Young aspen trees in Yellowstone are doing something they have not done in almost 100 years. Rather than sprouting and being eaten back to nubs by elk and bison, they're actually growing into tall, adult forest trees rising up towards the canopy.



This matters more than it might seem, because it shows what happens when a missing piece of an ecosystem returns.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-yellowstone-aspens-and-elk">Yellowstone, aspens, and elk</h2>



In the 1920s, people <a href="https://www.yellowstone.org/wolf-project/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">eliminated wolves in Yellowstone</a>. At the time, with limited scientific knowledge, managers believed it was the right thing to do.



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/from-wolves-to-dogs-did-domestication-begin-without-human-help/">Without wolves</a>, elk herds grew very large. Elk love to eat aspen shoots - the tender young growth is highly palatable to them.



For roughly 70 years, elk browsed aspen sprouts down to stub height, and the trees couldn't grow. 



If you had walked through Yellowstone in the 1980s, you would have seen many tiny aspen shoots covering the ground, but almost no young trees gaining height. 



The forest's regeneration was stalled. Old trees died, and no new ones replaced them.



In 1995 and 1996, park managers reintroduced wolves into the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/yellowstone-supervolcano-eruption-study-sparks-new-debate-on-where-and-when-it-will-erupt/">Yellowstone Park ecosystem</a>. Scientists hoped and wondered whether this would change anything for the trees.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-aspen-matter-to-yellowstone">Why aspen matter to Yellowstone</h2>



Aspen groves provide habitat for many species. Birds nest in them. Beavers eat the bark and use the wood for dams. Butterflies and moths lay eggs on the leaves. 



Their canopy admits enough light for wildflowers and shrubs to grow beneath. When it rains, aspen groves hold water in the soil better than some other forest types.



In short, when aspen return, dozens of other species benefit. More trees support more insects, which in turn support more birds, enriching the ecosystem.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-checking-the-trees-three-decades-later">Checking the trees three decades later</h2>



<a href="https://fwcs.oregonstate.edu/users/luke-painter" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Luke Painter</a>, an ecologist at <a href="https://oregonstate.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Oregon State University</a>, sought clear answers. His team returned to 87 aspen stands across Yellowstone that scientists had previously surveyed. 



They measured thousands of young trees, looked for bite marks, and counted how many stems were tall enough that elk could no longer reach the tips.



About a third of these stands now have many tall young aspens pushing toward the canopy. 



"About 26 of the 87 aspen stands we examined had large numbers of tall saplings throughout, a remarkable change from the 1990s when surveys found none at all," Painter said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-wolves-matter-to-yellowstone-aspens">Why wolves matter to Yellowstone aspens</h2>



Breaking it all down, the conclusions of this study are pretty simple. 



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/wolves-move-pups-across-mountains-to-adapt-to-climate-pressure/">Wolves hunt elk</a>. When wolves came back, two things happened. First, elk numbers declined from unusually high levels. Second, elk changed their behavior. They spent less time in the same areas feeding.



With fewer elk and shorter feeding bouts, more aspen shoots survived long enough to exceed the browsing zone - about six to seven feet high. 



Once a sapling reaches that height, elk cannot easily reach the growing tip. The tree continues to grow.



"The reintroduction of large carnivores has initiated a recovery process that had been shut down for decades," Painter explained.



Scientists call this a <a href="https://www.nature.com/scitable/knowledge/library/trophic-cascades-across-diverse-plant-ecosystems-80060347/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">trophic cascade</a> - when adding or removing one species causes changes that ripple through the whole system.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-some-places-recover-others-don-t">Some places recover, others don't</h2>



Unfortunately, not every aspen stand has recovered yet. Some valleys still have many short, heavily browsed shoots, because it's not only elk eating them anymore. 



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/yellowstones-iconic-bison-have-merged-into-a-single-herd/">Bison herds have grown</a>, and bison browse on aspen as well. They are strong enough to break young trees. 



"Increasing numbers of bison may be emerging as a new constraint to aspen in some areas," Painter confirmed.



Additionally, winter snow depth varies; droughts stress trees; bears and mountain lions also hunt elk; and hunting outside the park influences elk distribution. 



All of these factors interact, which is why some sites show strong recovery, others show moderate recovery, and a few have changed very little.



The key pattern is that places with many tall saplings experience little browsing, and aspen groves that remain popular eating grounds today stay short. 



This fact is the strongest indication that tree recovery is linked directly to wolf presence, not solely to weather or soil conditions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-proof-in-the-measurements">Proof in the measurements</h2>



Painter's team did not rely on casual observation. They used the same methods as earlier researchers, measuring the same plots. 



They counted recruitment - when young trees surpass browsing height and begin progressing toward maturity. This measure is crucial. Sprouts are insufficient if they never grow; without recruitment, the forest cannot replace itself.



The results are robust. After being stalled for most of a century, Yellowstone's aspens are increasing in height. In recovering stands today, you will see saplings - six, eight, or ten feet tall - that were not present in the 1990s.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-future-of-yellowstone-s-aspens">The future of Yellowstone's aspens</h2>



"This is a remarkable case of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/giant-viruses-found-in-yellowstones-hot-springs-may-be-near-the-root-of-all-life-on-earth/">ecological restoration</a>," Painter concluded. "Wolf reintroduction is yielding long-term ecological changes contributing to increased biodiversity and habitat diversity."



Trees grow slowly, so even with wolves restored, it will take decades for these young aspens to form a full-grown forest. 



Some areas might never fully recover if bison numbers continue to rise or if the climate becomes too hot and dry.



Thanks to the work of Painter and his team, scientists are now certain that restoring the Yellowstone predator has restarted aspen forest regeneration. Not everywhere and not perfectly, but enough to be measured, creating hope for the future.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0378112725004499?via%3Dihub" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Forest Ecology and Management</a>.



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Yellowstone's aspen trees are growing again thanks to the reintroduction of wolves

Young aspen trees in Yellowstone are doing something they have not done in almost 100 years. Rather than sprouting and being eaten back to nubs by elk and bison, they're actually growing into tall, adult forest trees rising up towards the canopy. This matters more than it might seem, because it shows what happens when a missing piece of an ecosystem returns. Yellowstone, aspens, and elk In the 1920s, people eliminated wolves in Yellowstone. At the time, with limited scientific knowledge, managers believed it was the right...

Science is often influenced by the unseen world of bacteria that coexist with us. These microscopic organisms play a crucial role in our bodies, affecting everything from digestion to mood.



Researchers at the University of Galway recently introduced a collection of 247,092 computer models of these bacteria, marking the largest digital microbe library ever created.



Their project, known as APOLLO, provides a fresh way to study the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/microbes-play-a-big-role-in-shaping-the-health-of-rivers/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">microbiome</a> without relying on slow laboratory work.



This ambitious effort is led by Professor Ines Thiele, a principal investigator with <a href="https://www.ucc.ie/en/apc/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">APC Microbiome Ireland</a>, housed at University College Cork.



She also directs the University of Galway’s Digital Metabolic Twin Centre, where this vast model collection was born.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-digital-microbes-changed-the-game">Digital microbes changed the game</h2>



APOLLO comprises detailed computer models that capture the metabolic operations of each bacterium. These operations include the ways in which microbes convert nutrients into energy and byproducts that can influence our bodies.



The library also features 14,451 community simulations based on real samples from various age groups and continents. By analyzing these combined communities, scientists can look for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/worlds-smallest-robot-could-transform-minimally-invasive-surgery/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">patterns</a> linked to different diets, life stages, and disease risks.



“APOLLO marks a major milestone in personalized microbiome modeling on a global scale,” said Dr. Cyrille Thinnes, project scientist at the University of Galway. 



Dr. Thinnes noted that examining our bacteria is crucial for discovering how they shape conditions across the body.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-bridging-microbes-and-health">Bridging microbes and health</h2>



The <a href="https://www.niehs.nih.gov/health/topics/science/microbiome" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">microbiome</a> is a vibrant collection of bacteria, viruses, and other microorganisms. <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/nature06244" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Scientists</a> have long suspected that these living companions influence immune health, nutrient absorption, and many chronic illnesses.



One highlight of this new library is its potential to uncover specific neurotoxins or beneficial molecules. By simulating bacterial activity in the gut, researchers can better understand metabolic signals that may affect mental health and brain-related conditions.



Evidence suggests that imbalances in gut flora can influence Parkinson’s disease. Exploring these subtle connections may open the door to new <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bacteria-in-your-mouth-multiply-in-a-very-unique-way/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">diagnostic tools</a>.



More broadly, this software-based approach speeds up research. Instead of dealing with slow-growing microbes and tricky lab conditions, scientists can test ideas in silico, allowing for rapid insights and next-level collaboration across institutions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-targeting-diseases-with-personalized-tools">Targeting diseases with personalized tools</h2>



Some of the digital communities in this library reveal potential links to illnesses like <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s12328-017-0813-5" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Crohn’s disease</a>. The researchers found metabolic markers that may help in creating new ways to detect or track this inflammatory condition.



APOLLO can also simulate how bacteria behave in malnourished children. This could be especially relevant for global health efforts to tackle the impacts of child undernutrition.



By identifying specific bacterial strains or metabolites tied to a condition, treatments can be developed. Doctors might adjust a person’s diet or prescribe specialized probiotics to help rebalance the gut.



“The human microbiome is a vital player in health and disease, dynamically interacting with its host,” explained Professor Thiele. She emphasized that these digital models allow a closer look at how microbes might respond to different interventions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-beyond-the-gut">Beyond the gut</h2>



Although most people associate gut bacteria with digestion, microbes also dwell in the mouth, skin, and other areas of the body. APOLLO’s data spans multiple body sites, reflecting the wide geographic and demographic diversity of modern populations.



Non-westernized communities often have distinct bacterial profiles that may hold clues about resilience to certain diseases. Studying these variations could inform public health measures on antibiotic use and dietary guidelines.



This wider perspective helps researchers see how different living conditions shape microbial ecosystems. By comparing many populations, scientists hope to pinpoint patterns linked to better health outcomes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-digital-microbe-models-for-healthcare">Digital microbe models for healthcare</h2>



These digital models represent an evolving <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/living-microbes-found-in-the-driest-desert-on-earth/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">resource</a> for personalized healthcare. By merging patient data with microbiome simulations, doctors may soon propose more targeted treatments.



Human trials will still be necessary, but computational work helps refine the most promising ideas. Instead of wasting time on broad guesses, specialists can quickly identify strategies that show the most potential in digital tests.



Experts see a future where <a href="https://healthtechmagazine.net/article/2024/01/what-are-digital-twins-and-how-can-they-be-used-healthcare" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">digital twins of patients</a> can predict interactions between diet, medicine, and the microbiome. This may cut down on trial and error, bringing more precise treatments to the public.



APOLLO proves that large-scale modeling can work outside of a typical lab. It offers a step toward making these simulations more comprehensive and accessible.



Teams around the world can now tap into this resource and discover new health connections. The research may ultimately lead to breakthroughs in diagnostics, drug development, and nutritional science.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.cell.com/cell-systems/fulltext/S2405-4712(25)00029-8" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cell Systems</a>.



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Largest digital microbe archive could transform health research

Science is often influenced by the unseen world of bacteria...

Cyborg cockroaches are creeping onto the scene as a surprising alternative for challenging tasks. These tiny creatures carry lightweight electronic equipment that guides their movement in places where typical robots struggle.



Across the globe, engineers are rethinking search and rescue methods in risky locations. There is great potential in these insect-hybrids, which fuse nature’s reliability with <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/worlds-smallest-robot-could-transform-minimally-invasive-surgery/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">advanced technology</a>.



Mochammad Ariyanto from <a href="https://www.osaka-u.ac.jp/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Osaka University</a> and his collaborators at <a href="https://undip.ac.id/language/en/home" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Diponegoro University</a> in Indonesia aim to harness the natural capabilities of insects rather than build small-scale machines from scratch.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cyborg-cockroaches-combine-nature-with-tech">Cyborg cockroaches combine nature with tech</h2>



Cyborg cockroaches have captured attention because of their uncanny resilience in hostile environments. These <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/robots-with-space-to-think-will-become-more-useful/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">insects</a> can cope with low resources and demanding conditions, making them an unexpected ally for real-world missions.



Scientists attach compact electronic circuits onto these insects, letting them move much like they always have. 



A small controller can guide them when needed, but most of the time, they rely on their own navigation skills.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-going-where-humans-can-t-go">Going where humans can’t go</h2>



Regular robots can be bulky or prone to breakdowns in crumbling tunnels and tight spaces. Cockroaches, on the other hand, can squeeze through tight gaps and crawl around debris.



Some models even operate in settings lacking stable power sources. That’s a big draw for teams looking to save energy and avoid carrying large batteries or power packs.



The experts program basic instructions into a microchip on the cockroach’s back. When the insect wanders off course, the system issues tiny pulses that steer it in the right direction.



“By simply attaching electronic devices to insects, we can avoid the finer details of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/a-glimpse-of-the-future-robots-in-nursing-homes/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">robotics engineering</a> and focus on achieving our goals,” explained Ariyanto. 



Thanks to the lightweight control device, cockroaches can circumvent hazards without draining power on advanced sensors. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cyborg-cockroaches-help-in-rescue-missions">Cyborg cockroaches help in rescue missions</h2>



Fires, earthquakes, and floods can leave behind impassable zones. Sending people or bulky gear into those places might pose too much risk.



A roach outfitted with basic guidance can crawl in, scout for survivors, and relay useful information. It saves time and reduces exposure to danger.



There’s growing curiosity about using insects to check out cramped or off-limits sites. Confined tunnels, collapsed buildings, and other hazardous spots could be surveyed by these silent explorers.



Sensors on their shells can collect data about temperature, air quality, or structural stability. This approach has enticed safety experts seeking more efficient ways to keep workers out of peril.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-no-harm-to-the-cockroaches">No harm to the cockroaches </h2>



Although the idea may sound unsettling, researchers are working to ensure these cyborg missions cause no unnecessary harm to the creatures. 



Some groups rely on adhesive or clips that don’t permanently affect the exoskeleton.



Electronic parts are designed to be easily removed once the mission ends. That means the insect can return to a standard habitat without long-term side effects.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cyborg-cockroaches-a-low-cost-alternative">Cyborg cockroaches: A low-cost alternative </h2>



Developing specialized robots typically demands heavy investment in hardware and software. Insects are plentiful, self-replicating, and come with their own ready-made “operating system.”



Maintenance can be cheaper because a single roach doesn’t rely on complex mechanical joints that might break down. 



“I believe our cyborg insects can achieve objectives with less effort and power than purely mechanical robots,” said Keisuke Morishima from Osaka University.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-effectiveness-and-further-applications">Effectiveness and further applications </h2>



Recent tests highlight how effective these insects can be. Teams found that roaches guided by simple signals reached designated targets in environments where typical ground <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/robots-that-sense-the-world-through-sound-are-more-human-like/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">robots</a> faltered.



Further improvements may include better obstacle-avoidance algorithms and longer-lasting micro-batteries. Researchers also see potential for synergy between the cockroach’s natural sense of direction and machine-based intelligence.



Search and rescue is only one part of the story. Archaeologists might use these insect hybrids in sensitive sites that can’t handle large machinery.



Engineers see promise in mapping cramped ventilation shafts or pipelines. Cockroaches slip through with minimal disturbance.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-concerns-about-cyborg-cockroaches">Concerns about cyborg cockroaches</h2>



Not everyone is comfortable with blending electronic controls and living organisms. Some critics question whether the process respects animal welfare or opens the door to more invasive experiments.



The researchers are addressing these concerns by limiting the impact on each creature and monitoring their well-being. They emphasize that ethical guidelines shape every phase of development.



Engineers are still perfecting the technology, ensuring each component works reliably without burdening the insect. Collaboration between entomologists and electrical experts helps refine every tiny detail.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-broader-interest-across-fields">Broader interest across fields</h2>



Some envision a future where fleets of these insect scouts swarm into difficult terrain. Remote operators or AI systems might coordinate hundreds of cockroaches, quickly mapping structural integrity or searching for survivors.



Other specialists see promise in exploring extreme realms like undersea vents. Because roaches can handle low-oxygen conditions, they might venture where few conventional robots dare to go.



There are also other insects that can be converted into living machines. For example, arachnologist teams are investigating ways to guide spiders, aiming to harness their ability to climb in unusual terrains.



These different approaches share a common goal - to safely and effectively combine the best features of biology and cutting-edge design. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cockroaches-in-life-saving-missions">Cockroaches in life-saving missions</h2>



Scientists are mindful of scaling up these findings for actual field tests. They know real-world disasters often involve chaos that can’t be fully simulated in a lab.



Despite the challenges, enthusiasm runs high in groups specializing in biohybrid designs. They view the roach as an unlikely but determined partner that can squeeze into places that humans and regular robots struggle to access.



With more research, new collaborations may yield advanced prototypes ready for large-scale operations. Teams aim to refine navigation commands and sensor capabilities so these insects can play a direct role in life-saving missions.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.1088/1748-3182/3/4/046006" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Soft Robotics</a>.



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Cockroaches can be turned into cyborgs for life-saving missions

Cyborg cockroaches are creeping onto the scene as a surprising...

For billions of years, Earth has been a planet without ice caps. Vast oceans, lush forests, and volcanic landscapes have dominated its surface. The ice-covered world we see today is an exception rather than the rule. 



According to a new study by the University of Leeds, the cool conditions that allowed <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/antarctic-ice-sheet-patterns-point-to-rapid-melting-risks/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ice</a> caps to form are rare in Earth's history.



Scientists have long wondered why Earth has spent most of its past in a "greenhouse" state, free from ice at the poles. In this study, the researchers found that our current climate resulted from a rare combination of multiple factors.



Without this lucky coincidence, Earth would have remained warm and ice-free, as it has been for most of its existence.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-earth-s-unusual-cold-state">Earth’s unusual cold state</h2>



Scientists have suggested several explanations over the years. Some believe that lower volcanic activity reduced the amount of CO2 in the atmosphere, leading to cooling. 



Others argue that forests played a role by absorbing more carbon from the air. Another idea points to chemical reactions between CO2 and certain rocks that removed carbon from the atmosphere.



These explanations made sense individually, but no single process seemed strong enough to push Earth into a long-lasting <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/antarctic-ice-sheet-past-present-and-future/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ice</a> age. That is where the new study introduced an innovative approach. 



To understand what caused the shift from a warm planet to an ice-covered one, the researchers examined past cold intervals.



The team used a long-term 3D climate model, developed at the <a href="https://www.leeds.ac.uk" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Leeds</a>, to test all these processes together. This type of "Earth Evolution Model" had only recently become possible due to advances in computing power.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-factors-aligned-for-ice-caps">Climate factors aligned for ice caps</h2>



The results of the study were clear. No single factor caused Earth to become an ice-covered planet. Instead, a combination of processes had to occur at the same time. 



It was only through the right mix of reduced volcanic activity, increased carbon absorption, and specific land conditions that the planet cooled enough for ice caps to form.



Study lead author Dr. Andrew Meredith emphasized the significance of this finding.



“We now know that the reason we live on an Earth with ice caps - rather than an <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/drastic-warming-will-transform-the-arctic-beyond-recognition/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ice-free planet</a> - is due to a coincidental combination of very low rates of global volcanism, and highly dispersed continents with big mountains, which allow for lots of global rainfall and therefore amplify reactions that remove carbon from the atmosphere,” he said.



This means that Earth's current ice-covered state is not something that happens naturally or regularly. The planet’s usual condition is much warmer, with high levels of atmospheric CO2.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-natural-preference-for-warmth">A natural preference for warmth</h2>



The study also sheds light on how Earth avoids extreme glaciation. In the distant past, the planet experienced rare periods of complete ice coverage, known as "snowball Earth" events. 



These periods were devastating, with ice stretching across nearly all land and oceans. However, such events were extremely rare.



According to Dr. Meredith, the findings suggest that Earth's natural climate system works against extreme freezing.



“We think this general tendency towards a warm climate has helped prevent devastating 'snowball Earth' global glaciations, which have only occurred very rarely and have therefore helped life to continue to prosper,” he said.



This preference for warmth allowed life to thrive without being trapped in permanent <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/melting-ice-caps-changing-earths-rotation-need-negative-leap-second/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ice</a>. While temporary cooling events occurred, the overall trend favored a high-CO2 world with no ice caps.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-earth-s-ice-caps-may-not-return">Earth’s ice caps may not return </h2>



Professor Benjamin Mills, who supervised the project, pointed out the study’s relevance to modern climate discussions. He warned against assuming that Earth will naturally return to colder conditions, as some might hope.



“There is an important message, which is that we should not expect the Earth to always return to a cold state as it was in the pre-industrial age,” he said.



“Earth’s current ice-covered state is not typical for the planet’s history, but our current global society relies on it."



“We should do everything we can to preserve it, and we should be careful with assumptions that cold climates will return if we drive excessive warming before stopping emissions. Over its long history, the Earth likes it hot, but our human society does not.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-challenge-of-a-changing-climate">Challenge of a changing climate</h2>



The study highlights a difficult truth. While humans depend on a stable, ice-covered world, Earth itself does not. 



The conditions that allowed ice caps to form resulted from a rare set of circumstances that will not automatically repeat themselves. If human activity pushes global temperatures higher, we cannot rely on natural processes to bring them back down.



The research serves as a reminder that Earth's climate system is more fragile than it appears. A return to a warmer world may be the planet’s default state, but for human civilization, it would be a disaster. The findings emphasize the need to protect the current climate rather than assume it will correct itself.



As the planet faces rising temperatures, this study provides a crucial perspective. Earth has spent most of its existence without ice caps, and without action, it may return to that state far sooner than expected.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/sciadv.adm9798" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Science Advances</a>.



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Earth’s ice caps may only exist because of unusual climate shifts

For billions of years, Earth has been a planet without...

For centuries, cocoa farming has been a lifeline for millions of smallholder farmers across the tropics. It is more than just an agricultural crop; it fuels a global chocolate industry valued at over USD 100 billion annually. 



From the lush plantations of Ghana and Brazil to the rainforests of Indonesia, cocoa remains central to both economic stability and cultural identity. However, as global demand rises, the industry faces an unprecedented challenge.



The need to produce more cocoa has driven the expansion of plantations and intensified farming methods. While this has boosted short-term yields, it has also placed immense pressure on biodiversity and long-term sustainability. 



Now, with climate change threatening production, researchers are urgently seeking solutions that balance <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/cocoa-production-in-africa-is-under-extreme-climate-pressure/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">productivity</a> with ecological stability.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-change-and-cocoa">Climate change and cocoa</h2>



A new study led by the <a href="https://www.ox.ac.uk" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Oxford</a>, in collaboration with institutions from China, Brazil, and Germany, highlights the looming risks that climate change poses to cocoa farming. 



Rising temperatures and shifting weather patterns could significantly impact yields, making it harder for farmers to maintain production. The research focused on three key cocoa-producing countries - Brazil, Ghana, and Indonesia - which together account for 33% of the world’s cocoa supply.



The findings revealed a concerning trend. In locations where temperatures had risen by up to 7 degrees Celsius, cocoa yields dropped between 20-31%. These losses demonstrate how vulnerable cocoa-producing regions are to climate change. 



If global temperatures continue to rise, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-discovery-will-help-climate-proof-chocolate/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cocoa</a> farmers may face increasing challenges in maintaining both quality and quantity of production.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hidden-threat-to-cocoa-production">Hidden threat to cocoa production</h2>



While climate change presents a major threat, another key factor is limiting cocoa yields - pollination. Despite its importance, pollination has often been overlooked in discussions about improving cocoa productivity.



The study found that boosting pollination rates above current levels could <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/healthier-chocolate-created-by-using-the-entire-cocoa-fruit/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">increase yields</a> by 20%, revealing that many cocoa plantations are not reaching their full potential.



"Cocoa is pollinated by tiny insects such as midges and thrips, and it comes as quite a surprise that most of the time there simply isn’t enough pollination happening to produce the cocoa crop that is possible," noted Dr. Acheampong Atta-Boateng, a co-author of the study.



This lack of pollination is limiting productivity, yet the good news is that there are practical solutions available. Unlike large-scale plantation expansion, enhancing pollination does not require clearing forests or using excessive fertilizers. 



Instead, small changes in farm management can create the conditions needed for better pollination and healthier yields.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-strategies-for-cocoa-farming">Strategies for cocoa farming</h2>



The researchers identified several farming techniques that could both enhance pollination and help plantations adapt to climate change. 



Maintaining leaf litter and other understory biomass can support pollinator populations by providing them with shelter and breeding grounds. Preserving soil organic matter improves plantation health and reduces temperature fluctuations, which can make farms more resilient to climate extremes.



Another crucial approach is providing moderate shade. <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/cacao-trees-5000-year-odyssey-global-domestication/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cocoa trees</a> naturally thrive under a canopy of larger trees, which helps regulate temperature and moisture levels. When farms integrate shade trees into their design, they not only create better conditions for cocoa but also encourage the presence of pollinators.



Additionally, reducing agricultural chemical use plays a major role in supporting pollinators. Many pesticides and herbicides harm the small insects responsible for cocoa pollination. 



By limiting chemical applications and using natural pest control methods, farmers can create a healthier ecosystem where both cocoa plants and their pollinators flourish.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-call-for-sustainable-cocoa-farming">Call for sustainable cocoa farming</h2>



"This research shows that sustainable agricultural methods can significantly improve cocoa yields without farm expansion or intensification," noted Dr. Tonya Lander, the study's first author.



"By adopting biodiversity-centred, climate-resilient farming techniques, the cocoa sector can both increase production and safeguard farmers' livelihoods."



The research provides a roadmap for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/deadly-virus-threatens-global-chocolate-supply/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cocoa</a> farmers, industry leaders, and policymakers to rethink current farming practices. Instead of focusing solely on increasing land use, the industry must embrace biodiversity-friendly techniques that support both pollination and climate resilience.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-future-of-cocoa-farming">The future of cocoa farming</h2>



"The rising demand for cocoa and the short-term economic benefits to farmers has led to plantation expansion and ecological homogenization at the expense of biodiversity and vital ecosystem services, like pollination," noted Dr. Tom Wanger of <a href="https://en.westlake.edu.cn" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Westlake University</a>, China.



"This study highlights the long-term risks of this approach, and how pollination can be a solution that works alongside climate-resilient agricultural systems to achieve long-term, ecologically and financially sustainable solutions."



The message from researchers is clear. Sustainable cocoa farming is not just about preserving forests - it is about ensuring long-term productivity and economic stability for millions of farmers.



By implementing smarter farm management practices, cocoa growers can protect their crops from climate change while improving yields through better pollination.



The future of cocoa farming depends on science-driven solutions that prioritize both agricultural success and environmental responsibility. If the industry embraces these changes, it can continue to thrive without sacrificing the landscapes and ecosystems that make cocoa cultivation possible.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s43247-025-02072-z" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Communications Earth &amp; Environment</a>.



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Sustainable farming could save the future of chocolate

For centuries, cocoa farming has been a lifeline for millions...

In late January 2025, <a href="https://science.nasa.gov/mission/mars-2020-perseverance/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NASA’s Perseverance rover</a> achieved another milestone in its quest to unlock secrets buried beneath the rocky terrain of Jezero Crater on <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/does-life-exist-below-the-icy-surface-of-mars/">Mars</a>. It successfully secured its 26th rock sample. 



This small core, just 1.1 inches (2.8 centimeters) long, could help scientists piece together stories about the geological history of Mars.



According to <a href="https://science.jpl.nasa.gov/people/stackmorgan/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Dr. Katie Stack Morgan</a>, deputy project scientist at <a href="https://www.jpl.nasa.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NASA’s Jet Propulsion Laboratory</a>, these samples may offer an incredible look at ancient rock layers. Her team is eager to see how these discoveries fit into the rover’s broader mission goals.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-surprising-martian-milestone">A surprising Martian milestone</h2>



This latest sample, called "Silver Mountain," comes from a rocky area containing <a href="https://www.mindat.org/min-47878.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">low-calcium pyroxene</a>, which is a mineral that forms rocks in volcanic lava, asteroids and meteorites. 



Researchers first identified the areas of pyroxine using orbital scans from instruments aboard <a href="https://science.nasa.gov/mission/mars-reconnaissance-orbiter/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NASA’s Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter</a>.



“My 26th sample, known as Silver Mountain, has textures unlike anything we've seen before,” posted NASA’s Perseverance rover official <a href="https://x.com/NASAPersevere/status/1884673654740705646" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">X account</a>. 



This short statement may well lead to new discoveries and reshaped expectations about Mars’s volcanic and impact history.



Silver Mountain’s name hints at a sense of wonder that the mission team carries with each core extraction that is made. Although the label sounds poetic, it reflects the rover’s practical routine of cataloging significant samples.



Drilling into Martian rock demands careful calibration of torque and pressure. Each collected core must remain uncontaminated, so the rover’s Sample Caching System employs sterile tubes and meticulous handling procedures.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-peering-into-an-ancient-past">Peering into an ancient past</h2>



Some experts say that pieces of the <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0019103512000140" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Noachian crust</a> of Mars, formed roughly four billion years ago, might be hidden within these samples. 



The Noachian era is characterized by heavy impacts and possible persistent water on the Martian surface.



Volcanic processes, asteroid strikes, and a shifting climate have shaped Mars over eons. Grabbing a piece of that early geology could yield insights into how rocky planets develop across the solar system.



Researchers use <a href="https://www.thermofisher.com/blog/ask-a-scientist/what-is-xrf-x-ray-fluorescence-and-how-does-it-work/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">X-ray fluorescence</a> to measure elements like iron, magnesium, and silicon in each newly exposed rock face that is collected. Clues from these readings paint a story of ancient processes that sculpted the crust.



Gathering raw data is one thing, but interpreting that data is another ball game. Teams must piece together chemical signatures, cross-reference them with orbital maps, and then hypothesize how each rock layer formed.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-an-unexpected-serpentine-twist">An unexpected serpentine twist</h2>



Team members recently noticed serpentine minerals lurking near the new sampling site. Serpentine can form when water interacts with certain rocks, so these finds may hint at past conditions where <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/wave-ripples-discovered-mars-surface-indicate-liquid-water-present-4-billion-years-ago/">liquid water</a> was present.



Scientists are intrigued by what these minerals might reveal about the chemistry of ancient subsurface water. If serpentine minerals are confirmed, they could offer fresh clues about chemical reactions and possible niches for microbial life on the Red Planet.



Identifying serpentine also sparks curiosity about possible mineral deposits below the crater floor. These hidden layers might hold signs of prolonged water-rock interactions, which could be pivotal for understanding any early microbial ecosystems.



Mars missions have hinted at serpentine before, but Perseverance’s high-resolution instruments provide more detail than was obtained by previous orbiters. 



Every new reading deepens the puzzle, and prompts further investigation of Jezero Crater’s layered rock record.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-cautious-look-ahead">A cautious look ahead</h2>



NASA plans to bring these Mars rock samples to Earth, but the timetable for <a href="https://science.nasa.gov/mission/mars-sample-return/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Mars Sample Return</a> remains uncertain. Projected costs exceeding $11 billion have pushed a possible return date to beyond 2040.



As the agency explores alternative concepts, some scientists fear that changing objectives could slow progress. Nonetheless, many remain committed to analyzing these one-of-a-kind samples on Earth.



Bringing rocks back from Mars is not a casual FedEx job. Each tube requires a secure journey across interplanetary space, free from unwanted Earth microbes that could muddy scientific results.



Engineers envision sending specialized spacecraft and orbiters to fetch the cached samples. Once home, labs worldwide will vie for a chance to analyze them with cutting-edge instruments never before used on samples from out of this world.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-flight-of-ingenuity">A flight of ingenuity</h2>



The rover touched down in 2021 with <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/nasa-investigates-an-aviation-accident-on-another-planet/">Ingenuity</a>, a small helicopter designed for a brief technology demonstration. Ingenuity beat expectations by completing 72 flights before rotor issues concluded its mission.



Even though the helicopter is no longer flying, its early accomplishments showed that powered flight on another planet is possible. 



That proof-of-concept paves the way for future aerial vehicles that could reach rugged regions that rovers cannot.



Some wonder whether similar aircraft could assist future sample retrievals. There’s talk of advanced rotorcraft that might scoop up cores in treacherous zones that are too risky for a wheeled rover.



Operating a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mars-ingenuity-the-first-helicopter-on-the-red-planet-ends-mission-after-3-years/">helicopter on Mars</a> is no stroll in the park either, given the thin atmosphere. Ingenuity’s success still amazes engineers, and reminds everyone that big feats often start with small steps.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-reaching-for-tomorrow">Reaching for tomorrow</h2>



As NASA refines its approach, other nations are stepping forward. <a href="https://academic.oup.com/nsr/article/11/11/nwae313/7829283?login=false" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">China</a> has stated its goal of retrieving Martian samples by 2031, promising a competitive dash for the earliest return.



Scientists worldwide watch this evolving situation with excitement and caution. They await further clarity on how each mission will gather, safeguard, and analyze these precious rocks.



Details for this article are available through a NASA <a href="https://science.nasa.gov/blog/persevering-through-science/">press release</a>.



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NASA collects 26th rock sample on Mars, plans to bring them all to Earth for study

In late January 2025, NASA’s Perseverance rover achieved another milestone...

Age preferences in romantic relationships often spark debate. Many people assume that women want older partners, but an expansive new study challenges that belief by suggesting women can be just as drawn to younger men, at least after initial encounters.



Earlier <a href="https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC5679473/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">work</a> has highlighted the tendency for men to be the older partner in most marriages worldwide, yet there may be more nuance behind these statistics. 



Prof. Paul Eastwick from the University of California, Davis, co-authored a project that explored whether <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/who-is-happier-being-single-men-or-women/">women</a>, much like men, might also prize a youthful partner in certain contexts.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-revisiting-old-beliefs">Revisiting old beliefs</h2>



Social scientists have long <a href="https://psycnet.apa.org/doiLanding?doi=10.1037%2Fa0033777" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">theorized</a> that men prioritize physical vitality while women focus on status and security. This viewpoint led many to conclude that older partners naturally satisfy women’s needs.



However, critics argue that self-reported preferences might not capture what happens in spontaneous social settings. Real-life interactions can expose impulses that individuals do not articulate during surveys.



New questions arise about whether traditional assumptions skip over how women really feel once they meet prospective <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dating-apps-make-it-difficult-to-find-true-love/">dates in person</a>. 



Some observers wonder whether the pressures of family and friends influence what women say, rather than how they act.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-looking-at-the-data">Looking at the data</h2>



The psychologists behind this research recruited over 6,000 volunteers who hoped to find a long-term partner at a matchmaking event. 



After each brief, face-to-face meeting, participants filled out a questionnaire about their level of interest.



Responses showed a faint but consistent preference for younger potential matches, and that trend was equally strong in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/men-are-getting-taller-at-a-much-faster-rate-than-women-whats-causing-this/">men and women</a>. 



Although not overwhelmingly conclusive, it still came as a surprise for those expecting that women would favor older men.



Investigators emphasized that the overall effect is subtle. They noted that it does not necessarily translate into permanent relationships, but it sheds light on the nature of initial attraction.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-possible-explanations">Possible explanations</h2>



One explanation might revolve around immediate impressions of neuroticism, self-confidence, and openness, which can sometimes be more noticeable in a younger person. 



Another possibility is that both genders simply respond to cues they find refreshing in someone slightly below their own age bracket.



Scientists speculate that these date evaluations might not reflect long-term stability. Indeed, one team member called the findings “shocking to many people” because they run counter to established beliefs.



Some argue that early attraction could be tied to novelty. Women may appreciate characteristics tied to youthfulness but still think more carefully about compatibility as time goes on.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-we-still-see-older-men">Why we still see older men</h2>



Even if women find younger men intriguing at first, external forces can take priority later. Factors like financial security, cultural norms, or personal baggage may shift final partner choices toward older men.



In marriages globally, male partners are an average of four years older than their female partners. Some argue that this gap emerges partly from social scripts that prompt men to “pursue” relationships, giving them more sway over the outcome.



This enduring pattern might also reflect generational differences in expectations. Older men may be seen as more established, which historically has matched the idea that women want stability.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-regional-variations">Regional variations</h2>



In the United States, <a href="https://www.census.gov/newsroom/press-releases/2021/marriages-and-divorces.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">official figures</a> indicate that half of married couples include a husband who is at least two years older than his wife. Meanwhile, in <a href="https://www.ons.gov.uk/peoplepopulationandcommunity/birthsdeathsandmarriages/marriagecohabitationandcivilpartnerships/bulletins/marriagesinenglandandwalesprovisional/2019" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">England and Wales</a>, one third of marriages feature a gap of five or more years.&nbsp;



Such statistics underscore how cultural and economic factors can influence relationship choices. An individual might briefly favor someone younger but will ultimately settle with a partner who aligns with societal expectations.



Local norms may also influence how people perceive age differences. Even in places that value liberal relationships, there can be unspoken pressures about who “should” be older.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-changing-with-age">Changing with age</h2>



Another investigation discovered that as people move into their golden years, women increasingly lean toward younger men. 



This shift could be linked to changing health conditions, a sense of personal freedom, or a desire for companionship that feels more dynamic.



The idea of “reversed” age differences is not brand-new, but it remains less common. As more women remain in the dating pool for longer, it may become more noticeable that they, too, can prefer younger partners.



Adjustments in self-image may also shape these choices. When priorities move away from traditional child-rearing concerns, age gaps might be redefined.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-new-perspectives">New perspectives</h2>



This fresh look at age preferences stresses that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/which-factors-drive-interpersonal-attraction/">attraction</a> is not always dictated by traditional stereotypes. Individuals can be influenced by peer relationships, evolving career paths, and even social media trends that alter what people perceive as “desirable” at any given moment.



Despite persistent norms, some couples have begun to challenge assumptions in ways that seemed unthinkable in past generations. 



Eventually, the older-woman-younger-man phenomenon could be as normalized as the reverse.



It also hints at how personal relationships rarely conform neatly to labels. What we identify as the nature of our type of partner may not be the same as what sparks our interest in person.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-concluding-thoughts">Concluding thoughts</h2>



Physical attraction can spark interest, but genuine compatibility forms through shared values, respect, and emotional support. Researchers note that these first-date preferences should be taken in context with broader life goals.



Still, this work expands the conversation by showing that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/human-evolution-why-men-are-advancing-faster-than-women/">women</a> might not be so different from men in valuing a youthful spark. 



It might push us to question how cultural scripts shape what we think we want versus how we respond in the moment.



Not every early spark will translate into a stable bond. Yet understanding these impulses can help people approach dating with a more open mind.



The study is published in <a href="https://www.pnas.org/doi/full/10.1073/pnas.2416984122" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a>.



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Both men and women have an eye for more youthful partners

Age preferences in romantic relationships often spark debate. Many people...

College can feel like a huge leap. New schedules, new friends, and new responsibilities arrive fast. Many students struggle with stress and anxiety. In a recent project, Patricia Pendry from Washington State University took a closer look at how spending time with therapy dogs might help.



Her team tracked how students’ <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rewards-of-dog-ownership-outweigh-the-challenges/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">mental well-being</a> changed over a semester when they hung out with dogs on a regular basis.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-shift-to-college-life">The shift to college life</h2>



Leaving home is a big deal for many teenagers. It often includes leaving behind <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/friends-family-members-and-guardians-dogs-are-more-than-just-pets/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">pets</a> that used to bring comfort during hard times.



"Over the past decade, mental health disorders among university students have become increasingly prevalent," wrote the researchers. 



"The first semester is a particularly high-risk period, often marked by declines in psychological functioning and positive affect. Separation from a childhood pet may further heighten this risk."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-managing-stress-and-anxiety">Managing stress and anxiety</h2>



According to the American College Health Association, many incoming college students report persistent anxious feelings that can interfere with academic success.



Balancing deadlines, exams, and social pressures can be overwhelming for students, but the presence of a dog may provide a calming effect.



In a recent study published in the journal Psychological Reports, researchers found that short interactions with a friendly dog helped healthcare professionals manage stress levels on the job.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-therapy-dogs-and-student-well-being">Therapy dogs and student well-being</h2>



Regular time with therapy dogs was linked to fewer signs of depression and stress compared to students who did not have this opportunity. 



The company of a dog was also tied to an increase in self-compassion, a mindset that encourages being kind to oneself during tough moments.



“This mirrors real-life pet ownership more closely,” said Pendry. She noted that the environment likely contributed to student well-being at the end of those relaxed <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dogs-can-feel-our-emotions-through-our-heart-rate/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dog</a> visits.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-shaping-a-low-pressure-option">Shaping a low-pressure option</h2>



The unstructured sessions gave students autonomy to sit, chat with the handlers, or simply pet the dogs. The approach offered a no-rush space for individuals to decompress.



It’s easy to imagine how repeated visits might encourage a comforting pattern. The program’s relaxed setting likely invited students to calm their minds without formal classes or therapy worksheets.



Sometimes, the simplest interactions can ease the weight of academic challenges. Petting a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dogs-learn-better-with-praise-and-petting/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dog</a> can spark positive feelings that offset nervous thoughts.



A short break from computers and textbooks may lift a student’s mood. This downtime, shared with an animal, appears to give students a quiet way to step back and recharge.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-therapy-dog-programs-matter">Why therapy dog programs matter </h2>



Universities are always brainstorming new ways to address mental health. This method, which allows people to drop in without set schedules, might be easier to implement than highly structured programs.



Evidence suggests that multiple sessions help the most, so universities could consider offering repeated opportunities. 



A study published in the journal <a href="https://www.mdpi.com/2813-9372/2/1/8" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Pets</a> highlighted these patterns and showed how animal-assisted programs influence well-being over time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-supporting-students-mental-health">Supporting students' mental health</h2>



Programs featuring therapy dogs need thoughtful planning. Organizers must protect animal welfare, ensure the dogs are healthy, and maintain clear safety rules for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-human-speech-changes-when-we-talk-to-dogs/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">student interactions</a>.



Schools also benefit from partnerships with local groups that have certified dog-handler teams. Volunteers can work with campus staff to design a smooth system that accommodates students’ varied schedules.



University counseling centers remain a critical resource. Therapy dog programs are not meant to replace professional help. They can, however, serve as a nice extra boost for everyday stress.



“This is a relatively easy, low-cost way to support student well-being,” said Pendry. In general, it’s a friendly, low-cost mental health strategy.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-reflecting-on-the-bigger-picture">Reflecting on the bigger picture</h2>



Therapy dog sessions on campuses reflect a growing recognition that mental health <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dogs-provide-insight-into-human-cognition-and-aging/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">support</a> can come in many forms. Students stepping into adulthood need multiple tools to handle new responsibilities.



A dog’s gentle presence may give them the confidence to keep going. An extra moment of relief can motivate them to keep up with assignments, labs, and long study hours.



More studies could explore which type of dog therapy sessions work best. Some people may prefer shorter interactions, while others want longer chats and bonding time.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.mdpi.com/2813-9372/2/1/8" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Pets</a>.



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Therapy dogs on campus help students manage stress and anxiety

College can feel like a huge leap. New schedules, new...

People in many countries struggle with being overweight, and the global obesity issue has worsened in recent years. There is a constant search for easy additions to daily meals that might help with weight management and heart health.



Chia seeds have captured public interest for their fiber content, fats, and versatility. They have popped up in everything from breakfast puddings to nutrition bars. 



However, according to Dr. Abbas Karimi at the <a href="https://en.tbzmed.ac.ir/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Tabriz University of Medical Sciences</a>, the reality is more nuanced than dramatic weight changes from a single supplement.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-understanding-the-chia-phenomenon">Understanding the chia phenomenon</h2>



Chia seeds are promoted for their high concentration of alpha-linolenic acid and plant-based protein. Some people say they support fullness and maintain stable energy throughout the day.



Scientists have taken a closer look at the effects of including these seeds in a balanced diet, hoping to see improvements in cardiovascular markers such as blood pressure or lipid profiles. 



While some findings suggest a modest reduction in waist circumference, measurable changes in overall <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/obesity-now-affects-more-than-a-billion-people/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">weight</a> remain unpredictable.



Chia seeds are also known for their high content of soluble and insoluble fiber which can absorb liquid and form a gel-like consistency. This fiber may <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/87559129.2013.818014" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">slow carbohydrate breakdown</a> and contribute to a more balanced blood sugar after consumption. 



Small studies have hinted at better glucose control, though large-scale trials often show less dramatic shifts.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-blood-pressure-question">The blood pressure question</h2>



Research indicates that chia might help reduce systolic blood pressure by a few points. One idea is that the magnesium and potassium content supports healthy vascular function, which could relax blood vessels. 



However, not everyone sees these results, and individual factors may matter more than a simple addition of chia seeds.



There is also speculation about whether chia’s fiber can influence hormones that control blood pressure. If fiber leads to beneficial changes in gut health, the result might be indirect support for heart function. Still, any improvement might be modest and should be paired with the adoption of other healthy habits.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-inflammation-and-heart-markers">Inflammation and heart markers</h2>



According to experts, omega-3 fatty acids help reduce low-level inflammation. It has been speculated that chia’s alpha-linolenic acid might help bring down C-reactive protein, an indicator of chronic inflammation. 



Other inflammatory markers, like interleukin-6 and tumor necrosis factor-alpha, have shown less consistent change.



In addition, chia seeds contain polyphenols that can act as antioxidants. These compounds might fight oxidative stress, though the effect can vary and may be more dependent on a person’s baseline diet, their genetics, and lifestyle.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-weight-and-glucose">Weight and glucose</h2>



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/chia-seeds-have-great-potential-to-improve-human-health/">Chia seeds</a> promote a feeling of fullness because the soaked seeds swell, which may help to limit snacking between meals. However, not all trials reveal striking weight loss or major body mass index changes after chia supplementation.



An analysis of multiple randomized controlled trials on overweight groups suggests that chia might help with waist size, but blood sugar measures, like fasting glucose levels, often stay in the same range. 



A single food rarely solves metabolic problems, so experts recommend viewing chia as just one piece of a broader plan.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-incorporating-chia-seeds-in-meals">Incorporating chia seeds in meals</h2>



Some enjoy stirring chia into oatmeal, combining it with yogurt, or blending it into <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/experts-say-this-is-the-best-fruit-to-eat-for-a-healthier-liver/">fruit smoothies</a>. Two tablespoons of chia can provide a dose of fiber, healthy fats, and protein without drastically altering the taste of a dish.



Others grind chia seeds to sprinkle on salads or to replace part of the flour in certain baked goods. Whole seeds can work well in breakfast bowls, though ground seeds may release nutrients more effectively.



Moderation helps avoid bloating, especially for those who are not used to a high-fiber diet. Chia seeds absorb water, so sufficient fluid intake is important to prevent any digestive discomfort.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-latest-research-on-chia">The latest research on chia</h2>



The systematic <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/39285289/">review</a> by Dr. Karimi and colleagues found that chia is not a magic solution for reducing LDL cholesterol or glucose levels. 



However, the potential to trim waist circumference and bring down certain inflammatory markers is worth noting for those with metabolic concerns.



Researchers emphasize that consistency matters. Adding seeds for a few days and expecting major changes can set people up for disappointment. 



On the other hand, including chia in a sustainable routine might show small but meaningful differences over several weeks or months.



The study is published in <a href="https://nutritionandmetabolism.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s12986-024-00847-3" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nutrition &amp; Metabolism</a>.



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These tiny seeds pack a powerful nutrient punch

People in many countries struggle with being overweight, and the...

Many find comfort in the familiar scents of pine, lavender, or citrus. However, introducing these fragrances indoors through scented candles, wax melts, air fresheners, or floor cleaners can have unexpected effects.



Scientists at Purdue University have discovered that these everyday products release nanoscale particles into the air. These particles are so small that they can reach deep into the lungs and potentially spread to other organs. 



Unlike the natural scents of a forest, these artificial fragrances interact with ozone inside buildings, creating invisible pollutants.



For years, indoor air pollution has received little attention. While people focus on smog, vehicle emissions, and industrial pollutants, they often assume their homes provide a safe escape. 



Yet, researchers now suggest that indoor environments may contain harmful airborne particles at levels comparable to outdoor pollution.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-scented-products-transform-indoor-air">Scented products transform indoor air</h2>



Many people assume that air fresheners and scented cleaning products improve indoor air quality. 



These products give the illusion of freshness, masking <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/air-pollution-weakens-brain-function-and-focus-in-daily-tasks/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">odors</a> and filling the home with pleasant smells. However, their chemical makeup often leads to unexpected reactions once they enter the air.



Nanoparticles form when fragrance compounds interact with ozone. Ozone naturally enters buildings through ventilation systems, windows, and doors. Once inside, it reacts with volatile organic compounds (VOCs) from scented products, triggering chemical changes that result in new pollutants.



Nusrat Jung, an assistant professor in <a href="https://www.purdue.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Purdue</a>’s Lyles School of Civil and Construction Engineering, researches indoor air quality and the impact of household products. 



“A forest is a pristine environment, but if you’re using cleaning and aromatherapy products full of chemically manufactured scents to recreate a forest in your home, you’re actually creating a tremendous amount of indoor air pollution that you shouldn’t be breathing in,” said Jung.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-health-risks-of-nanoparticles">Health risks of nanoparticles</h2>



Unlike visible dust or smoke, nanoparticles are far too small to be seen with the naked eye. These tiny particles, measuring just a few nanometers in size, can easily bypass the body’s natural defenses. They penetrate deep into the respiratory system and may even spread to other organs.



Jung and fellow civil engineering professor Brandon Boor have conducted meticulous research on indoor air pollution. Their studies compare the formation of nanoparticles inside homes to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bioengineered-super-plant-acts-as-natural-indoor-air-purifier/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">atmospheric processes</a> that occur outdoors.



The team found that household products release nanoscale particles that are just as concerning as some outdoor pollutants.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-indoor-air-pollution">Indoor air pollution</h2>



“To understand how airborne particles form indoors, you need to measure the smallest nanoparticles - down to a single nanometer," said Professor Boor.



"At this scale, we can observe the earliest stages of new particle formation, where fragrances react with ozone to form tiny molecular clusters. These clusters then rapidly evolve, growing and transforming in the air around us.”



To track how these particles develop, Jung and Boor use a specialized research facility called the Purdue Zero Energy Design Guidance for Engineers (zEDGE) lab. This “tiny house lab” is a fully functioning residential space designed to monitor indoor air quality. 



Built in 2020, the lab is equipped with advanced sensors to measure how common household activities affect <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/global-air-quality-trends-revealed-in-new-images/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">air composition</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-indoor-scents-and-air-pollution">Indoor scents and air pollution </h2>



Jung and Boor’s research suggests that many everyday household products are not as safe as previously assumed. 



While their potential health effects require further study, the scientists have repeatedly found that fragranced products react with indoor air to form nanoparticles at high concentrations.



“Our research shows that fragranced products are not just passive sources of pleasant scents - they actively alter indoor air chemistry, leading to the formation of nanoparticles at concentrations that could have significant health implications,” Jung said.



These findings indicate that household air quality should be an essential consideration in building design and HVAC system operation. Many current ventilation systems do not adequately account for the nanoparticle pollution created by scented chemical products.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-surprising-impact-of-wax-melts">Surprising impact of wax melts</h2>



In one of their recent studies, Jung and Boor examined the pollution caused by scented wax melts. These products, often advertised as nontoxic because they do not burn like candles, were found to pollute indoor air just as much as traditional candles.



Wax melts contain high concentrations of fragrance oils, which release terpenes when warmed. Terpenes are the chemical compounds responsible for many natural scents, such as those found in citrus fruits and pine trees. However, when terpenes react with ozone indoors, they trigger the rapid formation of nanoparticles.



Despite lacking combustion, wax melts produce nanoparticle pollution comparable to burning candles. This discovery suggests that non-combustion sources of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/air-fryers-crowned-the-least-polluting-kitchen-appliance/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">indoor pollution</a> deserve more attention. 



Other fragranced chemical products, such as essential oil diffusers, disinfectants, and air fresheners, were also found to generate significant amounts of nanoscale particles.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cooking-and-indoor-pollution">Cooking and indoor pollution</h2>



While scented products are a major source of nanoparticle pollution, they are not the only contributors. Boor’s research also found that cooking, especially on gas stoves, releases large quantities of nanoparticles into the air.



Just one kilogram of cooking fuel releases 10 quadrillion particles smaller than three nanometers. This emission rate matches or even exceeds the pollution from internal combustion engine vehicles. 



A person cooking on a gas stove indoors could inhale 10 to 100 times more of these sub-3 nanometer particles than they would from standing on a busy city street.



Still, the levels of nanoparticles produced by scented chemical products rival or surpass those emitted from gas stoves and cars. Within just 20 minutes of exposure to scented products, between 100 billion and 10 trillion nanoparticles could be deposited in the respiratory system.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-indoor-air-gets-polluted">How indoor air gets polluted </h2>



To deepen their understanding of indoor air pollution, Jung and Boor are collaborating with industry partners. 



Their tiny house lab provides a more realistic testing environment than traditional chamber-based air quality studies. As a result, companies use the lab to test new air quality measurement instruments before bringing them to market.



“When companies see top-tier research coming out of Purdue, they want to be part of it,” Jung said. “And if they have an innovative product, they want experts to push it to its limits.”



One of the latest instruments tested in the lab is a particle size magnifier-scanning mobility particle sizer (PSMPS) developed by <a href="https://www.durag.com/en/grimm-aerosol-technik-4528.htm" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">GRIMM AEROSOL TECHNIK</a>, a DURAG GROUP company. This cutting-edge tool allows researchers to detect nanoparticles as small as a single nanometer as soon as they form.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-comparing-indoor-and-outdoor-air">Comparing indoor and outdoor air</h2>



Thanks to high-resolution data from the tiny house lab, Jung and Boor have been able to compare indoor and outdoor air pollution with unprecedented accuracy. 



Since indoor air pollution remains largely unregulated and understudied, these findings are critical for understanding how indoor environments impact health.



The researchers have also expanded their studies to include the effects of personal care routines on indoor air quality. Jung and her students discovered that common hair care products release significant amounts of cyclic volatile methyl siloxanes, a type of chemical that lingers in the air long after use. 



In a single hair care session at home, a person can inhale between 1 and 17 milligrams of these chemicals.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-of-indoor-air-quality-research">Future of indoor air quality research</h2>



Toxicologists will need to investigate how inhaling complex mixtures of volatile chemicals and nanoparticles affects human health. The researchers hope their findings will lead to improved monitoring, regulation, and control of scent-related indoor air pollution.



“Indoor air quality is often overlooked in the design and management of the buildings we live and work in, yet it has a direct impact on our health every day,” Boor said. 



“With data from the tiny house lab, we aim to bridge that gap - transforming fundamental research into real-world solutions for healthier indoor environments for everyone.”



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acs.estlett.4c00986" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Environmental Science &amp; Technology Letters</a>.



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Scented products release indoor air pollutants

Many find comfort in the familiar scents of pine, lavender,...

Deep in the rugged Apennine Mountains of central Italy, a rare and elusive creature roams the dense forests and rocky slopes. The Apennine brown bear, also known as the Marsican brown bear (Ursus arctos marsicanus), is one of the most endangered bear populations in the world. 



Isolated for centuries, this subspecies has developed unique characteristics that set it apart from other brown bears. But with only around 50 individuals left in the wild, its future hangs in the balance.



Efforts to protect this <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/invasive-brown-bears-are-digging-up-japans-artificial-forests/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">remarkable species</a> have long been in motion, but new research has uncovered a troubling genetic flaw that could further threaten its survival. 



A study by the Italian <a href="https://endemixit.com" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Endemixit project</a> has revealed a mutation that affects the bears’ ability to produce energy, raising urgent concerns among conservationists.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-apennine-brown-bear-faces-extinction">Apennine brown bear faces extinction</h2>



The Apennine brown bear has adapted to life in the mountains, developing smaller body size, a more herbivorous diet, and less aggressive behavior compared to other brown bear populations. 



Despite these adaptations, it remains highly vulnerable due to habitat destruction, illegal hunting, and the increasing presence of human settlements.



Unlike other bear <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/grizzly-bears-help-huckleberries-thrive-in-a-changing-climate/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">species</a> that thrive across large territories, the Apennine brown bear is confined to a small, fragmented area. This isolation has led to genetic bottlenecking, making it more susceptible to inherited disorders. 



Now, scientists have discovered a mutation that may be weakening the species from within, making its survival even more precarious.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mutation-impairs-energy-production">Mutation impairs energy production </h2>



The latest findings, set to be presented at the 69th Biophysical Society Annual Meeting in Los Angeles, shed light on a crucial genetic issue.



Researchers identified a mutation in the ND5 subunit of Respiratory Complex I, which plays a vital role in mitochondrial function. Mitochondria, often called the "powerhouses" of cells, generate the energy needed for survival.



When this system fails, the consequences can be severe. The mutation impairs energy production and leads to an increase in harmful byproducts like reactive oxygen species. 



These molecules damage cells and accelerate aging, potentially reducing the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/keeping-the-peace-how-drones-can-help-humans-and-bears-coexist/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">bears</a>’ lifespan and weakening their ability to cope with environmental stress.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mutation-weakens-the-brown-bear">Mutation weakens the brown bear</h2>



"This mutation appears to significantly impact these bears," explained Nunzio Perta, a graduate student in the lab of Daniele Di Marino at Marche Polytechnic <a href="https://www.univpm.it/Entra/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University in Ancona</a>, Italy. 



"It's like they're constantly running on low batteries. This could make it harder for them to survive, especially in a challenging environment."



The Apennine brown bear must endure harsh winters, long periods of food scarcity, and threats from human activity. Reduced energy levels could make it harder for them to store enough fat for hibernation, defend their territory, or find sufficient food sources. 



This weakness may also affect reproduction, further worsening their already low numbers.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-potential-solution-in-their-diet">Potential solution in their diet</h2>



While the genetic mutation presents a serious threat, researchers believe there may be ways to help the bears cope. One promising approach involves diet modification. 



Since the mutation increases the production of reactive oxygen species, scientists are exploring whether certain foods could help counteract the damage.



One possible solution involves increasing the availability of antioxidant-rich plants in their habitat. Perta suggests that planting more native berry species could be beneficial. These plants could provide the bears with natural sources of antioxidants, helping to neutralize harmful molecules and improve their overall health.



"By understanding the molecular basis of these genetic problems, we hope to create a plan to protect these <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/polar-bears-are-suffering-from-an-energy-deficit-due-to-lack-of-food-access/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">bears</a> in their natural environment,” said Perta. “The bears are a crucial part of the very unique ecosystem that we have here in Italy.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ecological-role-of-the-brown-bear">Ecological role of the brown bear</h2>



Beyond their own survival, these bears play a critical role in maintaining the health of their ecosystem. 



As large mammals, they help regulate prey populations, spread seeds, and influence vegetation growth. Their presence shapes the balance of the mountain forests, affecting countless other species.



If the Apennine brown bear were to disappear, the ecological consequences could be profound. The loss of a top predator often triggers cascading effects, leading to overpopulation of certain animals and changes in plant dynamics. 



Protecting these bears means preserving an entire web of life that depends on their existence.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-conservation-efforts-must-adapt">Conservation efforts must adapt</h2>



Conservationists have worked tirelessly to protect the remaining population through habitat restoration, anti-poaching measures, and public awareness campaigns. But this new genetic discovery highlights the need for a more targeted approach.



Understanding the impact of the mitochondrial mutation could help refine conservation strategies. Efforts to enhance the bears’ diet, reduce human disturbances, and maintain genetic diversity may all be necessary to give the species a fighting chance. 



With such a small population, every individual bear matters, and every action taken now could shape the future of the species.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-race-against-time">A race against time</h2>



The fate of the Apennine brown bear remains uncertain, but there is still hope. Scientific research, community involvement, and policy changes can make a difference in ensuring these bears continue to roam the Italian mountains. 



The discovery of this genetic mutation may be alarming, but it also provides an opportunity to act before it is too late.



Protecting this unique bear is not just about saving a single <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/water-bear-tardigrade-fossils-reveal-how-they-survived-several-mass-extinction-events/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">species</a>. It is about preserving a rich and fragile ecosystem that has existed for centuries. With urgent action, the Apennine brown bear can continue to be a symbol of Italy’s wild heritage for generations to come.



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Endangered brown bears have a genetic 'weak spot'

Deep in the rugged Apennine Mountains of central Italy, a...

Scientists in the UK have made a bold leap in the quest to create powerful quantum computers. They say they have now teleported logical gates - basic computing blocks - between two quantum processors placed more than six feet apart.



Quantum computing promises high-speed data processing which could solve problems that are too large for standard computers.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tackling-scalability-challenges">Tackling scalability challenges</h2>



“In our study, we used quantum teleportation to create interactions between these <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/google-claims-commercial-quantum-computing-is-just-five-years-away/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">distant systems</a>,” said study lead author Dougal Main of the University of Oxford.



Main is part of a team that is determined to fix what experts call the scalability problem, a snag where millions of qubits - tiny data units that hold zeros and ones at the same time - are required for a large-scale quantum machine.



Qubits are powerful because they tap into quantum physics, a branch of science that describes how particles behave at very small scales. Standard computers process bits that are either 0 or 1, but qubits defy that limitation and take on both states.



Teleporting a logical gate allows two smaller processors to combine their computing power without being physically merged. This approach might help avoid building one massive system that would be impractical in size.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-teleported-quantum-gates">Teleported quantum gates </h2>



Quantum gates act like switches that guide how qubits interact. They work in parallel, which can supercharge data processing for tasks like encryption and searching large datasets.



“This breakthrough enables us to effectively ‘wire together’ distinct quantum processors into a single, fully-connected quantum computer,” said Main. This move could one day connect smaller modules into a network that behaves as one bigger machine.



Such technology was recently tested in an experiment that ran a Grover’s search algorithm, a known quantum method for finding items in unsorted <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/building-quantum-computers-just-got-easier-with-new-technique/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">data</a> faster than usual. The team reported a 71% success rate, demonstrating a step toward coordinated processing across a distance.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-real-world-data-teleportation">Real-world data teleportation</h2>



Quantum teleportation has attracted attention for its promise of moving data in a way that standard physics once deemed impossible. In late 2023, researchers used photons to transmit an image between two points without moving it in the traditional sense.



The Oxford study focused on teleporting quantum gates, not just states or images. The setup involved modules connected by particles of light, allowing the two ends to share information needed for these operations.



In tests, the system achieved about 86% accuracy when teleporting a controlled-Z gate between qubits. This figure will need to climb well above 99% before quantum computers become reliably stable for daily use.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-progress-and-next-steps">Progress and next steps</h2>



Quantum internet - a secure network linking quantum processors - has become a hot topic. In 2024, Harvard scientists showed that entanglement, a quantum effect linking particles even when apart, can be shared between remote locations.



The Oxford team took this idea further by proving that two separate processors, each holding trapped-ion qubits, could function like a single unit. The modules were bridged by photons, forming a quantum state shared between them.



“Our experiment demonstrates that network-distributed <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/doped-diamonds-discovery-may-reshape-quantum-computing/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">quantum information</a> processing is feasible with current technology. Scaling up quantum computers remains a formidable technical challenge that will likely require new physics insights as well as intensive engineering effort over the coming years,” said Professor David Lucas, the project’s principal investigator.



Engineers still face a huge challenge in bringing error rates under control. High accuracy is essential for fault-tolerant computing, which means that results stay correct even if some parts of the system misbehave.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-steps-toward-practical-machines">Steps toward practical machines</h2>



Qubit errors happen when delicate quantum states collapse or pick up noise from the environment. Error correction tools can fix some mistakes, but they require additional qubits that put more strain on the hardware.



Teleporting gates may reduce some of these complications by letting multiple modules share tasks. This flexible setup could allow each device to handle a smaller portion of the load, while still achieving a level of performance that a single giant system might provide.



Teams worldwide are racing to fine-tune these technologies. Some aim to pair them with classical computers for hybrid approaches that ease the transition from today’s machines to tomorrow’s quantum platforms.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-s-next-for-quantum-computing">What’s next for quantum computing</h2>



Experts hope that further development of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/using-artificial-intelligence-ai-to-make-quantum-computers-reality/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">quantum</a> hardware and design strategies will address the final hurdles. Extended testing with larger algorithms should reveal how to push success rates closer to that coveted 99% mark.



One day, smaller quantum computers might link up like puzzle pieces, forming a robust network that competes with bigger standalone devices. That would change data processing at its core and pave the way for secure communication and unimaginable computational speed.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-024-08404-x" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature</a>.



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Quantum gates teleported: A leap toward scalable computing

Scientists in the UK have made a bold leap in...

Some sea creatures prefer to linger in their eggs, waiting for a precise moment to appear. This strategy can range from a few weeks to several years, as certain octopuses spend more than 4 years inside their eggs, and eel-nosed sharks stay put for over 3 years.



Selecting the right hatching day can mean the difference between thriving and perishing. Embryos that hatch too early may face predators or insufficient resources, while those emerging too late risk missing optimal conditions or becoming trapped inside a deteriorating eggshell.



A recent study has revealed new details about the hatching timeline of fish embryos. The research was led by Dr. Matan Golan of the <a href="https://en.huji.ac.il/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Hebrew University of Jerusalem</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-eggs-wait-to-hatch">Why eggs wait to hatch</h2>



Many organisms coordinate their arrival with favorable surroundings, relying on environmental signals like tidal shifts, changing temperatures, or even the sounds of predators. 



For fish, these cues can be subtle yet powerful, shaping their transition from protected egg to independent juvenile.



Embryos sense these factors through partial information crossing the eggshell. Yet the exact trigger that moves a fish from quiet embryo to active hatchling has remained unclear.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-single-hormone-controls-fish-hatching">Single hormone controls fish hatching</h2>



The researchers suspected thyrotropin-releasing hormone (TRH) might play a major role in fish development because it influences metabolism and lactation in mammals.



In zebrafish, the team found that blocking TRH meant the embryos never left their eggs, suggesting a missing puzzle piece in the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/shark-embryo-mortality-could-rise-by-71-percent/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">hatching</a> equation.



The experts applied CRISPR technology to disrupt TRH production. As a result, the zebrafish stayed sealed inside their chorions and eventually perished. A simple injection of TRH rescued the fish - triggering hatching in under two minutes and confirming its vital function.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-common-evolutionary-thread">A common evolutionary thread</h2>



When fish hatch, specialized cells release proteolytic enzymes that weaken the eggshell. TRH appears to prompt these cells to act, ensuring a swift exit once conditions feel right.



To check if this hormone-based strategy is widespread, the team investigated Oryzias latipes, a distant relative of zebrafish. An injection of TRH in this species also triggered immediate hatching, indicating a common thread across more than 200 million years of evolution.



Although these fish differ in body form and reproductive habits, they share a reliance on TRH to break free. This consistency highlights how deeply conserved such mechanisms can be.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-role-of-environmental-cues">The role of environmental cues</h2>



The natural habitat for many <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fish-find-new-ways-to-reproduce-in-response-to-predators/">fish</a> is changing quickly, with pollution and warming waters altering the signals that eggs receive. If embryonic cues shift, fish might hatch at the wrong moment, jeopardizing entire populations.



Conservationists are exploring whether hormonal pathways like TRH can be affected by chemical disruptors or temperature swings. 



Understanding these vulnerabilities could guide strategies for sustaining vital fish stocks in unpredictable conditions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-beyond-fish-biology">Beyond fish biology</h2>



TRH is studied in humans for its impact on hormonal balance, but fish show it may also direct critical life transitions. 



Such findings encourage scientists to rethink how <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/319-million-year-old-fish-holds-clues-about-brain-evolution/">embryonic brains</a> sense and respond to changing environments.



Comparative approaches might reveal if other aquatic or terrestrial <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-species-of-deep-sea-squid-discovered-that-broods-giant-eggs/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">species</a> use similar neuroendocrine signals. The insights could improve our understanding of the evolution of parental investment and embryo autonomy.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-precise-timing-of-fish-hatching">Precise timing of fish hatching</h2>



Biologists still wonder how fish embryos decide the precise moment to activate TRH. Some suspect that the embryo’s brain gathers data on water oxygen levels, temperature shifts, or chemical cues released by predators.



Future studies may investigate whether additional hormones or genes combine with TRH to refine this timing. The results may illuminate broader survival strategies and help researchers predict how species adapt to an ever-changing planet.



Farms that raise fish for food or conservation programs might harness this knowledge to optimize breeding and release efforts. By regulating the environment, hatchery managers may encourage consistent hatching windows that boost survival.



In the wild, interventions could focus on reducing pollutants that interfere with TRH signaling. These measures might prevent developmental mismatches where <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/why-do-egg-cells-have-a-swirl-pattern/">eggs open</a> too early or too late.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-searching-for-more-clues">Searching for more clues</h2>



Studies in amphibians, reptiles, and even birds could reveal parallel systems, confirming that embryos are more active decision-makers than once believed. 



Each discovery challenges the notion of passive development and reveals how life orchestrates its own transformations.



Further research will examine whether TRH or related signals also influence other milestones, such as yolk absorption or the onset of feeding. This knowledge might inform future efforts to protect biodiversity under stress from climate shifts and habitat loss.



Scientists hope to identify genetic variants that fine-tune how TRH responds to environmental triggers. This line of inquiry could explain species differences in hatching schedules and inform selective breeding for aquaculture.



Additional experiments may look at how fish sense vibrations, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-discovery-water-molecules-will-force-chemistry-textbooks-to-be-rewritten/">water chemistry changes</a>, or even mild electrical fields. Each factor might contribute to the embryonic countdown that ends with a swift swim into open water.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.ado8929" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Science</a>.



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'Master switch' controls the timing of fish egg hatching

Some sea creatures prefer to linger in their eggs, waiting...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2E0mn5mTvhQ
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">'Death Star' moon Mimas conceals a 15-million-year-old ocean that scientists never expected.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hidden-waters-beneath-ancient-craters">Hidden waters beneath ancient craters</h2>



Scientists have made a startling discovery that challenges everything we thought we knew about <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/saturn-moon-mimas-has-remarkably-young-ocean/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Saturn's moon Mimas</a>. Beneath the heavily cratered surface that earned it the nickname "Death Star" lies a global ocean that formed just 5 to 15 million years ago—a remarkably young age by cosmic standards.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cassini-data-reveals-orbital-secrets">Cassini data reveals orbital secrets</h2>



The discovery, led by Dr. Valéry Lainey of the <a href="https://observatoiredeparis.psl.eu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Observatoire de Paris</a>, emerged from careful analysis of <a href="https://www.nasa.gov" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NASA</a>'s Cassini spacecraft data. By studying subtle irregularities in Mimas's orbit around Saturn, researchers detected the gravitational signature of liquid water hidden 20 to 30 kilometers beneath the moon's icy shell.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-an-unlikely-ocean-world">An unlikely ocean world</h2>



At only 400 kilometers in diameter, Mimas seemed like the least likely candidate to harbor a subsurface ocean. Unlike other ocean moons such as Europa and Enceladus, which show clear surface signs of internal activity, Mimas displays no obvious hints of the liquid water beneath its ancient, crater-scarred exterior.



"Mimas is a small moon, and its heavily cratered surface gave no hint of the hidden ocean beneath," explained Dr. Nick Cooper from <a href="https://www.qmul.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Queen Mary University of London</a>, a study co-author.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-astrobiology">Implications for astrobiology</h2>



The ocean's recent formation makes Mimas a prime target for studying how oceans develop and potentially support life. This discovery adds another member to the exclusive club of ocean worlds in our solar system, each offering unique insights into the conditions necessary for habitability.



The research, published in <a href="https://www.nature.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature</a> journal, demonstrates how advanced orbital analysis can reveal hidden features of celestial bodies, opening new possibilities for understanding ocean formation throughout the cosmos.



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Scientists discover unexpected young ocean on Saturn's cratered moon Mimas

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2E0mn5mTvhQ 'Death Star' moon Mimas conceals a 15-million-year-old ocean that...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE
</div></figure>



On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop and sunlight barely penetrates through the polar winter. It was here, however, that an international team of scientists found <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/predatory-worms-were-terror-beasts-half-a-billion-years-ago/#google_vignette" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evidence of sea monsters</a> that would change our understanding of ocean life in the past.



This video captures the discovery of Timorebestia fossils that had been hidden for more than 500 million years in the Sirius Passet formation. The "terror beasts," as they are called, are a hidden chapter in the evolutionary history of <a href="https://www.earth.com" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Earth</a>, showing that sophisticated predator-prey interactions occurred much earlier than previously envisioned.



Dr. Jakob Vinther and his research team at the <a href="https://www.bristol.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Bristol</a>, in collaboration with researchers at the <a href="https://eng.kopri.re.kr/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Korean Polar Research Institute</a>, braved extreme weather conditions at 82.5 north latitude to locate these giant creatures. Using sophisticated electron microprobe analysis, they revealed the detailed anatomy of the animals, including their muscle and nerve tissues.



The find upsets the traditional timeline of sea predators. Although we've long appreciated that Cambrian oceans were at one time ruled by <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jWI3-UgA3_o&amp;list=PL1QLQMW9MWDwpkFOnvgAmu7wT6rZmYqdJ&amp;index=19" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">arthropods</a>, these discoveries indicate that relatives of arrow worms were first to dominate the seas. These worms were building sophisticated food webs several million years before other predator groups arose.



Each fossil is a story of ancient hunger, with fossil stomach contents revealing these meter-long beasts dined on heavily armored arthropods regularly, cementing their place as the ocean's first apex predators.



-----



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Worms dominated seas before dinosaurs

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">New York is the site of the world's oldest forest.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-385-million-year-old-trees-discovered">385-million-year-old trees discovered</h2>



Scientists have uncovered something extraordinary just two hours north of New York City. The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/worlds-oldest-forest-discovered-close-to-new-york-city/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">world's oldest forest</a>, dating back 385 million years, offers a window into how Earth's first complex forests shaped our planet's atmosphere.



Located near <a href="https://townofcairo.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cairo, New York</a>, in Greene County, these weren't merely primitive plants struggling to survive. These were sophisticated trees with root systems remarkably similar to modern forests. This ancient woodland predates dinosaurs by 140 million years.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-cairo-forest-discovery">The Cairo forest discovery</h2>



385 million years ago, upstate New York was a tropical paradise near the equator. Thanks to continental drift, this ancient forest has traveled thousands of miles to its current location.



The fossil forest sits in an abandoned quarry, roughly half the size of a football field. This represents just a slice of what was likely a massive forest system stretching from New York into Pennsylvania.



Charles Ver Straeten, curator of sedimentary rocks at the <a href="https://www.nysm.nysed.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">New York State Museum</a>, made the discovery in 2009. While scouting the former highway department property, his trained eye spotted wandering patterns in the stone that looked like marine features.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-revolutionary-age-and-preservation">Revolutionary age and preservation</h2>



The site contains 385-million-year-old rocks with fossilized woody roots forming horizontal patterns up to 18 feet (5.5 meters) wide. As Christopher Berry, a paleobotanist at Cardiff University, explains: "You are walking through the roots of ancient trees."



This discovery pushes back advanced tree evolution by millions of years. The research, published in <a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/home" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Current Biology</a> in December 2019, fundamentally changes our understanding of when complex forests first emerged.



Researchers believe a massive flood buried the forest floor, creating perfect fossilization conditions. Over millions of years, sediment hardened into rock, preserving these root patterns like nature's time capsule.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-meet-archaeopteris-the-first-modern-tree">Meet Archaeopteris: the first modern tree</h2>



The star of this ancient forest is Archaeopteris – not to be confused with the feathered dinosaur Archaeopteryx. This tree was far older and more revolutionary.



William Stein from <a href="https://www.binghamton.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Binghamton University</a> describes the roots as "strikingly modern, essentially what you'd see outside in my yard right now." These weren't simple root systems you'd expect from ancient plants.



Some fossilized roots are six inches (15 centimeters) in diameter, forming 36-foot-wide (11-meter) patterns. These giants grew up to 65 feet (20 meters) tall with five-foot-diameter (1.5-meter) trunks.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-changing-impact">Climate-changing impact</h2>



These trees fundamentally changed Earth's environment. Kevin Boyce, a Stanford University geoscientist, explains how their deep roots triggered "weathering," chemical reactions that pulled carbon dioxide from the atmosphere.



This process dropped atmospheric CO2 levels from 10-15 times higher than today to roughly modern concentrations. These ancient trees helped create atmospheric conditions that made complex life possible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ancient-forest-ecosystem">Ancient forest ecosystem</h2>



The forest was remarkably diverse. Scientists identified Eospermatopteris, palm tree-like plants with short roots that reached 30 feet (9 meters) tall but lacked woody structure. The forest also housed cladoxylopsids and a mysterious third species still being studied.



All reproduced through spores rather than seeds – millions of years before seeds evolved. This tropical environment had no grass, flowers, or flying insects, just towering trees creating Earth's first complex forest canopy.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-scientific-significance">Scientific significance</h2>



Before this finding, the Gilboa forest, located 25 miles (40 kilometers) away, held the "oldest forest" title. Cairo's trees are 2-3 million years older, showing that complex forest ecosystems developed much faster than scientists believed possible.



Patricia Gensel, a <a href="https://www.unc.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of North Carolina</a> paleobotanist, notes: "The size of those root systems is really changing the picture. Even 20 years ago, researchers assumed trees with such complex root systems didn't evolve so early."



The Cairo site presents three unique root systems, suggesting Devonian period forests were diverse ecosystems with different trees occupying different environmental niches, much like today's forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-modern-preservation-efforts">Modern preservation efforts</h2>



In 2022, New York State Senator Michelle Hinchey secured a $170,000 grant for the town of Cairo to construct specialized fencing around the fossil forest site. The town plans to conduct a feasibility study exploring the possibility of creating an educational center and working lab on-site.



Joe Hasenkopf, chair of the Cairo Planning Board, hopes to partner with educational institutions to create a research facility serving scientists, students, and the public.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lessons-for-today-s-climate">Lessons for today's climate</h2>



Why does a 385-million-year-old forest matter today? It shows how dramatically forests can change Earth's climate. These ancient woodlands created the atmospheric conditions supporting complex life.



Understanding how prehistoric forests transformed the planet helps us appreciate modern forests' critical role in addressing climate change. Forests remain Earth's most effective carbon capture systems.



These prehistoric trees changed Earth's atmosphere by pulling massive amounts of carbon dioxide from the air. As we face modern climate challenges, this ancient forest reminds us of trees' incredible power to transform our planet's environment.



The next time you walk through a forest, remember you're experiencing an ecosystem whose blueprint was established 385 million years ago in upstate New York. These ancient pioneers didn't just survive – they thrived and changed the world forever.



The full study was published in the journal Current Biology.



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Earth's oldest forest found in the United States

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ New York is the site of the world's oldest...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Acid rain and a crisis solved.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-don-t-we-ever-hear-about-acid-rain-anymore-the-environmental-crisis-that-was-solved">Why don't we ever hear about "acid rain" anymore? The environmental crisis that was solved</h2>



Remember the 1980s when acid rain dominated headlines? Dire warnings about rain eating buildings, killing fish, and destroying forests filled every news cycle. Then, almost like magic, acid rain vanished from public discourse. What happened? Did we actually solve one of the late 20th century's most pressing environmental challenges?



The answer might surprise you. Unlike many environmental issues that drag on indefinitely, acid rain represents one of modern history's most successful ecological recovery stories. It's a tale of science, politics, and technology working together to tackle what seemed impossible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What was acid rain?</h2>



Acid rain isn't regular rain having a bad day – it's precipitation that became significantly more acidic due to air pollution. When power plants, factories, and vehicles burn fossil fuels, they release sulfur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides (NOx) into the atmosphere.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The science behind it</h2>



Think of acid rain as nature's chemistry experiment gone wrong. These compounds react with water, oxygen, and other chemicals to form sulfuric and nitric acids. When mixed with water vapor in clouds, they create precipitation with dangerously low pH levels.



While clean rain has a pH of about 5.6, acid rain could drop as low as 4.2 to 4.4 – roughly as acidic as tomato juice or coffee. According to US Geological Survey documentation, Scottish chemist Angus Smith first coined "acid rain" in 1872, but it didn't become a household phrase until the 1960s and 1970s when Swedish scientist Svante Odén documented its devastating effects on Scandinavian lakes and European forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The crisis at its peak</h2>



During the height of public concern, environmental damage was both widespread and visible. This wasn't some abstract future threat – people could see destruction happening in real-time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Environmental devastation</h2>



The most dramatic impacts were impossible to ignore. Research documented by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation and the New York State Department of Environmental Conservation shows that in the Adirondack Mountains, more than 200 lakes became so acidic they couldn't support fish life. The Adirondack Council reports that 409 lakes once supported brook trout, but many lost their fish populations due to acid rain.



By 1976, when scientists cataloged all acidified lakes in the Adirondack Park, researchers found that half of the lakes over 2,000 feet above sea level had no fish, according to studies published in environmental journals. The acidification process worked like a slow-motion disaster. As acid rain fell into watersheds, it gradually lowered pH levels. Fish couldn't survive in acidic water, and their food sources died off too.



Trees at high elevations showed stress directly linked to acid rain. It weakened them by leaching nutrients and making them susceptible to disease. Historical records show Germany's Black Forest saw nearly half its trees damaged by the mid-1980s.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Economic impact</h2>



Acid rain wasn't just environmental – it was expensive. Acidic precipitation corroded infrastructure, buildings, and monuments. Historic stone structures deteriorated at accelerated rates. Tourism suffered as lakes became fishless and forests declined. EPA economic analyses from the period documented repair costs mounting into billions annually.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The solution: government action and technology</h2>



Transformation from crisis to success required unprecedented cooperation between governments, industries, and environmental groups.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The Clean Air Act of 1990</h2>



The turning point came with the Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990, signed by President George H.W. Bush. This represented a fundamentally new approach to environmental regulation, as documented in EPA historical records.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Cap-and-trade success</h2>



Instead of mandating specific technologies, the 1990 amendments introduced something revolutionary: a cap-and-trade system for sulfur dioxide emissions. EPA program documentation shows this market-based approach set overall limits but allowed companies to trade emission allowances.



The genius was harnessing market forces to find cost-effective pollution reduction. Companies reducing emissions cheaply could sell excess allowances to those facing higher costs. Research published in environmental economics journals and EPA progress reports shows this resulted in dramatic SO2 reduction at a fraction of projected costs.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Technology advances</h2>



Policy provided the framework, but technology made reductions possible. Studies in atmospheric science journals document the widespread adoption of flue gas desulfurization systems ("scrubbers") that removed sulfur dioxide before it reached the atmosphere. By the 2000s, new installations could remove over 95% of SO2 emissions, according to EPA technical reports.



The push coincided with cleaner energy development. Natural gas produces fewer sulfur compounds than coal. Wind and solar, emerging in the 1990s, captured growing market share, reducing reliance on high-sulfur coal.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-we-don-t-hear-about-it-today">Why we don't hear about it today</h2>



Why did acid rain disappear from headlines? Simple: the problem was largely solved.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Success doesn't make news</h2>



There's an old journalism saying: "If it bleeds, it leads." Environmental success stories don't generate urgency like crisis reporting. Media attention shifted to other challenges: climate change, plastic pollution, and biodiversity loss. There's only so much environmental anxiety the public can absorb, and newer concerns replaced acid rain.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Mission accomplished</h2>



The primary reason is beautifully simple: interventions worked. EPA monitoring data shows sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990. Academic research published in environmental science journals confirms pH levels in formerly affected areas returned closer to normal. This represents one of history's most dramatic environmental recoveries. Studies by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation show fishless lakes now support healthy populations. Forests recovered, and building damage slowed dramatically.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-is-it-really-gone">Is it really gone?</h2>



The crisis is largely resolved, but monitoring data shows the problem isn't completely eliminated – it's managed to acceptable levels. Some areas still experience occasional events during high pollution periods. International environmental research indicates that rapidly industrializing Asian countries face similar problems to what we experienced decades ago, though they're implementing successful strategies.



EPA research shows nitrogen oxide emissions proved more challenging than sulfur dioxide, coming from vehicles and mobile sources. Climate science studies suggest changing weather patterns add complexity to how acid rain forms and falls.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What this teaches us</h2>



The acid rain experience proves that seemingly intractable environmental problems can be solved with scientific understanding, political will, and technological innovation. Environmental monitoring data shows recovery speed was remarkable – within a decade, measurable improvements appeared in air quality and ecosystem health.



Success came from bipartisan support across party lines. Policy analysis studies show the market-based approach appealed to those preferring economic incentives while achieving environmental goals. This support created lasting policy surviving political changes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Conclusion</h2>



Acid rain's disappearance from public consciousness represents environmental science's greatest success stories. Through effective regulation, technological innovation, and international cooperation, we transformed an overwhelming crisis into a manageable challenge.



Today's silence isn't because we forgot – it's because we solved it. The 1990 Clean Air Act, combined with technology and energy market changes, reduced acid rain emissions over 90%, according to comprehensive EPA data analysis.



This success offers hope for current challenges. It proves complex problems can be solved when science, policy, and technology work together. As we face climate change and plastic pollution, acid rain reminds us that dramatic positive change is possible.



Next time someone asks whether environmental regulations work, remember acid rain. It's proof that sometimes, we get it right.



<hr class="wp-block-separator has-alpha-channel-opacity"/>



Sources: This article draws from EPA official documentation and progress reports, peer-reviewed research published in environmental and atmospheric science journals, historical data from the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation, New York State Department of Environmental Conservation records, US Geological Survey publications, policy analysis studies, and environmental monitoring data collected over three decades.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Frequently Asked Questions</h2>



1. Is acid rain completely gone? No, but EPA monitoring shows it's reduced to manageable levels. US sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990, making acid rain much less severe than the 1980s crisis.



2. How long did solving take? Environmental monitoring data shows significant improvements began within 5-10 years of 1990s emission controls. Full ecosystem recovery took longer – some areas need 20-30 years for complete recovery.



3. What made the solution successful? Clear scientific understanding, visible damage motivating action, bipartisan support, available technology, and innovative market-based policies like cap-and-trade.



4. Do other countries have acid rain problems? Yes, particularly rapidly industrializing Asian countries. However, international environmental research shows many implement similar successful control strategies.



5. Could acid rain return? Potentially, if regulations weaken or we return to high-sulfur coal without controls, though effects would take years to become severe according to environmental projections.



6. Can you recommend any teaching tools on the subject of "acid rain"? The United States Environmental Protection Agency produced a wonderful teacher's guide for ages 14 and under that you can find on the EPA website here: <a href="https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf</a>



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The environmental problem we actually solved

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk Acid rain and a crisis solved. Why don't we...

Fresh,Radish,Harvest,On,Soil,In,Garden.

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://youtu.be/Fi2OeEwuzRM?si=vTyd2m9FMmtyWkex
</div></figure>







Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving fall garden, and this guide lays out the best vegetables and herbs to plant now for a fruitful autumn harvest. 



Fast-growing leafy greens such as spinach, lettuce, kale, and arugula perform especially well in the waning summer heat, with harvests beginning as soon as 30 days. 



These cool-season crops relish the transition into fall, offering repeated yields with cut-and-come-again methods.



Root vegetables like radishes, carrots, and beets also excel during this period. Radishes deliver satisfaction in under a month, while carrots and beets mature in about two months. Employing succession planting ensures a continuous stream of produce deep into the cooler months. 



For a boost of fresh flavor, herbs like cilantro, basil, dill, and chervil are excellent picks. These heat-loving varieties flourish in July’s warmth and are harvest-ready in about 30 days, especially when sown continuously.



Gardeners in zones 6 through 9 can benefit from planting bush beans and snap peas, which don’t require trellising and are ideal for compact plots. 



Maturing in 50–60 days, they’re a smart choice for quick, protein-rich harvests. For those in hotter regions, heat-tolerant crops such as okra and southern peas provide reliable yields and thrive in scorching conditions.



This guide emphasizes more than crop selection—it highlights the importance of timing, soil preparation, and ongoing sowing techniques. 



With thoughtful planning and attention to regional climate needs, even late-summer gardeners can enjoy fresh salads, hearty stews, and the satisfaction of a robust, homegrown harvest well into fall.



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What to plant in your garden in mid-July

https://youtu.be/Fi2OeEwuzRM?si=vTyd2m9FMmtyWkex Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving...

Green,Ecoduct,Over,An,Empty,Highway,During,Sunset.

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://youtu.be/XYgiPzmNBTU?si=eFYY7gPHU1JznLvU
</div></figure>



A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that wildlife tunnels significantly reduce amphibian road mortality during seasonal migrations. 



Frogs and salamanders often cross roads to reach breeding ponds each spring, but many are killed by vehicles. 



Researchers from the <a href="https://www.uvm.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Vermont</a>, in collaboration with local citizens and the Vermont Agency of Natural Resources, installed two underpass tunnels in 2015. 



Over a 12-year monitoring period, they observed an 80.2% reduction in amphibian deaths, and up to 94% for non-climbing species like salamanders. 



The study used a before-after-control-impact design and documented more than 5,200 amphibians, highlighting the tunnels’ effectiveness even in nearby buffer zones.



Funded at $342,397 - far cheaper than wildlife crossings for large mammals - the project showcased the power of community-led conservation.



Local groups initiated the effort after observing mass amphibian deaths. Wildlife cameras later captured over 2,200 amphibians using a tunnel in just one spring, along with other species like raccoons and bobcats, indicating wider ecosystem benefits.



This marks the first peer-reviewed, long-term data set in the northeastern U.S. confirming amphibian-specific underpasses work. 



The study urges transportation departments to incorporate these designs into road planning and highlights how community action, thoughtful infrastructure, and persistence can make a real difference for biodiversity.



The full study was published in the <a href="https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1617138125000780" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal for Nature Conservation</a>.



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Wildlife tunnels save millions of amphibians

https://youtu.be/XYgiPzmNBTU?si=eFYY7gPHU1JznLvU A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that...

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing it with probiotics and prebiotics, aiming to create a treat that satisfies cravings while supporting gut health. 



The challenge lies in maintaining chocolate's beloved texture and flavor while adding health benefits.



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Probiotics - beneficial microbes that balance gut bacteria and aid digestion - are typically fragile and can be destroyed by stomach acid or processing. 



Prebiotics act as food for these microbes, helping them thrive. Together, they form "synbiotics," a powerful health combination.



Researchers Smriti Gaur and Shubhi Singh from India's Jaypee Institute of Information Technology took an innovative approach, using natural prebiotics like corn and honey instead of complex processing methods. 



They created five chocolate varieties: a control and four synbiotic versions containing different combinations of prebiotics, probiotics (Lactobacillus strains), and flavor enhancers (cinnamon or orange).



Laboratory simulations of human digestion showed the probiotics remained viable for over five hours, suggesting they could survive long enough to benefit gut health.



Taste tests were positive, with researchers particularly enjoying the orange-flavored variety, describing it as having "vibrant citrus notes" complementing the "rich cocoa" with a "luxurious" texture.



This research represents just the beginning. With further refinement of strains, textures, and flavors, chocolate could evolve beyond mere indulgence to become a functional food that nourishes while it delights.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.4c00741" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ACS Food Science &amp; Technology</a>.

Is chocolate the next nutritional powerhouse?

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

[sendtonews key="G9bUoxcjr4-2511624-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

[sendtonews key="LvS8v8bp9z-2564889-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How does salt makes things taste better?

[sendtonews key="X0f6OHYoI4-2310561-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Santiago, Chile in South America

[sendtonews key="JRaP49ISmm-2357509-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.



According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."



Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;



ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. 



Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

[sendtonews key="uV9Lh2fQbV-1760058-12187" type="single"] Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

[sendtonews key="oL4FnPTGCV-2384527-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

[sendtonews key="6HyfrAJTBI-1831843-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

Earth,Like,Exoplanet,3d,Render

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

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