library/trophic-cascades-across-diverse-plant-ecosystems-80060347/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">trophic cascade</a> - when adding or removing one species causes changes that ripple through the whole system.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-some-places-recover-others-don-t">Some places recover, others don't</h2>



Unfortunately, not every aspen stand has recovered yet. Some valleys still have many short, heavily browsed shoots, because it's not only elk eating them anymore. 



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/yellowstones-iconic-bison-have-merged-into-a-single-herd/">Bison herds have grown</a>, and bison browse on aspen as well. They are strong enough to break young trees. 



"Increasing numbers of bison may be emerging as a new constraint to aspen in some areas," Painter confirmed.



Additionally, winter snow depth varies; droughts stress trees; bears and mountain lions also hunt elk; and hunting outside the park influences elk distribution. 



All of these factors interact, which is why some sites show strong recovery, others show moderate recovery, and a few have changed very little.



The key pattern is that places with many tall saplings experience little browsing, and aspen groves that remain popular eating grounds today stay short. 



This fact is the strongest indication that tree recovery is linked directly to wolf presence, not solely to weather or soil conditions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-proof-in-the-measurements">Proof in the measurements</h2>



Painter's team did not rely on casual observation. They used the same methods as earlier researchers, measuring the same plots. 



They counted recruitment - when young trees surpass browsing height and begin progressing toward maturity. This measure is crucial. Sprouts are insufficient if they never grow; without recruitment, the forest cannot replace itself.



The results are robust. After being stalled for most of a century, Yellowstone's aspens are increasing in height. In recovering stands today, you will see saplings - six, eight, or ten feet tall - that were not present in the 1990s.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-future-of-yellowstone-s-aspens">The future of Yellowstone's aspens</h2>



"This is a remarkable case of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/giant-viruses-found-in-yellowstones-hot-springs-may-be-near-the-root-of-all-life-on-earth/">ecological restoration</a>," Painter concluded. "Wolf reintroduction is yielding long-term ecological changes contributing to increased biodiversity and habitat diversity."



Trees grow slowly, so even with wolves restored, it will take decades for these young aspens to form a full-grown forest. 



Some areas might never fully recover if bison numbers continue to rise or if the climate becomes too hot and dry.



Thanks to the work of Painter and his team, scientists are now certain that restoring the Yellowstone predator has restarted aspen forest regeneration. Not everywhere and not perfectly, but enough to be measured, creating hope for the future.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0378112725004499?via%3Dihub" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Forest Ecology and Management</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Yellowstone's aspen trees are growing again thanks to the reintroduction of wolves

Young aspen trees in Yellowstone are doing something they have not done in almost 100 years. Rather than sprouting and being eaten back to nubs by elk and bison, they're actually growing into tall, adult forest trees rising up towards the canopy. This matters more than it might seem, because it shows what happens when a missing piece of an ecosystem returns. Yellowstone, aspens, and elk In the 1920s, people eliminated wolves in Yellowstone. At the time, with limited scientific knowledge, managers believed it was the right...

Plastic waste is one of the biggest threats to marine ecosystems today. Every year, millions of tons of plastic enter the ocean, creating massive pollution problems and killing marine organisms. This waste does not simply disappear.



Instead, it breaks down into microplastics, which spread through the water and harm marine life. Scientists have long searched for ways to reduce the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plastics-supercharge-toxin-absorption-in-plants-and-humans/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">impact of plastic pollution</a>, but most existing solutions struggle to degrade plastic efficiently.



Now, researchers at the University of Hawai‘i (<a href="https://manoa.hawaii.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">UH</a>) at Mānoa have made a remarkable discovery. They have identified marine fungi that are capable of breaking down plastic. Even more impressively, they found that some of these fungi can be "trained" to consume plastic faster.



The research could initiate new ways of cleaning up the ocean and tackling one of the most pressing environmental challenges of our time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-plastic-waste-and-its-lasting-impact">Plastic waste and its lasting impact</h2>



Plastics are widely used because they are durable, lightweight, and cheap. These same qualities, however, make them a persistent <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plastic-particles-found-in-99-of-tested-seafood-samples/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">environmental hazard</a>. 



Unlike organic materials, plastic does not decompose naturally. Instead, sunlight, heat, and physical forces break it down into smaller pieces. These microplastics then spread throughout the ocean, entering the food chain and accumulating in marine organisms.



Plastics can also release harmful chemicals, such as phthalates and bisphenol A, which disrupt marine ecosystems. Animals often mistake plastic for food, and its ingestion leads to malnutrition and starvation.



With an estimated 1,051,200 garbage trucks' worth of plastic entering the ocean each year, finding a way to eliminate this pollution is crucial.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-untapped-potential-of-marine-fungi">Untapped potential of marine fungi</h2>



“Plastic in the environment today is extremely long-lived, and is nearly impossible to degrade using existing technologies,” said Ronja Steinbach, who led this research as a marine biology undergraduate student in the UH Mānoa <a href="https://natsci.manoa.hawaii.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">College of Natural Sciences</a>. 



“Our research highlights marine fungi as a promising and largely untapped group to investigate for new ways to recycle and remove plastic from nature. Very few people study fungi in the ocean, and we estimated that fewer than one percent of marine fungi are currently described."



Fungi are known for their ability to break down tough organic materials. Many species can digest substances that other organisms cannot, such as wood and chitin. 



However, most studies on fungi and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plastic-treaty-is-a-historic-opportunity-to-stop-a-human-health-crisis/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">plastic</a> degradation have focused on land-based species. The UH Mānoa team wanted to see if marine fungi had similar capabilities.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-testing-marine-fungi-for-plastic-degradation">Testing marine fungi for plastic degradation</h2>



The researchers collected fungi from various sources, including sand, seaweed, corals, and sponges in Hawai‘i’s nearshore waters. 



They then tested these fungi to see if they could break down plastic, specifically polyurethane, a common material found in foams, adhesives, and medical products.



“Fungi possess a superpower for eating things that other organisms can’t digest (like wood, or chitin), so we tested the fungi in our collection for their ability to digest plastic,” said Professor Anthony Amend from Pacific Biosciences Research Center. 



Professor Amend heads up the lab where Steinbach conducted the research with marine biology graduate studen Syrena Whitner.



The researchers placed polyurethane in petri dishes - along with various types of fungi - and observed their interactions. Some fungi showed a clear ability to degrade the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-discover-how-microplastics-accumulate-in-coral-reefs/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">plastic</a>.



The team then took the fastest-growing fungi and exposed them to polyurethane over time to see if they could evolve to consume plastic even more efficiently.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-marine-fungi-show-rapid-adaptation">Marine fungi show rapid adaptation</h2>



The results of the experiment were astonishing. The fungi adapted quickly, with some increasing their feeding rates by 15% within just three months.



“We were shocked to find that more than 60% of the fungi we collected from the ocean had some ability to eat plastic and transform it into fungi,” said Steinbach. 



“We were also impressed to see how quickly fungi were able to adapt. It was very exciting to see that in just three months, a relatively short amount of time, some of the fungi were able to increase their feeding rates by as much as 15%.”



The findings suggest that marine fungi could play a significant role in breaking down plastic pollution. The speed at which some fungi adapted to eating plastic also raises hopes that further research could enhance their efficiency even more.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hawaii-s-unique-role-in-plastic-research">Hawaii’s unique role in plastic research</h2>



Hawaii’s location in the North Pacific Subtropical Gyre makes it a prime spot for studying plastic pollution. Ocean currents bring plastic waste from all over the world to Hawai‘i’s shores.



Nearby, the Great Pacific Garbage Patch contains massive amounts of plastic debris, making it a major environmental concern.



Because of this, Hawaii serves as an ideal natural laboratory for researching plastic degradation. 



The fungi collected from these waters may have evolved unique abilities to break down plastic due to their constant exposure to pollution. This makes them valuable candidates for future biotechnological applications.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-expanding-the-research">Expanding the research</h2>



The UH Mānoa team is now looking to expand their research. They want to test whether these fungi can degrade other plastics, such as polyethylene and polyethylene terephthalate. 



These materials are even more resistant to decomposition and are some of the most common plastics found in the ocean.



Additionally, scientists are working to understand the molecular mechanisms behind fungi’s ability to break down plastic. By studying these processes at a cellular level, they hope to improve plastic degradation techniques.



The next step is to collaborate with other experts to develop practical solutions based on these findings.



“We hope to collaborate with engineers, chemists, and oceanographers who can leverage these findings into actual solutions to clean up our beaches and oceans,” said Steinbach.



If scientists can refine these fungal processes, they could potentially be used on a larger scale. Marine fungi could become a key tool for reducing <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plastic-pollution-is-changing-the-entire-earth-system/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">plastic waste</a>, both in the ocean and on land.



The study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/00275514.2024.2422598" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Mycologia</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.linkedin.com/in/eric-ralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Marine fungi can be trained to degrade plastic pollution

Plastic waste is one of the biggest threats to marine...

Bird evolution has taken a remarkable turn with the discovery of two ancient fossils from a species named Baminornis zhenghensis, which lived in what is now southeast China's Fujian Province.



Dated to approximately 149 million years ago, these Jurassic-era fossils provide crucial insights into the early diversification of birds. 



The fossils were unearthed by a team of scientists from the Institute of Vertebrate Paleontology and Paleoanthropology <a href="http://english.ivpp.cas.cn/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">(IVPP)</a> of the Chinese Academy of Sciences, which is a leading institution in paleontological research.



Spearheading the study was Professor Wang Min, whose work continues to reshape our understanding of avian ancestry.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-bird-evolution-theory-the-basics">Bird evolution theory - the basics</h2>



The current leading theory on bird evolution says that modern birds evolved from small, feathered theropod dinosaurs - yep, the same group that includes <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/t-rex-was-about-70-percent-bigger-than-we-thought/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">T. rex</a>.



Scientists believe that around 150 million years ago, some of these dinosaurs developed feathers not just for warmth but also for gliding and eventually powered flight. 



The famous Archaeopteryx, often called the "first bird," had both dinosaur-like traits (teeth, claws, and a long bony tail) and bird-like features (feathers and wings). 



Over millions of years, these early birds became lighter, developed better flying skills, and adapted to different environments, eventually giving rise to the diverse bird species we see today.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-from-the-shadows-of-archaeopteryx">From the shadows of Archaeopteryx</h2>



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/chinese-fossil-provides-a-new-glimpse-into-early-bird-evolution/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Archaeopteryx</a>, despite its feathered wings, bears close resemblance to non-avialan <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dinosaurs-were-going-strong-when-the-deadly-asteroid-struck/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dinosaurs</a>.



Notably, this is due to its distinctively long reptilian tail - a vivid departure from the short-tailed morphology observed in modern and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/oldest-known-bird-footprints-discovered-in-australia/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cretaceous birds</a>.



Reflecting on the classification of Archaeopteryx, recent studies have placed it as a deinonychosaurian dinosaur, a sister group to birds.



This brings up an intriguing question: Do we have any definitive records of Jurassic birds?



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-meet-baminornis-zhenghensis">Meet Baminornis zhenghensis</h2>



This is where the new discovery steps in. Among the two fossils found in Fujian Province, the team named one Baminornis zhenghensis. 



This fossil exhibits an exclusive set of features: the shoulder and pelvic girdles resemble ornithothoracine birds, and there is an early-stage hand structure similar to that found in non-avialan dinosaurs.



Perhaps a standout feature of Baminornis zhenghensis is its short tail that ends in a compound bone called the pygostyle, a feature that is also prominent in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/modern-bird-skulls-retain-some-dinosaur-traits/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">contemporary birds</a>.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/02/bird-evolution_Baminornis-zhenghensis-species_timeline-pushed-back_credit-Zhao-Chuang_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/02/bird-evolution_Baminornis-zhenghensis-species_timeline-pushed-back_credit-Zhao-Chuang_1s.webp" alt="Life reconstruction of the Jurassic bird Baminornis zhenghensis from the Zhenghe Fauna. Credit: Zhao Chuang" class="wp-image-1960254"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Life reconstruction of the Jurassic bird Baminornis zhenghensis from the Zhenghe Fauna. Credit: Zhao Chuang</figcaption></figure>



"Previously, the oldest record of short-tailed birds is from the Early Cretaceous. Baminornis zhenghensis is the sole Jurassic and the oldest short-tailed bird yet discovered, pushing back the appearance of this derived bird feature by nearly 20 million years," Prof. Wang stated.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-bridging-a-large-gap-in-bird-evolution">Bridging a large gap in bird evolution</h2>



What makes this discovery so intriguing? 



These fossils present compelling evidence that birds began diversifying much earlier than previously thought.



Typically, Earth's most diverse group of terrestrial vertebrates - birds, are believed to have <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/chinese-fossil-provides-a-new-glimpse-into-early-bird-evolution/">diversified </a>during the Jurassic period. 



But the details of this diversification were shrouded in mystery due to a significant shortage of tangible fossil records.



Until now, the only widely accepted Jurassic bird was Archaeopteryx.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-baminornis-zhenghensis-an-early-bird">Baminornis zhenghensis: An early bird</h2>



To fully understand the positioning of Baminornis zhenghensis in the bird evolution tree, the research team utilized several investigative methods.



The results indicated that this bird had evolved from Archaeopteryx, making it one of the oldest birds ever found.



"If we take a step back, and reconsider the phylogenetic uncertainty of Archaeopteryx, we do not doubt that Baminornis zhenghensis is the true Jurassic bird," Dr. Zhou Zhonghe, a co-author of the study, stated confidently 



The second fossil is far from complete and consists solely of a furcula (a bone in the chest of birds). 



Despite its poor preservation, the team remains hopeful that it might help in establishing the evolutionary link between non-avialan and avialan theropods.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-happens-next">What happens next?</h2>



The researchers revealed that the results of the analyses support that this furcula belonged to a member of the Ornithuromorpha, a diverse set of Cretaceous birds.



Yet, given its preserved state, they refrained from naming a new species based on this single bone.



In conclusion, this discovery, might not have answered all the questions regarding bird evolution, but it surely has opened up a new arena for possibilities and future discoveries. 



Supporting the importance of fossils in piecing together the past, these artifacts from the Jurassic era have given us a glimpse into the true evolutionary journey of birds.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-baminornis-zhenghensis-and-bird-evolution">Baminornis zhenghensis and bird evolution</h2>



The discovery of Baminornis zhenghensis provides compelling evidence that bird evolution was already well underway by the late Jurassic period.



By bridging a crucial gap in the fossil record, these newly unearthed fossils reshape our understanding of how early <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/birds-have-adapted-to-human-activities-for-thousands-of-years/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">birds diversified and adapted</a>. 



Scientists believe that such findings will continue to refine the evolutionary timeline, revealing more about the structural transformations that led to modern avian species. 



Future excavations may yet unveil more missing pieces in the intricate puzzle of bird evolution.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-024-08410-z" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Bird evolution timeline pushed back at least 20 million years by new discovery

Bird evolution has taken a remarkable turn with the discovery...

The universe is full of wonders, but few are as mesmerizing as the unpredictable brilliance of a supermassive black hole. At the core of the Milky Way, 26,000 light-years from Earth, Sagittarius A* flickers and flares in an ongoing celestial performance. 



Unlike the serene darkness often associated with black holes, this one is anything but silent.



Imagine a disco ball in deep space, radiating bursts of energy <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/evidence-of-massive-early-universe-black-hole-stuns-astronomers/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">across the cosmos</a>. This cosmic dynamo produces rapid flashes, some lasting mere seconds, while others burn brightly for extended periods. 



The black hole's flares, scattered across various timescales, are unlike anything astronomers expected to see.



Thanks to the <a href="https://science.nasa.gov/mission/webb/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">James Webb Space Telescope</a>, researchers now have the clearest, longest look at this astonishing activity, which reveals a chaotic but fascinating pattern.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mysterious-black-hole-flares">Mysterious black hole flares</h2>



For decades, black holes have remained enigmatic, with their immense gravitational pull swallowing everything in their path.



Scientists have only been able to study them through indirect observations, such as the effects on nearby stars or the radiation emitted by heated gas falling into the abyss. 



But now, with Webb’s Near-Infrared Camera (NIRCam), astrophysicists can witness Sagittarius A* in action like never before. 



By peering deep into the heart of our galaxy, Webb has captured a continuous sequence of flares erupting from the&nbsp;black hole's&nbsp;surrounding accretion disk.



These flashes come in varying intensities, some as brief flickers and others as prolonged, blinding outbursts. What makes this discovery even more intriguing is the sheer unpredictability of the phenomenon.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-black-hole-that-never-rests">A black hole that never rests</h2>



Farhad Yusef-Zadeh of <a href="https://www.northwestern.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Northwestern University</a>, who led the study, described the black hole’s activity as a constantly shifting display of light.



“In our data, we saw constantly changing, bubbling brightness,” said Yusef-Zadeh. “And then, boom! A big burst of brightness suddenly popped up. Then, it calmed down again."



"We couldn’t find a pattern in this activity. It appears to be random. The activity profile of this black hole was new and exciting every time that we looked at it.”



These findings paint a picture of a black hole that never rests. The accretion disk surrounding Sagittarius A* releases a steady stream of energy, creating a nonstop spectacle of fireworks. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-observing-an-unstable-giant">Observing an unstable giant</h2>



The research team observed Sagittarius A* over the course of a year, totaling 48 hours of direct monitoring in eight- to ten-hour periods. This extensive observation time allowed them to track the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/flares-shed-light-on-the-milky-ways-supermassive-black-hole/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">black hole</a>’s behavior, and reveal its persistent, flaring activity.



The results exceeded expectations. While scientists predicted some level of flaring, the frequency and intensity of these bursts were surprising. 



The accretion disk produces between five and six major flares each day, interspersed with smaller, unpredictable bursts. Some eruptions are faint and short-lived, while others shine with an intensity that outshines entire star systems.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-explaining-the-black-hole-s-flares">Explaining the black hole’s flares</h2>



Despite this chaotic display, the researchers believe that two different processes are driving the black hole's flares. Smaller, short-lived bursts likely result from minor disturbances within the swirling accretion disk.



These disturbances cause pockets of plasma - hot, electrically charged gas - to become compressed, releasing short, sudden flashes of energy. Yusef-Zadeh compared this phenomenon to solar flares.



“It’s similar to how the Sun’s magnetic field gathers together, compresses, and then erupts a solar flare,” he explained. “Of course, the processes are more dramatic because the environment around a black hole is much more energetic and much more extreme. But the Sun’s surface also bubbles with activity.”



Meanwhile, the most powerful flares appear to be caused by magnetic reconnection events. These occur when tangled magnetic fields within the accretion disk snap and realign, unleashing massive amounts of energy.



“A magnetic reconnection event is like a spark of static electricity, which, in a sense, also is an ‘electric reconnection,’” noted Yusef-Zadeh.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-energy-loss-in-black-hole-flares">Energy loss in black hole flares</h2>



One of the most intriguing discoveries from Webb’s observations was a subtle but important time delay in the&nbsp;black hole flares’ brightness. 



Because <a href="https://science.nasa.gov/mission/webb/nircam/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NIRCam</a> can observe two wavelengths simultaneously - 2.1 and 4.8 microns - the scientists were able to compare how the flares changed over each wavelength.



They noticed something unexpected: events at the shorter wavelength consistently brightened before those at the longer wavelength. The delay ranged from just a few seconds to as long as 40 seconds.



“This is the first time we have seen a time delay in measurements at these wavelengths,” Yusef-Zadeh said. “We observed these wavelengths simultaneously with NIRCam and noticed the longer wavelength lags behind the shorter one by a very small amount.”



This delay offers crucial insight into the physical processes surrounding the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/black-hole-draco-1es-1927-654-just-awoke-is-spewing-material-at-incredible-speeds/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">black hole</a>. One possible explanation is that particles in the flare gradually lose energy over time, first dimming at shorter wavelengths before fading at longer wavelengths. 



The findings suggest that the particles responsible for the emission are likely spiraling around magnetic field lines, and gradually radiating away their energy.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-looking-deeper-into-the-chaos">Looking deeper into the chaos</h2>



To better understand Sagittarius A*, the research team hopes to conduct even longer observations in the future. They aim to observe the black hole continuously for 24 hours, reducing interference from background noise and allowing for an even clearer picture of the activity.



“If we can observe for 24 hours, then we can reduce the noise to see features that we were unable to see before. That would be amazing. We also can see if these flares repeat themselves or if they are truly random,” enthused Yusef-Zadeh.



By extending the observation period, researchers hope to answer critical questions: Do these&nbsp;black hole&nbsp;flares follow a hidden pattern? Are there external factors influencing the frequency of eruptions? Or is this randomness a fundamental characteristic of the black hole itself?



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-window-into-the-unknown">A window into the unknown</h2>



Sagittarius A* continues to challenge scientists’ understanding of black holes and their behavior. The James Webb Space Telescope is providing an unprecedented view into the heart of our galaxy, offering new perspectives on the processes that govern these mysterious cosmic entities.



This international collaboration, led by NASA in partnership with <a href="https://www.esa.int" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ESA</a> and CSA, is not just revealing secrets about our own galaxy but is also shedding light on the nature of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/understanding-x-ray-radiation-that-spews-out-of-black-holes-surroundings/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">black holes</a> across the universe.



The Milky Way’s central black hole may remain unpredictable, but thanks to cutting-edge technology and persistent observation, its cosmic fireworks are no longer hidden in the shadows.



The study was published in <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/387862936_Non-stop_Variability_of_Sgr_A_using_JWST_at_21_and_48_micron_Wavelengths_Evidence_for_Distinct_Populations_of_Faint_and_Bright_Variable_Emission">The Astrophysical Journal Letters</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Milky Way’s black hole unleashes mysterious flares

The universe is full of wonders, but few are as...

Brake pad emissions have become a powerful but unsuspected source of air pollution, with recent studies revealing their possible health hazards.



Although diesel car emissions are well documented as harmful, a recent study has exposed an equally disturbing problem - the toxicity of brake pad dust.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-understanding-brake-pads-the-basics">Understanding brake pads - the basics</h2>



Brake pads are the unsung heroes of your car’s braking system. Every time you press the brake pedal, these small but mighty components create the friction needed to slow you down. 



They press against the brake rotor (or disc), generating enough resistance to stop the wheels from spinning. Over time, that constant friction wears them down, which is why you eventually need to replace them. 



Not all brake pads are the same, though. Some are made from organic materials like rubber and glass, while others use semi-metallic or ceramic compounds for better performance and durability.



Some brake pads contain copper, because it's great at dissipating heat and reducing brake fade. This is why manufacturers have traditionally included it in semi-metallic and ceramic brake pads, and it's also why brake pads cause <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/auto-emission-climate-policies-save-children-boost-economies/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">environmental harm</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-copper-in-brake-pads">Copper in brake pads</h2>



Researchers from the <a href="https://www.southampton.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Southampton</a> (UK) performed a comprehensive study that targeted microscopic particles that are released from different types of brake pads.



What they discovered was remarkable: some brake pads release particles that are more toxic than those contained in diesel exhaust.



Researchers determined the prime culprit for this toxicity - high concentrations of copper in some brake pads.



These small particles, when breathed in, can travel deep into the lungs, injuring sensitive cells and possibly leading to severe health consequences.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-non-exhaust-auto-emissions">"Non-exhaust" auto emissions</h2>



Although the risks of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/epa-set-to-implement-unprecedented-auto-pollution-limits/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">pollution from vehicles</a> are widely recognized, attention has commonly centered on exhaust emissions. 



Tires, road, and brake pad wear particles are usually not considered as sources of emissions, and the pollution arising from these factors is not monitored or regulated.



Now, these "non-exhaust" emissions have become the leading contributor to vehicle-related particulate matter (PM) in the U.K. and parts of Europe.



Among them, brake dust stands out as a major offender.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hidden-pollution-from-electric-cars">Hidden pollution from electric cars</h2>



Lead author of the study, Dr. James Parkin, pointed out that the shift toward electric cars is pushing this problem into the limelight. 



"People generally associate pollution from cars as being from exhaust pipes and think of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/hidden-costs-electric-vehicle-tires-emit-20-more-pollution/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">electric vehicles</a> as having zero emissions. However, EVs still produce particulate matter due to friction and wear of the road, tires, and brakes," Dr. Parkin explained.



“We wanted to understand how different types of chemical composition of pads affect the toxicity of the particles emitted and what this might mean for the health of individuals.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-impact-of-pm2-5-on-human-lungs">Impact of PM2.5 on human lungs</h2>



The focus of this study was on the presence of the smallest particles, PM2.5 and below, which are 30 times smaller than the diameter of a human hair.



These tiny particles can pass beyond the upper respiratory tract and penetrate into the thin air sacs in the lungs, where the exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide takes place.



These fine particles from various sources are linked with more than four million premature deaths per year worldwide.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-identifying-the-most-toxic-brake-pads">Identifying the most toxic brake pads</h2>



The researchers used special apparatus to collect brake pad <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/breast-cancer-incidence-linked-to-high-particulate-air-pollution/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">particulate matter</a>. 



The team then used lab samples of human lung cells and exposed them to this particulate matter to measure the effects, including inflammation and cell death.



The experiment showed that, of the four brake pad types tested (low metallic, semi-metallic, non-asbestos organic, and hybrid-ceramic), the non-asbestos organic pads were the most harmful.



They triggered inflammation and toxicity markers, making them more harmful to human lung cells than diesel exhaust particles.



Ceramic pads were the second most toxic. Interestingly, both non-asbestos organic and ceramic pads contain high concentrations of copper, and subsequent experiments with the copper removed found the particulate matter to be less <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/car-tires-shed-pollutants-that-are-especially-toxic-for-humans-and-wildlife/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">toxic</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-reducing-copper-used-in-auto-parts">Reducing copper used in auto parts</h2>



The team's findings, published in the journal Particle and Fibre Toxicology, suggest reducing <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/copper-industry-of-king-solomons-era-didnt-harm-the-environment/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">copper</a> content in brake pads could help alleviate some of the harmful effects of vehicle particulate matter.



"This research has important implications for health and future policy because, as we switch from diesel and petrol-powered cars to electric vehicles, non-exhaust particle emissions will remain," project supervisor Professor Matthew Loxham noted.



"Non-exhaust emissions could increase over time due to electric vehicles being heavier than combustion engine vehicles and creating greater friction," 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-happens-next">What happens next?</h2>



As we approach an increasingly electric vehicle-led future, it is imperative to recognize that while electric vehicles may not have <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/car-tires-shed-pollutants-that-are-especially-toxic-for-humans-and-wildlife/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">exhaust emissions</a>, they are still far from being emission-free.



If we are to achieve a healthier future, we must look beyond exhaust emissions and deal with the increasing effect of non-exhaust pollutants.



Vehicle emission regulations need to evolve to address non-exhaust sources such as tire and brake wear, ensuring that air quality improvements keep pace with technological advancements.



Also, ongoing research into alternative materials for brake pads and new braking technologies, including regenerative braking, might go a long way toward minimizing particulate matter emissions.



Addressing these under-emphasized pollution sources can allow us to have a more complete strategy for cleaner air and healthier communities.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://particleandfibretoxicology.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s12989-024-00617-2" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Particle and Fibre Toxicology</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Several auto parts create worse air pollution than exhaust fumes

Brake pad emissions have become a powerful but unsuspected source...

Circadian rhythms have a profound impact on many aspects of our health, from sleep to metabolism.



The diet we establish in childhood and adolescence can lay the foundation for lifelong health, but weight gain and obesity are commonly blamed on poor diet and lack of exercise alone, without considering the impact of circadian rhythms.



New research indicates that when we eat is as critical as what we eat. Researchers are beginning to understand how our own biological clock controls hunger and fullness.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-body-clock-and-weight-gain">The body clock and weight gain</h2>



A team of researchers from <a href="https://medical.brown.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Warren Alpert</a> Medical School and Mass General Brigham set out to investigate the intricate relationship between circadian rhythms, metabolism, and overall health. 



The experts focused on adolescents, a group particularly susceptible to developing long-term health concerns based on their <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/eating-behavior-is-influenced-by-the-unconscious-mind/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">eating behaviors</a>.



The researchers uncovered a correlation between overweight or obese adolescents' caloric consumption and the timing of their meals.



They found that youngsters with higher body-mass indexes tended to consume a larger portion of their daily <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/can-caloric-restriction-help-you-live-longer-its-complicated/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">caloric intake</a> later in the day when compared to their peers with healthier weights.



Lead investigator Mary Carskadon, a professor of psychiatry and human behavior at Warren Alpert, shared her observations.



“The critical nature of adolescent development to set the stage for a lifetime of health highlights the need to understand the roles played by sleep/wake and circadian timing processes for eating behavior," said Carskadon.



"The knowledge gained here opens a door to potential interventions that can enhance teen health moving forward."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-circadian-rhythms-a-hidden-force-in-nutrition">Circadian rhythms: A hidden force in nutrition</h2>



Our circadian system is essentially a network of countless "clocks" present in almost every part of our body. These clocks help us adapt to changing demands throughout the day and night.



However, this system varies from one person to another due to multiple factors including genetics, behavior, and environmental influences.



The uniqueness of this study, according to contributing author David Barker, lies in the precise measurement of food intake and the control of environmental and behavioral influences.



The study was carried out in a controlled environment, in the absence of any external time cues, to ensure that the outcomes reflected only the circadian influences on eating behaviors.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-experiment-and-its-findings">The experiment and its findings</h2>



A group of 51 volunteers, aged 12 to 18, participated in the study. They were divided into three groups based on their body mass indexes. 



The experiment was designed to maintain a 28-hour sleep and wake cycle, slightly longer than a typical 24-hour day. 



The teenagers lived in the same space for 11 days and 10 nights, under carefully managed light settings. Provided with six opportunities to eat at fixed times, they were free to consume as much as they wished.



The researchers monitored the food intake and caloric count closely. Interestingly, the results showed that those in the overweight or obese groups ate more of their daily calories in the afternoon and early evening, when compared with the participants in the healthy weight group.



This indicates that our inner biological clock greatly influences our <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/healthy-eating-patterns-lower-the-risk-of-cardiovascular-disease/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">eating patterns</a>, and that the timing of eating may affect our tendency to gain weight.



Frank Scheer, director of the Medical Chronobiology Program at Brigham and Women’s Hospital, highlighted the significance of the study.



“This study is the first to demonstrate that food intake itself is regulated by our internal body clock,” said Scheer.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-harnessing-the-power-of-circadian-hythms">Harnessing the power of circadian hythms</h2>



Carskadon believes that insights like these could be incredibly useful in designing weight management strategies for adolescents.



“For example, the influence of circadian timing could be influenced by excluding <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-the-color-of-light-impacts-our-internal-clocks-and-circadian-rhythms/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">light</a> late in the day and enhancing bright light in the morning, especially while exercising. That might help pull the rhythms to a better place - and also create healthy habits,” she explained. 



The research team plans to explore the connection between our circadian system, diet, and metabolism, and how this knowledge could potentially help design timed dietary interventions to promote healthier lifestyles.



By identifying the optimal windows for eating, based on individual circadian rhythms, future strategies could help curb <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/childhood-obesity-rates-spiked-during-the-pandemic/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">obesity</a> risks before they take root.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.2407907122" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/">Subscribe to o</a><a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">u</a><a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/">r newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

When you eat matters as much as what you eat

Circadian rhythms have a profound impact on many aspects of...

Where is all the water that might fill oceans on distant planets and moons? According to NASA, the forthcoming SPHEREx astrophysics mission will take stock of water’s cosmic origins by scanning the galaxy for hidden reservoirs.&nbsp;



Experts say this ambitious endeavor may help uncover how water, the key molecule for life, accumulates on interstellar dust grains in vast clouds of gas and dust.



Since every living organism on Earth needs <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/enough-water-to-fill-trillions-of-earths-oceans-found-circling-black-hole-quasar/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">water</a> to survive, scientists searching for life outside of our solar system are frequently guided by the phrase "follow the water."



The SPHEREx (Spectro-Photometer for the History of the Universe, Epoch of Reionization, and Ices Explorer) <a href="https://www.jpl.nasa.gov/missions/spherex/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">mission</a> is set to launch on Thursday, February 27 from the Vandenberg Space Force Base in California. The explorer will be launched on a SpaceX Falcon 9 rocket. 



Then, SPHEREx will begin its hunt for water, carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide, and other basic ingredients for life.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mapping-ice-within-molecular-clouds">Mapping ice within molecular clouds</h2>



While there are no free-floating oceans in space, scientists have long suspected that frozen water - formed by bonding oxygen and hydrogen atoms on tiny dust grains - accounts for much of the universe’s water content.&nbsp;



This ice is believed to accumulate in molecular clouds, the giant swaths of gas and dust from which stars and planetary systems eventually emerge.



SPHEREx will systematically survey these molecular clouds, where newly forming stars and the disks of matter surrounding them often mask hidden ice. 



By analyzing key infrared wavelengths, the telescope can detect how water and other molecules absorb passing starlight, leaving a signature in the spectral data.



Rather than producing standard 2D images, SPHEREx will gather 3D spectral information along each line of sight, enabling researchers to see how much ice is present at different depths in the cloud.&nbsp;



Over the course of more than 9 million observations, the mission will deliver the largest-ever inventory of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/unbound-water-molecules-dangling-oh-discovered-interstellar-ice-jwst/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">interstellar ice</a>, clarifying how environments in these clouds influence the abundance of water and other frozen compounds.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-where-is-the-missing-water">Where is the missing water?</h2>



Scientists’ interest in interstellar water has been longstanding. Yet a puzzle emerged in 1998, when NASA launched the <a href="https://www.cfa.harvard.edu/facilities-technology/telescopes-instruments/submillimeter-wave-astronomy-satellite" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Submillimeter Wave Astronomy Satellite</a> (SWAS) to look for gaseous water in molecular clouds.&nbsp;



SWAS detected far less water in gas form than predicted, raising the question: where was it hiding?



“We eventually realized that SWAS had detected gaseous water in thin layers near the surface of molecular clouds, suggesting that there might be a lot more water inside the clouds, locked up as ice,” said Gary Melnick, a senior astronomer at the <a href="https://www.cfa.harvard.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Center for Astrophysics | Harvard &amp; Smithsonian</a> and a member of the SPHEREx science team.



SWAS also found less oxygen gas than expected, leading researchers to conclude that oxygen atoms had adhered to dust grains and combined with hydrogen to form water.&nbsp;



The clouds’ interiors shield these ices from harsh cosmic radiation, preventing them from breaking apart. SPHEREx’s highly sensitive survey will now reveal more precisely where ice begins to form and how these ices evolve when <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-molecule-detected-in-space-where-stars-are-born/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">stars</a> are born.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-exposing-the-secrets-of-cosmic-water">Exposing the secrets of cosmic water</h2>



SPHEREx excels at broad, large-scale mapping, while telescopes like NASA’s James Webb Space Telescope (JWST) specialize in zooming in on a much smaller area with greater sensitivity to certain wavelengths.&nbsp;



These complementary designs will allow SPHEREx to flag regions of high interest, which Webb can then examine in detail.



“If SPHEREx discovers a particularly intriguing location, Webb can study that target with higher spectral resolving power and in wavelengths that SPHEREx cannot detect,” Melnick said. “These two telescopes could form a highly effective partnership.”



By coupling SPHEREx’s panoramic survey with Webb’s close-up observations, scientists hope to piece together a comprehensive picture of how cosmic water emerges, accumulates, and ultimately finds its way onto forming planets and moons.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tracing-water-s-cosmic-life-cycle">Tracing water’s cosmic life cycle </h2>



The logic behind “follow the water” rests on the knowledge that all known life depends on liquid H₂O. If large amounts of water ice are identified in molecular clouds, that material likely feeds into protoplanetary disks, eventually supplying the water for oceans and lakes.&nbsp;



Thus, SPHEREx’s broad inventory may help confirm or refine theories on how water-rich worlds like Earth were assembled.



Although space telescopes such as NASA’s Spitzer and the retired Herschel have cataloged water and other compounds in select regions, SPHEREx will be the first mission to look for these ices at a truly galactic scale.&nbsp;



Melnick and his colleagues plan to incorporate SPHEREx’s findings into existing catalogs of stars and dust, clarifying how and where water is being replenished - or destroyed - in cosmic neighborhoods.



Ultimately, the results will speak not only to the matter of where water resides but also to how it journeys from the frozen interiors of molecular clouds to become part of a rocky planet. 



By following water’s cosmic life cycle, SPHEREx could reveal the processes that made Earth’s oceans possible. It may also shed light on how these processes shaped the conditions for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dinosaurs-are-helping-astronomers-in-the-search-for-extraterrestrial-life/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">life</a> on our planet, and perhaps on countless other worlds.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.linkedin.com/in/eric-ralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

SPHEREx will scan the galaxy to look for life's ingredients

Where is all the water that might fill oceans on...

Dreams have fascinated humans for centuries, yet not everyone remembers them. Some wake up vividly recalling detailed dream sequences, while others struggle to remember anything at all. This difference in dream recall has long puzzled scientists, leading to various theories about its cause.



Some suggest personality traits or cognitive abilities play a role, while others believe <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sleep-disruptions-could-signal-the-onset-of-alzheimers/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">sleep quality</a> and external factors have a stronger impact. A new study from the IMT School for Advanced Studies Lucca has taken a closer look at this phenomenon.



The researchers aimed to uncover the key factors shaping dream recall and how individual differences in sleep and cognition affect this ability.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-mystery-of-dream-recall">The mystery of dream recall</h2>



Researchers have debated for years whether certain groups recall dreams more easily. 



Some studies indicate that women, younger individuals, and those who daydream frequently are more likely to remember their <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-do-dreams-influence-our-perceptions/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dreams</a>. However, other studies do not confirm these findings.



Some theories suggest cognitive abilities like memory and attention influence dream recall, but evidence remains inconsistent.



The COVID-19 pandemic reignited interest in this topic. Reports of increased dream recall emerged worldwide, sparking discussions about how stress, lifestyle changes, and sleep disturbances affected dreaming. 



Scientists saw an opportunity to explore why some people recall dreams more easily than others and whether external conditions play a role.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tracking-dreams-and-sleep">Tracking dreams and sleep</h2>



To investigate this mystery, researchers from <a href="https://www.imtlucca.it" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">IMT School</a>, in collaboration with experts at the <a href="https://international.unicam.it" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Camerino</a>, conducted an extensive study between 2020 and 2024.



The team recruited over 200 participants aged 18 to 70 and monitored their sleep and cognitive functions over 15 days. 



The participants kept daily dream records, while the researchers used wearable devices and psychometric tests to track their sleep quality and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/wake-up-in-your-dreams-exploring-the-world-of-lucid-dreaming-sleep-science/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">mental activity</a>.



Each participant received a voice recorder and was instructed to report their dreams every morning upon waking. They noted whether they remembered dreaming, had a vague impression of dreaming without specific details, or recalled full dream sequences. 



The actigraph, a sleep-monitoring wrist device, recorded sleep duration, efficiency, and disturbances. Additionally, the participants underwent psychological assessments to measure anxiety, memory, attention, and proneness to mind-wandering.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-light-sleepers-recall-more-dreams">Light sleepers recall more dreams</h2>



Dream recall showed significant variation between participants, influenced by multiple factors. 



Those with a positive attitude toward dreams and a strong tendency for mind-wandering reported better dream recall. The ability to shift attention away from external tasks and engage in internal reflections seemed to contribute to retaining dream memories.



Sleep patterns played a crucial role. Individuals who experienced longer periods of light sleep had a higher likelihood of waking with dream memories. 



Younger participants reported better dream recall, while older individuals frequently experienced "white dreams" - a sensation of having dreamt without recalling any details. This suggests that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/the-sleeping-brain-may-predict-future-experiences/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">memory processes</a> related to dreaming may change with age.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-seasonal-differences-in-dream-recall">Seasonal differences in dream recall</h2>



One of the study's surprising findings was the seasonal variation in dream recall. Participants reported recalling fewer dreams during winter compared to spring. 



This indicates that environmental factors, such as changes in daylight exposure or circadian rhythms, might influence the ability to remember dreams.



The relationship between seasonal changes and sleep quality has been explored in past research, but its connection to dream recall remains largely unexplored. 



This new finding suggests that shifts in light exposure and sleep duration throughout the year might affect how dreams are encoded into memory.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-role-of-cognition-and-attention">Role of cognition and attention</h2>



Beyond sleep quality and external factors, cognitive abilities played a role in dream memory. Participants with better memory performance and selective attention reported stronger dream recall. 



This supports the idea that remembering dreams is not just about the depth of sleep but also about how the brain processes and retains <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/whispered-dreams-how-relaxing-words-tune-our-heartbeat-to-sleep/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">experiences</a> during the night.



The study also highlighted how emotional states and stress levels might impact dream recall. Participants with higher anxiety levels showed inconsistent dream recall patterns, suggesting that emotions can interfere with the ability to retain dream memories. 



Further research could explore whether emotional regulation techniques influence how people remember their dreams.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-of-the-study">Implications of the study</h2>



“Our findings suggest that dream recall is not just a matter of chance but a reflection of how personal attitudes, cognitive traits, and sleep dynamics interact,” explained Giulio Bernardi, professor in general psychology at the IMT School.



“These insights not only deepen our understanding of the mechanisms behind dreaming but also have implications for exploring dreams' role in mental health and in the study of human consciousness.”



Valentina Elce, researcher at the IMT School and first author of the study, noted that data collected within this project will serve as a reference for future comparisons with clinical populations.



“This will allow us to move forward the research on the pathological alterations of dreaming and their potential prognostic and diagnostic value," said Elce. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-directions-for-dream-research">Future directions for dream research</h2>



This study offers valuable insights into why some people vividly recall dreams while others wake up with no memory of them. 



It confirms that dream memory is influenced by a combination of personal traits, sleep patterns, and external conditions. However, many questions remain unanswered.



Future research could explore whether specific lifestyle changes, such as meditation or sleep training, enhance dream recall. 



Additionally, understanding the link between dream memory and mental health may provide new ways to study consciousness and emotional processing during sleep.



Scientists continue to uncover the mysteries of the sleeping mind, but one thing is clear - dreaming is a deeply personal experience shaped by both biology and behavior. The more we learn, the closer we get to understanding the hidden world of our dreams.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s44271-025-00191-z" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Communications Psychology</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Dream recall: Who remembers their dreams and why?

Dreams have fascinated humans for centuries, yet not everyone remembers...

Monarch butterflies are among the most studied insects in the world due to their impressive seasonal journeys across North America. Yet, their populations face mounting challenges as climate change alters the landscapes they rely on.



Harlan Radcliff is an amateur butterfly enthusiast. For over 17 years, he dedicated his lunch breaks to observing <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/monarch-butterflies-face-steep-decline-in-the-western-u-s/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">monarchs</a> at Camp Dodge, a military installation in Iowa.



What started as a personal passion turned into an invaluable scientific record. His meticulous notes allowed researchers to analyze how climate variations are affecting monarch migration patterns in the 21st century.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-long-term-record-of-monarch-activity">Long-term record of monarch activity</h2>



Between April and November, from 2003 to 2019, Radcliff carefully recorded the dates, times, locations, and numbers of the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/creating-new-forests-to-assist-monarch-butterfly-migration/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">butterflies</a> he spotted. 



He had no idea at the time that his efforts would one day shape a significant scientific study. His dataset provided a rare long-term record of monarch activity in the heart of their summer breeding range.



Professor Diane Debinski, head of Montana State University’s <a href="https://www.montana.edu/ecology/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Department of Ecology</a>, led a research team that used Radcliff’s observations to study monarch migration.



Funded by the <a href="https://www.defense.gov" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">U.S. Department of Defense</a>, the study was part of a broader effort to understand how climate change is affecting butterfly species on military lands.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-change-and-monarch-migration">Climate change and monarch migration</h2>



Monarch butterflies are unique in their migration patterns. Eastern monarchs travel between Mexico and the U.S., spending summers east of the Rocky Mountains. Western monarchs winter in California and migrate west of the Rockies during the summer.



The study aimed to examine the phenology of Camp Dodge’s monarchs. This involved looking at the timing of key events in their life cycle, such as arrival, departure, and peak abundance. 



Changes in these timings can affect their survival, reproductive success, and overall population health.



“We wanted to look at phenology of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/monarch-butterflies-shift-to-winter-breeding-for-survival/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">butterflies</a> and test whether it was shifting, and if it was, to ask how that might affect the viability of the populations over the long term,” explained Professor Debinski.



The team also analyzed the phenology of milkweed, the monarchs’ primary host plant. Monarch caterpillars rely on milkweed for survival, making it essential to understand whether its growing season was shifting in sync with butterfly migration.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-testing-phenological-shifts-in-monarchs">Testing phenological shifts in monarchs</h2>



The researchers conducted fieldwork in 2020 to test whether monarch arrival times had changed over the years. 



They placed monarch eggs on milkweed plants at different intervals - some two weeks earlier than historical records, some at the expected time, and others two weeks later. This approach helped them determine whether changes in migration timing had consequences for the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/why-are-monarch-butterflies-vanishing-in-the-winter/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">butterflies' development</a>.



The initial hypothesis was that monarchs would arrive earlier due to climate change, mirroring patterns observed in other species. However, the data revealed something unexpected. 



The timing of monarch arrival remained consistent from 2003 to 2019, but their fall departure was delayed. By 2019, monarchs were staying at Camp Dodge about nine days longer than they had in 2003.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-risks-of-a-longer-fall-season">Risks of a longer fall season </h2>



The shift in fall departure raised important questions about the effects of climate change on monarchs. Interestingly, milkweed also showed a similar pattern, blooming later into the season.



“What we saw was that milkweed herbarium specimens were collected later over time, indicating that they were blooming longer over time, and monarchs were in the field as adults longer over time, which means that the fall season was actually indicating a change,” noted Professor Debinski.



While a longer fall season might seem beneficial, it carries potential risks. Butterflies staying in the field longer could be exposed to more predators and parasites. 



Additionally, a longer growing season might create a “development trap,” where monarchs begin a phase of their life cycle too late to complete it.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-shifts-may-help-or-harm-monarchs">Climate shifts may help or harm monarchs</h2>



A development trap occurs when environmental changes encourage butterflies to lay eggs late in the season, but those eggs fail to develop into adults before winter arrives. This could lead to increased mortality rates, reducing overall <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/monarch-butterflies-may-be-added-to-the-endangered-species-list/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">population</a> numbers.



The field experiment confirmed that a shift in monarch timing could have costly effects. The researchers observed that early-season larval survival was highest when egg hatching matched historical monarch arrivals. 



However, when eggs were placed on milkweed two weeks earlier than usual, survival rates dropped. 



These findings highlight the delicate balance monarchs must maintain with their environment. Even small changes in climate and plant growth cycles can disrupt their lifecycle, potentially leading to population declines.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tracking-monarch-population-changes">Tracking monarch population changes</h2>



Although Radcliff has since passed away, his careful documentation provided an essential foundation for this research. 



His records allowed scientists to track monarch population changes at Camp Dodge over nearly two decades. The study confirmed that monarch populations declined between 2003 and 2019, reflecting broader trends observed by the <a href="https://www.fws.gov" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service</a>.



“Discussions about phenology often exclude migratory butterflies, because they experience climates in multiple places,” said Professor Debinski.



“Our research showed that even migratory species can show shifts in phenology. The more information we have about phenology, population sizes and population growth rates, the better we will be able to conserve monarch butterflies and many other species of conservation concern.”



This research serves as a reminder of the importance of long-term ecological data. Without Radcliff’s commitment to documenting monarchs year after year, scientists might have missed these critical trends. 



As climate change continues to shape ecosystems, studies like this one will help conservationists understand how best to protect the iconic monarch butterflies for future generations.



The study is published in the <a href="https://besjournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/1365-2656.70004" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal of Animal Ecology</a>. 



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Monarch butterflies are delaying their migration in a warmer climate

Monarch butterflies are among the most studied insects in the...

Toxins can give valuable insights into how molecules interact with biological targets, helping scientists design safer and more effective compounds.



Whether for life-saving drugs, species control, or agriculture, understanding a molecule’s precise targets is crucial for ensuring its safe and effective use.



Researchers at the <a href="https://www.weizmann.ac.il/pages/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Weizmann Institute</a> in Israel have developed an innovative AI-powered pipeline to predict how natural toxins interact with proteins. 



By combining artificial intelligence with traditional research methods, they are unlocking new possibilities in ecological studies and drug development.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-secrets-of-a-deadly-snail-toxin">Secrets of a deadly snail toxin</h2>



The journey of these scientists kicked off from an unlikely source - a toxin from the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/cone-snail-venom-could-be-used-to-produce-painkillers/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cone snail</a> (Conus striatus) that affects both insects and fish. This protein is composed of 60 amino acids and is shot into the prey by the snail using a sharp barb.



Dr. Izhar Karbat and Dr. Eitan Reuveny set out to investigate how the cone snail toxin Conkunitzin-S1 (Cs1) works to immobilize fish, despite not affecting mammals or <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mollusks-evolution-shishania-aculeata-spiny-armor-no-shells-500-million-years-ago/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">mollusks</a>.



The experts found that Cs1 blocks potassium channels that are central to cell function in fruit flies and other insects. However, the molecular target of this toxin in fish remained a mystery.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-turning-to-ai-for-answers">Turning to AI for answers</h2>



Unable to pinpoint the target of the Conkunitzin toxin using traditional methods, the scientists turned to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/artificial-intelligence-proves-very-useful-to-doctors-when-diagnosing-patients/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">artificial intelligence</a>.



“Three years ago, we tried our best tools at the time to find the target of the Conkunitzin toxin, and we failed because the tools were not good enough. And then came a big revolution in structural biology driven by artificial intelligence,” said Karbat.



This presented an invaluable tool for their research, which enabled the experts to use a two-pronged approach to identify the fish potassium channels that were most vulnerable to Cs1.



They harnessed the power of AlphaFold, an AI program, to predict how the toxin might bind to different fish potassium channels. 



Next, the researchers developed another AI model, ET3, to analyze how water molecules navigate around these channels.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ai-pinpoints-the-toxin-s-true-targets">AI pinpoints the toxin’s true targets</h2>



By leveraging ET3 to analyze a broad range of fish potassium channels - beyond what was previously possible - the experts identified the exact channels targeted by Cs1 and how the toxin disrupts their function.



Essentially, if potassium channels act as tiny doors regulating ion flow in and out of cells, Cs1 functions like a lock that jams those doors shut.



“Using molecular dynamics and the new AI-driven structural tools, we were able to find the small subset of channels in fish which bind our toxins with high affinity and are probably the real target of the cone snail,” said Dr. Karbat.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-identifying-precise-targets-for-new-drugs">Identifying precise targets for new drugs </h2>



Beyond unraveling the mystery of Cs1’s impact on <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/oceans-are-quickly-losing-ability-to-support-fish-due-to-plankton-loss/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">fish</a>, the researchers see broader applications for their AI-powered approach. 



“This new pipeline offers exciting opportunities and future prospects with ecological studies, to study real chemical interactions in real ecological systems,” said Dr. Karbat.



Additionally, the same methodology could be applied to drug development, helping to identify precise targets for new drugs while avoiding unintended interactions.



“If you develop a drug that would activate a channel in the human brain, you wouldn’t want the same drug to affect a channel in the human heart and cause a heart attack,” noted Dr. Karbat.



“The power of this pipeline is that we can concentrate on a target, or any molecule that we are interested in, and find its match,” added Dr. Reuveny, emphasizing the effectiveness of this approach. .



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-expanding-ai-s-role-in-molecular-research">Expanding AI’s role in molecular research</h2>



The success of this AI-powered pipeline extends far beyond the study of cone snail toxins. 



The ability to predict molecular interactions accurately could transform the way scientists approach drug discovery, environmental toxicology, and even disease treatment.



One of the most promising applications lies in developing highly specific drugs that target only the intended receptors, thus minimizing side effects. By refining molecular targeting, AI can help create treatments that are both safer and more effective.



Additionally, this approach could be used to study natural toxins other than Cs1, such as <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/deadly-snail-venom-possible-key-to-improving-diabetes-medicine/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">venom</a> components from other marine creatures, snakes, scorpions or even plants.



Understanding how these compounds interact with biological systems could inspire new medical treatments, from pain relief to antimicrobial drugs.



The research also holds promise for ecological conservation. By mapping how toxins influence different species, scientists can better predict how environmental changes or chemical pollutants may affect ecosystems.



As AI continues to revolutionize molecular biology, tools like AlphaFold and ET3 will likely become standard in many areas of research, bridging the gap between computational predictions and real-world biological interactions.



The work will be presented at the <a href="https://www.biophysics.org/2025meeting/program/">69th Biophysical Society </a>Annual Meeting in Los Angeles.



Image Credit: Courtesy of Eitan Reuveny and Izhar Karbat.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Cone snail toxin has inspired a breakthrough in drug discovery

Toxins can give valuable insights into how molecules interact with...

Cocoa is the backbone of the $100 billion chocolate industry, and the source of livelihood for millions of small-scale cocoa farmers in warm tropical climates. Unfortunately, climate change makes it increasingly difficult for these farmers to maintain productivity, putting the future of this crop under growing threat.



The increased global consumption of cocoa has already provoked plantation expansion and intensified cultivation schemes - frequently at the expense of local biodiversity and long-term ecosystem resilience.



As the sector struggles with these issues, scientists are working on solutions that can safeguard cocoa production and the ecosystems they depend on. New findings suggest that nature itself may hold the key to securing cocoa’s future.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-skyrocketing-cocoa-costs">Skyrocketing cocoa costs</h2>



In December 2024, cocoa prices soared to an unprecedented $12,646 per metric ton. Experts link this jump to years of adverse weather, which has been linked to climate change, and the cocoa swollen shoot virus in West Africa. 



As a result, manufacturing costs for chocolate have surged more than 167% over the past two years, forcing retailers to raise prices.



Consumers now face higher chocolate costs at checkout, weighing whether a favorite sweet is worth the extra expense.



Hershey’s buying practices mean current cocoa costs won’t hit shelves right away. Still, the company stated, “We continue to collaborate with our retail partners to ensure we offer a variety of products that meet the right occasions and price points for our consumers.” A 1-pound bar of Hershey’s remains $14.99 for now.



Dirk Van de Put of Mondelez International cited “unprecedented cocoa cost inflation,” while cocoa futures rose 143%. 



“Every time we get rain in West Africa, the futures change. People are watching it that close. It’s just crazy. There’s a lot of money on the table in this exchange,” said Branch. 



The Ivory Coast and Ghana produce 70% of all cocoa, making adverse weather and disease - often tied to climate change - key factors.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-threats-to-cocoa-farming">Climate threats to cocoa farming</h2>



A collaborative research effort has shed light on the growing risks that climate change poses to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/cocoa-production-in-africa-is-under-extreme-climate-pressure/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cocoa production</a>.



More significantly, the study suggests possible methods for farmers to maintain productivity, without further encroaching on our much-needed forests.



The research, which sought to understand the crucial factors that shape cocoa yields, was conducted in Brazil, Ghana, and Indonesia, whose combined production covers a third of the world's cocoa.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-pollinators-boost-yields-up-to-20">Pollinators boost yields up to 20%</h2>



One key finding of the study was that increased <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/insect-apocalypse-australasia-is-facing-a-hidden-pollination-crisis/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">pollination</a> rates could effectively augment yields by a significant fifth. 



As understood from the study, many cocoa plantations are currently incompletely pollinated, which prevents them from reaching their full yield potential.



"Cocoa is pollinated by tiny insects such as midges and thrips, and it comes as quite a surprise that most of the time there simply isn’t enough pollination happening to produce the cocoa crop that is possible," said Dr. Acheampong Atta-Boateng, who recently completed his doctoral work at the <a href="https://www.ox.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Oxford</a>.



Changes in temperature also influence yields, a fact that highlights the vulnerability of cocoa-producing regions to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-earth-energy-imbalance-temperature-rise/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">climate change</a>. 



Sites where temperatures were higher by up to 7 degrees recorded cocoa yields that were reduced by between 20 and 31%.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cocoa-farming-vs-future-climate">Cocoa farming vs. future climate</h2>



The concluding recommendations of the study highlight practical, feasible strategies to enhance pollination and manage the growing impact of climate change. 



Priorities include maintaining leaf litter and other understory biomass, preserving soil organic matter, providing suitable shade, and cutting back on <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/common-herbicides-linked-to-diminished-brain-functioning-in-young-adults/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">chemical use in agriculture</a>.



"This research shows that sustainable agricultural methods can significantly improve cocoa yields without farm expansion or intensification," stressed Dr. Tonya Lander from the University of Oxford, the lead author of the study.



By adopting biodiversity-centered, climate-resilient farming techniques, the cocoa sector can both increase production and safeguard farmers' livelihoods.



"The rising demand for cocoa and the short-term economic benefits to farmers has led to plantation expansion and ecological homogenization at the expense of biodiversity and vital ecosystem services, like pollination," said Dr. Tom Wanger of <a href="https://en.westlake.edu.cn/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Westlake University</a> in China.



"This study highlights the long-term risks of this approach, and how pollination can be a solution that works, alongside climate-resilient agricultural systems, to achieve long-term, ecologically and financially sustainable solutions," he concluded.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implementing-sustainable-practices">Implementing sustainable practices</h2>



Although the research emphasizes increased pollination and climate-resilient agriculture, the adoption of these practices on a large scale needs unified action by farmers, policy makers, and industry leaders.



The small-scale cocoa farmers, who are the backbone of the industry, do not have access to the resources and information for adopting these sustainable farming practices.



One of the most significant challenges is striking a balance between short-term economic pressures and long-term sustainability. 



Most farmers operate on limited finances, making it hard to invest in biodiversity-friendly methods or move away from chemical-based agriculture. 



Offering financial incentives, such as subsidies or premium pricing for sustainably grown cocoa, may help bridge this gap by encouraging farmers to adopt more eco-friendly practices.



Additionally, farmer training and education initiatives can enable producers to learn about the importance of pollinators and adopt practices that promote biodiversity.



Methods such as agroforestry - growing cocoa trees with other indigenous plants - can increase pollination rates while also providing additional sources of income.



Though demand stays strong, rising production expenses and uncertain supply may reshape chocolate prices for years to come.



However, by investing in sustainable solutions now, the cocoa sector can help ensure that generations to come can still enjoy chocolate while protecting the livelihoods of farmers and the ecosystems that support them.



---



This study was an international collaboration involving scientists from the University of Oxford, Westlake University in China, Universidade Estadual de Santa Cruz in Brazil, and the University of Göttingen in Germany



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/commsenv/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Communications Earth &amp; Environment</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Chocolate and cocoa prices have doubled in the past year, here's why

Cocoa is the backbone of the $100 billion chocolate industry,...

A newly published study investigates how complex chemical mixtures respond to repeated environmental fluctuations, providing insights into prebiotic processes that may have paved the way for life on Earth.&nbsp;



By exposing various organic molecules to cycles of drying and rehydration, researchers observed continuous transformations, selective organization, and synchronized shifts among molecular populations. These behaviors help clarify how early chemical systems could have achieved the complexity needed for life.



The study, published in <a href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41557-025-01734-x" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Chemistry</a>, demonstrates that repeated wet-dry cycles not only altered chemical compositions but also guided these shifts in a structured, rather than random, way.&nbsp;



The findings suggest that changing environmental factors might have played an active role in fostering the molecular diversity that was necessary for life to emerge on Earth.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-simulating-early-environmental-cycles">Simulating early environmental cycles</h2>



To explore how <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/clues-to-lifes-beginnings-found-in-ancient-chemical-reactions/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">chemical evolution</a> may have played out billions of years ago, scientists subjected mixtures containing diverse functional groups - such as carboxylic acids, amines, thiols, and hydroxyls - to multiple rounds of drying out and rehydration.&nbsp;



In essence, they mimicked the environmental swings thought to be common on the early Earth, including periods of moisture followed by arid conditions.&nbsp;



Rather than producing disorganized reactions, the mixtures organized themselves and evolved along predictable patterns.



This challenges the notion that early chemical pathways were entirely haphazard. Instead, the results imply that nature’s fluctuations - like brief rain showers in ancient shallow ponds or tidal zones - could have steered molecules in specific, constructive directions.&nbsp;



Over long spans of time, these guided transformations may have led to increasingly sophisticated molecular systems akin to the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-did-the-building-blocks-of-life-form/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">building blocks of life</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-environmental-changes-and-chemical-reactions">Environmental changes and chemical reactions</h2>



The study was conducted by Dr. Moran Frenkel-Pinter from the Institute of Chemistry at the <a href="https://en.huji.ac.il/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Hebrew University of Jerusalem</a> and Professor Loren Williams from the <a href="https://www.gatech.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Georgia Institute of Technology</a>.



The research team shows how chemical systems evolve steadily while preserving structural coherence. Their focus was on continuous transformation: even as molecules changed or formed new bonds, the overall system avoided devolving into chaos.



Chemical evolution generally refers to the gradual complexification of molecules in conditions that predate life. This concept is essential for explaining how biologically relevant compounds, such as amino acids and nucleotides, eventually appeared.&nbsp;



While much prior research zeroed in on individual chemical reactions or specific molecules, this new work sets up a more all-encompassing model of how an entire mixture might behave under environmental changes.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-environmental-cycles-and-molecular-variety">Environmental cycles and molecular variety </h2>



In particular, the researchers uncovered three significant observations. First, chemical systems continued to evolve without reaching a stable equilibrium, suggesting that persistent environmental stimuli, like wet-dry cycles, can keep driving new reactions.&nbsp;



Second, although the mixtures contained many types of molecules, they did not expand into an unwieldy soup of complexity. Instead, certain chemical routes were favored, restricting random pathways and maintaining organization.&nbsp;



Finally, different molecular species showed interlinked patterns of emergence and decline, implying that some molecules depended on or facilitated the formation of others in a coordinated way.



Collectively, these aspects highlight how environmental shifts could encourage the development of molecular variety while preserving orderly growth - characteristics essential to the emergence of living systems.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-potential-mechanisms-for-the-emergence-of-life">Potential mechanisms for the emergence of life</h2>



By focusing on how entire mixtures adapt and transform over multiple cycles, the study helps bridge the gap between classical prebiotic chemistry (which often probes single reactions) and the broader question of how life got started.



“This research offers a new perspective on how molecular evolution might have unfolded on early Earth,” said Frenkel-Pinter.



“By demonstrating that chemical systems can self-organize and evolve in structured ways, we provide experimental evidence that may help bridge the gap between prebiotic chemistry and the emergence of biological molecules.”



The team envisions that repeated wet-dry cycles in ancient environments - like shallow basins or tidally influenced regions - could have systematically steered chemical mixtures to form increasingly complex networks.&nbsp;



Over time, such processes could cultivate the right conditions for molecules capable of replication and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/human-metabolism-has-evolved-to-become-energetically-unique/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">metabolism</a>, key signatures of life.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-early-stages-of-life-on-earth">Early stages of life on Earth</h2>



Though primarily aimed at unraveling life’s early stages, the study’s findings might also be applied in synthetic biology and nanotechnology.&nbsp;



The authors suggest that controlled chemical evolution - exploiting periodic changes in the environment - could lead to new ways of producing molecular systems with desired traits. This might include specialized polymers, novel catalysts, or even biologically inspired <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/nanotech-material-graphene-passes-human-safety-tests/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">nanomaterials</a>.



Additionally, a better understanding of how chemical systems self-organize could inform <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/oral-peptides-pave-the-way-for-new-drug-development/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">drug development</a>, helping researchers design molecules that adapt to varied conditions within the human body.&nbsp;



The self-organizing principle could also prove beneficial in engineering tasks where complex, adaptive behavior is desired - much like living cells operate via coordinated chemical pathways.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-from-simple-molecules-to-complex-life">From simple molecules to complex life</h2>



While this study highlights how fluctuations in ancient Earth’s environment might have propelled chemical complexity, many questions remain about the full path from simple molecules to the first true life forms.&nbsp;



The authors advocate for broader experiments that expand on the current approach: using more varied chemical compositions, testing different pH levels or temperature ranges, and coupling the results with genetic-like feedback mechanisms.



The researchers hope this approach will unravel further details about how molecules collaborate, outcompete, and reshape one another in dynamic chemical “ecosystems.”&nbsp;



Such knowledge is not only essential for understanding how life may have arisen but could also guide how we harness or replicate these evolutionary tricks in modern science and industry.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.linkedin.com/in/eric-ralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Earth’s cycles may have sparked the chemical foundations of life

A newly published study investigates how complex chemical mixtures respond...

Songs, both taught and self-made, undoubtedly shape our auditory landscape during childhood. At this time, we often sing our hearts out, carefree and uninhibited by the responses of others. 



A recent study by Analía Capponi-Savolainen, a doctoral researcher at the <a href="https://www.helsinki.fi/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Helsinki</a>, has investigated how singing experiences shape the lives of today's children in a culturally diverse school in Southern Finland. The research focused on six- and seven-year-old students.



Rather than viewing such experiences solely as performances, Capponi-Savolainen reveals the depth of children's connection with singing and how they utilize it to shape their everyday lives.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-bringing-children-s-voices-to-life">Bringing children's voices to life </h2>



The study involved 44 children, half of which shared their experiences through in-depth interviews. The students explained what singing means to them in their everyday lives. Capponi-Savolainen selected seven of these narratives in her doctoral dissertation to illustrate the children's responses.



"Children use singing to create their own spaces of trust and freedom for their personal purposes: to cope with everyday struggles, to create new ways of acting and participating, and to exercise their political voice," Capponi-Savolainen explained. 



"For example, in these spaces, they can choose to sing or not sing, or to sing and dance simultaneously. They can choose their own <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/music-triggers-unique-prediction-zones-in-the-brain/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">music</a>."



She noted that these self-created soundspaces can be as public or private as the child desires - from singing and dancing with friends in the neighborhood to quietly humming in secluded spaces at school.



Capponi-Savolainen found that children formed important relationships through singing. Some of the children reported that they sang loudly, with full vocal potential, when singing with friends, but that they sang softly when alone. Private singing was also very important to the children. 



Interestingly, the study found the children's singing experiences at school, especially those that were adult-led, were quite different from their personal singing experiences. 



Some children enthusiastically shared songs from their home <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/music-causes-similar-emotional-experiences-and-sensations-in-all-cultures/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cultures</a> while others chose to keep their personal song realms tucked away.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-new-perspective-on-childhood-songs">A new perspective on childhood songs</h2>



Childhood singing experiences have traditionally been examined through lenses of vocal development, pedagogical methods, and song repertoires.



However, this study urges a shift in perspective. It emphasizes the importance of considering how children perceive their singing experience, especially in diverse educational environments.



Capponi-Savolainen's study does not treat singing as just a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/natural-disasters-student-performance/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">performance</a> or a skill to be measured in educational settings. 



Instead, it paints a picture of singing as an ecological occurrence, a means of existing, communicating, and connecting with the world. It can be likened to a bridge that links the personal and academic realms of a child's daily life.



This research, guided by global and national policies such as the UN’s Convention on the Rights of the Child and Finland’s Child Strategy, calls for greater consideration to be given to the children's perspectives in decision-making that affects their lives.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tuning-into-children-s-unique-experiences">Tuning into children's unique experiences</h2>



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/understanding-how-students-learn-is-key-to-helping-them-succeed/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Teaching methods</a> must take into consideration the unique experiences, voices, and cultural backgrounds of every child.



Capponi-Savolainen urges educators to navigate away from the traditional methods of teaching songs and instead tune into the unique experiences and perspectives of children.



"We are constantly asked to find new ways to listen to our children, but the question is how to listen and how to respect what is heard," she noted.



"To see the ‘real child’ in front of us, awareness is needed, but in order to make a difference, we need action. Learning from children about what singing means to them and creating a curriculum of care through singing is a way to do this."



The idea is not to focus on measuring a child's singing skill but to enable singing as a vibrant activity that bridges home and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/school-field-trips-linked-to-better-student-performance/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">school experiences</a>. Central to this approach is creating an environment that cares for each child as a unique individual and as part of society.



The study has opened an unexplored path in the field of children's singing experiences. The research has also established the significance of singing in a child's communication, self-expression, identity, and social connection.



Details of this research are available in a University of Helsinki <a href="https://www.uniarts.fi/en/events/analia-capponi-savolainen-childrens-singing-ecologies-in-culturally-diverse-societies/">press release.</a>



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Finding their voice: How singing empowers children

Songs, both taught and self-made, undoubtedly shape our auditory landscape...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2E0mn5mTvhQ
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">'Death Star' moon Mimas conceals a 15-million-year-old ocean that scientists never expected.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hidden-waters-beneath-ancient-craters">Hidden waters beneath ancient craters</h2>



Scientists have made a startling discovery that challenges everything we thought we knew about <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/saturn-moon-mimas-has-remarkably-young-ocean/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Saturn's moon Mimas</a>. Beneath the heavily cratered surface that earned it the nickname "Death Star" lies a global ocean that formed just 5 to 15 million years ago—a remarkably young age by cosmic standards.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cassini-data-reveals-orbital-secrets">Cassini data reveals orbital secrets</h2>



The discovery, led by Dr. Valéry Lainey of the <a href="https://observatoiredeparis.psl.eu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Observatoire de Paris</a>, emerged from careful analysis of <a href="https://www.nasa.gov" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NASA</a>'s Cassini spacecraft data. By studying subtle irregularities in Mimas's orbit around Saturn, researchers detected the gravitational signature of liquid water hidden 20 to 30 kilometers beneath the moon's icy shell.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-an-unlikely-ocean-world">An unlikely ocean world</h2>



At only 400 kilometers in diameter, Mimas seemed like the least likely candidate to harbor a subsurface ocean. Unlike other ocean moons such as Europa and Enceladus, which show clear surface signs of internal activity, Mimas displays no obvious hints of the liquid water beneath its ancient, crater-scarred exterior.



"Mimas is a small moon, and its heavily cratered surface gave no hint of the hidden ocean beneath," explained Dr. Nick Cooper from <a href="https://www.qmul.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Queen Mary University of London</a>, a study co-author.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-astrobiology">Implications for astrobiology</h2>



The ocean's recent formation makes Mimas a prime target for studying how oceans develop and potentially support life. This discovery adds another member to the exclusive club of ocean worlds in our solar system, each offering unique insights into the conditions necessary for habitability.



The research, published in <a href="https://www.nature.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature</a> journal, demonstrates how advanced orbital analysis can reveal hidden features of celestial bodies, opening new possibilities for understanding ocean formation throughout the cosmos.



—–



Like what you saw and read?&nbsp;<a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a>&nbsp;for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.



—–



Check us out on&nbsp;<a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by&nbsp;<a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a>&nbsp;and&nbsp;<a href="https://www.earth.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Earth.com</a>.



—–

Scientists discover unexpected young ocean on Saturn's cratered moon Mimas

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2E0mn5mTvhQ 'Death Star' moon Mimas conceals a 15-million-year-old ocean that...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE
</div></figure>



On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop and sunlight barely penetrates through the polar winter. It was here, however, that an international team of scientists found <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/predatory-worms-were-terror-beasts-half-a-billion-years-ago/#google_vignette" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evidence of sea monsters</a> that would change our understanding of ocean life in the past.



This video captures the discovery of Timorebestia fossils that had been hidden for more than 500 million years in the Sirius Passet formation. The "terror beasts," as they are called, are a hidden chapter in the evolutionary history of <a href="https://www.earth.com" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Earth</a>, showing that sophisticated predator-prey interactions occurred much earlier than previously envisioned.



Dr. Jakob Vinther and his research team at the <a href="https://www.bristol.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Bristol</a>, in collaboration with researchers at the <a href="https://eng.kopri.re.kr/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Korean Polar Research Institute</a>, braved extreme weather conditions at 82.5 north latitude to locate these giant creatures. Using sophisticated electron microprobe analysis, they revealed the detailed anatomy of the animals, including their muscle and nerve tissues.



The find upsets the traditional timeline of sea predators. Although we've long appreciated that Cambrian oceans were at one time ruled by <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jWI3-UgA3_o&amp;list=PL1QLQMW9MWDwpkFOnvgAmu7wT6rZmYqdJ&amp;index=19" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">arthropods</a>, these discoveries indicate that relatives of arrow worms were first to dominate the seas. These worms were building sophisticated food webs several million years before other predator groups arose.



Each fossil is a story of ancient hunger, with fossil stomach contents revealing these meter-long beasts dined on heavily armored arthropods regularly, cementing their place as the ocean's first apex predators.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Worms dominated seas before dinosaurs

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">New York is the site of the world's oldest forest.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-385-million-year-old-trees-discovered">385-million-year-old trees discovered</h2>



Scientists have uncovered something extraordinary just two hours north of New York City. The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/worlds-oldest-forest-discovered-close-to-new-york-city/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">world's oldest forest</a>, dating back 385 million years, offers a window into how Earth's first complex forests shaped our planet's atmosphere.



Located near <a href="https://townofcairo.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cairo, New York</a>, in Greene County, these weren't merely primitive plants struggling to survive. These were sophisticated trees with root systems remarkably similar to modern forests. This ancient woodland predates dinosaurs by 140 million years.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-cairo-forest-discovery">The Cairo forest discovery</h2>



385 million years ago, upstate New York was a tropical paradise near the equator. Thanks to continental drift, this ancient forest has traveled thousands of miles to its current location.



The fossil forest sits in an abandoned quarry, roughly half the size of a football field. This represents just a slice of what was likely a massive forest system stretching from New York into Pennsylvania.



Charles Ver Straeten, curator of sedimentary rocks at the <a href="https://www.nysm.nysed.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">New York State Museum</a>, made the discovery in 2009. While scouting the former highway department property, his trained eye spotted wandering patterns in the stone that looked like marine features.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-revolutionary-age-and-preservation">Revolutionary age and preservation</h2>



The site contains 385-million-year-old rocks with fossilized woody roots forming horizontal patterns up to 18 feet (5.5 meters) wide. As Christopher Berry, a paleobotanist at Cardiff University, explains: "You are walking through the roots of ancient trees."



This discovery pushes back advanced tree evolution by millions of years. The research, published in <a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/home" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Current Biology</a> in December 2019, fundamentally changes our understanding of when complex forests first emerged.



Researchers believe a massive flood buried the forest floor, creating perfect fossilization conditions. Over millions of years, sediment hardened into rock, preserving these root patterns like nature's time capsule.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-meet-archaeopteris-the-first-modern-tree">Meet Archaeopteris: the first modern tree</h2>



The star of this ancient forest is Archaeopteris – not to be confused with the feathered dinosaur Archaeopteryx. This tree was far older and more revolutionary.



William Stein from <a href="https://www.binghamton.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Binghamton University</a> describes the roots as "strikingly modern, essentially what you'd see outside in my yard right now." These weren't simple root systems you'd expect from ancient plants.



Some fossilized roots are six inches (15 centimeters) in diameter, forming 36-foot-wide (11-meter) patterns. These giants grew up to 65 feet (20 meters) tall with five-foot-diameter (1.5-meter) trunks.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-changing-impact">Climate-changing impact</h2>



These trees fundamentally changed Earth's environment. Kevin Boyce, a Stanford University geoscientist, explains how their deep roots triggered "weathering," chemical reactions that pulled carbon dioxide from the atmosphere.



This process dropped atmospheric CO2 levels from 10-15 times higher than today to roughly modern concentrations. These ancient trees helped create atmospheric conditions that made complex life possible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ancient-forest-ecosystem">Ancient forest ecosystem</h2>



The forest was remarkably diverse. Scientists identified Eospermatopteris, palm tree-like plants with short roots that reached 30 feet (9 meters) tall but lacked woody structure. The forest also housed cladoxylopsids and a mysterious third species still being studied.



All reproduced through spores rather than seeds – millions of years before seeds evolved. This tropical environment had no grass, flowers, or flying insects, just towering trees creating Earth's first complex forest canopy.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-scientific-significance">Scientific significance</h2>



Before this finding, the Gilboa forest, located 25 miles (40 kilometers) away, held the "oldest forest" title. Cairo's trees are 2-3 million years older, showing that complex forest ecosystems developed much faster than scientists believed possible.



Patricia Gensel, a <a href="https://www.unc.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of North Carolina</a> paleobotanist, notes: "The size of those root systems is really changing the picture. Even 20 years ago, researchers assumed trees with such complex root systems didn't evolve so early."



The Cairo site presents three unique root systems, suggesting Devonian period forests were diverse ecosystems with different trees occupying different environmental niches, much like today's forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-modern-preservation-efforts">Modern preservation efforts</h2>



In 2022, New York State Senator Michelle Hinchey secured a $170,000 grant for the town of Cairo to construct specialized fencing around the fossil forest site. The town plans to conduct a feasibility study exploring the possibility of creating an educational center and working lab on-site.



Joe Hasenkopf, chair of the Cairo Planning Board, hopes to partner with educational institutions to create a research facility serving scientists, students, and the public.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lessons-for-today-s-climate">Lessons for today's climate</h2>



Why does a 385-million-year-old forest matter today? It shows how dramatically forests can change Earth's climate. These ancient woodlands created the atmospheric conditions supporting complex life.



Understanding how prehistoric forests transformed the planet helps us appreciate modern forests' critical role in addressing climate change. Forests remain Earth's most effective carbon capture systems.



These prehistoric trees changed Earth's atmosphere by pulling massive amounts of carbon dioxide from the air. As we face modern climate challenges, this ancient forest reminds us of trees' incredible power to transform our planet's environment.



The next time you walk through a forest, remember you're experiencing an ecosystem whose blueprint was established 385 million years ago in upstate New York. These ancient pioneers didn't just survive – they thrived and changed the world forever.



The full study was published in the journal Current Biology.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Earth's oldest forest found in the United States

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ New York is the site of the world's oldest...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Acid rain and a crisis solved.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-don-t-we-ever-hear-about-acid-rain-anymore-the-environmental-crisis-that-was-solved">Why don't we ever hear about "acid rain" anymore? The environmental crisis that was solved</h2>



Remember the 1980s when acid rain dominated headlines? Dire warnings about rain eating buildings, killing fish, and destroying forests filled every news cycle. Then, almost like magic, acid rain vanished from public discourse. What happened? Did we actually solve one of the late 20th century's most pressing environmental challenges?



The answer might surprise you. Unlike many environmental issues that drag on indefinitely, acid rain represents one of modern history's most successful ecological recovery stories. It's a tale of science, politics, and technology working together to tackle what seemed impossible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What was acid rain?</h2>



Acid rain isn't regular rain having a bad day – it's precipitation that became significantly more acidic due to air pollution. When power plants, factories, and vehicles burn fossil fuels, they release sulfur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides (NOx) into the atmosphere.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The science behind it</h2>



Think of acid rain as nature's chemistry experiment gone wrong. These compounds react with water, oxygen, and other chemicals to form sulfuric and nitric acids. When mixed with water vapor in clouds, they create precipitation with dangerously low pH levels.



While clean rain has a pH of about 5.6, acid rain could drop as low as 4.2 to 4.4 – roughly as acidic as tomato juice or coffee. According to US Geological Survey documentation, Scottish chemist Angus Smith first coined "acid rain" in 1872, but it didn't become a household phrase until the 1960s and 1970s when Swedish scientist Svante Odén documented its devastating effects on Scandinavian lakes and European forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The crisis at its peak</h2>



During the height of public concern, environmental damage was both widespread and visible. This wasn't some abstract future threat – people could see destruction happening in real-time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Environmental devastation</h2>



The most dramatic impacts were impossible to ignore. Research documented by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation and the New York State Department of Environmental Conservation shows that in the Adirondack Mountains, more than 200 lakes became so acidic they couldn't support fish life. The Adirondack Council reports that 409 lakes once supported brook trout, but many lost their fish populations due to acid rain.



By 1976, when scientists cataloged all acidified lakes in the Adirondack Park, researchers found that half of the lakes over 2,000 feet above sea level had no fish, according to studies published in environmental journals. The acidification process worked like a slow-motion disaster. As acid rain fell into watersheds, it gradually lowered pH levels. Fish couldn't survive in acidic water, and their food sources died off too.



Trees at high elevations showed stress directly linked to acid rain. It weakened them by leaching nutrients and making them susceptible to disease. Historical records show Germany's Black Forest saw nearly half its trees damaged by the mid-1980s.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Economic impact</h2>



Acid rain wasn't just environmental – it was expensive. Acidic precipitation corroded infrastructure, buildings, and monuments. Historic stone structures deteriorated at accelerated rates. Tourism suffered as lakes became fishless and forests declined. EPA economic analyses from the period documented repair costs mounting into billions annually.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The solution: government action and technology</h2>



Transformation from crisis to success required unprecedented cooperation between governments, industries, and environmental groups.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The Clean Air Act of 1990</h2>



The turning point came with the Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990, signed by President George H.W. Bush. This represented a fundamentally new approach to environmental regulation, as documented in EPA historical records.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Cap-and-trade success</h2>



Instead of mandating specific technologies, the 1990 amendments introduced something revolutionary: a cap-and-trade system for sulfur dioxide emissions. EPA program documentation shows this market-based approach set overall limits but allowed companies to trade emission allowances.



The genius was harnessing market forces to find cost-effective pollution reduction. Companies reducing emissions cheaply could sell excess allowances to those facing higher costs. Research published in environmental economics journals and EPA progress reports shows this resulted in dramatic SO2 reduction at a fraction of projected costs.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Technology advances</h2>



Policy provided the framework, but technology made reductions possible. Studies in atmospheric science journals document the widespread adoption of flue gas desulfurization systems ("scrubbers") that removed sulfur dioxide before it reached the atmosphere. By the 2000s, new installations could remove over 95% of SO2 emissions, according to EPA technical reports.



The push coincided with cleaner energy development. Natural gas produces fewer sulfur compounds than coal. Wind and solar, emerging in the 1990s, captured growing market share, reducing reliance on high-sulfur coal.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-we-don-t-hear-about-it-today">Why we don't hear about it today</h2>



Why did acid rain disappear from headlines? Simple: the problem was largely solved.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Success doesn't make news</h2>



There's an old journalism saying: "If it bleeds, it leads." Environmental success stories don't generate urgency like crisis reporting. Media attention shifted to other challenges: climate change, plastic pollution, and biodiversity loss. There's only so much environmental anxiety the public can absorb, and newer concerns replaced acid rain.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Mission accomplished</h2>



The primary reason is beautifully simple: interventions worked. EPA monitoring data shows sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990. Academic research published in environmental science journals confirms pH levels in formerly affected areas returned closer to normal. This represents one of history's most dramatic environmental recoveries. Studies by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation show fishless lakes now support healthy populations. Forests recovered, and building damage slowed dramatically.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-is-it-really-gone">Is it really gone?</h2>



The crisis is largely resolved, but monitoring data shows the problem isn't completely eliminated – it's managed to acceptable levels. Some areas still experience occasional events during high pollution periods. International environmental research indicates that rapidly industrializing Asian countries face similar problems to what we experienced decades ago, though they're implementing successful strategies.



EPA research shows nitrogen oxide emissions proved more challenging than sulfur dioxide, coming from vehicles and mobile sources. Climate science studies suggest changing weather patterns add complexity to how acid rain forms and falls.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What this teaches us</h2>



The acid rain experience proves that seemingly intractable environmental problems can be solved with scientific understanding, political will, and technological innovation. Environmental monitoring data shows recovery speed was remarkable – within a decade, measurable improvements appeared in air quality and ecosystem health.



Success came from bipartisan support across party lines. Policy analysis studies show the market-based approach appealed to those preferring economic incentives while achieving environmental goals. This support created lasting policy surviving political changes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Conclusion</h2>



Acid rain's disappearance from public consciousness represents environmental science's greatest success stories. Through effective regulation, technological innovation, and international cooperation, we transformed an overwhelming crisis into a manageable challenge.



Today's silence isn't because we forgot – it's because we solved it. The 1990 Clean Air Act, combined with technology and energy market changes, reduced acid rain emissions over 90%, according to comprehensive EPA data analysis.



This success offers hope for current challenges. It proves complex problems can be solved when science, policy, and technology work together. As we face climate change and plastic pollution, acid rain reminds us that dramatic positive change is possible.



Next time someone asks whether environmental regulations work, remember acid rain. It's proof that sometimes, we get it right.



<hr class="wp-block-separator has-alpha-channel-opacity"/>



Sources: This article draws from EPA official documentation and progress reports, peer-reviewed research published in environmental and atmospheric science journals, historical data from the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation, New York State Department of Environmental Conservation records, US Geological Survey publications, policy analysis studies, and environmental monitoring data collected over three decades.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Frequently Asked Questions</h2>



1. Is acid rain completely gone? No, but EPA monitoring shows it's reduced to manageable levels. US sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990, making acid rain much less severe than the 1980s crisis.



2. How long did solving take? Environmental monitoring data shows significant improvements began within 5-10 years of 1990s emission controls. Full ecosystem recovery took longer – some areas need 20-30 years for complete recovery.



3. What made the solution successful? Clear scientific understanding, visible damage motivating action, bipartisan support, available technology, and innovative market-based policies like cap-and-trade.



4. Do other countries have acid rain problems? Yes, particularly rapidly industrializing Asian countries. However, international environmental research shows many implement similar successful control strategies.



5. Could acid rain return? Potentially, if regulations weaken or we return to high-sulfur coal without controls, though effects would take years to become severe according to environmental projections.



6. Can you recommend any teaching tools on the subject of "acid rain"? The United States Environmental Protection Agency produced a wonderful teacher's guide for ages 14 and under that you can find on the EPA website here: <a href="https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf</a>



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

The environmental problem we actually solved

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk Acid rain and a crisis solved. Why don't we...

Fresh,Radish,Harvest,On,Soil,In,Garden.

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://youtu.be/Fi2OeEwuzRM?si=vTyd2m9FMmtyWkex
</div></figure>







Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving fall garden, and this guide lays out the best vegetables and herbs to plant now for a fruitful autumn harvest. 



Fast-growing leafy greens such as spinach, lettuce, kale, and arugula perform especially well in the waning summer heat, with harvests beginning as soon as 30 days. 



These cool-season crops relish the transition into fall, offering repeated yields with cut-and-come-again methods.



Root vegetables like radishes, carrots, and beets also excel during this period. Radishes deliver satisfaction in under a month, while carrots and beets mature in about two months. Employing succession planting ensures a continuous stream of produce deep into the cooler months. 



For a boost of fresh flavor, herbs like cilantro, basil, dill, and chervil are excellent picks. These heat-loving varieties flourish in July’s warmth and are harvest-ready in about 30 days, especially when sown continuously.



Gardeners in zones 6 through 9 can benefit from planting bush beans and snap peas, which don’t require trellising and are ideal for compact plots. 



Maturing in 50–60 days, they’re a smart choice for quick, protein-rich harvests. For those in hotter regions, heat-tolerant crops such as okra and southern peas provide reliable yields and thrive in scorching conditions.



This guide emphasizes more than crop selection—it highlights the importance of timing, soil preparation, and ongoing sowing techniques. 



With thoughtful planning and attention to regional climate needs, even late-summer gardeners can enjoy fresh salads, hearty stews, and the satisfaction of a robust, homegrown harvest well into fall.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;



-----

What to plant in your garden in mid-July

https://youtu.be/Fi2OeEwuzRM?si=vTyd2m9FMmtyWkex Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving...

Green,Ecoduct,Over,An,Empty,Highway,During,Sunset.

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://youtu.be/XYgiPzmNBTU?si=eFYY7gPHU1JznLvU
</div></figure>



A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that wildlife tunnels significantly reduce amphibian road mortality during seasonal migrations. 



Frogs and salamanders often cross roads to reach breeding ponds each spring, but many are killed by vehicles. 



Researchers from the <a href="https://www.uvm.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Vermont</a>, in collaboration with local citizens and the Vermont Agency of Natural Resources, installed two underpass tunnels in 2015. 



Over a 12-year monitoring period, they observed an 80.2% reduction in amphibian deaths, and up to 94% for non-climbing species like salamanders. 



The study used a before-after-control-impact design and documented more than 5,200 amphibians, highlighting the tunnels’ effectiveness even in nearby buffer zones.



Funded at $342,397 - far cheaper than wildlife crossings for large mammals - the project showcased the power of community-led conservation.



Local groups initiated the effort after observing mass amphibian deaths. Wildlife cameras later captured over 2,200 amphibians using a tunnel in just one spring, along with other species like raccoons and bobcats, indicating wider ecosystem benefits.



This marks the first peer-reviewed, long-term data set in the northeastern U.S. confirming amphibian-specific underpasses work. 



The study urges transportation departments to incorporate these designs into road planning and highlights how community action, thoughtful infrastructure, and persistence can make a real difference for biodiversity.



The full study was published in the <a href="https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1617138125000780" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal for Nature Conservation</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Wildlife tunnels save millions of amphibians

https://youtu.be/XYgiPzmNBTU?si=eFYY7gPHU1JznLvU A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that...

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing it with probiotics and prebiotics, aiming to create a treat that satisfies cravings while supporting gut health. 



The challenge lies in maintaining chocolate's beloved texture and flavor while adding health benefits.



<figure class="wp-block-embed aligncenter is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://youtu.be/Ug657J67iEo?si=w96YjGMsg939LD_3
</div></figure>



Probiotics - beneficial microbes that balance gut bacteria and aid digestion - are typically fragile and can be destroyed by stomach acid or processing. 



Prebiotics act as food for these microbes, helping them thrive. Together, they form "synbiotics," a powerful health combination.



Researchers Smriti Gaur and Shubhi Singh from India's Jaypee Institute of Information Technology took an innovative approach, using natural prebiotics like corn and honey instead of complex processing methods. 



They created five chocolate varieties: a control and four synbiotic versions containing different combinations of prebiotics, probiotics (Lactobacillus strains), and flavor enhancers (cinnamon or orange).



Laboratory simulations of human digestion showed the probiotics remained viable for over five hours, suggesting they could survive long enough to benefit gut health.



Taste tests were positive, with researchers particularly enjoying the orange-flavored variety, describing it as having "vibrant citrus notes" complementing the "rich cocoa" with a "luxurious" texture.



This research represents just the beginning. With further refinement of strains, textures, and flavors, chocolate could evolve beyond mere indulgence to become a functional food that nourishes while it delights.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.4c00741" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ACS Food Science &amp; Technology</a>.

Is chocolate the next nutritional powerhouse?

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="0ynNMYkMKa-2340414-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



---



By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

[sendtonews key="0ynNMYkMKa-2340414-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="G9bUoxcjr4-2511624-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

[sendtonews key="G9bUoxcjr4-2511624-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="3upvlAaHgO-2256633-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



---



By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

[sendtonews key="3upvlAaHgO-2256633-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="LvS8v8bp9z-2564889-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

[sendtonews key="LvS8v8bp9z-2564889-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="X0f6OHYoI4-2310561-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How does salt makes things taste better?

[sendtonews key="X0f6OHYoI4-2310561-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="JRaP49ISmm-2357509-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Santiago, Chile in South America

[sendtonews key="JRaP49ISmm-2357509-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="e4ZG0Jawp3-2374785-12187" type="single"]</div>



Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

[sendtonews key="e4ZG0Jawp3-2374785-12187" type="single"] Astronomers at Johns Hopkins University have created...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="uV9Lh2fQbV-1760058-12187" type="single"]</div>



Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.



According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."



Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;



ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. 



Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

[sendtonews key="uV9Lh2fQbV-1760058-12187" type="single"] Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="qjvhBOBnY8-2426650-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

[sendtonews key="qjvhBOBnY8-2426650-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="oL4FnPTGCV-2384527-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

[sendtonews key="oL4FnPTGCV-2384527-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="0879czfG3k-1785905-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

[sendtonews key="0879czfG3k-1785905-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from NASA...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="6HyfrAJTBI-1831843-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

[sendtonews key="6HyfrAJTBI-1831843-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

Earth,Like,Exoplanet,3d,Render

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="QIoVYJqRBi-2434608-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

[sendtonews key="QIoVYJqRBi-2434608-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from NASA...

News coming your way