Young aspen trees in Yellowstone are doing something they have not done in almost 100 years. Rather than sprouting and being eaten back to nubs by elk and bison, they're actually growing into tall, adult forest trees rising up towards the canopy.



This matters more than it might seem, because it shows what happens when a missing piece of an ecosystem returns.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-yellowstone-aspens-and-elk">Yellowstone, aspens, and elk</h2>



In the 1920s, people <a href="https://www.yellowstone.org/wolf-project/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">eliminated wolves in Yellowstone</a>. At the time, with limited scientific knowledge, managers believed it was the right thing to do.



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/from-wolves-to-dogs-did-domestication-begin-without-human-help/">Without wolves</a>, elk herds grew very large. Elk love to eat aspen shoots - the tender young growth is highly palatable to them.



For roughly 70 years, elk browsed aspen sprouts down to stub height, and the trees couldn't grow. 



If you had walked through Yellowstone in the 1980s, you would have seen many tiny aspen shoots covering the ground, but almost no young trees gaining height. 



The forest's regeneration was stalled. Old trees died, and no new ones replaced them.



In 1995 and 1996, park managers reintroduced wolves into the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/yellowstone-supervolcano-eruption-study-sparks-new-debate-on-where-and-when-it-will-erupt/">Yellowstone Park ecosystem</a>. Scientists hoped and wondered whether this would change anything for the trees.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-aspen-matter-to-yellowstone">Why aspen matter to Yellowstone</h2>



Aspen groves provide habitat for many species. Birds nest in them. Beavers eat the bark and use the wood for dams. Butterflies and moths lay eggs on the leaves. 



Their canopy admits enough light for wildflowers and shrubs to grow beneath. When it rains, aspen groves hold water in the soil better than some other forest types.



In short, when aspen return, dozens of other species benefit. More trees support more insects, which in turn support more birds, enriching the ecosystem.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-checking-the-trees-three-decades-later">Checking the trees three decades later</h2>



<a href="https://fwcs.oregonstate.edu/users/luke-painter" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Luke Painter</a>, an ecologist at <a href="https://oregonstate.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Oregon State University</a>, sought clear answers. His team returned to 87 aspen stands across Yellowstone that scientists had previously surveyed. 



They measured thousands of young trees, looked for bite marks, and counted how many stems were tall enough that elk could no longer reach the tips.



About a third of these stands now have many tall young aspens pushing toward the canopy. 



"About 26 of the 87 aspen stands we examined had large numbers of tall saplings throughout, a remarkable change from the 1990s when surveys found none at all," Painter said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-wolves-matter-to-yellowstone-aspens">Why wolves matter to Yellowstone aspens</h2>



Breaking it all down, the conclusions of this study are pretty simple. 



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/wolves-move-pups-across-mountains-to-adapt-to-climate-pressure/">Wolves hunt elk</a>. When wolves came back, two things happened. First, elk numbers declined from unusually high levels. Second, elk changed their behavior. They spent less time in the same areas feeding.



With fewer elk and shorter feeding bouts, more aspen shoots survived long enough to exceed the browsing zone - about six to seven feet high. 



Once a sapling reaches that height, elk cannot easily reach the growing tip. The tree continues to grow.



"The reintroduction of large carnivores has initiated a recovery process that had been shut down for decades," Painter explained.



Scientists call this a <a href="https://www.nature.com/scitable/knowledge/library/trophic-cascades-across-diverse-plant-ecosystems-80060347/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">trophic cascade</a> - when adding or removing one species causes changes that ripple through the whole system.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-some-places-recover-others-don-t">Some places recover, others don't</h2>



Unfortunately, not every aspen stand has recovered yet. Some valleys still have many short, heavily browsed shoots, because it's not only elk eating them anymore. 



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/yellowstones-iconic-bison-have-merged-into-a-single-herd/">Bison herds have grown</a>, and bison browse on aspen as well. They are strong enough to break young trees. 



"Increasing numbers of bison may be emerging as a new constraint to aspen in some areas," Painter confirmed.



Additionally, winter snow depth varies; droughts stress trees; bears and mountain lions also hunt elk; and hunting outside the park influences elk distribution. 



All of these factors interact, which is why some sites show strong recovery, others show moderate recovery, and a few have changed very little.



The key pattern is that places with many tall saplings experience little browsing, and aspen groves that remain popular eating grounds today stay short. 



This fact is the strongest indication that tree recovery is linked directly to wolf presence, not solely to weather or soil conditions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-proof-in-the-measurements">Proof in the measurements</h2>



Painter's team did not rely on casual observation. They used the same methods as earlier researchers, measuring the same plots. 



They counted recruitment - when young trees surpass browsing height and begin progressing toward maturity. This measure is crucial. Sprouts are insufficient if they never grow; without recruitment, the forest cannot replace itself.



The results are robust. After being stalled for most of a century, Yellowstone's aspens are increasing in height. In recovering stands today, you will see saplings - six, eight, or ten feet tall - that were not present in the 1990s.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-future-of-yellowstone-s-aspens">The future of Yellowstone's aspens</h2>



"This is a remarkable case of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/giant-viruses-found-in-yellowstones-hot-springs-may-be-near-the-root-of-all-life-on-earth/">ecological restoration</a>," Painter concluded. "Wolf reintroduction is yielding long-term ecological changes contributing to increased biodiversity and habitat diversity."



Trees grow slowly, so even with wolves restored, it will take decades for these young aspens to form a full-grown forest. 



Some areas might never fully recover if bison numbers continue to rise or if the climate becomes too hot and dry.



Thanks to the work of Painter and his team, scientists are now certain that restoring the Yellowstone predator has restarted aspen forest regeneration. Not everywhere and not perfectly, but enough to be measured, creating hope for the future.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0378112725004499?via%3Dihub" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Forest Ecology and Management</a>.



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Yellowstone's aspen trees are growing again thanks to the reintroduction of wolves

Young aspen trees in Yellowstone are doing something they have not done in almost 100 years. Rather than sprouting and being eaten back to nubs by elk and bison, they're actually growing into tall, adult forest trees rising up towards the canopy. This matters more than it might seem, because it shows what happens when a missing piece of an ecosystem returns. Yellowstone, aspens, and elk In the 1920s, people eliminated wolves in Yellowstone. At the time, with limited scientific knowledge, managers believed it was the right...

Far below the Atlantic waves, an unusual site known as the Lost City fascinates scientists and casual observers. It consists of towering <a href="http://www.lostcity.washington.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">carbonate structures</a> in a hydrothermal field, at a depth of&nbsp;750 - 900 meters (2,460 - 2,950 feet) below the sea surface. 



These carbonate vents, that rise 60 meters (180 feet) above the Atlantis Massif pump out basic molecules that some researchers believe are key to understanding how life began on our planet.



Investigations of these vents suggest the presence of chemical pathways that could have helped living systems form when Earth was still very young. 



Many suspect that such conditions also exist on distant worlds, where <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/satellites-detect-hidden-magnetic-signals-in-earths-oceans/">hidden oceans</a> might mirror this remarkable environment and spark similar biochemical processes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-lost-city-vents-matter">Why Lost City vents matter</h2>



<a href="https://oceanexplorer.noaa.gov/edu/oceanage/05kelley/welcome.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Deborah Kelley</a>, a professor at the <a href="https://www.washington.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Washington</a>, has studied this site to learn how simple molecules emerge from deep-sea conditions. 



Her research draws on previous work by collaborators at Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution (<a href="https://www.whoi.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">WHOI</a>), and her findings suggest a link between the natural chemical reactions in the vents, and the building blocks of life



Among the most significant chemical components at Lost City are hydrocarbons, which are molecules made of hydrogen and carbon. 



These can form when seawater interacts with certain rocks, and can generate substances that may have paved the way for making the first cell membranes and other vital structures.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-inside-the-lost-city">Inside the lost city</h2>



Researchers <a href="http://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.1151194" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">report</a> that chemicals generated by the vents in this undersea terrain support microbial life that is capable of thriving without sunlight. 



The chemical energy from reactions between water and mantle rock produces hydrogen, which boosts unique microbial communities that survive in alkaline fluids.



These microbes feed on <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/study-reveals-previously-unknown-sources-of-methane-production/">methane</a> and other chemicals, meaning that these ecosystems are powered by geology rather than photosynthesis. 



Scientists are intrigued by how organisms adapt to conditions similar to what may have existed on early Earth.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-shaping-origin-theories">Shaping origin theories</h2>



Some <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/11541234/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">scientists</a>, including those at the University of Washington, see a possible bridge between ancient hydrothermal systems and the start of cellular life. 



This concept proposes that energetic fluids in such vents might drive the gradual assembly of amino acids and simple proteins.



Early Earth likely had large stretches of mantle exposed on the ocean floor. That arrangement could have given rise to the right chemical balance for forming organic molecules from inorganic ones.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-unexpected-planetary-parallels">Unexpected planetary parallels</h2>



Some researchers believe that these vents have analogs on other celestial bodies, such as Saturn’s moon <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/life-could-survive-near-surface-europa-enceladus-moons/">Enceladus</a>. 



Beneath its icy exterior lies liquid water, and if water-rock interactions there mimic what happens at Lost City, life-supporting chemistry might be possible.



Jupiter’s moon <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/europa-clipper-will-search-for-signs-of-life-on-jupiters-icy-moon/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Europa</a> may host a similar setup under its frozen shell. Detecting any evidence of hydrothermal venting on those worlds would open fresh debates about whether life is more widespread in our Solar System than once assumed.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-protecting-a-natural-treasure">Protecting a natural treasure</h2>



Reports indicate that deep-sea mining efforts could threaten this remarkable pristine habitat by disturbing <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-the-ocean-holds-carbon-hidden-mechanisms-revealed/">ocean sediments</a> and water chemistry. 



Although current efforts target specific minerals, any disruptions might affect the delicate balance that allows organisms to flourish in the Lost City vents.



Some scientists urge international organizations to <a href="https://mpa.highseasalliance.org/the-lost-city" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">preserve</a> areas like Lost City for future study. If such sites vanish or degrade, humanity might lose vital clues about how life's earliest processes could unfold under extreme conditions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fresh-directions-in-exploration">Fresh directions in exploration</h2>



Oceanographers are developing advanced vehicles to reach deeper vents and gather high-resolution data. 



These instruments might one day map other hidden carbonate towers, shedding light on places where chemical gradients resemble those that spark the origins of life.



Teams also study the genetic makeup of organisms found in this extreme environment, searching for enzymes that endure harsh temperatures and pH levels. 



Such enzymes might eventually help industries design more efficient processes or pave the way for medical breakthroughs.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-looking-to-the-future">Looking to the future</h2>



“The generation of hydrocarbons was the very first step; otherwise Earth would have remained lifeless,” said <a href="https://schmidtocean.org/person/giora-proskurowski/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Giora Proskurowski</a>, a researcher involved in these <a href="https://www.whoi.edu/oceanus/feature/lost-city-pumps-life-essential-chemicals-at-rates-unseen-at-typical-black-smokers/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">investigations</a>. 



He highlighted the need to consider non-biological carbon molecules as a source of energy for microbes. 



Such statements emphasize the importance of hydrothermal vents in debates about how life might emerge. Observations at Lost City offer a living laboratory where chemistry, geology, and biology cross paths in unexpected ways.



Tomorrow’s missions to uncharted ocean floors and distant <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/saturn-moon-mimas-has-remarkably-young-ocean/">moon oceans</a> may confirm whether such geological processes are ubiquitous. 



If they are, we might learn that life’s raw potential is woven into far more corners of the cosmos than once imagined.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-more-research">More research</h2>



Soon, new research expeditions aim to probe deeper into the labyrinthine vents, searching for clues about catalytic processes that might underlie early metabolism. 



By studying the chemical signatures in situ and analyzing how microbes harness available energy, scientists hope to piece together a more complete story of how inorganic matter could have taken that monumental leap toward becoming living cells.



There is a growing belief that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/pacific-northwest-ecosystems-are-being-tested-by-climate-change/">Earth’s ecosystems</a>, from scorching desert plains to icy polar seas, are connected by the same fundamental chemical threads found at Lost City. 



This is a powerful reminder that life can flourish under conditions once deemed too extreme. That ongoing resilience invites continued exploration. There’s so much yet to be discovered.



Details of this research were published in the journal <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.1151194" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Science</a>.



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'Lost City' reveals chemical pathways that could explain the origin of life

Far below the Atlantic waves, an unusual site known as...

Deep below the ocean’s surface, underwater mountains rise from the seafloor, creating landscapes few have explored. These seamounts, often teeming with life, stand in stark contrast to the vast, open ocean surrounding them. 



New research has revealed that these hidden peaks hold far more predators than the open sea, drawing large numbers of sharks and other marine hunters.



A study led by the University of Exeter and the Ascension Island Government found that seamounts in the South Atlantic Ocean support astonishing levels of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/axial-seamount-large-underwater-volcano-off-us-coast-will-likely-erupt-in-2025/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">marine life</a>. 



The research focused on three seamounts near Ascension Island, uncovering why these locations serve as prime gathering spots for predators. 



Scientists discovered that shallow seamounts, with peaks less than 100 meters below the surface, were particularly rich in marine life, including sharks and tuna.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-do-seamounts-attract-predators">Why do seamounts attract predators?</h2>



Scientists have long suspected that seamounts act as <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/alien-like-marine-life-found-on-underwater-mountains-includes-100-new-species/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">hubs for marine life</a>. Some of these underwater mountains create nutrient-rich upwellings that boost phytoplankton growth, which forms the foundation of ocean food chains.



 However, this new study found no evidence of such upwellings at the seamounts near Ascension Island. Instead, the researchers observed a different pattern. Marine life increased at every level of the food web, even without a surge in phytoplankton.



Zooplankton, which consume phytoplankton, were twice as abundant near the seamounts as in the open ocean. Sharks, at the top of the food chain, were 41 times more numerous than in surrounding waters.



“Seamounts have been likened to oases of life in the comparative deserts of the open ocean,” said Dr. Sam Weber from the <a href="https://ecologyconservation.exeter.ac.uk" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Centre for Ecology and Conservation</a> at Exeter’s Penryn Campus.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-seamounts-attract-predators">Why seamounts attract predators </h2>



Several factors explain why seamounts attract so many predators. The underwater peaks interrupt ocean currents, pushing smaller organisms into concentrated areas. This creates an easy feeding ground for fish, which, in turn, draws larger predators.



Dr. Weber and his team suggest that filter-feeding <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seamounts-underwater-mountains-impact-ocean-circulation-climate-surprising-ways/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">species</a> benefit from food being swept over the seamount peaks, making prey easier to catch.



The peaks may also prevent prey from escaping into deeper waters, effectively trapping them in a confined space. This allows predators to hunt with greater success, making these locations an efficient source of food.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-seamounts-are-social-hubs">Seamounts are social hubs </h2>



Beyond hunting opportunities, seamounts appear to serve another function. Researchers found that some predators use these underwater mountains as social meeting points. 



Sharks and other species may gather to interact, mate, or rest before returning to the open ocean.



“Also, some predators appear to use seamounts as ‘hubs’ to gather, socialise, mate or rest, and as a base to return to after hunting in the open ocean. This may lead to more top predators on seamounts than you would expect based on the amount of food available,” Dr. Weber explained.



The findings suggest that seamounts are more than just feeding zones. They may be essential gathering sites for marine predators, helping them interact and maintain social structures within their populations.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-species-found-at-seamounts">Species found at seamounts</h2>



The experts found that certain species consistently gather at seamounts. Among them are Galapagos and silky sharks, along with yellowfin and bigeye tuna.



Some individuals remained at a single seamount for long periods, while others traveled between seamounts up to 80 kilometers apart.



The researchers also noted a “halo” effect around the seamounts, where marine life remained abundant up to five kilometers into the surrounding ocean. This suggests that the influence of seamounts extends beyond their immediate area, affecting a much larger ecosystem.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-conservation-for-seamount-ecosystems">Conservation for seamount ecosystems</h2>



The seamounts included in the study fall within the <a href="https://www.ascensionmpa.ac" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Ascension Island Marine Protected Area</a>. This vast 445,000 square kilometer zone is free from large-scale commercial fishing and seabed mining, ensuring that marine life can thrive without human interference.



“Our results reinforce the conservation significance of shallow seamounts for many top predators,” Dr. Weber said.



“This research also offers fundamental insights into <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earths-oceans-are-rapidly-changing-colors-matching-climate-predictions/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">seamounts</a>’ role as activity hubs and oases for marine species and shows how these remarkable habitats influence the oceans that surround them.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-deeper-understanding-of-seamounts">A deeper understanding of seamounts</h2>



Despite their importance, seamounts remain one of the least studied ecosystems in the ocean. This research sheds light on the critical role they play in supporting marine predators and influencing broader oceanic food webs. 



Understanding these underwater structures is essential for ocean conservation, as protecting seamounts could help maintain predator populations and overall marine biodiversity.



The study gathered data from a National Geographic Pristine Seas expedition aboard the British Antarctic Survey research vessel <a href="https://www.bas.ac.uk/polar-operations/sites-and-facilities/facility/rrs-james-clark-ross/rrs-james-clark-ross-computing-facilities/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">RRS James Clark Ross</a>. Funding came from a European Union BEST grant and the UK government’s <a href="https://www.darwininitiative.org.uk" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Darwin Initiative</a>. 



As scientists continue to explore these hidden underwater worlds, seamounts may reveal even more secrets about the complex relationships that shape life in the ocean.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosbiology/article?id=10.1371/journal.pbio.3003016" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">PLOS Biology</a>.



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Seamounts are gathering hubs for ocean predators

Deep below the ocean’s surface, underwater mountains rise from the...

When people hear "Chernobyl," they often think of the 1986 nuclear disaster that led to mass evacuations. Yet, the region remains home to diverse wildlife, including dogs that have become a focus of genetic research.



In 2018, researchers collected blood samples from eight canines in Ukraine’s Chernobyl Exclusion Zone - four near the power plant and four in Chornobyl city, roughly 10 miles away. Preliminary findings sparked questions about how environmental toxins might shape these animals over time.



Dr. Matthew Breen is a professor in the Department of Molecular Biomedical Sciences at the <a href="https://cvm.ncsu.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NCSU College of Veterinary Medicine</a>. He played a central role in analyzing the animals’ DNA. 



The findings revealed a notable genetic split between the dogs, despite their close proximity.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-differences-in-chernobyl-dogs">Differences in Chernobyl dogs</h2>



A team from <a href="https://www.publichealth.columbia.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">North Carolina State University</a> and <a href="https://www.publichealth.columbia.edu/">Columbia University</a> Mailman School of Public Health discovered that the canines near the power plant were genetically distinct from those in the nearby city. 



The results challenge the assumption that animals living so close together would share similar genetic profiles.



“We have been working with two dog populations that, while separated by just 16 kilometers, or about 10 miles, are genetically distinct,” explained Dr. Matthew Breen. 



The genetic differences raise new questions about how decades of exposure to unique contaminants can shape survival strategies.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-looking-back-at-chernobyl-s-legacy">Looking back at Chernobyl's legacy</h2>



The meltdown at the plant is considered one of history’s worst nuclear power accidents. According to the International Atomic Energy Agency, significant levels of radioactive material from the compromised nuclear plant spread across much of Eastern Europe.



Residents were evacuated, and many areas remain off-limits due to lingering contamination. Despite these challenges, animals continued to roam the area, forming populations that today provide unique insights into long-term genetic outcomes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dog-exposure-to-chernobyl-contaminants">Dog exposure to Chernobyl contaminants </h2>



The Chernobyl Exclusion Zone is an area where lingering radioactive contaminants and heavy metals may pose long-term challenges for local species. 



Scientists suspect that ongoing contact with these hazards could leave detectable marks in a population’s <a href="https://www.genome.gov/genetics-glossary/Genome" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">genome</a>, which is the complete set of genetic instructions in each cell.



Study co-senior author Norman Kleiman is a professor of environmental health sciences at Columbia Mailman.



“Most people think of the Chernobyl nuclear accident as a radiological disaster in an abandoned corner of Ukraine, but the potential adverse health implications are much wider,” said Kleiman.



It is likely that other pollutants, including lead and pesticides, also influence the dogs’ genetic composition.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-radiation-exposure-and-genetic-changes">Radiation exposure and genetic changes</h2>



By sifting through DNA at the chromosomal level and moving down to individual nucleotides, the researchers looked for signs of accumulated damage. They focused on sections tied to repairing DNA, since that is where potentially harmful mutations might show up.



Low-level exposure to radiation over many generations could create subtle changes that become evident in how genes function. Early results did not reveal obvious <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/study-reveals-surprising-mutations-in-sars-cov-2-virus/">mutations</a> that could be traced directly to this radiation.



The team considered that only the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/chernobyl-wolves-have-evolved-resistance-to-cancer/">hardiest dogs</a> may have reproduced successfully in the difficult environment of Chernobyl following the 1986 accident. Researchers are investigating whether these survivors already carried traits that shielded them from ongoing threats.



Such inherited advantages might have given future litters a better shot at coping with residual waste and radioactive particles. Experts note that selective pressures can rapidly refine a population’s genetic framework under harsh circumstances.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-research-directions">Future research directions </h2>



The lessons from these dogs could be applied to human communities from around the world that confront toxic exposures. If certain genetic signatures indicate enhanced resilience, related research may illuminate how people respond to contaminants in their own neighborhoods.



“Studying companion animals like these dogs offers a window into the kinds of adverse health risks that people may face,” said Kleiman. In regions where industrial pollution remains high, the health implications could be far-reaching.



Scientists plan to measure other forms of pollution in the area to see if there are interactions that mask or enhance certain gene variants. Work continues as the region remains politically unstable, adding logistical hurdles to ongoing projects.



Nevertheless, researchers hope that ongoing data collection will further clarify how diverse environmental factors shape living organisms across the generations. 



Megan Dillon, a doctoral candidate at NC State, believes that uncovering these patterns will help in designing strategies to protect animals and people in future disaster zones.



The study was published in the journal <a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0315244" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">PLoS ONE</a>.



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Chernobyl dogs carry unexpected genetic characteristics

When people hear "Chernobyl," they often think of the 1986...

For six decades, marine biologists at UC Santa Cruz have closely monitored northern elephant seals that make their way to Año Nuevo Natural Reserve.&nbsp;



With thousands of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/elephant-seals-have-genetic-scars-from-intense-hunting/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">seals</a> gathering on the beach for breeding and molting, researchers have been able to collect over 350,000 individual observations on more than 50,000 animals.&nbsp;



This long-term study has provided invaluable insights into the fitness, foraging patterns, and population dynamics of these massive marine mammals.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-seals-as-smart-sensors">Seals as smart sensors </h2>



Now, a new study suggests that elephant seals can serve as “smart sensors” for monitoring fish populations in the ocean’s twilight zone - the deep, dimly lit layer between 200 and 1,000 meters below the surface.&nbsp;



The research was led by Roxanne Beltran, assistant professor of ecology and evolutionary biology at <a href="https://www.ucsc.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">UC Santa Cruz</a>.



The study demonstrates how tracking the seals’ foraging success can offer a novel way to estimate fish abundance across vast ocean regions, a task that conventional monitoring tools have struggled to accomplish.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-elephant-seals-in-the-twilight-zone">Elephant seals in the twilight zone</h2>



The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/oceans-twilight-zone-stabilizes-the-marine-food-chain/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">twilight zone</a> is a critical region in the ocean, containing the majority of the planet’s fish biomass. However, studying it presents significant challenges. Ships and buoys can only sample limited areas, while satellites cannot penetrate below the ocean’s surface.&nbsp;



Because the twilight zone is where elephant seals hunt for food, their movements provide a previously impossible method to assess fish populations on a large scale.



“Given the importance of the ocean for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-the-ocean-holds-carbon-hidden-mechanisms-revealed/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">carbon sequestration</a>, climate regulation, oxygen production, and food for billions of people, there is an urgent need to measure changes in marine ecosystems,” Beltran said.&nbsp;



“Our research shows that the vast foraging extent and millions of feeding attempts by elephant seals make them a fantastic ecosystem sentinel, both for fish populations and top predators in the open ocean.”



Each elephant seal makes approximately 75,000 foraging dives over a seven-month period, covering nearly 6,000 miles across the Pacific Ocean.&nbsp;



The researchers estimate that tracking just 14 seals per year could provide fish abundance data across an astonishing 4.4 million cubic kilometers of ocean volume.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-seal-foraging-success-and-oceanic-changes">Seal foraging success and oceanic changes</h2>



Beyond simply tracking where seals search for food, weighing them before and after their foraging migrations provides crucial information about prey availability. This offers a long-term record of fluctuations in fish populations, which is particularly important as commercial <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bleaching-effect-coral-loss-threatens-fisheries-and-livelihoods/">fisheries</a> push into deeper waters in search of new protein sources.&nbsp;



Sustainable management of these fisheries requires reliable assessments of fish stocks and their responses to environmental changes.



Beltran and her colleagues integrated data from decades of elephant seal research to analyze how their foraging success correlates with oceanographic conditions.&nbsp;



The findings suggest that changes in seal pup survival rates over the past 40 years are tightly linked to variations in the ocean environment, reinforcing the seals’ role as natural indicators of ecosystem health.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-decades-of-data-on-elephant-seals">Decades of data on elephant seals</h2>



In addition to its scientific implications, the study highlights the importance of hands-on research training for students. The paper includes 14 undergraduate co-authors, all of whom participated in a field-based course led by Beltran and <a href="https://anonuevoreserve.ucsc.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Año Nuevo Natural Reserve</a> Director Patrick Robinson.&nbsp;



Through this immersive program, students analyzed six decades of data, developed scientific questions, and contributed directly to the study’s findings.



“We want the students to feel like they are part of a community of scientists,” said Allison Payne, a graduate student in the Beltran Lab who served as the course’s teaching assistant.&nbsp;



“It’s an incredible opportunity for the students and instructors alike to collaborate on real-world science, and it builds students’ confidence in navigating the scientific process.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-biological-oceanographic-research">Biological oceanographic research </h2>



One of the undergraduate co-authors, Madi Reed, examined how oceanographic conditions influence seal pup survival. She found dramatic fluctuations in elephant seal reproductive success that strongly correlated with changing ocean conditions.&nbsp;



“It was really exciting to directly experience how the concepts we learned in our classes could be applied to real research,” Reed said. “This discovery has hugely inspired my current drive to pursue a career in biological oceanographic research.”



Beltran’s lab has also published a related perspective in <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/ele.14482" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Ecology Letters</a>, discussing the importance of long-term studies in providing inclusive research opportunities for students.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-seals-and-twilight-zone-conservation">Seals and twilight zone conservation</h2>



The twilight zone plays a crucial role in marine food webs, serving as an essential feeding ground for economically valuable species like tuna and squid.&nbsp;



However, scientific estimates of twilight-zone fish populations remain highly uncertain, with a 10-fold range of possible values. This uncertainty presents a major challenge for fisheries management, especially as discussions about commercially harvesting twilight-zone fish gain momentum.



The new study, which builds on decades of research led by Burney LeBoeuf and Dan Costa, helps bridge this gap by linking elephant seal foraging success to broader oceanographic trends.&nbsp;



“This effort documented the coupling between the elephant seals' behavior thousands of miles at sea, to their breeding success on the beach,” said Costa, a distinguished professor of ecology and evolutionary biology.&nbsp;



“This could only be accomplished with a long-time series coupled with a multidisciplinary team, including oceanographers, demographers, modelers, and seal biologists.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-measuring-the-ocean-s-pulse">Measuring the ocean's pulse</h2>



Past studies from this long-term research program revealed several groundbreaking discoveries, including the long-distance foraging migrations of elephant seals, the sheer volume of their feeding attempts, and the connection between maternal foraging success and pup health.



Now, the latest findings demonstrate that elephant seal foraging success aligns closely with broad-scale oceanographic indices that can be monitored by satellites.&nbsp;



“This linkage allowed us to measure the ocean's pulse and estimate fluctuations in fish availability five decades into the past and a few years into the future,” Beltran explained.



By providing a critical ecological baseline, this research can help inform sustainable fishing policies and assess the impacts of climate change on deep-sea fish populations.&nbsp;



With growing concerns about human-driven environmental changes, long-term studies like this one are becoming increasingly essential for understanding and protecting the ocean’s vast, yet largely unexplored, ecosystems.



The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1126/science.adp2244" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Science</a>.



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Elephant seals provide a window into the ocean’s twilight zone

For six decades, marine biologists at UC Santa Cruz have...

Solar cells are at the forefront of renewable energy, but their sustainability has long been a challenge. Now, a team of scientists has devised an innovative method to recycle them efficiently, offering a potential breakthrough in the fight against electronic waste.



This is more than just a solution - it’s a monumental step toward sustainability and a possible game-changer for the global energy crisis.



The researchers have developed a way to reprocess all components of perovskite solar cells without relying on harmful solvents. Remarkably, the recycled cells retain the same efficiency as their original, unprocessed counterparts.



Even more impressive, this breakthrough is powered by a simple yet effective ingredient - <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/water-molecule-discovery-will-force-textbooks-to-be-rewritten/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">water</a> - providing a sustainable alternative to conventional, toxic chemicals.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-energizing-our-future-with-solar-cells">Energizing our future with solar cells</h2>



With the current surge in electrification in various sectors - from our digital technologies to our vehicles - energy consumption is all set to soar.



To prevent this substantial increase in electricity usage from fuelling climate change, numerous <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/u-s-utilities-may-be-100-percent-renewable-energy-by-2060/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">sustainable energy</a> sources need to join forces. Solar energy has long been seen as a vital player in this ensemble. 



Silicon-based solar panels have been in the commercial sphere for over three decades. However, their life cycle is nearing its end, leading to a significant <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/electronic-waste-is-growing-five-times-faster-than-recycling/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">waste problem</a>.



Study lead author Xun Xiao is a postdoctoral researcher in the Department of Physics, Chemistry and Biology at <a href="https://liu.se/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Linköping University</a>.



“There is currently no efficient technology to deal with the waste of silicon panels. That’s why old solar panels end up in the landfill. Huge mountains of electronic waste that you can’t do anything with," said Xiao.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-emerging-solar-cell-technologies">Emerging solar cell technologies </h2>



The researchers are focused on developing flagship solar cell technologies that inherently accommodate <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/from-trash-to-treasure-e-waste-is-a-literal-gold-mine/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">recycling</a>.



“We need to take recycling into consideration when developing emerging solar cell technologies. If we don’t know how to recycle them, maybe we shouldn’t put them on the market at all," noted study co-author Feng Gao, a professor of optoelectronics.



Perovskite solar cells are cost-effective and simple to produce. They are also lightweight, flexible, and transparent.



With a potential 25% efficiency in converting solar energy into <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-tech-uses-chicken-feathers-to-generate-clean-electricity/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">electricity</a>, perovskite solar cells rival modern silicon-based counterparts.



“There are many companies that want to get perovskite solar cells on the market right now, but we’d like to avoid another landfill. In this project, we’ve developed a method where all parts can be reused in a new perovskite solar cell without compromising performance in the new one," noted study co-author Niansheng Xu.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-recycling-perovskite-with-water">Recycling perovskite with water</h2>



Even though the power-packed perovskite solar cells have a shorter lifespan than silicon panels, it is crucial that their recycling process is both productive and environmentally benign.



A small amount of lead, vital for high efficiency, is present in these cells. This creates the need for a well-functioning recycling procedure.



Existing methods to disassemble perovskite solar cells often require a toxic, environmentally damaging, and potentially carcinogenic compound present in paint solvents. 



However, the experts at Linköping University have ingeniously replaced it with water. The result? High-quality perovskite recycled from the water solution, without compromising efficiency or performance.



This breakthrough not only eliminates hazardous waste but also simplifies the recycling process, making large-scale implementation more feasible.



“We can recycle everything - covering glasses, electrodes, perovskite layers and also the charge transport layer," said Xiao.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-sustainable-solar-economy">Sustainable solar economy </h2>



With plans to develop this method for larger scale use, the scientists are optimistic that perovskite solar cells will play a crucial role in future energy supply, once the proper infrastructure is established.



"We demonstrate that our recycling strategy can greatly alleviate the environmental burden of waste perovskite modules, especially for the human toxicity and resource depletion impacts, and also reduce the levelized cost of electricity," wrote the researchers.



"This study demonstrates unique opportunities of holistic perovskite solar module recycling - which are barely possible for other PV technologies - for a sustainable and circular solar economy in the future."



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-024-08408-7" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature</a>.



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Scientists recycle solar cells sustainably - with water

Solar cells are at the forefront of renewable energy, but...

Coral reefs are known for their vibrant colors and abundant marine life. They shelter countless fish and invertebrate species, stabilize coastlines, and supply vital resources for communities.



Scientists have speculated whether these important habitats underwent dramatic shifts in the distant past. A new investigation has unearthed a major interruption in coral growth in the Gulf of Eilat, raising new questions about coral resilience.



This region, at the northern tip of the Red Sea, is home to corals that tolerate warmer waters than many other <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/light-pollution-is-transforming-nightlife-on-coral-reefs/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">reef systems</a>. Their apparent resilience has made the area a favored spot for studying how reefs cope with changing conditions.



The latest findings come from a team led by Professor Adi Torfstein of <a href="https://en.huji.ac.il/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">The Hebrew University</a> and Professor Oren Levy of <a href="https://www.biu.ac.il/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Bar-Ilan University</a>, in collaboration with several other international scientists.



The research opens a window into the historical factors that have shaped coral life.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-coral-reefs-matter">Why coral reefs matter</h2>



Reefs are not just pretty landscapes. They play a role in the <a href="https://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar6/syr/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">carbon balance</a> of the oceans. Coral reefs are also biodiversity hotspots that support tourism and feed local fisheries.



Some species that thrive in reef environments form the basis of drug discovery. These organisms produce compounds that could one day lead to breakthroughs in treatments for human diseases.



Furthermore, coral skeletons serve as natural archives, preserving details about past water temperatures and nutrient levels. 



By sampling these <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/coral-reefs-may-not-adapt-quickly-enough-to-survive-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">structures</a>, researchers can piece together long-term climate shifts that might otherwise go unnoticed.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-pause-in-coral-growth">Pause in coral growth </h2>



The researchers found that there was a hiatus in coral growth between 4,400 and 1,000 years before 1950. The corals on certain reefs stopped growing for several thousand years.



The researchers suggest that a mix of tectonic (Earth’s crust movement) and glacio-eustatic (sea-level fluctuation due to ice changes) forces lowered the water level in this region. 



Similar patterns were noted in other parts of the globe, hinting at a larger climate trend.



Corals in certain deeper zones survived and, when the sea rose again, they repopulated the reefs in shallower areas where other corals had died out. This rebound demonstrates how a single interruption might not eliminate a reef forever.



Most striking was the finding that this standstill persisted for nearly three millennia, which is a significant stretch in geological terms. 



The researchers believe the pause in coral growth coincided with a period of global cooling, which reduced sea levels enough to disrupt reef expansion.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-threats-to-coral-reefs">Future threats to coral reefs</h2>



Coral <a href="https://oceanservice.noaa.gov/facts/coral_bleach.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">bleaching</a> events have become more frequent in the past few decades, and have often been linked to the presence of warmer waters. Some <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/coral-bleaching-has-reached-catastrophic-levels-on-the-great-barrier-reef/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">reefs</a> bounce back, but others suffer long-term harm, especially if pollution or destructive fishing adds stress to the situation.



Ocean <a href="https://oceanservice.noaa.gov/facts/acidification.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">acidification</a> is another growing concern, as shifting pH levels can dissolve coral skeletons faster than they can regenerate. This chemical imbalance makes it tougher for new corals to build their stony foundations.



"Understanding how reefs have responded to past sea-level changes helps us predict their future resilience and informs conservation strategies," noted Dr. Torfstein.



"While our research shows that coral communities can recover after major disruptions, today’s climate crisis presents unprecedented challenges that demand urgent action."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-studying-ancient-corals">Studying ancient corals</h2>



To investigate the environmental conditions in ancient times, the team drilled coral cores up to ten feet deep into the seafloor. 



Each layer in these samples contains evidence about the salinity, temperature, and ecological conditions at the time the coral skeleton was formed.



By comparing layers from different time periods, the researchers identified distinct phases of coral growth. 



One of the biggest revelations was a shift in <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/physics-and-astronomy/carbon-isotopes" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">carbon isotopes</a> over recent centuries, suggesting increased human impact on local waters.



The approach of drilling and analyzing such extensive coral reef samples had been rarely applied in this region. It provided a way to see how these reefs evolved over the past 10,000 years, capturing both abrupt changes and gradual trends in the environmental indicators.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-learning-from-ancient-corals">Learning from ancient corals</h2>



As scientists build on these findings, they understand more about the broader ocean changes that can happen over thousands of years. 



This perspective is critical, considering that short-term surveys often miss the subtle <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/coral-reefs-may-be-more-resilient-than-we-thought/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">shifts</a> that accumulate over centuries.



Many marine ecosystems, from kelp forests to seagrass meadows, also face stress from temperature swings and habitat loss. 



Learning from coral core records might help researchers anticipate shifts in other environments that share similar vulnerabilities.



Local communities in Eilat rely on healthy reefs for tourism and fishing, which raises the stakes for successful conservation. 



Some groups are exploring restoration projects, including transplanting young <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/protecting-coral-reefs-is-a-matter-of-humans-rights/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">corals</a> and monitoring water quality, to help reefs survive tough conditions.



The study is published in <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/gcb.70073" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Global Change Biology</a>.



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Breaks in ancient coral growth reveal Earth's climate past

Coral reefs are known for their vibrant colors and abundant...

Scientists are constantly searching for ways to improve crop yields, enhance food quality, and speed up plant breeding. Traditional methods take years, sometimes decades, to create new crop varieties with better genetic traits. 



However, researchers at the University of Queensland (<a href="https://www.uq.edu.au" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">UQ</a>) have introduced a remarkable technique that could change the future of agriculture.



For the first time, the experts have successfully delivered genetic material into plants through their roots. This approach, detailed in the journal Nature Plants, offers a faster and more efficient way to modify plants. 



By using nanoparticles to transport synthetic mRNA, the researchers have opened new possibilities for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dna-technology-will-accelerate-the-pace-of-plant-species-discovery/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">agricultural advancements</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-nanoparticles-carry-genetic-material-in-plants">Nanoparticles carry genetic material in plants</h2>



Professor Bernard Carroll from UQ’s <a href="https://scmb.uq.edu.au" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">School of Chemistry and Molecular Biosciences</a> explained how this technology can help fine-tune plant genes. He highlighted the slow and expensive nature of traditional breeding and genetic modification methods.



"Traditional plant breeding and genetic modification take many generations to produce a new crop variety, which is time-consuming and expensive," said Professor Carroll.



The research team has developed a way to introduce nanoparticles into plant roots. These nanoparticles, initially created for vaccine and cancer treatment delivery in animals, have now been repurposed for plant genetic <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plants-use-dna-duplication-to-increase-their-resilience/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">modification</a>. 



Professor Gordon Xu’s group at UQ developed these nanoparticles, which offer a promising method for introducing beneficial traits into plants.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-getting-past-tough-plant-cell-walls">Getting past tough plant cell walls</h2>



Unlike human or animal cells, plant cells have rigid walls that make genetic modifications challenging. The research team tackled this problem by coating the nanoparticles with a special protein. 



The protein softened the tough plant cell walls, allowing the nanoparticles to penetrate and deliver genetic material directly into the cells.



"The protein coating helped the nanoparticle break through the cell walls to deliver a synthetic mRNA cargo into plants for the first time," said Professor Carroll.



This technique allows scientists to introduce specific genetic instructions into plants. The mRNA molecules serve as messengers, guiding the plant cells to produce desired proteins. 



The researchers tested their method on multiple <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/warming-climates-force-plants-to-compete-with-each-other/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">plant species</a>, including Arabidopsis, a model plant closely related to canola and cabbage.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-movement-of-genetic-material-within-plants">Movement of genetic material within plants</h2>



One of the most surprising findings of the study was how the nanoparticles moved within the plant. Instead of releasing their genetic cargo into a single cell, the nanoparticles traveled with water, spreading the mRNA throughout the plant.



"It was surprising that rather than delivering all of its load in the first cell it entered, the nanoparticle traveled with water through the plant distributing the mRNA as it went," said Professor Carroll.



The unexpected movement of nanoparticles opens exciting possibilities for plant genetic modification. If scientists can control and refine this process, they could develop <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/common-plant-can-cause-severe-burns-and-dna-damage/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">crops</a> with improved traits much more quickly than before.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-faster-alternative-to-traditional-breeding">Faster alternative to traditional breeding</h2>



The ability to modify plant genes quickly could revolutionize agriculture. Traditional breeding methods require years of careful crossbreeding to achieve desirable traits such as better flavor, increased yield, or improved resistance to pests. 



Genetic modification using conventional methods also involves long and complex processes.



"With further research, we could target an issue with a crop such as flavor or quality and have a new variety without the need for a decade of cross breeding or genetic modification," noted Professor Carroll.



This new nanoparticle-based technique provides a faster alternative. The mRNA delivered into the plant does not permanently alter the plant’s DNA. Instead, it temporarily instructs the plant to produce a beneficial protein and then degrades naturally.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-parallel-with-mrna-vaccines">A parallel with mRNA vaccines</h2>



The way this technology works is similar to mRNA vaccines in humans. Just as mRNA vaccines instruct human cells to produce a protein that stimulates the immune system before breaking down, the synthetic mRNA delivered into plants expresses a protein and then disappears.



"Similar to how an mRNA vaccine produces a protein to stimulate the immune system and then degrades away, the mRNA we deliver into plants is expressed transiently and then disappears," said Professor Carroll.



This characteristic makes the technique more adaptable and safer for rapid agricultural improvements. Scientists could use it to introduce temporary changes in plants without affecting their genetic makeup permanently.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-developing-plant-genetics-research">Developing plant genetics research</h2>



The potential applications of this technology extend beyond academic research. 



The University of Queensland has already patented the technique through its commercialization company, UniQuest. They are now looking for partners to help further develop and apply this technology in real-world agriculture.



The research team included experts such as Professor Zhi Pin (Gordon) Xu and Dr. Jiaxi Yong from UQ’s <a href="https://aibn.uq.edu.au" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Australian Institute for Bioengineering and Nanotechnology</a> and the Queensland Alliance for Agriculture and Food Innovation.



The research could pave the way for faster and more precise <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/tiny-fern-contains-50-times-more-dna-than-humans/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">crop improvement</a> methods.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-game-changer-for-agriculture">A game-changer for agriculture</h2>



The ability to modify plants more efficiently without lengthy breeding cycles or complex genetic modifications could transform food production. Farmers may soon have access to crops with better flavors, higher nutritional value, and greater resilience against environmental stresses.



As this technology advances, researchers will continue refining it to ensure its safety and effectiveness. The next step will be to scale up the process and explore its potential in various agricultural settings.



The discovery marks a new era in crop science, offering a promising path toward improving global food security. With further research and collaboration, this nanoparticle-based approach could redefine how we develop and enhance crops for future generations.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41477-024-01882-x" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Plants</a>.



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Nanoparticles unlock a new way to genetically modify plants

Scientists are constantly searching for ways to improve crop yields,...

The ocean is teeming with life, much of it invisible to the human eye. Beneath the waves, countless microscopic organisms play essential roles in maintaining Earth's delicate balance. Among them, phytoplankton stand out as some of the most important. 



These tiny, plant-like organisms are responsible for producing nearly half of the oxygen we breathe, making them vital to life on the planet.



Beyond oxygen production, phytoplankton form the base of the marine food chain. Many ocean creatures, from small fish to massive whales, rely on them for survival. 



Phytoplankton also act as natural regulators of climate by absorbing vast amounts of carbon dioxide, helping to reduce the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-is-draining-nutrients-from-the-oceans-surface/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">effects of global warming</a>.



Despite their significance, much remains unknown about how individual phytoplankton function and react to environmental changes. Scientists have struggled to study them in detail due to the limitations of traditional research methods.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-studying-phytoplankton-and-ocean-health">Studying phytoplankton and ocean health</h2>



Understanding how phytoplankton convert sunlight into energy is crucial for monitoring ocean health and tracking climate change. 



However, studying these organisms presents unique difficulties. Most research methods either provide generalized information for entire populations, masking differences between individual cells, or offer only limited insights when focusing on single phytoplankton. 



This lack of precision has made it difficult to grasp how different species adapt to shifting environmental conditions.



Now, a team of researchers at <a href="https://en.huji.ac.il" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">The Hebrew University</a> of Jerusalem has developed a breakthrough method to study phytoplankton at an individual level. By measuring the light given off by each cell, they can determine how efficiently it absorbs and utilizes energy.



This technology could transform scientists' ability to monitor phytoplankton health and predict how they will respond to future climate changes. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-observing-individual-phytoplankton">Observing individual phytoplankton</h2>



Paul Harris, the lead researcher, explained the importance of this new technique.



“I look at how individual plankton react to changing conditions by looking at the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/light-detecting-molecules-guide-diatoms-through-turbulent-waters/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">light</a> that they dispose of - or in scientific terms I look at fluorescence lifetimes. Basically, it’s how the phytoplankton convert light to energy they can use later,” said Harris.



The system relies on a specially designed microscope that captures detailed images of phytoplankton as they travel through tiny channels. By analyzing the different colors of light emitted by each cell, experts can obtain valuable information about how efficiently the organism processes light for energy.



Focusing research on individual phytoplankton rather than entire groups will provide deeper insights into their unique adaptations in the ocean.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-species-specific-light-adaptations">Species-specific light adaptations</h2>



Harris and his team have already put their system to the test by studying three different types of phytoplankton. Their research has revealed that each <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/invisible-forest-of-phytoplankton-thrives-in-a-warming-climate/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">species</a> adjusts to changing light conditions in its own way. 



Some phytoplankton behave like people who wear sunglasses on bright days, while others take a different approach, similar to someone choosing to wear a hat instead. These subtle differences in adaptation strategies highlight the complexity of phytoplankton behavior.



The ability to track these variations could prove invaluable in predicting how different species will respond to environmental stress. 



With climate change altering ocean temperatures and light levels, phytoplankton populations may shift dramatically in the coming decades. Understanding their responses now could help scientists anticipate changes in marine ecosystems before they occur.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-change-and-phytoplankton-behavior">Climate change and phytoplankton behavior</h2>



Phytoplankton play a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dust-from-africa-sparked-a-massive-phytoplankton-bloom/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">crucial role</a> in regulating Earth's climate. As global temperatures rise and ocean conditions shift, researchers are eager to understand how these microscopic organisms will react. 



"We need to understand how these phytoplankton respond in order to predict and observe what's happening in the oceans, especially with regard to climate change as oceans warm," said Harris. "We hope to give some insight into how species are going to change.”



Shifts in phytoplankton populations could have ripple effects throughout marine ecosystems. If certain species struggle to adapt, the creatures that depend on them for food may also face challenges.



On the other hand, some phytoplankton might thrive in warmer waters, potentially altering the balance of marine food webs. By gaining a clearer picture of how individual species respond to environmental shifts, scientists can better predict the future of ocean life.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-predicting-harmful-algal-blooms">Predicting harmful algal blooms</h2>



Beyond their role in climate regulation, phytoplankton populations also impact ocean ecosystems in more immediate ways. 



When certain species multiply too rapidly, they can form harmful algal blooms. These outbreaks release toxins that poison marine life and pose risks to humans who consume contaminated seafood.



Harris believes the new system could help predict and prevent such disasters. "We could use this tool to give advanced warning of algal blooms."



If researchers can identify early warning signs of harmful growth patterns, they may be able to alert coastal communities before a bloom becomes dangerous. This predictive ability could be especially useful as climate change alters ocean <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plankton-help-predict-ocean-biodiversity-losses/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">conditions</a>. 



Warmer waters and increased nutrient availability can trigger more frequent and intense algal blooms. By tracking how phytoplankton react to these changes, scientists might develop strategies to mitigate their harmful effects.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-of-phytoplankton-research">Future of phytoplankton research </h2>



The ability to distinguish between different phytoplankton species and analyze their energy use marks a significant step forward in marine research. 



This technique provides a clearer view of how phytoplankton populations contribute to ocean productivity and global carbon cycling. As scientists continue refining this method, they may uncover even more insights into the microscopic life that sustains marine ecosystems.



With the oceans undergoing rapid transformations, understanding phytoplankton has never been more important. Their survival influences the entire marine food chain and affects the air we breathe. 



By studying them at an individual level, researchers can piece together a more complete picture of ocean health and prepare for the challenges of a changing world.



The work will be presented at the <a href="https://www.biophysics.org/2025meeting/program/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">69th Biophysical Society Annual Meeting</a> in Los Angeles.



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Tracking tiny life: New tools for phytoplankton research

The ocean is teeming with life, much of it invisible...

Many computer enthusiasts feel the pinch of energy-hungry electronics that generate excessive heat. Scientists around the globe are searching for fresh strategies to push computing performance forward.



Some experts aim to replace moving electrons with something less draining. They are testing a phenomenon known as magnon transport, where magnetic signals carry information instead of electric currents.



One leading figure in this area is Dr. Andrii Chumak at the <a href="https://www.univie.ac.at/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Vienna</a>. His team has created a prototype processor that runs on magnetic excitations rather than typical electronic pulses.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-advantages-of-magnon-circuits">Advantages of magnon circuits</h2>



Traditional circuits shuffle electrons down metal lines, which consumes energy and produces waste heat. On the other hand, magnon-based setups rely on waves generated by the spin behavior of electrons within certain materials.



A spin wave can travel through a crystal when electron spins shift and cause neighboring spins to tilt. Physicists label the resulting packet-like disturbance a quasi-particle if it acts like a single entity.



Magnon circuits could reduce electricity usage by letting these waves move freely without large <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/electric-soil-esoil-boosts-crop-production-by-50-in-just-15-days/">electric currents</a>. Some researchers also predict fewer components per function, which might shrink device sizes further.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-adapting-to-next-level-tasks">Adapting to next-level tasks</h2>



One prominent feature of this new processor is the ability to handle different signals with minimal extra parts. It can act as a band-stop filter to remove certain frequencies or a demultiplexer to separate data into multiple paths.



Applications like advanced wireless services in 5G and 6G networks need clear control over signal distribution. Fine-tuning how data gets routed is key for these systems, which push extreme bandwidths.



To validate these claims, researchers often rely on systematic testing and real-time measurements of wave movement. This helps confirm that the filter and routing functions perform as intended without unexpected glitches.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ai-guided-switch-to-magnons">AI-guided switch to magnons</h2>



Designing a magnon-based circuit can be tricky if engineers try to map every tiny detail by hand. An <a href="https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8113576/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">inverse design process</a> flips the usual approach by starting with the goal and then letting algorithms fill in the layout.



Machine learning routines can sift through random patterns at high speed to see which shapes work best. Using artifical intelligence reduces guesswork and reveals fresh solutions that traditional methods might overlook.



“We handed over complete control to the computer,” said Dr. Chumak. This approach opens the door to a variety of configurations that human designers might find too time-consuming to explore.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-scaling-down-for-efficiency">Scaling down for efficiency</h2>



Current prototypes are larger than most commercial chips and need refinement. Researchers believe shrinking them to less than 100 nanometers could lead to impressive efficiency gains.



In modern manufacturing, pushing below 100 nanometers often involves exotic materials and meticulous processes. Getting these magnon devices to that scale may require new fabrication approaches, but the results could save both space and power.



A smaller size opens up possibilities for integration with other cutting-edge components. It also helps limit stray interference, giving each wave the best chance to move without disruption.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-real-world-use-cases">Real-world use cases</h2>



Future telecommunication systems might adopt magnonic filters to clean up signals and manage heavier data loads. This could reduce energy consumption for massive wireless networks that connect billions of devices.



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/using-artificial-intelligence-ai-to-make-quantum-computers-reality/">Artificial intelligence</a> applications often require quick decisions in fields like image recognition and real-time analytics. Replacing or augmenting parts of those pipelines with magnetic circuits may boost speed while keeping temperatures down.



Other industries, including cybersecurity and machine-to-machine communication, might also benefit from the compact nature of spin waves. A single chip housing multiple functions could become more feasible as fabrication improves.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-shifting-away-from-electronics">Shifting away from electronics </h2>



Although this technology promises less heat and fewer parts, it still faces technical obstacles. Each step of design and fabrication demands precise calibration, and real-world environments can introduce noise that disrupts wave-based signals.



Some experts expect a gradual shift from purely electronic systems to hybrid platforms that mix magnons and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/shape-of-electrons-revealed-first-time-through-big-advance-in-quantum-physics/">electrons</a>. 



This blend could transition from labs to mainstream devices once researchers confirm stable performance across practical operating conditions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-preparing-for-market-adoption">Preparing for market adoption</h2>



New hardware faces stringent tests before hitting the market. Wave-based devices must show they can maintain performance under changing temperatures and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/lightning-sparks-the-discovery-of-a-new-electromagnetic-wave/">electromagnetic</a> conditions.



Partnerships between universities and industry leaders could speed the move from lab prototypes to practical gadgets. Firms may invest early to gain a foothold in future technologies.



Ultimately, sustained success hinges on balancing cost, yield, and performance. If magnon chips can match existing electronics in reliability, they stand a strong chance at widespread acceptance.



The study is published in <a href="https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/stamp/stamp.jsp?arnumber=9706176" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">IEEE Transactions on Magnetics</a>.



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Goodbye electrons: Future computers may be powered by magnons

Many computer enthusiasts feel the pinch of energy-hungry electronics that...

The depths of the ocean have always held secrets, but scientists never expected to find something quite like this. Researchers analyzing deep-sea samples from the Pacific Ocean have discovered an unexplained surge in radiation, one that dates back more than 10 million years.



While it might sound like the plot of a science fiction movie, this anomaly is real. It involves an unusual spike in beryllium-10, a rare radioactive isotope. 



The scientific community is now searching for answers, questioning whether this event was caused by changes in Earth's <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/satellites-detect-hidden-magnetic-signals-in-earths-oceans/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ocean</a> currents or an extraordinary event from space.



This discovery challenges existing models of how isotopes accumulate over time. It also raises new questions about the history of our planet and its exposure to cosmic forces.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-nature-of-beryllium-10">Nature of beryllium-10</h2>



Beryllium-10 is a radioactive isotope formed when cosmic rays collide with oxygen and nitrogen in the atmosphere. Once created, it falls to the ground with rain and eventually settles on the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earths-interactions-with-mars-influence-deep-ocean-circulation/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ocean floor</a>. 



Because of its long half-life of 1.4 million years, beryllium-10 can serve as a natural clock, helping scientists date ancient geological events.



Under normal conditions, beryllium-10 deposits remain relatively stable. Its accumulation follows a predictable pattern, which allows researchers to estimate how much should be found in deep-sea samples from different time periods.



However, something unusual happened around 10 million years ago. When researchers examined samples from that era, they found that beryllium-10 levels were nearly double what they had expected. This unexpected increase suggests that Earth experienced an event that dramatically altered its exposure to this isotope.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-an-unexpected-anomaly">An unexpected anomaly</h3>



The study, published in Nature Communications, involved an international team of scientists analyzing seabed samples from the Pacific Ocean. These samples, taken from miles beneath the water's surface, contained layers of iron and manganese, forming what is known as a ferromanganese crust.



Using Accelerator Mass Spectrometry, a highly sensitive technique, the researchers detected an unexplained surge in beryllium-10 levels. This spike appeared in multiple samples from different locations, ruling out the possibility of measurement errors or isolated contamination.



Dr. Dominik Koll from <a href="https://www.hzdr.de/db/Cms?pOid=44909&amp;pNid=0&amp;pLang=en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Helmholtz-Zentrum Dresden-Rossendorf</a> in Germany expressed the surprise of the research team. “We had stumbled upon a previously undiscovered anomaly,” he said.



The question now is whether this anomaly resulted from changes on <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ancient-sunken-oceans-discovered-between-earth-core-and-mantle/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Earth</a> or from an event beyond our planet.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-explaining-the-ocean-radiation-surge">Explaining the ocean radiation surge</h2>



One possible explanation is that shifts in ocean circulation altered the distribution of beryllium-10 in the Pacific. Around 10 to 12 million years ago, ocean currents near Antarctica may have undergone a dramatic change, affecting how isotopes settled across the globe.



Dr. Koll elaborated on this possibility. “This could have caused beryllium-10 to be unevenly distributed across the Earth for a period of time due to the altered ocean currents.”



In this scenario, the shift in currents could have concentrated beryllium-10 in the Pacific rather than spreading it evenly across the seabed. This would explain the unexpected increase in radiation levels found in these samples.



If this theory is correct, further research could uncover similar shifts in isotope distribution in other regions. However, the presence of this anomaly worldwide would suggest a much more dramatic cause - one that came from space.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-space-radiation-and-the-ocean-anomaly">Space radiation and the ocean anomaly</h2>



An alternative theory points to an astrophysical event as the cause of this radioactive anomaly. If Earth had been exposed to a sudden burst of radiation from space, it could have resulted in the unexpected increase in beryllium-10.



One possibility is that a nearby supernova flooded the planet with cosmic rays, producing a surge in this isotope. Supernovae are among the most powerful explosions in the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/the-next-big-solar-storm-could-plunge-us-into-darkness/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">universe</a>, releasing massive amounts of radiation that can travel vast distances.



Another potential explanation involves Earth temporarily losing its protective heliosphere. The heliosphere is a magnetic shield created by the Sun, which helps protect the planet from interstellar radiation. 



If Earth passed through a dense cloud of interstellar material, the heliosphere may have weakened, allowing more cosmic rays to reach the atmosphere and generate excess beryllium-10.



If this theory is correct, then scientists should find similar spikes in beryllium-10 levels across the globe, not just in the Pacific Ocean. This would provide strong evidence that Earth experienced a dramatic cosmic event 10 million years ago.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-searching-for-more-evidence">Searching for more evidence</h2>



To solve this mystery, the researchers plan to expand their investigation by analyzing samples from other locations. If they find similar beryllium-10 spikes in seabed samples from different parts of the world, it would confirm that Earth was exposed to an unusual surge in radiation at that time.



“Only new measurements can indicate whether the beryllium anomaly was caused by changes in ocean currents or has an astrophysical reason,” said Dr. Koll.



This discovery could also lead to a better understanding of how cosmic radiation affects Earth over long timescales. If astrophysical events leave measurable traces in isotopic records, they could provide new insights into how our planet interacts with the wider universe.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-significance-of-the-discovery">Significance of the discovery</h2>



Beyond explaining the cause of this anomaly, researchers see another potential breakthrough. If this event can be confirmed worldwide, it could serve as a reference point for dating other geological records.



Scientists rely on common time markers to compare different datasets. For more recent history, carbon-14 dating provides clear reference points, especially in relation to nuclear weapons testing. However, no such markers exist for time periods stretching millions of years into the past.



Dr. Koll sees the potential for this discovery to change that. “For periods spanning millions of years, such cosmogenic time markers do not yet exist. However, this beryllium anomaly has the potential to serve as such a marker,” he said.



If future studies confirm that this anomaly appears in multiple regions, it could provide a new tool for synchronizing geological records. Scientists studying ancient climate changes, mass extinctions, or shifts in Earth's magnetic field could use this spike as a global reference point.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-bigger-picture">The bigger picture</h2>



This unexpected discovery highlights how much remains unknown about Earth’s past and its relationship with the cosmos. 



Whether caused by shifts in ocean currents or a blast of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earths-ozone-layer-took-more-than-two-billion-years-to-stabilize/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cosmic radiation</a>, the unexplained surge in beryllium-10 reveals that our planet has experienced dramatic events that are not yet fully understood.



Future research will determine whether this anomaly is a localized phenomenon or a global event with cosmic origins. 



The study is published in the journal Nature Communications.



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Unexplained radiation spike found deep in the Pacific ocean

The depths of the ocean have always held secrets, but...

Cities are often seen as places where nature takes a backseat to concrete and steel. Yet, many animals have adapted to urban environments, changing their behaviors and survival strategies. 



A new study from Tel Aviv University has uncovered a surprising effect of city life on bats - urban-dwelling bats give birth significantly earlier than those in rural areas.



This research is the first of its kind to establish a link between urban environments and the timing of birth in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bats-surf-the-winds-of-storms-during-migration/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">mammals</a>. 



The findings suggest that factors such as warmer temperatures and an abundance of food influence when bats reproduce. These discoveries could have broader implications for understanding how other species are adapting to human-made landscapes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-birth-patterns-in-bats">Birth patterns in bats</h2>



The research team, led by Professor Yossi Yovel from <a href="https://english.tau.ac.il" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Tel Aviv University</a>’s School of Zoology and the Steinhardt Museum of Natural History, spent three years observing ten bat colonies in both urban and rural settings. 



The study, published in BMC Biology, involved collecting data from hundreds of female <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/we-can-prevent-future-pandemics-by-protecting-nature/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">bats</a> and approximately 120 pups.



By measuring the forearm length and body weight of newborn bats, the researchers determined that urban pups were, on average, 2.5 weeks more developed than their rural counterparts. 



This difference highlights the significant role that city environments play in shaping bat reproduction.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-advantages-of-urban-bats">Advantages of urban bats</h2>



Urban areas create microclimates that differ from surrounding rural landscapes. One of the most noticeable effects is the “urban heat island” phenomenon, where cities retain more heat than rural areas. This artificial warmth provides a more stable environment for bats, especially during colder months.



"Fruit bats living in cities benefit from favorable environmental conditions, including higher temperatures due to the 'urban heat island' effect and greater food availability, primarily from ornamental fruit trees irrigated year-round," explained Professor Yovel.



"These conditions allow urban <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bat-conservation-benefits-human-health-and-the-environment/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">bats</a> to cope better with harsh winters and start their reproductive cycles earlier. This enables females to give birth earlier in the season, increasing their chances of becoming pregnant again within the same year."



The availability of food also plays a crucial role. In cities, ornamental fruit trees provide a consistent supply of food, while rural bats must rely on seasonal availability. This steady diet may allow urban bats to maintain better overall health, supporting more frequent and earlier reproduction.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-pregnancy-duration-of-urban-bats">Pregnancy duration of urban bats</h2>



One of the most interesting findings of the study is the uncertainty about why urban bats give birth earlier. Researchers are unsure whether these bats are shortening their pregnancies or if they are simply conceiving earlier than rural bats. 



Some bat species are known to adjust their pregnancy duration based on environmental conditions, such as temperature and food availability. However, scientists have not yet confirmed whether this is happening in the bats they studied.



The study’s authors emphasize the need for further research to understand this reproductive shift. If urban bats are shortening their pregnancies, it could indicate that city environments are influencing fetal development. 



On the other hand, if they are becoming pregnant earlier, it suggests that the conditions in cities encourage quicker mating cycles. Answering this question could provide important insights into how mammals adapt to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-bats-navigate-noisy-world/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">urbanization</a> and changing ecosystems.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-broader-implications-of-the-research">Broader implications of the research </h2>



The research raises new questions about how urbanization affects reproduction in mammals beyond bats. Many species now live in or near cities, facing altered food sources, climates, and survival pressures. 



Studying these changes can help conservationists predict which species may struggle to adapt and which may thrive.



"This study highlights the importance of understanding the connection between animals and their environments, especially in an era when urbanization is reshaping the planet," concluded Professor Yovel.



As human expansion continues, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fruit-bats-can-remember-the-past-and-plan-for-the-future/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">wildlife</a> must constantly adapt. A growing collection of research provides valuable insights into how species respond to city life, shaping future conservation efforts and our understanding of urban ecology.



The relationship between animals and human environments is still unfolding, but studies like this offers a glimpse into how species are navigating a rapidly changing world.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://bmcbiol.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s12915-025-02124-y" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">BMC Biology</a>.



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Urban bats are having babies earlier than their country cousins

Cities are often seen as places where nature takes a...

Science is often influenced by the unseen world of bacteria that coexist with us. These microscopic organisms play a crucial role in our bodies, affecting everything from digestion to mood.



Researchers at the University of Galway recently introduced a collection of 247,092 computer models of these bacteria, marking the largest digital microbe library ever created.



Their project, known as APOLLO, provides a fresh way to study the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/microbes-play-a-big-role-in-shaping-the-health-of-rivers/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">microbiome</a> without relying on slow laboratory work.



This ambitious effort is led by Professor Ines Thiele, a principal investigator with <a href="https://www.ucc.ie/en/apc/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">APC Microbiome Ireland</a>, housed at University College Cork.



She also directs the University of Galway’s Digital Metabolic Twin Centre, where this vast model collection was born.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-digital-microbes-changed-the-game">Digital microbes changed the game</h2>



APOLLO comprises detailed computer models that capture the metabolic operations of each bacterium. These operations include the ways in which microbes convert nutrients into energy and byproducts that can influence our bodies.



The library also features 14,451 community simulations based on real samples from various age groups and continents. By analyzing these combined communities, scientists can look for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/worlds-smallest-robot-could-transform-minimally-invasive-surgery/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">patterns</a> linked to different diets, life stages, and disease risks.



“APOLLO marks a major milestone in personalized microbiome modeling on a global scale,” said Dr. Cyrille Thinnes, project scientist at the University of Galway. 



Dr. Thinnes noted that examining our bacteria is crucial for discovering how they shape conditions across the body.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-bridging-microbes-and-health">Bridging microbes and health</h2>



The <a href="https://www.niehs.nih.gov/health/topics/science/microbiome" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">microbiome</a> is a vibrant collection of bacteria, viruses, and other microorganisms. <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/nature06244" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Scientists</a> have long suspected that these living companions influence immune health, nutrient absorption, and many chronic illnesses.



One highlight of this new library is its potential to uncover specific neurotoxins or beneficial molecules. By simulating bacterial activity in the gut, researchers can better understand metabolic signals that may affect mental health and brain-related conditions.



Evidence suggests that imbalances in gut flora can influence Parkinson’s disease. Exploring these subtle connections may open the door to new <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bacteria-in-your-mouth-multiply-in-a-very-unique-way/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">diagnostic tools</a>.



More broadly, this software-based approach speeds up research. Instead of dealing with slow-growing microbes and tricky lab conditions, scientists can test ideas in silico, allowing for rapid insights and next-level collaboration across institutions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-targeting-diseases-with-personalized-tools">Targeting diseases with personalized tools</h2>



Some of the digital communities in this library reveal potential links to illnesses like <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s12328-017-0813-5" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Crohn’s disease</a>. The researchers found metabolic markers that may help in creating new ways to detect or track this inflammatory condition.



APOLLO can also simulate how bacteria behave in malnourished children. This could be especially relevant for global health efforts to tackle the impacts of child undernutrition.



By identifying specific bacterial strains or metabolites tied to a condition, treatments can be developed. Doctors might adjust a person’s diet or prescribe specialized probiotics to help rebalance the gut.



“The human microbiome is a vital player in health and disease, dynamically interacting with its host,” explained Professor Thiele. She emphasized that these digital models allow a closer look at how microbes might respond to different interventions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-beyond-the-gut">Beyond the gut</h2>



Although most people associate gut bacteria with digestion, microbes also dwell in the mouth, skin, and other areas of the body. APOLLO’s data spans multiple body sites, reflecting the wide geographic and demographic diversity of modern populations.



Non-westernized communities often have distinct bacterial profiles that may hold clues about resilience to certain diseases. Studying these variations could inform public health measures on antibiotic use and dietary guidelines.



This wider perspective helps researchers see how different living conditions shape microbial ecosystems. By comparing many populations, scientists hope to pinpoint patterns linked to better health outcomes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-digital-microbe-models-for-healthcare">Digital microbe models for healthcare</h2>



These digital models represent an evolving <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/living-microbes-found-in-the-driest-desert-on-earth/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">resource</a> for personalized healthcare. By merging patient data with microbiome simulations, doctors may soon propose more targeted treatments.



Human trials will still be necessary, but computational work helps refine the most promising ideas. Instead of wasting time on broad guesses, specialists can quickly identify strategies that show the most potential in digital tests.



Experts see a future where <a href="https://healthtechmagazine.net/article/2024/01/what-are-digital-twins-and-how-can-they-be-used-healthcare" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">digital twins of patients</a> can predict interactions between diet, medicine, and the microbiome. This may cut down on trial and error, bringing more precise treatments to the public.



APOLLO proves that large-scale modeling can work outside of a typical lab. It offers a step toward making these simulations more comprehensive and accessible.



Teams around the world can now tap into this resource and discover new health connections. The research may ultimately lead to breakthroughs in diagnostics, drug development, and nutritional science.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.cell.com/cell-systems/fulltext/S2405-4712(25)00029-8" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cell Systems</a>.



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Largest digital microbe archive could transform health research

Science is often influenced by the unseen world of bacteria...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2E0mn5mTvhQ
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">'Death Star' moon Mimas conceals a 15-million-year-old ocean that scientists never expected.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hidden-waters-beneath-ancient-craters">Hidden waters beneath ancient craters</h2>



Scientists have made a startling discovery that challenges everything we thought we knew about <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/saturn-moon-mimas-has-remarkably-young-ocean/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Saturn's moon Mimas</a>. Beneath the heavily cratered surface that earned it the nickname "Death Star" lies a global ocean that formed just 5 to 15 million years ago—a remarkably young age by cosmic standards.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cassini-data-reveals-orbital-secrets">Cassini data reveals orbital secrets</h2>



The discovery, led by Dr. Valéry Lainey of the <a href="https://observatoiredeparis.psl.eu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Observatoire de Paris</a>, emerged from careful analysis of <a href="https://www.nasa.gov" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NASA</a>'s Cassini spacecraft data. By studying subtle irregularities in Mimas's orbit around Saturn, researchers detected the gravitational signature of liquid water hidden 20 to 30 kilometers beneath the moon's icy shell.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-an-unlikely-ocean-world">An unlikely ocean world</h2>



At only 400 kilometers in diameter, Mimas seemed like the least likely candidate to harbor a subsurface ocean. Unlike other ocean moons such as Europa and Enceladus, which show clear surface signs of internal activity, Mimas displays no obvious hints of the liquid water beneath its ancient, crater-scarred exterior.



"Mimas is a small moon, and its heavily cratered surface gave no hint of the hidden ocean beneath," explained Dr. Nick Cooper from <a href="https://www.qmul.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Queen Mary University of London</a>, a study co-author.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-astrobiology">Implications for astrobiology</h2>



The ocean's recent formation makes Mimas a prime target for studying how oceans develop and potentially support life. This discovery adds another member to the exclusive club of ocean worlds in our solar system, each offering unique insights into the conditions necessary for habitability.



The research, published in <a href="https://www.nature.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature</a> journal, demonstrates how advanced orbital analysis can reveal hidden features of celestial bodies, opening new possibilities for understanding ocean formation throughout the cosmos.



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Scientists discover unexpected young ocean on Saturn's cratered moon Mimas

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2E0mn5mTvhQ 'Death Star' moon Mimas conceals a 15-million-year-old ocean that...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE
</div></figure>



On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop and sunlight barely penetrates through the polar winter. It was here, however, that an international team of scientists found <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/predatory-worms-were-terror-beasts-half-a-billion-years-ago/#google_vignette" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evidence of sea monsters</a> that would change our understanding of ocean life in the past.



This video captures the discovery of Timorebestia fossils that had been hidden for more than 500 million years in the Sirius Passet formation. The "terror beasts," as they are called, are a hidden chapter in the evolutionary history of <a href="https://www.earth.com" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Earth</a>, showing that sophisticated predator-prey interactions occurred much earlier than previously envisioned.



Dr. Jakob Vinther and his research team at the <a href="https://www.bristol.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Bristol</a>, in collaboration with researchers at the <a href="https://eng.kopri.re.kr/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Korean Polar Research Institute</a>, braved extreme weather conditions at 82.5 north latitude to locate these giant creatures. Using sophisticated electron microprobe analysis, they revealed the detailed anatomy of the animals, including their muscle and nerve tissues.



The find upsets the traditional timeline of sea predators. Although we've long appreciated that Cambrian oceans were at one time ruled by <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jWI3-UgA3_o&amp;list=PL1QLQMW9MWDwpkFOnvgAmu7wT6rZmYqdJ&amp;index=19" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">arthropods</a>, these discoveries indicate that relatives of arrow worms were first to dominate the seas. These worms were building sophisticated food webs several million years before other predator groups arose.



Each fossil is a story of ancient hunger, with fossil stomach contents revealing these meter-long beasts dined on heavily armored arthropods regularly, cementing their place as the ocean's first apex predators.



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Worms dominated seas before dinosaurs

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">New York is the site of the world's oldest forest.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-385-million-year-old-trees-discovered">385-million-year-old trees discovered</h2>



Scientists have uncovered something extraordinary just two hours north of New York City. The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/worlds-oldest-forest-discovered-close-to-new-york-city/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">world's oldest forest</a>, dating back 385 million years, offers a window into how Earth's first complex forests shaped our planet's atmosphere.



Located near <a href="https://townofcairo.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cairo, New York</a>, in Greene County, these weren't merely primitive plants struggling to survive. These were sophisticated trees with root systems remarkably similar to modern forests. This ancient woodland predates dinosaurs by 140 million years.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-cairo-forest-discovery">The Cairo forest discovery</h2>



385 million years ago, upstate New York was a tropical paradise near the equator. Thanks to continental drift, this ancient forest has traveled thousands of miles to its current location.



The fossil forest sits in an abandoned quarry, roughly half the size of a football field. This represents just a slice of what was likely a massive forest system stretching from New York into Pennsylvania.



Charles Ver Straeten, curator of sedimentary rocks at the <a href="https://www.nysm.nysed.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">New York State Museum</a>, made the discovery in 2009. While scouting the former highway department property, his trained eye spotted wandering patterns in the stone that looked like marine features.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-revolutionary-age-and-preservation">Revolutionary age and preservation</h2>



The site contains 385-million-year-old rocks with fossilized woody roots forming horizontal patterns up to 18 feet (5.5 meters) wide. As Christopher Berry, a paleobotanist at Cardiff University, explains: "You are walking through the roots of ancient trees."



This discovery pushes back advanced tree evolution by millions of years. The research, published in <a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/home" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Current Biology</a> in December 2019, fundamentally changes our understanding of when complex forests first emerged.



Researchers believe a massive flood buried the forest floor, creating perfect fossilization conditions. Over millions of years, sediment hardened into rock, preserving these root patterns like nature's time capsule.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-meet-archaeopteris-the-first-modern-tree">Meet Archaeopteris: the first modern tree</h2>



The star of this ancient forest is Archaeopteris – not to be confused with the feathered dinosaur Archaeopteryx. This tree was far older and more revolutionary.



William Stein from <a href="https://www.binghamton.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Binghamton University</a> describes the roots as "strikingly modern, essentially what you'd see outside in my yard right now." These weren't simple root systems you'd expect from ancient plants.



Some fossilized roots are six inches (15 centimeters) in diameter, forming 36-foot-wide (11-meter) patterns. These giants grew up to 65 feet (20 meters) tall with five-foot-diameter (1.5-meter) trunks.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-changing-impact">Climate-changing impact</h2>



These trees fundamentally changed Earth's environment. Kevin Boyce, a Stanford University geoscientist, explains how their deep roots triggered "weathering," chemical reactions that pulled carbon dioxide from the atmosphere.



This process dropped atmospheric CO2 levels from 10-15 times higher than today to roughly modern concentrations. These ancient trees helped create atmospheric conditions that made complex life possible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ancient-forest-ecosystem">Ancient forest ecosystem</h2>



The forest was remarkably diverse. Scientists identified Eospermatopteris, palm tree-like plants with short roots that reached 30 feet (9 meters) tall but lacked woody structure. The forest also housed cladoxylopsids and a mysterious third species still being studied.



All reproduced through spores rather than seeds – millions of years before seeds evolved. This tropical environment had no grass, flowers, or flying insects, just towering trees creating Earth's first complex forest canopy.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-scientific-significance">Scientific significance</h2>



Before this finding, the Gilboa forest, located 25 miles (40 kilometers) away, held the "oldest forest" title. Cairo's trees are 2-3 million years older, showing that complex forest ecosystems developed much faster than scientists believed possible.



Patricia Gensel, a <a href="https://www.unc.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of North Carolina</a> paleobotanist, notes: "The size of those root systems is really changing the picture. Even 20 years ago, researchers assumed trees with such complex root systems didn't evolve so early."



The Cairo site presents three unique root systems, suggesting Devonian period forests were diverse ecosystems with different trees occupying different environmental niches, much like today's forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-modern-preservation-efforts">Modern preservation efforts</h2>



In 2022, New York State Senator Michelle Hinchey secured a $170,000 grant for the town of Cairo to construct specialized fencing around the fossil forest site. The town plans to conduct a feasibility study exploring the possibility of creating an educational center and working lab on-site.



Joe Hasenkopf, chair of the Cairo Planning Board, hopes to partner with educational institutions to create a research facility serving scientists, students, and the public.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lessons-for-today-s-climate">Lessons for today's climate</h2>



Why does a 385-million-year-old forest matter today? It shows how dramatically forests can change Earth's climate. These ancient woodlands created the atmospheric conditions supporting complex life.



Understanding how prehistoric forests transformed the planet helps us appreciate modern forests' critical role in addressing climate change. Forests remain Earth's most effective carbon capture systems.



These prehistoric trees changed Earth's atmosphere by pulling massive amounts of carbon dioxide from the air. As we face modern climate challenges, this ancient forest reminds us of trees' incredible power to transform our planet's environment.



The next time you walk through a forest, remember you're experiencing an ecosystem whose blueprint was established 385 million years ago in upstate New York. These ancient pioneers didn't just survive – they thrived and changed the world forever.



The full study was published in the journal Current Biology.



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Earth's oldest forest found in the United States

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ New York is the site of the world's oldest...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Acid rain and a crisis solved.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-don-t-we-ever-hear-about-acid-rain-anymore-the-environmental-crisis-that-was-solved">Why don't we ever hear about "acid rain" anymore? The environmental crisis that was solved</h2>



Remember the 1980s when acid rain dominated headlines? Dire warnings about rain eating buildings, killing fish, and destroying forests filled every news cycle. Then, almost like magic, acid rain vanished from public discourse. What happened? Did we actually solve one of the late 20th century's most pressing environmental challenges?



The answer might surprise you. Unlike many environmental issues that drag on indefinitely, acid rain represents one of modern history's most successful ecological recovery stories. It's a tale of science, politics, and technology working together to tackle what seemed impossible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What was acid rain?</h2>



Acid rain isn't regular rain having a bad day – it's precipitation that became significantly more acidic due to air pollution. When power plants, factories, and vehicles burn fossil fuels, they release sulfur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides (NOx) into the atmosphere.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The science behind it</h2>



Think of acid rain as nature's chemistry experiment gone wrong. These compounds react with water, oxygen, and other chemicals to form sulfuric and nitric acids. When mixed with water vapor in clouds, they create precipitation with dangerously low pH levels.



While clean rain has a pH of about 5.6, acid rain could drop as low as 4.2 to 4.4 – roughly as acidic as tomato juice or coffee. According to US Geological Survey documentation, Scottish chemist Angus Smith first coined "acid rain" in 1872, but it didn't become a household phrase until the 1960s and 1970s when Swedish scientist Svante Odén documented its devastating effects on Scandinavian lakes and European forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The crisis at its peak</h2>



During the height of public concern, environmental damage was both widespread and visible. This wasn't some abstract future threat – people could see destruction happening in real-time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Environmental devastation</h2>



The most dramatic impacts were impossible to ignore. Research documented by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation and the New York State Department of Environmental Conservation shows that in the Adirondack Mountains, more than 200 lakes became so acidic they couldn't support fish life. The Adirondack Council reports that 409 lakes once supported brook trout, but many lost their fish populations due to acid rain.



By 1976, when scientists cataloged all acidified lakes in the Adirondack Park, researchers found that half of the lakes over 2,000 feet above sea level had no fish, according to studies published in environmental journals. The acidification process worked like a slow-motion disaster. As acid rain fell into watersheds, it gradually lowered pH levels. Fish couldn't survive in acidic water, and their food sources died off too.



Trees at high elevations showed stress directly linked to acid rain. It weakened them by leaching nutrients and making them susceptible to disease. Historical records show Germany's Black Forest saw nearly half its trees damaged by the mid-1980s.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Economic impact</h2>



Acid rain wasn't just environmental – it was expensive. Acidic precipitation corroded infrastructure, buildings, and monuments. Historic stone structures deteriorated at accelerated rates. Tourism suffered as lakes became fishless and forests declined. EPA economic analyses from the period documented repair costs mounting into billions annually.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The solution: government action and technology</h2>



Transformation from crisis to success required unprecedented cooperation between governments, industries, and environmental groups.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The Clean Air Act of 1990</h2>



The turning point came with the Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990, signed by President George H.W. Bush. This represented a fundamentally new approach to environmental regulation, as documented in EPA historical records.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Cap-and-trade success</h2>



Instead of mandating specific technologies, the 1990 amendments introduced something revolutionary: a cap-and-trade system for sulfur dioxide emissions. EPA program documentation shows this market-based approach set overall limits but allowed companies to trade emission allowances.



The genius was harnessing market forces to find cost-effective pollution reduction. Companies reducing emissions cheaply could sell excess allowances to those facing higher costs. Research published in environmental economics journals and EPA progress reports shows this resulted in dramatic SO2 reduction at a fraction of projected costs.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Technology advances</h2>



Policy provided the framework, but technology made reductions possible. Studies in atmospheric science journals document the widespread adoption of flue gas desulfurization systems ("scrubbers") that removed sulfur dioxide before it reached the atmosphere. By the 2000s, new installations could remove over 95% of SO2 emissions, according to EPA technical reports.



The push coincided with cleaner energy development. Natural gas produces fewer sulfur compounds than coal. Wind and solar, emerging in the 1990s, captured growing market share, reducing reliance on high-sulfur coal.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-we-don-t-hear-about-it-today">Why we don't hear about it today</h2>



Why did acid rain disappear from headlines? Simple: the problem was largely solved.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Success doesn't make news</h2>



There's an old journalism saying: "If it bleeds, it leads." Environmental success stories don't generate urgency like crisis reporting. Media attention shifted to other challenges: climate change, plastic pollution, and biodiversity loss. There's only so much environmental anxiety the public can absorb, and newer concerns replaced acid rain.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Mission accomplished</h2>



The primary reason is beautifully simple: interventions worked. EPA monitoring data shows sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990. Academic research published in environmental science journals confirms pH levels in formerly affected areas returned closer to normal. This represents one of history's most dramatic environmental recoveries. Studies by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation show fishless lakes now support healthy populations. Forests recovered, and building damage slowed dramatically.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-is-it-really-gone">Is it really gone?</h2>



The crisis is largely resolved, but monitoring data shows the problem isn't completely eliminated – it's managed to acceptable levels. Some areas still experience occasional events during high pollution periods. International environmental research indicates that rapidly industrializing Asian countries face similar problems to what we experienced decades ago, though they're implementing successful strategies.



EPA research shows nitrogen oxide emissions proved more challenging than sulfur dioxide, coming from vehicles and mobile sources. Climate science studies suggest changing weather patterns add complexity to how acid rain forms and falls.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What this teaches us</h2>



The acid rain experience proves that seemingly intractable environmental problems can be solved with scientific understanding, political will, and technological innovation. Environmental monitoring data shows recovery speed was remarkable – within a decade, measurable improvements appeared in air quality and ecosystem health.



Success came from bipartisan support across party lines. Policy analysis studies show the market-based approach appealed to those preferring economic incentives while achieving environmental goals. This support created lasting policy surviving political changes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Conclusion</h2>



Acid rain's disappearance from public consciousness represents environmental science's greatest success stories. Through effective regulation, technological innovation, and international cooperation, we transformed an overwhelming crisis into a manageable challenge.



Today's silence isn't because we forgot – it's because we solved it. The 1990 Clean Air Act, combined with technology and energy market changes, reduced acid rain emissions over 90%, according to comprehensive EPA data analysis.



This success offers hope for current challenges. It proves complex problems can be solved when science, policy, and technology work together. As we face climate change and plastic pollution, acid rain reminds us that dramatic positive change is possible.



Next time someone asks whether environmental regulations work, remember acid rain. It's proof that sometimes, we get it right.



<hr class="wp-block-separator has-alpha-channel-opacity"/>



Sources: This article draws from EPA official documentation and progress reports, peer-reviewed research published in environmental and atmospheric science journals, historical data from the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation, New York State Department of Environmental Conservation records, US Geological Survey publications, policy analysis studies, and environmental monitoring data collected over three decades.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Frequently Asked Questions</h2>



1. Is acid rain completely gone? No, but EPA monitoring shows it's reduced to manageable levels. US sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990, making acid rain much less severe than the 1980s crisis.



2. How long did solving take? Environmental monitoring data shows significant improvements began within 5-10 years of 1990s emission controls. Full ecosystem recovery took longer – some areas need 20-30 years for complete recovery.



3. What made the solution successful? Clear scientific understanding, visible damage motivating action, bipartisan support, available technology, and innovative market-based policies like cap-and-trade.



4. Do other countries have acid rain problems? Yes, particularly rapidly industrializing Asian countries. However, international environmental research shows many implement similar successful control strategies.



5. Could acid rain return? Potentially, if regulations weaken or we return to high-sulfur coal without controls, though effects would take years to become severe according to environmental projections.



6. Can you recommend any teaching tools on the subject of "acid rain"? The United States Environmental Protection Agency produced a wonderful teacher's guide for ages 14 and under that you can find on the EPA website here: <a href="https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf</a>



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The environmental problem we actually solved

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk Acid rain and a crisis solved. Why don't we...

Fresh,Radish,Harvest,On,Soil,In,Garden.

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://youtu.be/Fi2OeEwuzRM?si=vTyd2m9FMmtyWkex
</div></figure>







Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving fall garden, and this guide lays out the best vegetables and herbs to plant now for a fruitful autumn harvest. 



Fast-growing leafy greens such as spinach, lettuce, kale, and arugula perform especially well in the waning summer heat, with harvests beginning as soon as 30 days. 



These cool-season crops relish the transition into fall, offering repeated yields with cut-and-come-again methods.



Root vegetables like radishes, carrots, and beets also excel during this period. Radishes deliver satisfaction in under a month, while carrots and beets mature in about two months. Employing succession planting ensures a continuous stream of produce deep into the cooler months. 



For a boost of fresh flavor, herbs like cilantro, basil, dill, and chervil are excellent picks. These heat-loving varieties flourish in July’s warmth and are harvest-ready in about 30 days, especially when sown continuously.



Gardeners in zones 6 through 9 can benefit from planting bush beans and snap peas, which don’t require trellising and are ideal for compact plots. 



Maturing in 50–60 days, they’re a smart choice for quick, protein-rich harvests. For those in hotter regions, heat-tolerant crops such as okra and southern peas provide reliable yields and thrive in scorching conditions.



This guide emphasizes more than crop selection—it highlights the importance of timing, soil preparation, and ongoing sowing techniques. 



With thoughtful planning and attention to regional climate needs, even late-summer gardeners can enjoy fresh salads, hearty stews, and the satisfaction of a robust, homegrown harvest well into fall.



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What to plant in your garden in mid-July

https://youtu.be/Fi2OeEwuzRM?si=vTyd2m9FMmtyWkex Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving...

Green,Ecoduct,Over,An,Empty,Highway,During,Sunset.

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://youtu.be/XYgiPzmNBTU?si=eFYY7gPHU1JznLvU
</div></figure>



A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that wildlife tunnels significantly reduce amphibian road mortality during seasonal migrations. 



Frogs and salamanders often cross roads to reach breeding ponds each spring, but many are killed by vehicles. 



Researchers from the <a href="https://www.uvm.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Vermont</a>, in collaboration with local citizens and the Vermont Agency of Natural Resources, installed two underpass tunnels in 2015. 



Over a 12-year monitoring period, they observed an 80.2% reduction in amphibian deaths, and up to 94% for non-climbing species like salamanders. 



The study used a before-after-control-impact design and documented more than 5,200 amphibians, highlighting the tunnels’ effectiveness even in nearby buffer zones.



Funded at $342,397 - far cheaper than wildlife crossings for large mammals - the project showcased the power of community-led conservation.



Local groups initiated the effort after observing mass amphibian deaths. Wildlife cameras later captured over 2,200 amphibians using a tunnel in just one spring, along with other species like raccoons and bobcats, indicating wider ecosystem benefits.



This marks the first peer-reviewed, long-term data set in the northeastern U.S. confirming amphibian-specific underpasses work. 



The study urges transportation departments to incorporate these designs into road planning and highlights how community action, thoughtful infrastructure, and persistence can make a real difference for biodiversity.



The full study was published in the <a href="https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1617138125000780" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal for Nature Conservation</a>.



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Wildlife tunnels save millions of amphibians

https://youtu.be/XYgiPzmNBTU?si=eFYY7gPHU1JznLvU A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that...

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing it with probiotics and prebiotics, aiming to create a treat that satisfies cravings while supporting gut health. 



The challenge lies in maintaining chocolate's beloved texture and flavor while adding health benefits.



<figure class="wp-block-embed aligncenter is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://youtu.be/Ug657J67iEo?si=w96YjGMsg939LD_3
</div></figure>



Probiotics - beneficial microbes that balance gut bacteria and aid digestion - are typically fragile and can be destroyed by stomach acid or processing. 



Prebiotics act as food for these microbes, helping them thrive. Together, they form "synbiotics," a powerful health combination.



Researchers Smriti Gaur and Shubhi Singh from India's Jaypee Institute of Information Technology took an innovative approach, using natural prebiotics like corn and honey instead of complex processing methods. 



They created five chocolate varieties: a control and four synbiotic versions containing different combinations of prebiotics, probiotics (Lactobacillus strains), and flavor enhancers (cinnamon or orange).



Laboratory simulations of human digestion showed the probiotics remained viable for over five hours, suggesting they could survive long enough to benefit gut health.



Taste tests were positive, with researchers particularly enjoying the orange-flavored variety, describing it as having "vibrant citrus notes" complementing the "rich cocoa" with a "luxurious" texture.



This research represents just the beginning. With further refinement of strains, textures, and flavors, chocolate could evolve beyond mere indulgence to become a functional food that nourishes while it delights.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.4c00741" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ACS Food Science &amp; Technology</a>.

Is chocolate the next nutritional powerhouse?

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How does salt makes things taste better?

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Santiago, Chile in South America

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Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.



According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."



Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;



ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. 



Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

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Earth,Like,Exoplanet,3d,Render

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

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