Young aspen trees in Yellowstone are doing something they have not done in almost 100 years. Rather than sprouting and being eaten back to nubs by elk and bison, they're actually growing into tall, adult forest trees rising up towards the canopy.



This matters more than it might seem, because it shows what happens when a missing piece of an ecosystem returns.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-yellowstone-aspens-and-elk">Yellowstone, aspens, and elk</h2>



In the 1920s, people <a href="https://www.yellowstone.org/wolf-project/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">eliminated wolves in Yellowstone</a>. At the time, with limited scientific knowledge, managers believed it was the right thing to do.



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/from-wolves-to-dogs-did-domestication-begin-without-human-help/">Without wolves</a>, elk herds grew very large. Elk love to eat aspen shoots - the tender young growth is highly palatable to them.



For roughly 70 years, elk browsed aspen sprouts down to stub height, and the trees couldn't grow. 



If you had walked through Yellowstone in the 1980s, you would have seen many tiny aspen shoots covering the ground, but almost no young trees gaining height. 



The forest's regeneration was stalled. Old trees died, and no new ones replaced them.



In 1995 and 1996, park managers reintroduced wolves into the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/yellowstone-supervolcano-eruption-study-sparks-new-debate-on-where-and-when-it-will-erupt/">Yellowstone Park ecosystem</a>. Scientists hoped and wondered whether this would change anything for the trees.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-aspen-matter-to-yellowstone">Why aspen matter to Yellowstone</h2>



Aspen groves provide habitat for many species. Birds nest in them. Beavers eat the bark and use the wood for dams. Butterflies and moths lay eggs on the leaves. 



Their canopy admits enough light for wildflowers and shrubs to grow beneath. When it rains, aspen groves hold water in the soil better than some other forest types.



In short, when aspen return, dozens of other species benefit. More trees support more insects, which in turn support more birds, enriching the ecosystem.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-checking-the-trees-three-decades-later">Checking the trees three decades later</h2>



<a href="https://fwcs.oregonstate.edu/users/luke-painter" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Luke Painter</a>, an ecologist at <a href="https://oregonstate.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Oregon State University</a>, sought clear answers. His team returned to 87 aspen stands across Yellowstone that scientists had previously surveyed. 



They measured thousands of young trees, looked for bite marks, and counted how many stems were tall enough that elk could no longer reach the tips.



About a third of these stands now have many tall young aspens pushing toward the canopy. 



"About 26 of the 87 aspen stands we examined had large numbers of tall saplings throughout, a remarkable change from the 1990s when surveys found none at all," Painter said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-wolves-matter-to-yellowstone-aspens">Why wolves matter to Yellowstone aspens</h2>



Breaking it all down, the conclusions of this study are pretty simple. 



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/wolves-move-pups-across-mountains-to-adapt-to-climate-pressure/">Wolves hunt elk</a>. When wolves came back, two things happened. First, elk numbers declined from unusually high levels. Second, elk changed their behavior. They spent less time in the same areas feeding.



With fewer elk and shorter feeding bouts, more aspen shoots survived long enough to exceed the browsing zone - about six to seven feet high. 



Once a sapling reaches that height, elk cannot easily reach the growing tip. The tree continues to grow.



"The reintroduction of large carnivores has initiated a recovery process that had been shut down for decades," Painter explained.



Scientists call this a <a href="https://www.nature.com/scitable/knowledge/library/trophic-cascades-across-diverse-plant-ecosystems-80060347/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">trophic cascade</a> - when adding or removing one species causes changes that ripple through the whole system.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-some-places-recover-others-don-t">Some places recover, others don't</h2>



Unfortunately, not every aspen stand has recovered yet. Some valleys still have many short, heavily browsed shoots, because it's not only elk eating them anymore. 



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/yellowstones-iconic-bison-have-merged-into-a-single-herd/">Bison herds have grown</a>, and bison browse on aspen as well. They are strong enough to break young trees. 



"Increasing numbers of bison may be emerging as a new constraint to aspen in some areas," Painter confirmed.



Additionally, winter snow depth varies; droughts stress trees; bears and mountain lions also hunt elk; and hunting outside the park influences elk distribution. 



All of these factors interact, which is why some sites show strong recovery, others show moderate recovery, and a few have changed very little.



The key pattern is that places with many tall saplings experience little browsing, and aspen groves that remain popular eating grounds today stay short. 



This fact is the strongest indication that tree recovery is linked directly to wolf presence, not solely to weather or soil conditions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-proof-in-the-measurements">Proof in the measurements</h2>



Painter's team did not rely on casual observation. They used the same methods as earlier researchers, measuring the same plots. 



They counted recruitment - when young trees surpass browsing height and begin progressing toward maturity. This measure is crucial. Sprouts are insufficient if they never grow; without recruitment, the forest cannot replace itself.



The results are robust. After being stalled for most of a century, Yellowstone's aspens are increasing in height. In recovering stands today, you will see saplings - six, eight, or ten feet tall - that were not present in the 1990s.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-future-of-yellowstone-s-aspens">The future of Yellowstone's aspens</h2>



"This is a remarkable case of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/giant-viruses-found-in-yellowstones-hot-springs-may-be-near-the-root-of-all-life-on-earth/">ecological restoration</a>," Painter concluded. "Wolf reintroduction is yielding long-term ecological changes contributing to increased biodiversity and habitat diversity."



Trees grow slowly, so even with wolves restored, it will take decades for these young aspens to form a full-grown forest. 



Some areas might never fully recover if bison numbers continue to rise or if the climate becomes too hot and dry.



Thanks to the work of Painter and his team, scientists are now certain that restoring the Yellowstone predator has restarted aspen forest regeneration. Not everywhere and not perfectly, but enough to be measured, creating hope for the future.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0378112725004499?via%3Dihub" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Forest Ecology and Management</a>.



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Yellowstone's aspen trees are growing again thanks to the reintroduction of wolves

Young aspen trees in Yellowstone are doing something they have not done in almost 100 years. Rather than sprouting and being eaten back to nubs by elk and bison, they're actually growing into tall, adult forest trees rising up towards the canopy. This matters more than it might seem, because it shows what happens when a missing piece of an ecosystem returns. Yellowstone, aspens, and elk In the 1920s, people eliminated wolves in Yellowstone. At the time, with limited scientific knowledge, managers believed it was the right...

Time usually moves from yesterday to tomorrow in a straight line. Many people accept this without question, but some scientists suspect our sense of forward progression could be missing an entire other direction.



Evidence now suggests that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/physicists-make-bold-claims-that-time-is-an-illusion-question-its-existence/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">time</a> may operate in both directions at once, though we remain oblivious to the backward flow. 



The research was led by Dr. Andrea Rocco, an associate professor of physics and mathematical biology at the <a href="https://www.surrey.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Surrey</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-does-time-really-only-move-forward">Does time really only move forward?</h2>



“One way to explain this is when you look at a process like spilt milk spreading across a table, it's clear that time is moving forward. But if you were to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/astrophysicist-says-hes-cracked-the-equation-for-time-travel/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">play that in reverse</a>, like a movie, you'd immediately know something was wrong – it would be hard to believe milk could just gather back into a glass," said Dr. Rocco.



He points out that certain physical laws appear neutral about the direction of time, yet our everyday world does not reflect that neutrality. This divide sparks curiosity about whether forward-only time is just a convenient interpretation.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-quantum-physics-suggests-time-may-reverse">Quantum physics suggests time may reverse</h2>



In the quantum domain, tiny particles can show bizarre behavior that seems unnatural on larger scales. 



When these particles interact with an environment, they form a type of open quantum system that can leak energy or information in subtle ways.



Scientists suspected that once those details escaped into a huge environment, there was no coming back, reinforcing the idea of a one-way timeline. The new study challenges this belief by suggesting that the fundamental equations allow for a hidden reverse route as well.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-surprise-factor">The surprise factor</h2>



Mathematical models revealed an unexpected consistency in the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/melting-ice-caps-changing-earths-rotation-need-negative-leap-second/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">equations</a> when time was flipped. The researchers noticed that certain adjustments, normally used to simplify the math, did not break the possibility of reverse flow at all.



“The surprising part was that even after simplifying our equations, they behaved the same whether moving forward or backward in time. This had to be the case because the 'memory kernel' is symmetrical,” said Dr. Thomas Guff, who led the calculations.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-loophole-allows-time-to-move-backward">Loophole allows time to move backward</h2>



One detail often overlooked is the time-discontinuous factor, which preserves an odd balance in the equations. 



While everyday experience pushes us to assume time can only move forward, the time-discontinuous factor keeps the backward path mathematically valid.



In practice, this means a system could, in theory, follow a trajectory that looks normal in reverse. At larger scales, we rarely see this because chaos and complexity hide such reversals from casual observation.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-two-directions-are-possible">Two directions are possible </h2>



According to the experts, the second law of thermodynamics still holds even when two directions are possible. 



Entropy, which measures disorder, grows from whichever point we label as the start, so each direction still looks irreversible from its own vantage point.



In other words, you cannot spontaneously return spilled milk to the glass if you view that event as your baseline. The laws do not demand a single universal arrow; they only state that disorder tends to go up from any chosen beginning.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-time-moving-forward-and-backward">Time moving forward and backward</h2>



Some believe that if the universe had a clear initial condition, it might have sprouted two directions of time at once. We follow one arrow, but there could be another evolving away from the same cosmic starting point.



This idea may seem bold, but it raises fundamental questions about why time appears to move in only one direction in our everyday experiences. 



In the physical world, we observe events unfolding in a forward sequence - water spills but does not unspill, people age rather than grow younger, and past events remain fixed while the future remains uncertain.



However, some scientific theories suggest that this forward <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/time-travel-study-reveals-the-fate-of-coastal-marshes/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">movement</a> may not be an inherent feature of time itself but rather a product of how we perceive and interact with the universe.



By studying hidden symmetries in quantum systems, researchers are investigating whether time has an underlying balance, allowing it to move both forward and backward under certain conditions. 



These studies aim to determine whether time's apparent one-way flow is simply a limitation of our human experience or a more profound law of nature.



The study is published in <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-025-87323-x" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Scientific Reports</a>.



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Time may not just move forward, experts think it may also rewind

Time usually moves from yesterday to tomorrow in a straight...

Humanity has long wondered whether intelligent life is a rare cosmic accident or an inevitable outcome of planetary evolution. For decades, scientists have debated the probability of intelligent beings arising elsewhere in the universe.



Some argue that our existence depends on a series of nearly impossible steps, making it unlikely that similar beings exist beyond Earth. 



Others suggest that evolution follows predictable patterns, meaning life like ours could be common on other planets.



A new study from researchers at <a href="https://www.psu.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Penn State</a> challenges the idea that intelligence is an improbable fluke. Their model suggests that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-super-earth-hd-20794-found-just-20-light-years-away-is-best-target-yet-for-alien-life/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">life</a> evolves as planetary conditions shift, making intelligence less about luck and more about timing.



The findings reshape the discussion about our origins and the likelihood of discovering extraterrestrial civilizations.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-is-intelligent-life-rare">Is intelligent life rare?</h2>



For years, the dominant theory explaining the rarity of intelligent life has been the "hard steps" model. 



First proposed by physicist Brandon Carter in 1983, this idea suggests that life’s progression from simple organisms to intelligent beings required multiple, extremely difficult evolutionary steps.



Carter’s model assumes that, because it took billions of years for humans to appear on Earth, the odds of intelligent life arising elsewhere must be extremely low.



However, the new study challenges this assumption. Researchers argue that Earth's environment was initially inhospitable to complex life, and evolutionary breakthroughs occurred when <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/finding-alien-life-may-be-as-simple-as-watching-microbes-move/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">conditions became suitable</a>. 



This suggests that intelligence may not be the result of rare luck but a natural outcome of planetary development.



“This is a significant shift in how we think about the history of life,” said Jennifer Macalady, professor of geosciences at <a href="https://www.psu.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Penn State</a>. 



“It suggests that the evolution of complex life may be less about luck and more about the interplay between life and its environment, opening up exciting new avenues of research in our quest to understand our origins and our place in the universe.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-role-of-environmental-conditions">Role of environmental conditions</h2>



The new model proposes that key evolutionary transitions, such as the emergence of complex cells and multicellular <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/what-are-the-chances-that-alien-life-exists/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">life</a>, were made possible by gradual changes in Earth's atmosphere and oceans. 



Life did not evolve randomly but rather in response to shifts in environmental factors like oxygen levels, temperature, and ocean chemistry.



For example, complex animals require sufficient oxygen to survive. Earth's atmosphere became oxygen-rich due to the activities of photosynthesizing microbes and bacteria, which created the right conditions for more advanced life to appear. 



“We're arguing that intelligent life may not require a series of lucky breaks to exist,” said Dan Mills, postdoctoral researcher at <a href="https://www.lmu.de/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">The University of Munich</a>. 



“Humans didn't evolve ‘early’ or ‘late’ in Earth’s history, but ‘on time,’ when the conditions were in place. Perhaps it’s only a matter of time, and maybe other planets are able to achieve these conditions more rapidly than Earth did, while other planets might take even longer.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-different-perspective-on-time">A different perspective on time</h2>



The "hard steps" model is based on the assumption that evolution should be measured against the lifespan of the sun. 



With the sun expected to last around 10 billion years, and Earth already 5 billion years old, Carter suggested that intelligent life must be extremely rare since it appeared relatively late.



The new study takes a different approach. Instead of measuring evolution against the sun’s lifespan, researchers suggest using a geological time scale. Evolution follows planetary changes, not the arbitrary ticking of a cosmic clock.



“We’re taking the view that rather than base our predictions on the lifespan of the sun, we should use a geological time scale, because that's how long it takes for the atmosphere and landscape to change,” commented Jason Wright, professor of astronomy and astrophysics at Penn State.



“These are normal timescales on the Earth. If <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/hydrothermal-vents-earths-blueprint-for-finding-alien-life/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">life</a> evolves with the planet, then it will evolve on a planetary time scale at a planetary pace.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rethinking-how-intelligent-life-evolves">Rethinking how intelligent life evolves</h2>



One reason the "hard steps" model remained dominant for so long is its astrophysical origins. Astrophysics has traditionally shaped how scientists think about planetary formation and the conditions required for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/alien-life-may-be-lurking-deep-underground-on-mars/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">life</a>. 



However, evolution is a biological process influenced by planetary chemistry, ocean currents, and atmospheric shifts.



To create their new model, the research team combined insights from astrophysics, geobiology, and planetary science. 



This interdisciplinary approach allowed them to challenge long-held assumptions and present a more comprehensive view of how life evolves.



“This paper is the most generous act of interdisciplinary work,” said Macalady, who also directs Penn State’s <a href="https://astrobiology.psu.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Astrobiology Research Center</a>. 



“Our fields were far apart, and we put them on the same page to get at this question of how we got here and are we alone? There was a gulf, and we built a bridge.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-testing-the-new-model">Testing the new model</h2>



The researchers are now working to test their alternative model by studying planetary atmospheres and evaluating evolutionary "hard steps" under different environmental conditions. 



They suggest searching for biosignatures, such as oxygen, in the atmospheres of exoplanets to determine whether life-supporting conditions develop elsewhere.



They also plan to investigate whether supposed "hard steps" in evolution were truly as rare as previously thought. 



By studying single-celled and multicellular life in different environmental settings, they aim to determine whether major evolutionary transitions could occur under a broader range of conditions than previously assumed.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-are-evolutionary-milestones-truly-unique">Are evolutionary milestones truly unique?</h2>



Another important question the team hopes to explore is whether key evolutionary breakthroughs - such as the emergence of oxygenic photosynthesis, eukaryotic cells, and animal <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/oxygen-levels-on-exoplanets-reveal-presence-of-alien-technology/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">multicellularity</a> - were truly one-time events in Earth's history.



They suggest that similar evolutionary advances may have occurred multiple times but left no fossil record due to extinction or environmental changes.



If such innovations occurred more than once, it would suggest that evolution follows a predictable path, which increases the chances that life similar to ours exists elsewhere.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-could-intelligent-life-exist-on-many-planets">Could intelligent life exist on many planets?</h2>



The study presents a hopeful view of life’s potential beyond Earth. If intelligence arises naturally when planetary conditions align, then the universe may be filled with civilizations at different stages of development.



“This new perspective suggests that the emergence of intelligent life might not be such a long shot after all,” Wright said. 



Instead of a series of improbable events, evolution may be more of a predictable process that unfolds as global conditions allow.



"Our framework applies not only to Earth, but also other planets, increasing the possibility that life similar to ours could exist elsewhere,” Wright concluded.



As scientists continue to refine their understanding of evolution and the role of planetary conditions, new discoveries may bring us closer to answering one of humanity’s greatest questions: Are we alone in the universe?



-----



The study was co-authored by Adam Frank of the University of Rochester. The research received support from Penn State’s Astrobiology Research Center, the Penn State <a href="https://exoplanets.psu.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Center for Exoplanets and Habitable Worlds</a>, the Penn State <a href="https://www.pseti.psu.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Extraterrestrial Intelligence Center</a>, <a href="https://astrobiology.nasa.gov/research/astrobiology-at-nasa/exobiology/">NASA</a>'s Exobiology program, and the German Research Foundation.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/sciadv.ads5698" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Science Advances</a>.



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New study: Intelligent life is likely very common throughout the universe

Humanity has long wondered whether intelligent life is a rare...

Coyotes are wily hunters that also scavenge for a catholic array of food. They kill rabbits and other small vertebrates, will take scraps from dustbins, and sometimes munch on backyard fruit. But recent evidence shows they also take an interest in harbor seal pups.



Motion-triggered cameras have captured these wild canines dragging baby seals away from mainland beaches. This discovery has sparked questions about how these <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/city-life-has-a-huge-impact-on-coyote-evolution/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">predators</a> use the shore as part of their menu.



Led by UC Santa Cruz Ph.D. student <a href="https://rclab.ucsc.edu/people/grad-students-postdocs/frankie-gerraty" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Frankie Gerraty</a>, the investigation uncovered details of coyote hunting patterns near seal rookeries. 



Working alongside <a href="https://www.noyocenter.org/our-team-staff" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Sarah Grimes</a> from the <a href="https://www.noyocenter.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Noyo Center for Marine Science</a>, the team noticed a puzzling pattern of seal-pup carcasses and set out to find out who was to blame.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cameras-reveal-coyotes-hunting-seal-pups">Cameras reveal coyotes hunting seal pups</h2>



<a href="https://esajournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/ecy.70031" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Researchers</a> set up cameras on a stretch of sand where harbor seals give birth. Footage revealed coyotes seizing newborn pups and carting them off into the dune vegetation.



“I had a hunch it was coyotes,” said Gerraty. “Terrestrial <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/coyotes-live-longer-in-densely-populated-human-areas/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">wildlife</a> that eat seafood are a major focus of mine, and we know that coyotes are very adaptable.”



The team found that coyotes often returned to the same hiding spots with their prey. Investigators also discovered remains that showed a consistent pattern in the way these canines fed, pointing to more than simple random scavenging.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-coyotes-hunt-seal-pups-for-seasonal-food">Coyotes hunt seal pups for seasonal food</h2>



“There was consistency, they weren't scattered here and there,” said Gerraty. The pups are born seasonally, so coyotes can hunt them when other typical prey might be less abundant.



Fatty foods are enticing for many species. For <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/hunting-coyotes-may-be-fueling-their-population-growth/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">coyotes</a>, a blubbery pup provides a calorie-packed option in spring.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/02/Coyote-hunting-and-killing-a-harbor-seal-pup-in-Bolinas-Lagoon-on-July-4-2022_credit-Clint-Graves_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/02/Coyote-hunting-and-killing-a-harbor-seal-pup-in-Bolinas-Lagoon-on-July-4-2022_credit-Clint-Graves_1s.webp" alt="Coyote hunting and killing a harbor seal pup in Bolinas Lagoon on July 4, 2022 (Observation #40). A single coyote (A) was observed ambushing a group of hauled‐out adult harbor seals and pups (B) and killing a harbor seal pup (C, D). Seals flushed into the water to avoid coyote predation (E). Photo credit: Clint Graves." class="wp-image-1960174"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Coyote hunting and killing a harbor seal pup in Bolinas Lagoon on July 4, 2022 (Observation #40). A single coyote (A) was observed ambushing a group of hauled‐out adult harbor seals and pups (B) and killing a harbor seal pup (C, D). Seals flushed into the water to avoid coyote predation (E). Photo credit: Clint Graves.</figcaption></figure>



The study observed that vultures, ravens, and eagles also fed on leftover carcasses. This suggests that predators and scavengers alike see newborn seals as a valuable <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/urban-coyotes-have-developed-a-taste-for-human-food/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">food source</a> at certain times of year.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-new-questions-about-rookeries">New questions about rookeries</h2>



A <a href="https://dictionary.cambridge.org/us/dictionary/english/rookery" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">rookery</a> is a breeding ground where seals gather to give birth. These areas may attract opportunistic land predators, like coyotes, because pups are vulnerable when resting onshore.



Coyotes are known to explore beaches for stranded fish and bird eggs, but recorded instances of hunting seals are limited.



This project captured some of the most detailed accounts of coyotes stalking and killing seal pups in California. Scientists have started to wonder if more rookeries might show similar patterns.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-history-of-predator-absence">History of predator absence</h2>



Historically, wolves and <a href="https://tarpits.org/california-grizzly-bear" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">grizzlies</a> were the main large land predators in many parts of California. With those animals gone from most coastal areas, seals have expanded their rookeries onto mainland beaches.



<a href="https://www.nps.gov/yell/learn/nature/coyote.htm" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Coyotes</a> have filled that void as they spread throughout the state over the past century. They weigh about 20 to 50 pounds (9 to 23 kilograms) in some regions, which makes a harbor seal pup a manageable but significant prey item.



In past centuries, seals may have kept their pups on remote islands to avoid the attention of bigger predators. 



Now, researchers are seeing a shift where some seals return to rocky outcrops farther from shore, presumably to decrease the chance of coyote encounters.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-balancing-perceptions">Balancing perceptions</h2>



Some people see coyotes as a nuisance or threat. Others admire their resilience and willingness to adapt.



“Coyotes have a PR problem,” noted Gerraty. He does not want this research to stir more anger toward the species, since this is natural behavior between <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/hunting-coyotes-actually-boosts-their-numbers/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">native animals</a>.



Still, it is jarring for onlookers to find baby seals missing or discovered partially eaten in the dunes. The study raises questions about how often this happens and whether seals will change rookery spots to protect their young.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ripple-effects-in-the-ecosystem">Ripple effects in the ecosystem</h2>



Pinnipeds are a group of marine mammals that includes seals and sea lions, and they carry a lot of fat. If coyotes gain enough energy from hunting pups, they might multiply faster or shift their ranges nearer to rookery sites.



Researchers want to learn whether this interaction influences how coyotes behave elsewhere. For example, if pups are an easy meal in spring, coyotes might focus on farmland or suburban edges at other times.



Harbor seals may start choosing haul-out sites that offer more protection from land predators. These shifts could impact local beaches, tourism, and conservation efforts focused on both seals and coyotes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-have-coyotes-always-hunted-seal-pups">Have coyotes always hunted seal pups?</h2>



Reports from nearby counties hint that coyotes have hunted seal pups at Drakes Estero and Bolinas Lagoon. Wildlife observers in <a href="https://www.sealifer3.org/news/elephant-seal-pup-treated-after-likely-coyote-attack" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Washington state</a> and Massachusetts have also recorded similar predation events.



Scientists say land-based predators hunting marine mammals is <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2352550924000642" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">not new</a>, but thorough research on it has been missing for a long time. 



This study is unique because it shows how <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/coyotes-can-make-puppy-dog-eyes-too/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">coyotes</a> may regularly return for blubber-rich meals, especially when pups are small.



The authors suggest that more data on coyote abundance, behavior, and health in coastal zones could help conservationists manage human–wildlife conflicts. 



By shedding light on this predator–prey link, biologists can better track coastal ecosystems and anticipate future shifts in animal populations.



The study is published in <a href="https://esajournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/ecy.70031" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Ecology</a>.



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Photos capture coyotes hunting and eating baby seals for the first time

Coyotes are wily hunters that also scavenge for a catholic...

For years, semaglutide has gained attention as a breakthrough treatment for diabetes and obesity. Now, researchers are exploring another surprising benefit - its potential to reduce alcohol consumption.



Sold under brand names like Ozempic and Wegovy, this medication has transformed the lives of many by improving blood sugar control and aiding in weight loss.



A new study suggests that semaglutide may help individuals struggling with alcohol use disorder. The research was led by Dr. Christian Hendershot from the <a href="https://ias.usc.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">USC Institute for Addiction Science</a> and Dr. Klara Klein from the <a href="https://www.med.unc.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">UNC School of Medicine</a>.



The findings indicate that weekly injections of semaglutide can significantly reduce alcohol cravings, lower consumption, and decrease the frequency of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/alcohol-and-depression-study-challenges-self-medication-theory/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">heavy drinking episodes</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-alcohol-related-deaths-are-rising">Alcohol-related deaths are rising</h2>



Alcohol-related deaths in the U.S. exceed 178,000 per year. Long-term alcohol use is linked to severe health complications, including liver disease, cardiovascular disease, and cancer. 



Despite these risks, many individuals with alcohol use disorder do not seek or receive treatment.



The <a href="https://www.fda.gov" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">FDA</a> has approved only three medications to treat alcohol use disorder, but they remain underutilized. This treatment gap leaves many without effective medical support. 



With semaglutide already widely prescribed for diabetes and weight loss, researchers see an opportunity to explore its use in alcohol reduction. The potential for a well-known medication to provide a new treatment option could change how alcohol use disorder is managed.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-testing-semaglutide-for-alcohol-addiction">Testing semaglutide for alcohol addiction</h2>



To better understand <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/weight-loss-drugs-linked-to-unexpected-benefits-and-risks/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">semaglutide’s effect</a> on drinking behavior, the researchers recruited 48 adults diagnosed with alcohol use disorder who were not actively seeking treatment.



The study aimed to evaluate whether semaglutide could help them control their alcohol consumption in both real-world and controlled settings.



One week before the trial began, participants attended a drinking session in a comfortable laboratory setting. They were provided with their preferred alcoholic beverages and asked to drink over a two-hour period. 



The researchers documented their drinking patterns, including the number of drinks consumed and whether they delayed drinking.



Following this initial session, participants were randomly assigned to receive either weekly injections of semaglutide or a placebo for nine weeks. 



Throughout the study, weekly drinking habits were closely monitored. At the end of the trial, all of the participants returned to the lab for another controlled drinking session to measure any changes in their behavior.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-people-drank-less-alcohol-with-semaglutide">People drank less alcohol with semaglutide</h2>



The results were striking. Participants in the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/electrical-synapses-are-key-to-decision-making-in-animal-brains/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">semaglutide</a> group consumed significantly less alcohol than those in the placebo group. 



This reduction was measured in both total grams of alcohol consumed and breath alcohol concentration. The data indicated that semaglutide helped lower alcohol intake both in a controlled setting and in the participants' everyday lives.



Beyond reducing the quantity of alcohol consumed, semaglutide also decreased cravings. The researchers observed that participants taking the drug reported fewer urges to drink, drank less frequently, and had fewer heavy drinking days.



Compared to currently available medications for alcohol use disorder, semaglutide showed a potentially greater effect, even though it was administered at the lowest clinical dose.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-unexpected-link-to-smoking-reduction">Unexpected link to smoking reduction</h2>



In addition to its effects on <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/spike-in-alcohol-use-during-the-pandemic-continues-today/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">alcohol consumption</a>, the researchers noticed another surprising outcome. Among participants who smoked cigarettes at the beginning of the study, those who received semaglutide significantly reduced their cigarette intake compared to those who received the placebo.



This observation could be important because no single medication is currently approved for both alcohol reduction and smoking cessation. If semaglutide continues to show promise in this area, it could lead to a new approach for addressing multiple substance use behaviors at once.



“The first clinical trial testing the impact of an older GLP-1 receptor agonist on alcohol use in humans was inconclusive,” said Dr. Klein.



“However, as prescription of semaglutide and similar medications escalated, anecdotal reports of reduced alcohol use became very common, and suggested the potential of these more potent therapies for treatment of alcohol use disorder.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-changes-in-the-brain-s-response-to-alcohol">Changes in the brain’s response to alcohol</h2>



While the findings are promising, the researchers still need to determine exactly how semaglutide reduces alcohol cravings.



Early studies suggest that GLP-1 receptor agonists like semaglutide affect reward pathways in the brain, altering how the brain responds to alcohol. These changes may explain why individuals taking the drug experience fewer cravings and consume less alcohol.



Some scientists believe that semaglutide reduces the rewarding effects of alcohol by altering dopamine signaling in the brain. 



If true, this could provide a biological explanation for why participants in the study showed a reduced desire to drink. However, more research is needed to confirm these mechanisms.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-further-research-is-needed">Further research is needed</h2>



Although the results of the study suggest a promising future for semaglutide in treating alcohol use disorder, there are still many unanswered questions. Experts must investigate whether the effects observed in this small study hold up in larger and longer trials.



Another important area of research is determining the ideal dose and treatment duration for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/even-moderate-drinking-severely-harms-health-despite-past-studies/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">alcohol use</a> disorder. Currently, semaglutide is prescribed for diabetes and weight loss at specific doses, but those amounts may not be optimal for reducing alcohol consumption. 



Understanding how the medication works in different populations will be essential for its future use in addiction treatment.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-treatment-of-alcohol-use-disorder">Treatment of alcohol use disorder </h2>



“These data suggest the potential of semaglutide and similar drugs to fill an unmet need for the treatment of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/alcohol-has-a-hidden-impact-on-heart-health/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">alcohol use</a> disorder,” said Dr. Klein.



“Larger and longer studies in broader populations are needed to fully understand the safety and efficacy in people with alcohol use disorder, but these initial findings are promising.”



If future research confirms these results, semaglutide could offer a new way to address alcohol use disorder. Given its existing approval for other conditions, it may be easier to integrate into treatment plans than developing an entirely new drug.



For now, scientists remain cautiously optimistic. As more clinical trials are conducted, researchers hope to provide definitive answers about semaglutide’s role in alcohol reduction. If the findings hold, this medication could mark a major shift in how alcohol use disorder is treated.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jamapsychiatry/fullarticle/2829811" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">JAMA Psychiatry</a>.



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Semaglutide shows promise in reducing alcohol cravings

For years, semaglutide has gained attention as a breakthrough treatment...

Accents spark ongoing debates nationwide. Some insist they can instantly identify a person’s origins from the accent, while others dismiss speech differences as insignificant.



Kathryn Campbell-Kibler, associate professor of linguistics at The Ohio State University, led a study that investigates this clash. She and her colleagues explored why individuals rate entire regions as highly accented but rarely detect any <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/social-robots-with-a-local-accent-seem-more-trustworthy/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">special traits</a> in real voices from those same areas.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-questioning-what-s-normal">Questioning what’s “normal”</h2>



People in the United States have long equated certain speech patterns with unusual regional traits. In everyday conversation, though, many seem to ignore those so-called markers of accent in actual speakers.



“People probably don’t learn who has an accent from hearing someone talk and thinking, ‘huh, they sound funny’ - even though sometimes it feels like that’s how we do it,” said Campbell-Kibler.



She based her observation on what participants revealed during interviews and recorded evaluations of different voices, noting that the story they tell about how accents work doesn’t match their reactions in person.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-vowels-and-the-perception-of-accents">Vowels and the perception of accents</h2>



Researchers have long emphasized how Americans rely on specific vowel sounds to sense whether a person speaks with an accent.



Vowels can shift in subtle ways depending on region, social background, or even personal habit. Scholarly work shows that people’s speech perception is influenced by context, environment, and individual attitudes.



One example that has drawn attention is the pin/pen merger, in which words like “pen” sound like “pin.” This phenomenon appears in several southern states and adjacent regions, prompting many to label such areas as “obviously accented.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-looking-for-a-disconnect">Looking for a disconnect</h2>



Campbell-Kibler’s team recruited a broad mix of individuals in Columbus, Ohio. Participants assessed various recorded voices and then gave their anecdotal thoughts on which parts of the state “definitely” had residents with an accent.



A puzzling pattern emerged. While people gave high accent ratings to voices from certain places, they rarely flagged actual speech recordings from those same locations as particularly accented.&nbsp;



“It is perplexing. We don’t know the full answer for why this is,” said Campbell-Kibler. She noted that understanding how people form accent perceptions will require further research into cognitive and social influences.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cultural-cues-and-stereotypes">Cultural cues and stereotypes</h2>



This apparent contradiction might spring from what we absorb from friends, family, and pop culture. Many who think an area sounds “different” do so thanks to shared anecdotes or media portrayals, rather than due to direct observation of vowel shifts or altered consonants.



It is possible that common expressions like “you sound so country” plant ideas in our heads before we ever talk to someone from that region. By the time we actually meet a person from that location, we might subconsciously downplay any distinctive twang.



Ohio’s unique geography and population flows often make it feel like a microcosm of American speech variants.



Different parts of the state are casually labeled Midland, Northern, or Southern in linguistic surveys. Yet many Ohioans still champion the idea that their region is accent-neutral. This mental map of “who has an accent” doesn’t always align with <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/speech-planning-how-our-brains-prepare-to-speak/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">reality</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-we-don-t-notice-some-accents">Why we don't notice some accents </h2>



Findings like these hint that accent awareness might develop on multiple levels. One factor may be cultural messaging that lumps entire places together as odd or exotic.



Another aspect is the genuine variation in vowel sounds, intonation, and word choice that sets regions apart, which people may not notice in casual encounters.



Some linguists suspect that social identification - whom we see as “like us” or “not like us” - shapes why certain sounds register as heavily accented. 



Others propose that mass media tropes, from exaggerated comedic roles to dramatic movie characters, form the root of widespread stereotypes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-accent-bias-affects-daily-life">How accent bias affects daily life</h2>



Accent perceptions can lead to misunderstandings and social barriers. They affect hiring decisions, education, and friendships. 



Recognizing that we might judge <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-speech-speed-can-signal-brain-health/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">speech</a> based on preconceived notions, rather than actual patterns, could help us become more mindful listeners.



Small, everyday interactions might shift our views. Learning that someone from a supposedly “very accented” region actually speaks in ways we barely acknowledge as different is a step toward appreciating the variety that surrounds us.



Campbell-Kibler’s research sparks ongoing discussions about <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/the-iconic-southern-accent-is-fading-with-each-new-generation/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">speech</a>, identity, and how cultural beliefs shape what we hearing. Examining why our ears play tricks on us may encourage more open-minded exchanges.



Language is personal, but it also unites us. Understanding how we label one another’s way of speaking could bring a greater sense of fairness to how we communicate across regions.



The study is published in the <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/josl.12691" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal of Sociolinguistics</a>.



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Media and stereotypes influence how we judge different accents

Accents spark ongoing debates nationwide. Some insist they can instantly...

Superconductors carry electricity without wasting energy, which may seem a bit like magic. For decades, labs chilled materials to extremely low temperatures or cranked up huge amounts of pressure to observe this effect.



Fresh research shows that certain new materials can perform without the hassle of high-pressure equipment. This may lead to more practical ways to achieve zero resistance in everything from power grids to experimental <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/graphene-superhighway-allows-electronic-devices-to-use-much-less-power/">electronic devices</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-new-path-for-nickelates">A new path for nickelates</h2>



Harold Hwang, director of the Stanford Institute for Materials and Energy Sciences <a href="https://simes.stanford.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">(SIMES)</a>, collaborated with colleagues at the Department of Energy’s <a href="https://www6.slac.stanford.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">SLAC National Accelerator Laboratory</a>.



The experts turned their attention to nickelates, which are chemical cousins of older, high-temperature superconductors. The team's strategy involves thin-film growth and special substrates that apply sideways pressure.



These films adjust their atomic configuration in response, opening the door to superconductivity without a diamond anvil cell. The experts see this as a big step forward because it removes the bulky hardware that once limited closer examination of these promising materials.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-supercool-temperatures-no-high-pressure">Supercool temperatures, no high pressure</h2>



Tests showed that the transition temperature can hover between -413°F and -384°F, depending on how tightly the film is squeezed. A perfect zero-resistance state still appears only at more frigid levels, but these nickelates show signs of future improvement.



The scientists suspect that sideways strain modifies the crystal spacing in ways that encourage superconductivity. Instead of pressing from every angle, it selectively tweaks the structure to produce similar effects.



By working at ordinary pressure, the team gains access to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mysterious-x-ray-flashes-are-accelerating-in-a-black-hole/">X-ray</a> scattering and other powerful tests. Without thick diamond anvils blocking the view, they can spot minute details about oxygen content and atomic layers.



"The significance of this research lies in its potential to expand our understanding of high-temperature superconductors. By overcoming the limitations of high-pressure constraints, we now have the tools to conduct comprehensive studies that were previously out of reach," explained Professor Hwang. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-high-temperature-superconductivity">High-temperature superconductivity </h2>



High-temperature superconductivity first caught global attention in the late 1980s with cuprates. Alhough they broke temperature records at the time, these substances still demanded cold conditions that limit daily use.



Nickelates have a similar, layered structure, and that sparked curiosity about whether they could host the same physics. Now that scientists can stabilize them at regular pressure, they want to see if nickelates might perform even better than cuprates.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-achieving-better-performance">Achieving better performance </h2>



Some samples contain stacking flaws or imperfect oxygen stoichiometry, which can ruin a clean superconducting path. Even small deviations in atomic arrangement may decrease the transition temperature or block zero resistance.



Mixed structures, such as Ruddlesden-Popper phases, sometimes appear during thin-film growth. These extra layers interfere with conductivity and complicate attempts to confirm pure superconducting signals.



Refining film quality is crucial. The researchers plan to optimize growth temperatures, gas composition, and doping levels so these nickelates can reach better performance.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-potential-of-reliable-superconductors">Potential of reliable superconductors </h2>



Reliable superconductors could shape <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.1231930" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">quantum technologies</a> by providing stable platforms for qubits that do not lose coherence easily. Some experts imagine more complex quantum circuits that remain robust under slight temperature changes.



Engineers also dream of power grids that send electricity across hundreds of miles without losing energy as heat. If these nickelates can edge closer to warmer operating ranges, they might unlock a new wave of efficient devices.



The cost and complexity of thin-film production remain a concern. Scaling up from lab samples to industrial volumes requires careful coordination and a clear roadmap.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-new-paths-in-technology">New paths in technology </h2>



Ongoing work aims to boost the transition temperature and achieve a stable zero-resistance state under more manageable conditions. Researchers are also trying different doping strategies to tweak <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/shape-of-electrons-revealed-first-time-through-big-advance-in-quantum-physics/">electron</a> behavior in the crystal.



Meanwhile, global teams are testing alternative nickelate formulas to see if some compositions produce better superconducting phases. Each small step adds to the knowledge base, and points toward designs that might rival existing high-temperature materials.



Although these findings spark hope, there is still a long way to go. Even so, many investigators see clear signs of progress in the quest for simpler, more accessible superconductors.



Achieving absolutely no resistance at less extreme temperatures could revolutionize power transmission and electronics. This progress highlights how a focused approach to materials engineering can open new paths in science and technology.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-024-08525-3" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature</a>.



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Superconductivity achieved at room temperature with new materials

Superconductors carry electricity without wasting energy, which may seem a...

For years, astronomers have searched for habitable exoplanets around main-sequence stars similar to the Sun. These stars provide stable energy for billions of years, making them prime candidates for life-supporting planets. 



However, recent research suggests that another type of star - known as a white dwarf - may also offer suitable conditions for habitability.



White dwarfs are the remnants of stars that have exhausted their nuclear fuel. They no longer sustain fusion at their cores, yet they continue to emit residual heat. This lingering warmth raises an intriguing question: Could planets orbiting these <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/supernova-dandelion-year-1181-leaves-behind-zombie-star-defying-death/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">stars</a> maintain the right conditions for life?



A new study led by astronomers at the <a href="https://uci.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of California, Irvine</a>, suggests that the answer might be yes. Their findings indicate that white dwarf systems may be more hospitable to life than previously thought.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-comparing-white-dwarfs-to-sun-like-stars">Comparing white dwarfs to Sun-like stars</h2>



The research team, led by UC Irvine professor Aomawa Shields, explored the climates of exoplanets orbiting two very different stars. 



One was a theoretical white dwarf nearing the final stages of its existence. The other was Kepler-62, a main-sequence star undergoing a phase of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/strange-object-discovered-in-space-should-never-have-been-there/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">stellar evolution</a> similar to that of the Sun.



To understand how these exoplanets might behave, the team used a 3D global climate model originally designed to study Earth’s climate. 



The analysis revealed that the exoplanet orbiting the white dwarf was significantly warmer than the one around Kepler-62. This finding was unexpected, as white dwarfs are often assumed to be too dim to support habitable worlds.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-unique-characteristics-of-white-dwarf-planets">Unique characteristics of white dwarf planets</h2>



“While white dwarf stars may still give off some heat from residual nuclear activity in their outer layers, they no longer exhibit nuclear fusion at their cores. For this reason, not much consideration has been given to these <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/black-hole-draco-1es-1927-654-just-awoke-is-spewing-material-at-incredible-speeds/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">stars</a>’ ability to host habitable exoplanets,” explained Professor Shields.



“Our computer simulations suggest that if rocky planets exist in their orbits, these planets could have more habitable real estate on their surfaces than previously thought.”



One of the most critical differences between the two planetary systems studied was the way their planets rotate. A planet’s rotation determines how heat is distributed across its surface, which in turn affects its climate and potential habitability.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-role-of-planetary-rotation">The role of planetary rotation</h2>



The white dwarf’s habitable zone - the region where an exoplanet could maintain liquid water - sits much closer to the star than that of Kepler-62.



As a result, the planet orbiting the white dwarf has a much shorter rotation period of just ten hours. Meanwhile, the Kepler-62 planet takes 155 days to complete one rotation.



Both exoplanets likely experience synchronous rotation, meaning one side always faces the star while the other remains in permanent darkness. 



This phenomenon, known as tidal locking, creates extreme temperature differences between the day and night sides of a planet. However, the speed of rotation affects how atmospheric circulation distributes heat.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-cloud-cover-affects-temperature">How cloud cover affects temperature</h2>



“We expect synchronous rotation of an exoplanet in the habitable zone of a normal star like Kepler-62 to create more cloud cover on the planet’s dayside, reflecting incoming radiation away from the <a href="https://www.earth.com/image/hubble-spots-a-supernova-in-the-constellation-gemini/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">planet</a>’s surface,” noted Professor Shields.



“That’s usually a good thing for planets orbiting close to the inner edge of their stars’ habitable zones, where they could stand to cool off a bit rather than lose their oceans to space in a runaway greenhouse. But for a planet orbiting squarely in the middle of the habitable zone, it’s not such a good idea.”



The slow-rotating Kepler-62 exoplanet develops a thick layer of clouds on its day side. These clouds reflect a significant portion of incoming radiation, causing the planet to cool down more than expected. 



In contrast, the white dwarf exoplanet’s rapid rotation prevents the accumulation of extensive cloud cover. Without this reflective shield, the planet retains more heat, making it warmer and potentially more habitable.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-heat-retention-and-cloud-formation">Heat retention and cloud formation</h2>



“The planet orbiting Kepler-62 has so much cloud cover that it cools off too much, sacrificing precious habitable surface area in the process. On the other hand, the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dead-stars-reveal-the-hidden-physics-of-the-universe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">planet</a> orbiting the white dwarf is rotating so fast that it never has time to build up nearly as much cloud cover on its dayside, so it retains more heat, and that works in its favor,” explained Professor Shields.



These insights suggest that white dwarf planets may have a natural advantage in maintaining surface temperatures that support liquid water. 



While cloud cover on the Kepler-62 exoplanet reduces its habitable surface, the minimal clouds on the white dwarf planet create a more balanced climate.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-new-perspective-on-white-dwarf-habitability">New perspective on white dwarf habitability</h2>



Scientists have long assumed that planets orbiting white dwarfs would be too cold to sustain life. However, this study challenges that belief. Fewer clouds on the day side and an enhanced greenhouse effect on the night side keep white dwarf planets warmer than expected.



“These results suggest that the white dwarf stellar environment, once thought of as inhospitable to life, may present new avenues for exoplanet and astrobiology researchers to pursue,” said Professor Shields.



“As powerful observational capabilities to assess exoplanet atmospheres and astrobiology have come on line, such as those associated with the James Webb Space Telescope, we could be entering a new phase in which we’re studying an entirely new class of worlds around previously unconsidered stars.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-of-exoplanet-research">Future of exoplanet research</h2>



The discovery that white dwarf exoplanets could maintain habitable <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mysterious-x-ray-flashes-are-accelerating-in-a-black-hole/">conditions</a> opens new doors for future research. 



With advanced telescopes like the James Webb Space Telescope, scientists can now analyze the atmospheres of exoplanets in ways that were previously impossible. This could lead to the identification of rocky planets orbiting white dwarfs with atmospheres that support life.



This research, funded by the National Science Foundation (<a href="https://www.nsf.gov" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NSF</a>) and the <a href="https://ncar.ucar.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">National Center for Atmospheric Research</a>, involved collaboration with experts from multiple institutions, including the University of Colorado Boulder, the University of Washington, and the University of Warwick.



The findings highlight the importance of considering a wider range of stellar environments in the search for life beyond Earth.



As astronomers continue to refine their understanding of exoplanet climates, white dwarf systems may become key targets in the search for potentially habitable worlds. The universe could be home to many more life-supporting planets than previously imagined.



The study is published in <a href="https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.3847/1538-4357/ad9827" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">The Astrophysical Journal</a>. 



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White dwarf planets are more habitable than we thought

For years, astronomers have searched for habitable exoplanets around main-sequence...

Human history is shaped by patterns of power, competition, and survival instincts. These instincts, embedded deep in our nature, influence everything from politics to social structures. 



While civilization has advanced, fundamental drives continue to shape human interactions. Without conscious effort, these instincts may perpetuate cycles of inequality, division, and environmental destruction.



Professor Jorge A. Colombo explores this idea in <a href="https://www.taylorfrancis.com/books/mono/10.4324/9781003571544/new-approach-human-social-evolution-jorge-colombo" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">A New Approach to Human Social Evolution</a>. The book combines neuroscience, anthropology, and behavioral science to offer a new perspective on how ancient survival mechanisms still guide modern society.



Dr. Colombo's work suggests that recognizing and addressing these instincts is essential for building a more sustainable and just world.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-human-instincts-shape-society">How human instincts shape society</h2>



Dr. Colombo argues that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/science-behind-predicting-and-changing-human-behavior/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">human behaviors</a> such as dominance, competition, and survival instincts are not just remnants of the past.



These drives are hardwired into human nature and continue to define global politics, economic inequality, and social hierarchies. They are deeply ingrained, influencing decisions at both individual and societal levels.



He warns that if people fail to recognize and counterbalance these instincts, they risk reinforcing power struggles, economic disparity, and environmental damage. Understanding these behavioral patterns is not just an academic pursuit but a necessity for addressing today’s global challenges.



“In an era marked by rising authoritarianism, economic inequality, environmental crises, and nationalism, understanding how ancient survival mechanisms continue to shape human behavior is crucial,” explained Dr. Colombo.



“With increasing polarization in politics, conflicts over resources, and the struggle for social justice, I contend that only through education and universal values can humanity transcend these instincts to foster a more sustainable and equitable society.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-evolutionary-origins-of-human-behavior">Evolutionary origins of human behavior</h2>



Dr. Colombo, formerly a professor at the <a href="https://www.usf.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of South Florida</a> and principal investigator at <a href="https://www.conicet.gov.ar/?lan=en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">CONICET</a> (Argentina), explores how human behavior evolved from basic survival needs.



He explains that these instincts are deeply connected to early life as a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/what-animal-will-replace-humans-as-earths-dominant-species-this-scientist-has-an-idea/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">species</a>, where survival depended on competition for resources, territory, and social advantage.



When humans transitioned from prey to top predator, their brain structure changed. However, this shift did not erase primal survival mechanisms. 



Instead, it reinforced territorialism, reproductive instincts, and dominance over others. Unlike other species, humans also developed an awareness of mortality, further shaping their behavior and social structures.



Within the neural circuits of the brain, fundamental survival responses remain. The fight-or-flight instinct, territorial aggression, and competition for resources continue to influence human actions. 



These primal drives may be masked by cultural developments, but they still guide decision-making in ways that affect global stability.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-balance-between-human-instinct-and-culture">Balance between human instinct and culture</h2>



The human brain has evolved beyond raw survival instincts, developing creativity, cognitive expansion, artistic expression, and complex communication. 



However, Dr. Colombo argues that these intellectual advancements did not erase ancient drives. Instead, they modified how these instincts manifest in modern society.



Cultural norms, religious beliefs, and political ideologies often serve as a cover for these primal instincts. While societies promote peace, justice, and cooperation, they also enforce power structures that reflect ancient survival mechanisms. 



Dr. Colombo suggests that this tension between cultural ideals and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/chimpanzees-can-plan-and-adapt-their-use-of-tools-just-like-humans/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">primal instincts</a> explains many of today’s conflicts.



“Ancient animal survival drives persist in humans, masked under various behavioral paradigms. Fight and flight remain basic behavioral principles." 



"Even subdued under religious or mystic beliefs, aggressive and defensive behaviors emerge to defend or fight for even the most sophisticated peaceful beliefs, and events throughout humankind’s history support this evidence."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-power-and-control-shape-global-systems">Power and control shape global systems</h2>



Dr. Colombo identifies dominance as a key factor shaping human civilization. He points to politics, religion, and education as areas where power structures reinforce inequality. 



Throughout history, those in positions of power have used military force, propaganda, and economic control to maintain dominance.



Religious institutions have also played a role in enforcing hierarchical structures. Concepts of punishment, divine authority, and moral superiority often serve to maintain control over populations. 



Similarly, education systems have been designed to reinforce existing power dynamics, conditioning people to accept certain social structures.



Colombo argues that the accumulation of power - whether political, economic, or military - has led to widespread exploitation.



Over time, these structures have contributed to resource depletion, wealth inequality, and large-scale social divisions. While technological advancements have improved many aspects of life, they have also been used to reinforce these power dynamics.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-consequences-of-unchecked-power">Consequences of unchecked power</h2>



When dominance remains unchallenged, it leads to negative consequences for society and the environment. 



The pursuit of power and profit has driven over-exploitation of natural resources, the development of destructive weapons, and widespread consumerism. Political and economic systems have been designed to manipulate public opinion, reinforcing cycles of poverty and social exclusion.



Dr. Colombo emphasizes that without conscious intervention, these systems will continue to create suffering.



He warns that marginalized communities will become increasingly vulnerable, lacking access to basic needs such as healthcare, education, and economic opportunities. If these issues are not addressed, inequality will deepen, and social tensions will escalate.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-knowledge-can-challenge-human-instincts">Knowledge can challenge human instincts</h2>



Dr. Colombo believes that education and universal values are the key to breaking free from these ancient behavioral patterns. 



By promoting critical thinking and awareness of human instincts, societies can create opportunities for individuals to evolve beyond their primal drives.



He highlights the role of technology, particularly artificial intelligence, in shaping future educational opportunities. 



However, Colombo warns that without equitable access to education, technological advancements may further widen the gap between privileged and disadvantaged populations. Addressing these disparities requires policies that prioritize equal access to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/apes-can-tell-when-humans-dont-know-something/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">knowledge and resources</a>.



“The aggressiveness, cruelties, social inequities, and unrelenting individual and socioeconomic class ambitions are the best evidence that humans must first recognize and assume their fundamental nature to change their ancestral drive."



“Profound cultural changes are only possible and enduring if humans come to grips with their actual primary condition.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-understanding-human-instincts">Understanding human instincts </h2>



Dr. Colombo’s work highlights the importance of understanding human nature in shaping a better future. By acknowledging deep-seated instincts, societies can work toward policies and cultural shifts that promote equality and sustainability.



Education, ethical leadership, and inclusive policies can help channel human instincts toward cooperation rather than conflict. 



Recognizing these drives does not mean accepting them as unchangeable. Instead, it provides a foundation for creating a world that values fairness, opportunity, and ecological balance.



The challenge lies in whether humanity can rise above its ancient impulses and build a society that prioritizes long-term well-being over short-term dominance. 



The choice between repeating historical cycles or creating meaningful change rests in the hands of individuals and communities willing to challenge their instincts for the greater good.



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Primal instincts may still drive modern human decisions

Human history is shaped by patterns of power, competition, and...

The mysteries of ancient Egypt continue to captivate the world. From the grandeur of the pyramids to the intricate burial rituals of pharaohs, each discovery adds another layer to our understanding of this civilization. A new study has now revealed a fascinating aspect of mummification - its scent.



Researchers from <a href="https://www.ucl.ac.uk" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">UCL</a> and the <a href="https://www.uni-lj.si/en/university" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Ljubljana</a> have analyzed the aromas of ancient Egyptian mummified bodies, uncovering details about embalming materials and conservation techniques.



This research marks the first time scientists have systematically studied the smells of mummies using both chemical instruments and trained human sniffers.



The experts examined nine <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/worlds-oldest-cheese-discovered-alongside-ancient-mummies/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">mummified bodies</a> and identified scents described as "woody," "spicy," and "sweet."



The findings not only provide insight into ancient embalming materials but also reveal how museums have preserved and treated these remains over time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-chemistry-behind-mummy-scents">Chemistry behind mummy scents </h2>



Odors are more than just sensations - they carry valuable <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scented-products-release-indoor-air-pollutants/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">chemical information</a>. When substances break down or interact with the environment, they release volatile molecules that our noses detect. 



The researchers used gas chromatography and mass spectrometry to analyze these molecules, measuring the chemicals emitted by the mummified remains.



Alongside these advanced instruments, human experts also played a crucial role in the study. A panel of trained sniffers evaluated the intensity, quality, and pleasantness of the smells. 



This combination of scientific instruments and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/our-sense-of-smell-and-different-odors-can-influence-how-we-see-colors/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">human perception</a> allowed researchers to separate the original embalming odors from modern conservation chemicals and natural decay.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-smell-of-mummified-bodies">Smell of mummified bodies</h2>



Study lead author Professor Matija Strlič emphasized the importance of this research in understanding both ancient practices and modern preservation methods.



"The smell of mummified bodies has for years attracted significant interest from experts and the general public, but no combined chemical and perceptual scientific study has been conducted until now," noted Professor Matija Strlič.



"This groundbreaking research really helps us better plan conservation and understand the ancient embalming <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-the-human-nose-perceives-the-scent-that-lingers-after-rain/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">materials</a>. It adds another layer of data to enrich the museum exhibition of mummified bodies."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-egyptian-perceptions-of-mummy-scents">Egyptian perceptions of mummy scents</h2>



For the ancient Egyptians, smell was an essential part of the mummification process. The aromas of embalming substances were more than just practical - they carried spiritual significance.



Pleasant scents were linked to purity and divinity, while foul odors were associated with corruption and decay. The careful selection of resins, oils, and balms ensured that the deceased would be preserved both physically and spiritually.



"Two aspects of this study stand out to me. First, new information was revealed by the smells, highlighting the importance of using our senses to understand the past," noted Dr. Cecilia Bembibre, a researcher involved in the study.



This research not only examines the chemical composition of these scents but also emphasizes the importance of working closely with Egyptian colleagues to ensure ethical and respectful study of mummified remains.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-evolution-of-mummification-materials">Evolution of mummification materials</h2>



The practice of mummification changed over centuries, influenced by available resources, cultural shifts, and religious beliefs. 



The experts found traces of coniferous resins such as pine, cedar, and juniper, along with gum resins like myrrh and frankincense. These mummification ingredients were prized not only for their preservative <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/natures-scents-linked-to-improved-health-and-well-being/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">properties</a> but also for their scent.



The presence of these materials also provides clues about trade networks. Some resins used in mummification were imported from distant regions, showing the extent of Egypt’s connections with other civilizations. 



By analyzing the composition of these ancient embalming substances, researchers can determine when and how different techniques emerged.



"To the ancient Egyptians, mummification was an important mortuary practice aimed at preserving the body and soul for the afterlife through a detailed ritual of embalming of the deceased using oils, waxes and balms," noted Professor Ali Abdelhalim, director of the <a href="https://egyptianmuseumcairo.eg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Egyptian Museum</a> in Cairo.



"The practice evolved over time, and identifying different techniques and materials used offers insights into the era, location and socioeconomic status of the individual being mummified."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-conservation-and-modern-day-challenges">Conservation and modern-day challenges</h2>



While ancient Egyptians developed sophisticated methods to preserve their dead, modern conservators face new challenges in maintaining these fragile remains. 



Over time, mummies have been exposed to different environmental conditions, chemical treatments, and even pesticides. Some of these substances alter the original composition of the embalming materials, making it difficult to distinguish between ancient and modern additions.



The study demonstrates how smell analysis can serve as a non-invasive tool for conservation. By identifying the chemical signatures of different odors, researchers can detect contamination and deterioration without physically disturbing the mummies.



This approach helps museums and researchers make informed decisions about preserving these artifacts for future generations.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-sensory-experience-for-museum-visitors">Sensory experience for museum visitors</h2>



The findings of this study extend beyond laboratory research. Museums are now exploring new ways to engage visitors by incorporating smell into exhibitions. 



By reconstructing the original scents of ancient mummies, curators can create immersive experiences that bring history to life in unexpected ways.



"Smellscapes" allow audiences to experience mummification not just through sight but through scent. Visitors could soon step into an exhibit and inhale the fragrances once associated with ancient burial rituals.



This approach deepens the connection between modern audiences and the past, making history more tangible and memorable.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ancient-scents-as-historical-tools">Ancient scents as historical tools</h2>



The study marks just the beginning of using <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/our-sense-of-smell-detects-odors-in-less-time-than-it-takes-to-blink/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">scent</a> as a historical tool. By analyzing the smells of other archaeological finds, scientists can uncover new details about past civilizations.



From ancient manuscripts to buried artifacts, scent analysis could provide fresh perspectives on how people lived, worked, and preserved their surroundings.



The collaboration between Egyptian and international researchers sets a strong foundation for future studies. As more institutions embrace the potential of olfactory research, our understanding of the past will continue to expand beyond what we see and touch - into what we can smell.



The research not only enriches our knowledge of mummification but also changes the way we experience history. Whether through museum exhibits or further scientific discoveries, the scents of mummies will continue to reveal stories that have remained hidden for thousands of years.



The study is published in the <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/jacs.4c15769" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal of the American Chemical Society.</a> 



Image Credit: Emma Paolin



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Ancient Egyptian mummies still carry their original scents

The mysteries of ancient Egypt continue to captivate the world....

A recent study has found that reintroducing wolves to the Scottish Highlands could contribute to an expansion of native woodland that would sequester up to one million tons of CO2 annually.



Experts from the <a href="https://www.leeds.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Leeds</a> used ecological and modeling techniques to estimate how wolf predation on red deer might allow depleted forests to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/wolves-are-rebuilding-forests-and-restoring-ecosystem-balance-in-yellowstone/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">recover</a>. 



By reducing the deer population, the researchers project that new tree growth would flourish, resulting in substantial carbon sequestration.



In their study, the experts have detailed a potential path toward balancing biodiversity restoration with climate mitigation goals.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-modeling-the-impact-of-wolves">Modeling the impact of wolves</h2>



The red <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-does-climate-change-affect-deer-its-complicated/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">deer</a> population in Scotland has grown considerably in the absence of top predators. As deer graze heavily on saplings, many once-forested areas remain treeless, inhibiting the region’s long-term ecological health.&nbsp;



The research team used a predator–prey model to simulate how wolves could control deer numbers if reintroduced to specific regions classified as Scottish Wild Land, including areas in the Cairngorms, South-west Highlands, Central Highlands, and North-west Highlands.



From their simulations, the scientists concluded that a population of around 167 wolves spread across these regions would likely reduce deer densities enough to enable natural woodland regeneration on a large scale.&nbsp;



This vegetation recovery, they estimate, would annually sequester roughly one million tons of CO2 - equivalent to about 5% of the <a href="https://www.theccc.org.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">UK Climate Change Committee</a>’s recommended woodland carbon removal target for meeting net-zero emissions by 2050.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-potential-climate-benefits-of-wolves">Potential climate benefits of wolves</h2>



One of the study’s most notable findings is that each wolf would lead to an annual <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earths-carbon-sinks-are-being-pushed-to-their-limits/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">carbon</a> uptake capability of 6080 tonnes of CO2, effectively making each predator “worth” £154,000 based on current carbon valuation metrics.&nbsp;



Researchers see these results as further proof that large carnivores can provide significant ecosystem services by restoring natural processes.



Wolves were eradicated from Scotland approximately 250 years ago, leaving red deer without any natural predators. While humans do hunt and manage deer, numbers have still surged, hampering tree regrowth.&nbsp;



According to the study, substantial reforestation could now be achievable through ecological processes alone - if wolves were allowed to return and perform their predator role in the ecosystem.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-step-toward-climate-ready-conservation">A step toward climate-ready conservation</h2>



“There is an increasing acknowledgement that the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-climate-change-and-biodiversity-loss-are-one-indivisible-global-health-crisis/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">climate and biodiversity crises</a> cannot be managed in isolation,” said lead author Dominick Spracklen, a professor at the University of Leeds’ School of Earth and Environment.



“We need to look at the potential role of natural processes such as the reintroduction of species to recover our degraded ecosystems and these in turn can deliver co-benefits for climate and nature recovery.”&nbsp;



Diminished native woodlands pose ecological and economic risks. The study makes it clear that a wolf reintroduction initiative could turn this around, providing new habitat for other species.



Wolves could also reduce deer-related issues (such as road collisions and damage to young trees), and even create potential ecotourism opportunities - as observed in other countries that have reintroduced large predators.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-weighing-the-risks-and-benefits">Weighing the risks and benefits</h2>



The researchers acknowledge that reintroducing wolves would be controversial, especially among livestock farmers and deer stalkers concerned about their livelihoods.&nbsp;



Advocates argue that the economic value of improved carbon sequestration (along with reduced deer cull costs and new ecotourism revenues) could offset some of these concerns.



They also stress that any move toward wolf reintroduction would require extensive stakeholder engagement, transparent decision-making, and well-thought-out management plans to mitigate human-wildlife conflicts.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-nature-based-solutions-and-climate-benefits">Nature-based solutions and climate benefits </h2>



From a broader perspective, the findings add to a growing body of literature suggesting that nature-based solutions - in this case, leveraging a predator’s ecological role - can deliver meaningful climate benefits.&nbsp;



By harnessing the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/danger-zones-climate-change-is-altering-predator-prey-dynamics/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">predator-prey dynamic</a> to spur woodland recovery, Scotland could see a substantial boost in carbon storage capacity and ecological resilience.



Still, the exact outcome of wolf reintroduction would depend on public support, regulatory frameworks, and the practicalities of managing a newly returned apex predator.&nbsp;



As discussions evolve, the team’s data provide a baseline for measuring potential gains in both conservation and carbon uptake.



In line with these insights, the study offers a new vantage point on how large carnivore restoration might affect the UK’s broader climate and biodiversity goals.&nbsp;



If pursued, the reintroduction of wolves could shape not just local landscapes but also the national conversation on how best to unite climate action with wildlife recovery.



The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/2688-8319.70016" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Ecological Solutions and Evidence</a>.



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Reintroducing wolves could help Scotland fight climate change 

A recent study has found that reintroducing wolves to the...

For years, scientists and ocean lovers alike have marveled at the unique relationship between clownfish and sea anemones. 



The small, brightly colored fish seem to move fearlessly among the stinging tentacles of their hosts, completely unharmed. Their ability to thrive in this seemingly dangerous environment has fascinated researchers for over a century.



Sea anemones use specialized cells called nematocysts to deliver powerful stings to unsuspecting prey and predators. These stings can be deadly to most marine creatures, yet clownfish remain untouched. 



How do these <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/clownfish-count-stripes-on-other-fish-to-defend-their-territory/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">fish</a> avoid being stung? What makes them immune to a defense mechanism designed to kill? Scientists have now uncovered the secret behind this remarkable adaptation, revealing an intricate and finely tuned biological process.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-protective-layer-in-clownfish-mucus">A protective layer in clownfish mucus</h2>



Researchers from the Okinawa Institute of Science and Technology (OIST) and international collaborators made a remarkable discovery. 



The team found that clownfish produce mucus with exceptionally low levels of sialic acid. This sugar molecule, present in most living organisms, plays a crucial role in cellular communication. However, it also serves as a trigger for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/anemonefish-can-distinguish-between-anemone-species/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">anemone</a> stings.



Interestingly, sea anemones themselves also lack sialic acid in their mucus. This suggests they may have evolved this trait to avoid stinging their own tentacles. By maintaining similarly low levels of this sugar compound, clownfish are essentially "invisible" to the anemone’s stinging cells. 



The study, published in BMC Biology, provides strong evidence that clownfish have evolved a defense strategy that mimics their hosts.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-clownfish-anemone-relationship">Clownfish-anemone relationship</h2>



To explore this adaptation, the researchers examined both clownfish and damselfish - a close relative that does not live with anemones.



The team used glycobiology, which focuses on the study of sugars, along with transcriptomics, which analyzes the expression of genes through RNA. 



By measuring mucus samples, the experts were able to identify key differences in composition between the two fish species.



Using liquid chromatography, an advanced technique for separating and analyzing complex mixtures, they found that clownfish have significantly lower levels of sialic acid in their mucus compared to damselfish. 



While clownfish still retain sialic acid in vital organs like the brain and gut, their skin mucus remains nearly free of this compound. This prevents them from activating the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sea-anemones-can-regrow-their-entire-body-in-its-original-shape/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">anemone</a>’s stinging response, allowing them to move freely among the tentacles.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-young-clownfish-get-stung-until-they-adapt">Young clownfish get stung until they adapt</h2>



Anemonefish are not born with this special adaptation. The researchers discovered that juvenile clownfish, which have not yet established a relationship with anemones, possess normal levels of sialic acid. If they attempt to enter an anemone’s tentacles at this stage, they get stung just like any other fish.



As they grow and develop their signature bright orange and white coloration, their mucus chemistry changes. Their sialic acid levels gradually decrease, allowing them to safely integrate into anemone colonies. This transition marks a crucial stage in their survival, ensuring they receive the protection anemones offer against predators.



A similar pattern was found in the domino damselfish. As juveniles, these fish can temporarily live among anemones, and researchers discovered that their mucus also exhibits reduced sialic acid levels during this stage. This suggests that multiple fish species have independently evolved similar biological adaptations to coexist with anemones.



“Our findings represent a major advancement because it's one of the first studies to combine glycobiology with transcriptomic analysis to investigate this mechanism,” explained Dr. Natacha Roux of CRIOBE, a former researcher at OIST’s <a href="https://www.oist.jp/research/research-units/cne" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Computational Neuroethology Unit</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-can-bacteria-help-clownfish-avoid-stings">Can bacteria help clownfish avoid stings?</h2>



While the absence of sialic acid in clownfish mucus explains much of their immunity, researchers are now investigating whether bacteria also play a role in this process. They have two main theories.



The first theory suggests that clownfish produce enzymes that actively remove sialic acid from their mucus. The second hypothesis points to bacteria in their microbiome that could help break down these sugars.



Previous studies show that when clownfish and sea anemones live together, their bacterial communities become increasingly similar over time. This supports the idea that bacteria may influence the fish’s ability to resist stings. If true, this would add another layer of complexity to the already intricate clownfish-anemone relationship.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-clownfish-and-anemones-help-each-other-survive">Clownfish and anemones help each other survive</h2>



The symbiotic bond between clownfish and anemones is not just about avoiding stings. Both species benefit from their association in multiple ways. 



Clownfish gain a safe habitat, protected from larger predators that avoid anemone tentacles. In return, the fish defend their hosts from anemone-eating species and provide nutrients by stirring up the surrounding water.



Professor Vincent Laudet, head of OIST’s <a href="https://www.oist.jp/research/research-units/meedu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Marine Eco-Evo-Devo Unit</a>, emphasized the complexity of this relationship. 



“Other factors might include the thickness of fish scales, the exchange of nutrients between species, and possible adjustments by the anemones themselves," said Professor Laudet.



"The relationship is mutually beneficial, with anemonefish receiving protection from predators while helping to defend the anemone and providing nutritional benefits."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-challenge-of-proving-this-hypothesis">Challenge of proving this hypothesis</h2>



While the research strongly supports the idea that low sialic acid levels help clownfish evade <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sea-anemones-use-their-shyness-survive-heatwaves/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">anemone</a> stings, scientists want to confirm this by manipulating the process directly. 



If they can artificially raise sialic acid levels in clownfish mucus and make them vulnerable to stings, or reduce the levels in damselfish to make them resistant, it would serve as definitive proof. However, this is easier said than done.



The process of altering mucus composition in live fish is complex, requiring precise genetic and biochemical interventions. For now, scientists continue to explore ways to test their findings in controlled environments.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-milestone-in-marine-research">A milestone in marine research</h2>



This discovery represents more than just a scientific breakthrough; it also marks the first major research paper from a new collaboration between France’s National Centre for Scientific Research (<a href="https://www.cnrs.fr/en/the-cnrs" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">CNRS</a>) and OIST. 



The work provides new insights into one of nature’s most fascinating partnerships and could open the door to further studies on marine symbiosis.



For now, the clownfish remains a symbol of the ocean’s hidden wonders, demonstrating how nature continuously shapes life through adaptation and survival. As research continues, scientists may uncover even more about the secrets behind this remarkable fish and its unusual way of life.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://bmcbiol.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s12915-025-02144-8" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">BMC Biology</a>.



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Clownfish have evolved a neat trick to live safely among stinging anemones

For years, scientists and ocean lovers alike have marveled at...

Space has always been a dangerous place, and of the greatest threats to astronauts is radiation. Without the protection of Earth’s atmosphere and magnetic field, human explorers are vulnerable to harmful radiation that can damage both their health and the equipment they rely on.



To tackle this challenge, a team of researchers from <a href="https://www.ugent.be/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Ghent University</a> in Belgium is exploring an innovative solution against damage by space radiation: 3D-printed hydrogels.



These water-absorbing materials may offer a safer and more effective way to shield astronauts and spacecraft from radiation exposure. Their research could revolutionize how future <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ancient-cosmic-explosion-changes-what-we-know-about-space/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">missions</a> handle one of space travel’s biggest hazards.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-constant-threat-of-space-radiation">Constant threat of space radiation</h2>



Many people imagine <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/nisar-the-satellite-that-will-change-how-we-see-earth/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">space</a> as an empty void, but it is far from peaceful. Space is filled with streams of high-energy particles that move at nearly the speed of light.



Some originate from the Sun, particularly during solar flares, while others come from powerful explosions in deep space. These cosmic rays pose a constant threat to anything beyond Earth’s protective barriers.



On our planet, the atmosphere and magnetic field absorb most of this radiation. Astronauts in low-Earth orbit, such as those on the <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/international-space-station/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">International Space Station</a>, receive higher exposure than people on the ground, but they still benefit from some protection. 



However, those traveling beyond this region - such as future Mars explorers - will need an alternative shielding method to stay safe.



Radiation exposure in space is not a minor issue. In just one day outside the protection of Earth’s atmosphere and magnetosphere, astronauts receive the same amount of radiation that a person on Earth would experience in an entire year.



Prolonged exposure increases the risk of cancer, nervous system damage, and acute radiation sickness. Without proper shielding, long-duration missions become incredibly dangerous, if not impossible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-water-as-a-radiation-shield">Water as a radiation shield</h2>



Scientists have identified water as one of the most effective materials for blocking radiation. Water is dense and contains large numbers of hydrogen atoms, which interact with incoming radiation and slow it down. This makes it an excellent natural barrier against harmful <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/nasa-finds-a-planet-k2-22b-disintegrating-at-a-speed-never-seen-before/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">space</a> radiation.



However, using water as a radiation shield is not as simple as it seems. Keeping large amounts of free-flowing water in space poses several challenges. Containers filled with water could be bulky and limit the mobility of astronauts.



Unequal water distribution might lead to weak spots in the shielding. Additionally, any damage to a container could result in leaks, which could be catastrophic in an environment filled with delicate electronics.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hydrogels-against-space-radiation">Hydrogels against space radiation</h2>



To address these issues, researchers in <a href="https://www.ugent.be/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Ghent University</a>’s Polymer Chemistry and Biomaterials Group (PBM) are investigating super-absorbent polymers (SAPs). 



These materials can absorb up to several hundred times their weight in liquid, creating a stable, gel-like substance known as a hydrogel.



Timelapse images of hydrogel swelling demonstrate how these materials transform when they absorb water. Unlike free-flowing water, hydrogels remain solid, ensuring that the liquid stays evenly distributed. This property makes them a strong candidate for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/evidence-of-massive-early-universe-black-hole-stuns-astronomers/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">space</a> radiation shielding.



“The beauty of this project is that we are working with a well-known technology,” explained Lenny Van Daele.



“Hydrogels are found in many things we use every day, from contact lenses to diapers and sanitary products. Our research group has experience with applications in the medical field – using hydrogels as a soft implantable material to repair damaged tissues and organs,” added Van Daele.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hydrogels-astronauts-and-radiation">Hydrogels, astronauts, and radiation</h2>



Hydrogels offer several advantages for space missions. Their ability to hold water without allowing it to flow freely ensures consistent protection against radiation. 



Unlike water in a container, a hydrogel patch will not shift or create gaps in shielding. Even if punctured, the material retains its structure, giving astronauts time to react without losing protection.



This makes hydrogels suitable for integrating into spacesuits, particularly for extravehicular activities (EVAs). Astronauts performing tasks outside a spacecraft would have an extra layer of radiation protection, reducing their exposure to harmful particles.



“The material could also potentially be applied to uncrewed missions – in radiation shields for spacecraft, or as water reservoirs once we have optimised the method of retrieving water from the hydrogel,” adds <a href="https://connectivity.esa.int/contacts/malgorzata-holynska" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Malgorzata Holynska</a> of ESA’s Materials, Environments and Contamination Control Section.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-3d-printed-hydrogels-and-space-travel">3D printed hydrogels and space travel</h2>



One of the most exciting aspects of this research is the ability to 3D-print hydrogels into various shapes. Unlike traditional materials that must be cut and assembled, 3D printing allows researchers to create customized hydrogel structures that are tailored to specific needs.



“The superabsorbent polymer that we are using can be processed using multiple different techniques, which is a rare and advantageous quality amongst polymers,” explained Manon Minsart.



“Our method of choice is 3D printing, which allows us to create a hydrogel in almost any shape we want.”



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/02/3D-printed_hydrogel_radiation-protection_astronauts_ESA_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/02/3D-printed_hydrogel_radiation-protection_astronauts_ESA_1s.webp" alt="A space shuttle and astronaut on the Moon, illustrating the possibilities of hydrogel-based 3D printing. These models were made by a team from the Polymer Chemistry and Biomaterials Group (PBM) at Ghent University in Belgium. Credit: ESA" class="wp-image-1960111"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">A space shuttle and astronaut on the Moon, illustrating the possibilities of hydrogel-based 3D printing. These models were made by a team from the Polymer Chemistry and Biomaterials Group (PBM) at Ghent University in Belgium. Credit: ESA</figcaption></figure>



The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/smart-soil-can-absorb-water-from-the-air-and-feed-itself/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">flexibility</a> of 3D printing could enable the production of lightweight, efficient radiation shields that are easy to manufacture, both on Earth and in space.



This opens possibilities for in-situ manufacturing, where astronauts could produce hydrogel-based shielding using onboard 3D printers, which would reduce the need to transport bulky protective materials from Earth.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-moving-towards-industrial-applications">Moving towards industrial applications</h2>



While the research is still in progress, the potential applications of 3D-printed hydrogels extend beyond space travel. 



If successful, these materials could be used for radiation protection in a variety of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/artificial-photosynthesis-could-transform-power-generation/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">fields</a>, including medical imaging, nuclear energy, and even military applications.



“There is a constant search for lightweight radiation protection materials. In our discovery activity we successfully demonstrated that hydrogels are safe to use under space conditions," explained project lead Peter Dubruel.



"In this follow-up project, we are applying different techniques to shape the material into a 3D structure and scale up the production process, so that we can come a step closer to industrialization,” he added.



The ability to create customizable, lightweight radiation shielding could change how <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/powerful-forces-have-made-the-structure-of-the-universe-messier/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">space</a> missions are planned. 



By reducing the reliance on traditional heavy materials, future spacecraft and habitats could be designed with improved flexibility and safety.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-safer-space-exploration-with-hydrogels">Safer space exploration with hydrogels</h2>



As humanity prepares for longer missions beyond Earth, finding innovative ways to protect astronauts from radiation remains a top priority. 



The research into 3D-printed hydrogels represents a major step forward in space technology.



By harnessing the unique properties of hydrogels, scientists may provide future space explorers with a practical and effective shield against radiation. 



This breakthrough could make deep-space travel safer, and bring us closer to a future where humans can explore the cosmos without fear of the invisible threats that lurk beyond our planet’s protective shield.



Details of this new technology were described in a <a href="https://www.esa.int/Enabling_Support/Space_Engineering_Technology/For_astronaut_radiation_protection_just_add_water">press release</a> by the European Space Agency.



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New plan developed to protect astronauts from space radiation

Space has always been a dangerous place, and of the...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2E0mn5mTvhQ
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">'Death Star' moon Mimas conceals a 15-million-year-old ocean that scientists never expected.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hidden-waters-beneath-ancient-craters">Hidden waters beneath ancient craters</h2>



Scientists have made a startling discovery that challenges everything we thought we knew about <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/saturn-moon-mimas-has-remarkably-young-ocean/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Saturn's moon Mimas</a>. Beneath the heavily cratered surface that earned it the nickname "Death Star" lies a global ocean that formed just 5 to 15 million years ago—a remarkably young age by cosmic standards.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cassini-data-reveals-orbital-secrets">Cassini data reveals orbital secrets</h2>



The discovery, led by Dr. Valéry Lainey of the <a href="https://observatoiredeparis.psl.eu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Observatoire de Paris</a>, emerged from careful analysis of <a href="https://www.nasa.gov" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NASA</a>'s Cassini spacecraft data. By studying subtle irregularities in Mimas's orbit around Saturn, researchers detected the gravitational signature of liquid water hidden 20 to 30 kilometers beneath the moon's icy shell.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-an-unlikely-ocean-world">An unlikely ocean world</h2>



At only 400 kilometers in diameter, Mimas seemed like the least likely candidate to harbor a subsurface ocean. Unlike other ocean moons such as Europa and Enceladus, which show clear surface signs of internal activity, Mimas displays no obvious hints of the liquid water beneath its ancient, crater-scarred exterior.



"Mimas is a small moon, and its heavily cratered surface gave no hint of the hidden ocean beneath," explained Dr. Nick Cooper from <a href="https://www.qmul.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Queen Mary University of London</a>, a study co-author.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-astrobiology">Implications for astrobiology</h2>



The ocean's recent formation makes Mimas a prime target for studying how oceans develop and potentially support life. This discovery adds another member to the exclusive club of ocean worlds in our solar system, each offering unique insights into the conditions necessary for habitability.



The research, published in <a href="https://www.nature.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature</a> journal, demonstrates how advanced orbital analysis can reveal hidden features of celestial bodies, opening new possibilities for understanding ocean formation throughout the cosmos.



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Scientists discover unexpected young ocean on Saturn's cratered moon Mimas

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2E0mn5mTvhQ 'Death Star' moon Mimas conceals a 15-million-year-old ocean that...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE
</div></figure>



On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop and sunlight barely penetrates through the polar winter. It was here, however, that an international team of scientists found <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/predatory-worms-were-terror-beasts-half-a-billion-years-ago/#google_vignette" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evidence of sea monsters</a> that would change our understanding of ocean life in the past.



This video captures the discovery of Timorebestia fossils that had been hidden for more than 500 million years in the Sirius Passet formation. The "terror beasts," as they are called, are a hidden chapter in the evolutionary history of <a href="https://www.earth.com" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Earth</a>, showing that sophisticated predator-prey interactions occurred much earlier than previously envisioned.



Dr. Jakob Vinther and his research team at the <a href="https://www.bristol.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Bristol</a>, in collaboration with researchers at the <a href="https://eng.kopri.re.kr/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Korean Polar Research Institute</a>, braved extreme weather conditions at 82.5 north latitude to locate these giant creatures. Using sophisticated electron microprobe analysis, they revealed the detailed anatomy of the animals, including their muscle and nerve tissues.



The find upsets the traditional timeline of sea predators. Although we've long appreciated that Cambrian oceans were at one time ruled by <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jWI3-UgA3_o&amp;list=PL1QLQMW9MWDwpkFOnvgAmu7wT6rZmYqdJ&amp;index=19" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">arthropods</a>, these discoveries indicate that relatives of arrow worms were first to dominate the seas. These worms were building sophisticated food webs several million years before other predator groups arose.



Each fossil is a story of ancient hunger, with fossil stomach contents revealing these meter-long beasts dined on heavily armored arthropods regularly, cementing their place as the ocean's first apex predators.



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Worms dominated seas before dinosaurs

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">New York is the site of the world's oldest forest.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-385-million-year-old-trees-discovered">385-million-year-old trees discovered</h2>



Scientists have uncovered something extraordinary just two hours north of New York City. The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/worlds-oldest-forest-discovered-close-to-new-york-city/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">world's oldest forest</a>, dating back 385 million years, offers a window into how Earth's first complex forests shaped our planet's atmosphere.



Located near <a href="https://townofcairo.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cairo, New York</a>, in Greene County, these weren't merely primitive plants struggling to survive. These were sophisticated trees with root systems remarkably similar to modern forests. This ancient woodland predates dinosaurs by 140 million years.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-cairo-forest-discovery">The Cairo forest discovery</h2>



385 million years ago, upstate New York was a tropical paradise near the equator. Thanks to continental drift, this ancient forest has traveled thousands of miles to its current location.



The fossil forest sits in an abandoned quarry, roughly half the size of a football field. This represents just a slice of what was likely a massive forest system stretching from New York into Pennsylvania.



Charles Ver Straeten, curator of sedimentary rocks at the <a href="https://www.nysm.nysed.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">New York State Museum</a>, made the discovery in 2009. While scouting the former highway department property, his trained eye spotted wandering patterns in the stone that looked like marine features.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-revolutionary-age-and-preservation">Revolutionary age and preservation</h2>



The site contains 385-million-year-old rocks with fossilized woody roots forming horizontal patterns up to 18 feet (5.5 meters) wide. As Christopher Berry, a paleobotanist at Cardiff University, explains: "You are walking through the roots of ancient trees."



This discovery pushes back advanced tree evolution by millions of years. The research, published in <a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/home" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Current Biology</a> in December 2019, fundamentally changes our understanding of when complex forests first emerged.



Researchers believe a massive flood buried the forest floor, creating perfect fossilization conditions. Over millions of years, sediment hardened into rock, preserving these root patterns like nature's time capsule.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-meet-archaeopteris-the-first-modern-tree">Meet Archaeopteris: the first modern tree</h2>



The star of this ancient forest is Archaeopteris – not to be confused with the feathered dinosaur Archaeopteryx. This tree was far older and more revolutionary.



William Stein from <a href="https://www.binghamton.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Binghamton University</a> describes the roots as "strikingly modern, essentially what you'd see outside in my yard right now." These weren't simple root systems you'd expect from ancient plants.



Some fossilized roots are six inches (15 centimeters) in diameter, forming 36-foot-wide (11-meter) patterns. These giants grew up to 65 feet (20 meters) tall with five-foot-diameter (1.5-meter) trunks.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-changing-impact">Climate-changing impact</h2>



These trees fundamentally changed Earth's environment. Kevin Boyce, a Stanford University geoscientist, explains how their deep roots triggered "weathering," chemical reactions that pulled carbon dioxide from the atmosphere.



This process dropped atmospheric CO2 levels from 10-15 times higher than today to roughly modern concentrations. These ancient trees helped create atmospheric conditions that made complex life possible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ancient-forest-ecosystem">Ancient forest ecosystem</h2>



The forest was remarkably diverse. Scientists identified Eospermatopteris, palm tree-like plants with short roots that reached 30 feet (9 meters) tall but lacked woody structure. The forest also housed cladoxylopsids and a mysterious third species still being studied.



All reproduced through spores rather than seeds – millions of years before seeds evolved. This tropical environment had no grass, flowers, or flying insects, just towering trees creating Earth's first complex forest canopy.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-scientific-significance">Scientific significance</h2>



Before this finding, the Gilboa forest, located 25 miles (40 kilometers) away, held the "oldest forest" title. Cairo's trees are 2-3 million years older, showing that complex forest ecosystems developed much faster than scientists believed possible.



Patricia Gensel, a <a href="https://www.unc.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of North Carolina</a> paleobotanist, notes: "The size of those root systems is really changing the picture. Even 20 years ago, researchers assumed trees with such complex root systems didn't evolve so early."



The Cairo site presents three unique root systems, suggesting Devonian period forests were diverse ecosystems with different trees occupying different environmental niches, much like today's forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-modern-preservation-efforts">Modern preservation efforts</h2>



In 2022, New York State Senator Michelle Hinchey secured a $170,000 grant for the town of Cairo to construct specialized fencing around the fossil forest site. The town plans to conduct a feasibility study exploring the possibility of creating an educational center and working lab on-site.



Joe Hasenkopf, chair of the Cairo Planning Board, hopes to partner with educational institutions to create a research facility serving scientists, students, and the public.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lessons-for-today-s-climate">Lessons for today's climate</h2>



Why does a 385-million-year-old forest matter today? It shows how dramatically forests can change Earth's climate. These ancient woodlands created the atmospheric conditions supporting complex life.



Understanding how prehistoric forests transformed the planet helps us appreciate modern forests' critical role in addressing climate change. Forests remain Earth's most effective carbon capture systems.



These prehistoric trees changed Earth's atmosphere by pulling massive amounts of carbon dioxide from the air. As we face modern climate challenges, this ancient forest reminds us of trees' incredible power to transform our planet's environment.



The next time you walk through a forest, remember you're experiencing an ecosystem whose blueprint was established 385 million years ago in upstate New York. These ancient pioneers didn't just survive – they thrived and changed the world forever.



The full study was published in the journal Current Biology.



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Earth's oldest forest found in the United States

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ New York is the site of the world's oldest...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Acid rain and a crisis solved.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-don-t-we-ever-hear-about-acid-rain-anymore-the-environmental-crisis-that-was-solved">Why don't we ever hear about "acid rain" anymore? The environmental crisis that was solved</h2>



Remember the 1980s when acid rain dominated headlines? Dire warnings about rain eating buildings, killing fish, and destroying forests filled every news cycle. Then, almost like magic, acid rain vanished from public discourse. What happened? Did we actually solve one of the late 20th century's most pressing environmental challenges?



The answer might surprise you. Unlike many environmental issues that drag on indefinitely, acid rain represents one of modern history's most successful ecological recovery stories. It's a tale of science, politics, and technology working together to tackle what seemed impossible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What was acid rain?</h2>



Acid rain isn't regular rain having a bad day – it's precipitation that became significantly more acidic due to air pollution. When power plants, factories, and vehicles burn fossil fuels, they release sulfur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides (NOx) into the atmosphere.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The science behind it</h2>



Think of acid rain as nature's chemistry experiment gone wrong. These compounds react with water, oxygen, and other chemicals to form sulfuric and nitric acids. When mixed with water vapor in clouds, they create precipitation with dangerously low pH levels.



While clean rain has a pH of about 5.6, acid rain could drop as low as 4.2 to 4.4 – roughly as acidic as tomato juice or coffee. According to US Geological Survey documentation, Scottish chemist Angus Smith first coined "acid rain" in 1872, but it didn't become a household phrase until the 1960s and 1970s when Swedish scientist Svante Odén documented its devastating effects on Scandinavian lakes and European forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The crisis at its peak</h2>



During the height of public concern, environmental damage was both widespread and visible. This wasn't some abstract future threat – people could see destruction happening in real-time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Environmental devastation</h2>



The most dramatic impacts were impossible to ignore. Research documented by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation and the New York State Department of Environmental Conservation shows that in the Adirondack Mountains, more than 200 lakes became so acidic they couldn't support fish life. The Adirondack Council reports that 409 lakes once supported brook trout, but many lost their fish populations due to acid rain.



By 1976, when scientists cataloged all acidified lakes in the Adirondack Park, researchers found that half of the lakes over 2,000 feet above sea level had no fish, according to studies published in environmental journals. The acidification process worked like a slow-motion disaster. As acid rain fell into watersheds, it gradually lowered pH levels. Fish couldn't survive in acidic water, and their food sources died off too.



Trees at high elevations showed stress directly linked to acid rain. It weakened them by leaching nutrients and making them susceptible to disease. Historical records show Germany's Black Forest saw nearly half its trees damaged by the mid-1980s.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Economic impact</h2>



Acid rain wasn't just environmental – it was expensive. Acidic precipitation corroded infrastructure, buildings, and monuments. Historic stone structures deteriorated at accelerated rates. Tourism suffered as lakes became fishless and forests declined. EPA economic analyses from the period documented repair costs mounting into billions annually.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The solution: government action and technology</h2>



Transformation from crisis to success required unprecedented cooperation between governments, industries, and environmental groups.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The Clean Air Act of 1990</h2>



The turning point came with the Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990, signed by President George H.W. Bush. This represented a fundamentally new approach to environmental regulation, as documented in EPA historical records.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Cap-and-trade success</h2>



Instead of mandating specific technologies, the 1990 amendments introduced something revolutionary: a cap-and-trade system for sulfur dioxide emissions. EPA program documentation shows this market-based approach set overall limits but allowed companies to trade emission allowances.



The genius was harnessing market forces to find cost-effective pollution reduction. Companies reducing emissions cheaply could sell excess allowances to those facing higher costs. Research published in environmental economics journals and EPA progress reports shows this resulted in dramatic SO2 reduction at a fraction of projected costs.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Technology advances</h2>



Policy provided the framework, but technology made reductions possible. Studies in atmospheric science journals document the widespread adoption of flue gas desulfurization systems ("scrubbers") that removed sulfur dioxide before it reached the atmosphere. By the 2000s, new installations could remove over 95% of SO2 emissions, according to EPA technical reports.



The push coincided with cleaner energy development. Natural gas produces fewer sulfur compounds than coal. Wind and solar, emerging in the 1990s, captured growing market share, reducing reliance on high-sulfur coal.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-we-don-t-hear-about-it-today">Why we don't hear about it today</h2>



Why did acid rain disappear from headlines? Simple: the problem was largely solved.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Success doesn't make news</h2>



There's an old journalism saying: "If it bleeds, it leads." Environmental success stories don't generate urgency like crisis reporting. Media attention shifted to other challenges: climate change, plastic pollution, and biodiversity loss. There's only so much environmental anxiety the public can absorb, and newer concerns replaced acid rain.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Mission accomplished</h2>



The primary reason is beautifully simple: interventions worked. EPA monitoring data shows sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990. Academic research published in environmental science journals confirms pH levels in formerly affected areas returned closer to normal. This represents one of history's most dramatic environmental recoveries. Studies by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation show fishless lakes now support healthy populations. Forests recovered, and building damage slowed dramatically.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-is-it-really-gone">Is it really gone?</h2>



The crisis is largely resolved, but monitoring data shows the problem isn't completely eliminated – it's managed to acceptable levels. Some areas still experience occasional events during high pollution periods. International environmental research indicates that rapidly industrializing Asian countries face similar problems to what we experienced decades ago, though they're implementing successful strategies.



EPA research shows nitrogen oxide emissions proved more challenging than sulfur dioxide, coming from vehicles and mobile sources. Climate science studies suggest changing weather patterns add complexity to how acid rain forms and falls.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What this teaches us</h2>



The acid rain experience proves that seemingly intractable environmental problems can be solved with scientific understanding, political will, and technological innovation. Environmental monitoring data shows recovery speed was remarkable – within a decade, measurable improvements appeared in air quality and ecosystem health.



Success came from bipartisan support across party lines. Policy analysis studies show the market-based approach appealed to those preferring economic incentives while achieving environmental goals. This support created lasting policy surviving political changes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Conclusion</h2>



Acid rain's disappearance from public consciousness represents environmental science's greatest success stories. Through effective regulation, technological innovation, and international cooperation, we transformed an overwhelming crisis into a manageable challenge.



Today's silence isn't because we forgot – it's because we solved it. The 1990 Clean Air Act, combined with technology and energy market changes, reduced acid rain emissions over 90%, according to comprehensive EPA data analysis.



This success offers hope for current challenges. It proves complex problems can be solved when science, policy, and technology work together. As we face climate change and plastic pollution, acid rain reminds us that dramatic positive change is possible.



Next time someone asks whether environmental regulations work, remember acid rain. It's proof that sometimes, we get it right.



<hr class="wp-block-separator has-alpha-channel-opacity"/>



Sources: This article draws from EPA official documentation and progress reports, peer-reviewed research published in environmental and atmospheric science journals, historical data from the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation, New York State Department of Environmental Conservation records, US Geological Survey publications, policy analysis studies, and environmental monitoring data collected over three decades.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Frequently Asked Questions</h2>



1. Is acid rain completely gone? No, but EPA monitoring shows it's reduced to manageable levels. US sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990, making acid rain much less severe than the 1980s crisis.



2. How long did solving take? Environmental monitoring data shows significant improvements began within 5-10 years of 1990s emission controls. Full ecosystem recovery took longer – some areas need 20-30 years for complete recovery.



3. What made the solution successful? Clear scientific understanding, visible damage motivating action, bipartisan support, available technology, and innovative market-based policies like cap-and-trade.



4. Do other countries have acid rain problems? Yes, particularly rapidly industrializing Asian countries. However, international environmental research shows many implement similar successful control strategies.



5. Could acid rain return? Potentially, if regulations weaken or we return to high-sulfur coal without controls, though effects would take years to become severe according to environmental projections.



6. Can you recommend any teaching tools on the subject of "acid rain"? The United States Environmental Protection Agency produced a wonderful teacher's guide for ages 14 and under that you can find on the EPA website here: <a href="https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf</a>



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The environmental problem we actually solved

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk Acid rain and a crisis solved. Why don't we...

Fresh,Radish,Harvest,On,Soil,In,Garden.

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Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving fall garden, and this guide lays out the best vegetables and herbs to plant now for a fruitful autumn harvest. 



Fast-growing leafy greens such as spinach, lettuce, kale, and arugula perform especially well in the waning summer heat, with harvests beginning as soon as 30 days. 



These cool-season crops relish the transition into fall, offering repeated yields with cut-and-come-again methods.



Root vegetables like radishes, carrots, and beets also excel during this period. Radishes deliver satisfaction in under a month, while carrots and beets mature in about two months. Employing succession planting ensures a continuous stream of produce deep into the cooler months. 



For a boost of fresh flavor, herbs like cilantro, basil, dill, and chervil are excellent picks. These heat-loving varieties flourish in July’s warmth and are harvest-ready in about 30 days, especially when sown continuously.



Gardeners in zones 6 through 9 can benefit from planting bush beans and snap peas, which don’t require trellising and are ideal for compact plots. 



Maturing in 50–60 days, they’re a smart choice for quick, protein-rich harvests. For those in hotter regions, heat-tolerant crops such as okra and southern peas provide reliable yields and thrive in scorching conditions.



This guide emphasizes more than crop selection—it highlights the importance of timing, soil preparation, and ongoing sowing techniques. 



With thoughtful planning and attention to regional climate needs, even late-summer gardeners can enjoy fresh salads, hearty stews, and the satisfaction of a robust, homegrown harvest well into fall.



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What to plant in your garden in mid-July

https://youtu.be/Fi2OeEwuzRM?si=vTyd2m9FMmtyWkex Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving...

Green,Ecoduct,Over,An,Empty,Highway,During,Sunset.

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A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that wildlife tunnels significantly reduce amphibian road mortality during seasonal migrations. 



Frogs and salamanders often cross roads to reach breeding ponds each spring, but many are killed by vehicles. 



Researchers from the <a href="https://www.uvm.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Vermont</a>, in collaboration with local citizens and the Vermont Agency of Natural Resources, installed two underpass tunnels in 2015. 



Over a 12-year monitoring period, they observed an 80.2% reduction in amphibian deaths, and up to 94% for non-climbing species like salamanders. 



The study used a before-after-control-impact design and documented more than 5,200 amphibians, highlighting the tunnels’ effectiveness even in nearby buffer zones.



Funded at $342,397 - far cheaper than wildlife crossings for large mammals - the project showcased the power of community-led conservation.



Local groups initiated the effort after observing mass amphibian deaths. Wildlife cameras later captured over 2,200 amphibians using a tunnel in just one spring, along with other species like raccoons and bobcats, indicating wider ecosystem benefits.



This marks the first peer-reviewed, long-term data set in the northeastern U.S. confirming amphibian-specific underpasses work. 



The study urges transportation departments to incorporate these designs into road planning and highlights how community action, thoughtful infrastructure, and persistence can make a real difference for biodiversity.



The full study was published in the <a href="https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1617138125000780" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal for Nature Conservation</a>.



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-----

Wildlife tunnels save millions of amphibians

https://youtu.be/XYgiPzmNBTU?si=eFYY7gPHU1JznLvU A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that...

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing it with probiotics and prebiotics, aiming to create a treat that satisfies cravings while supporting gut health. 



The challenge lies in maintaining chocolate's beloved texture and flavor while adding health benefits.



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https://youtu.be/Ug657J67iEo?si=w96YjGMsg939LD_3
</div></figure>



Probiotics - beneficial microbes that balance gut bacteria and aid digestion - are typically fragile and can be destroyed by stomach acid or processing. 



Prebiotics act as food for these microbes, helping them thrive. Together, they form "synbiotics," a powerful health combination.



Researchers Smriti Gaur and Shubhi Singh from India's Jaypee Institute of Information Technology took an innovative approach, using natural prebiotics like corn and honey instead of complex processing methods. 



They created five chocolate varieties: a control and four synbiotic versions containing different combinations of prebiotics, probiotics (Lactobacillus strains), and flavor enhancers (cinnamon or orange).



Laboratory simulations of human digestion showed the probiotics remained viable for over five hours, suggesting they could survive long enough to benefit gut health.



Taste tests were positive, with researchers particularly enjoying the orange-flavored variety, describing it as having "vibrant citrus notes" complementing the "rich cocoa" with a "luxurious" texture.



This research represents just the beginning. With further refinement of strains, textures, and flavors, chocolate could evolve beyond mere indulgence to become a functional food that nourishes while it delights.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.4c00741" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ACS Food Science &amp; Technology</a>.

Is chocolate the next nutritional powerhouse?

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

[sendtonews key="0ynNMYkMKa-2340414-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

[sendtonews key="G9bUoxcjr4-2511624-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

[sendtonews key="3upvlAaHgO-2256633-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

[sendtonews key="LvS8v8bp9z-2564889-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How does salt makes things taste better?

[sendtonews key="X0f6OHYoI4-2310561-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Santiago, Chile in South America

[sendtonews key="JRaP49ISmm-2357509-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

[sendtonews key="e4ZG0Jawp3-2374785-12187" type="single"] Astronomers at Johns Hopkins University have created...

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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.



According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."



Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;



ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. 



Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

[sendtonews key="uV9Lh2fQbV-1760058-12187" type="single"] Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

[sendtonews key="qjvhBOBnY8-2426650-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

[sendtonews key="oL4FnPTGCV-2384527-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

[sendtonews key="0879czfG3k-1785905-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from NASA...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

[sendtonews key="6HyfrAJTBI-1831843-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

[sendtonews key="QIoVYJqRBi-2434608-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from NASA...

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