Young aspen trees in Yellowstone are doing something they have not done in almost 100 years. Rather than sprouting and being eaten back to nubs by elk and bison, they're actually growing into tall, adult forest trees rising up towards the canopy.



This matters more than it might seem, because it shows what happens when a missing piece of an ecosystem returns.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-yellowstone-aspens-and-elk">Yellowstone, aspens, and elk</h2>



In the 1920s, people <a href="https://www.yellowstone.org/wolf-project/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">eliminated wolves in Yellowstone</a>. At the time, with limited scientific knowledge, managers believed it was the right thing to do.



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/from-wolves-to-dogs-did-domestication-begin-without-human-help/">Without wolves</a>, elk herds grew very large. Elk love to eat aspen shoots - the tender young growth is highly palatable to them.



For roughly 70 years, elk browsed aspen sprouts down to stub height, and the trees couldn't grow. 



If you had walked through Yellowstone in the 1980s, you would have seen many tiny aspen shoots covering the ground, but almost no young trees gaining height. 



The forest's regeneration was stalled. Old trees died, and no new ones replaced them.



In 1995 and 1996, park managers reintroduced wolves into the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/yellowstone-supervolcano-eruption-study-sparks-new-debate-on-where-and-when-it-will-erupt/">Yellowstone Park ecosystem</a>. Scientists hoped and wondered whether this would change anything for the trees.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-aspen-matter-to-yellowstone">Why aspen matter to Yellowstone</h2>



Aspen groves provide habitat for many species. Birds nest in them. Beavers eat the bark and use the wood for dams. Butterflies and moths lay eggs on the leaves. 



Their canopy admits enough light for wildflowers and shrubs to grow beneath. When it rains, aspen groves hold water in the soil better than some other forest types.



In short, when aspen return, dozens of other species benefit. More trees support more insects, which in turn support more birds, enriching the ecosystem.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-checking-the-trees-three-decades-later">Checking the trees three decades later</h2>



<a href="https://fwcs.oregonstate.edu/users/luke-painter" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Luke Painter</a>, an ecologist at <a href="https://oregonstate.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Oregon State University</a>, sought clear answers. His team returned to 87 aspen stands across Yellowstone that scientists had previously surveyed. 



They measured thousands of young trees, looked for bite marks, and counted how many stems were tall enough that elk could no longer reach the tips.



About a third of these stands now have many tall young aspens pushing toward the canopy. 



"About 26 of the 87 aspen stands we examined had large numbers of tall saplings throughout, a remarkable change from the 1990s when surveys found none at all," Painter said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-wolves-matter-to-yellowstone-aspens">Why wolves matter to Yellowstone aspens</h2>



Breaking it all down, the conclusions of this study are pretty simple. 



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/wolves-move-pups-across-mountains-to-adapt-to-climate-pressure/">Wolves hunt elk</a>. When wolves came back, two things happened. First, elk numbers declined from unusually high levels. Second, elk changed their behavior. They spent less time in the same areas feeding.



With fewer elk and shorter feeding bouts, more aspen shoots survived long enough to exceed the browsing zone - about six to seven feet high. 



Once a sapling reaches that height, elk cannot easily reach the growing tip. The tree continues to grow.



"The reintroduction of large carnivores has initiated a recovery process that had been shut down for decades," Painter explained.



Scientists call this a <a href="https://www.nature.com/scitable/knowledge/library/trophic-cascades-across-diverse-plant-ecosystems-80060347/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">trophic cascade</a> - when adding or removing one species causes changes that ripple through the whole system.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-some-places-recover-others-don-t">Some places recover, others don't</h2>



Unfortunately, not every aspen stand has recovered yet. Some valleys still have many short, heavily browsed shoots, because it's not only elk eating them anymore. 



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/yellowstones-iconic-bison-have-merged-into-a-single-herd/">Bison herds have grown</a>, and bison browse on aspen as well. They are strong enough to break young trees. 



"Increasing numbers of bison may be emerging as a new constraint to aspen in some areas," Painter confirmed.



Additionally, winter snow depth varies; droughts stress trees; bears and mountain lions also hunt elk; and hunting outside the park influences elk distribution. 



All of these factors interact, which is why some sites show strong recovery, others show moderate recovery, and a few have changed very little.



The key pattern is that places with many tall saplings experience little browsing, and aspen groves that remain popular eating grounds today stay short. 



This fact is the strongest indication that tree recovery is linked directly to wolf presence, not solely to weather or soil conditions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-proof-in-the-measurements">Proof in the measurements</h2>



Painter's team did not rely on casual observation. They used the same methods as earlier researchers, measuring the same plots. 



They counted recruitment - when young trees surpass browsing height and begin progressing toward maturity. This measure is crucial. Sprouts are insufficient if they never grow; without recruitment, the forest cannot replace itself.



The results are robust. After being stalled for most of a century, Yellowstone's aspens are increasing in height. In recovering stands today, you will see saplings - six, eight, or ten feet tall - that were not present in the 1990s.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-future-of-yellowstone-s-aspens">The future of Yellowstone's aspens</h2>



"This is a remarkable case of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/giant-viruses-found-in-yellowstones-hot-springs-may-be-near-the-root-of-all-life-on-earth/">ecological restoration</a>," Painter concluded. "Wolf reintroduction is yielding long-term ecological changes contributing to increased biodiversity and habitat diversity."



Trees grow slowly, so even with wolves restored, it will take decades for these young aspens to form a full-grown forest. 



Some areas might never fully recover if bison numbers continue to rise or if the climate becomes too hot and dry.



Thanks to the work of Painter and his team, scientists are now certain that restoring the Yellowstone predator has restarted aspen forest regeneration. Not everywhere and not perfectly, but enough to be measured, creating hope for the future.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0378112725004499?via%3Dihub" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Forest Ecology and Management</a>.



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Yellowstone's aspen trees are growing again thanks to the reintroduction of wolves

Young aspen trees in Yellowstone are doing something they have not done in almost 100 years. Rather than sprouting and being eaten back to nubs by elk and bison, they're actually growing into tall, adult forest trees rising up towards the canopy. This matters more than it might seem, because it shows what happens when a missing piece of an ecosystem returns. Yellowstone, aspens, and elk In the 1920s, people eliminated wolves in Yellowstone. At the time, with limited scientific knowledge, managers believed it was the right...

Sea urchins don’t understand predators the way we do. They have no brains, no hearts - just raw instinct. When a sunflower sea star approaches, they don’t need complex reasoning to sense danger - they simply steer clear.



This is the conclusion of a new study that examined how sunflower sea stars affect sea urchin behavior. The research was conducted by ecologists and undergraduates at the <a href="https://www.universityofcalifornia.edu/">University of California</a>, Santa Cruz.



The team set out to understand whether these massive, many-armed sea stars could help protect kelp forests by simply being present.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-sea-stars-create-a-landscape-of-fear">Sea stars create a landscape of fear</h2>



The team from UC Santa Cruz conducted the experiment off the coast of Sitka, Alaska, where local sea urchins have wiped out once-thriving kelp forests, turning them into underwater deserts.



The students, trained in scientific diving through the university’s BIOE 159 Marine Ecology Field Quarter, placed cages on the ocean floor. Some held <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sunflower-sea-stars-are-nearly-extinct-but-scientists-are-growing-them/">sunflower sea stars</a> (Pycnopodia helianthoides). Others were left empty. 



Kelp blades were tied near each cage to act as bait. The question was simple: Would sea urchins avoid the kelp if a sunflower sea star was nearby?



After just 24 hours, the answer was clear. <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/some-red-sea-urchins-will-tolerate-climate-change-better-than-others/">Red sea urchins</a> kept their distance - about six feet, on average - from cages containing the sea stars. In contrast, green sea urchins, also present in the area, showed no hesitation and munched through the kelp.



“We show that the sea stars create a ‘landscape of fear’ among red sea urchins in degraded urchin barrens that reduces grazing on kelp,” said Kristy Kroeker, professor of ecology and evolutionary biology at UC Santa Cruz. 



“These are very hungry urchins that are dissuaded enough by the scent of a sea star to deter grazing on kelp forests, which is promising for thinking about their role in kelp-forest recovery.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-kelp-forests-matter">Why kelp forests matter</h2>



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/kelp-forests-in-crisis-how-toxic-turf-algae-are-taking-over/">Kelp forests</a> aren’t just scenery. They provide critical shelter and breeding grounds for thousands of marine species, including commercially valuable ones like abalone and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/pacific-rockfish-give-clues-about-the-genetic-basis-of-longevity/">rockfish</a>. 



They’re also a financial powerhouse, contributing an estimated $500 billion each year to the global economy. Kelp is used in everything from pharmaceuticals and cosmetics to food products like salad dressings and toothpaste.



But around 2013, something changed. A wasting disease swept through populations of sunflower sea stars, pushing them to local extinction along much of the west coast. 



At the same time, huge sections of kelp forest disappeared, especially in California and Oregon. Since then, neither the sea stars nor the kelp have made a full comeback.



That’s raised big questions. Are sea stars a key part of keeping urchin populations in check? Could bringing them back help kelp forests recover?



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-students-led-the-research">Students led the research </h2>



This study didn’t come from a high-budget lab. It came from a hands-on field course that takes students into real-world research environments. 



In past years, the course has brought students to the Gulf of California in Mexico and to Moorea in French Polynesia. This time, they ended up in the chilly waters of Alaska.



“I feel very grateful to have had the privilege of working on this study alongside my peers,” said Rae Mancuso, the study’s lead author. 



“Participating in the entire process, from diving to scientific writing, was exciting and impactful as an undergraduate student. I hope the findings from this field experiment contribute in some way to the restoration of our all-important kelp forests.”



The students worked with faculty to design the experiment and set it up across three locations in urchin-dominated zones. They built pairs of cages, spaced about 60 to 100 feet apart, and monitored the urchin activity closely.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-sea-stars-scaring-off-sea-urchins">Sea stars scaring off sea urchins </h2>



Although the sea stars only deterred red sea urchins - not the green ones - researchers say it’s a promising lead. Simply putting sea stars in the area (rather than trying to remove urchins by hand) could help restore balance to the ecosystem.



Even better, this strategy might be less labor-intensive than current methods, which often require divers to manually cull urchin populations.



The researchers are also curious whether sunflower sea stars might scare off <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/gray-whales-struggle-as-purple-sea-urchins-destroy-kelp-forests/">purple sea urchins</a>, the worst kelp destroyers in California. That part is still unclear.



“My educated guess is that they will deter purple urchin grazing as well, but it’s a question of how much and for how long,” Kroeker said. 



“There are many unknowns that need to be addressed and many steps that need to be taken between our results and the reintroduction of Pycnopodia for kelp-forest recovery.”



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rspb.2025.0949">Proceedings of the Royal Society B Biological Sciences</a>.



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'Terrifying' sea stars could be key to kelp forest recovery

Sea urchins don’t understand predators the way we do. They...

A speck of engineered biology no wider than a human hair has just pulled off something exquisite: it kept time as faithfully as a wristwatch for four straight days.



In the process, it offered scientists an unprecedented look at why the biological clocks inside every living thing - from <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/turning-plants-into-carbon-capture-machines-with-cyanobacteria/">cyanobacteria</a> to humans - rarely skip a beat, even though the molecular world they inhabit is full of randomness.



The achievement comes from a collaboration at the <a href="https://www.ucmerced.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of California, Merced</a>, led by bioengineer Anand Bala Subramaniam and chemist Andy LiWang. 



The team reports that they have re‑created the simplest known <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/our-body-clock-distorts-time-to-stay-on-schedule-in-the-heat/">circadian clock</a> - a trio of proteins found in photosynthetic cyanobacteria - inside hundreds of fat‑bubble “cells” called vesicles.



Each miniature clock glowed in a 24‑hour rhythm for a minimum of four days according to first author Alexander Zhang Tu Li. This proves that everything the system needs to tick resides in those three proteins alone.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-making-clocks-from-scratch">Making clocks from scratch</h2>



Biological clocks, or circadian rhythms, choreograph sleep-wake cycles, hormone surges, body temperature, and metabolism across the tree of life. But in their natural context - the crowded volumes of living cells - they also face fierce molecular noise.



Proteins constantly move and collide, while their concentrations shift with every round of cell growth or division.



Scientists have long wondered how these clocks stay so precise amid that chaos. Reconstituting them in stripped‑down, controllable environments lets researchers test which parts of the machinery really matter.



“This study shows that we can dissect and understand the core principles of biological timekeeping using simplified, synthetic systems,” Subramaniam explained.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rebuilding-time-protein-by-protein">Rebuilding time, protein by protein</h2>



To begin, the Merced group brewed purified versions of the cyanobacterial clock proteins KaiA, KaiB, and KaiC in test tubes. 



KaiC is the hub of the system, adding and removing phosphate groups from itself in a slow, rhythmic cycle. KaiA and KaiB nudge that process forward and backward like molecular gears.



The twist was encapsulation. Using a microfluidic technique, the researchers sealed the three‑protein mix and a fluorescent tag inside lipid vesicles. These vesicles - essentially artificial cells - ranged from two to ten micrometers in diameter. 



A temperature‑controlled confocal microscope then watched as each artificial cell vesicle brightened and dimmed in time with KaiC’s phosphorylation cycle.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-when-timing-falls-apart">When timing falls apart</h2>



The movies revealed a binary outcome. If a vesicle contained enough protein, its clock pulsed with textbook regularity. 



If <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/superfamily-of-bacterial-predator-proteins-is-changing-scientific-theory/">protein</a> numbers dipped below a threshold (either because the total mixture was diluted or because the vesicle happened to be small), the rhythm collapsed. When the amount of clock proteins decreased or the vesicles were downsized, the rhythmic glow disappeared.



LiWang and Subramaniam next built a mathematical model that treated each vesicle like a tiny roulette wheel. Protein counts were allowed to vary randomly, just as they would in a real bacterium after cell division.



Once those numbers were fed into the equations that govern KaiC’s chemistry, the simulations reproduced the all‑or‑nothing behavior seen under the microscope. Higher protein counts made clocks more robust, showing that abundance is the first defense against disruptive molecular noise.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-gene-loop-keeps-time">Gene loop keeps time</h2>



In cyanobacteria, the KaiABC clock also controls gene activity through a slower, secondary feedback loop. Many researchers assumed that this transcription-translation feedback loop is crucial for precision. The UC Merced model challenged that assumption.



According to the simulation, adding or removing the gene‑expression loop hardly changed individual vesicle rhythms at all. What it did change was synchrony.



Without the loop, clocks drifted apart; with it, vesicles stayed in sync for days. In other words, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/gene-regulation-controlling-cells-to-improve-medical-treatments/">gene regulation</a> acts like a conductor, keeping an orchestra of otherwise accurate drummers on the same beat.



The cyanobacterial clock, said Ohio State University microbiologist Mingxu Fang, “relies on slow biochemical reactions that are inherently noisy.” The new vesicle system “enables direct testing of how and why organisms with different cell sizes may adopt distinct timing strategies.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rethinking-time-in-engineered-cells">Rethinking time in engineered cells</h2>



Intracellular clocks influence everything from metabolic health to the efficacy of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-dna-test-can-determine-if-chemotherapy-will-fail-before-first-dose/">chemotherapy</a>. Yet therapies that try to tweak them often produce mixed results, partly because researchers lack ways to probe their mechanical guts.



A vesicle “test rig” solves that problem. By swapping in mutated proteins, or by crowding the vesicles with other molecules, scientists can now watch the gears grind - or stall - in real time.



The findings also matter to bioengineers who dream of programming synthetic cells. 



Any molecular circuit that must run for hours or days (say, one designed to release drugs on a schedule) will face the same noise problem as a natural circadian clock. The UC Merced work shows a straightforward workaround: make plenty of parts.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-toward-full-synthetic-cells">Toward full synthetic cells</h2>



Several puzzles remain. Because some KaiB molecules stuck to the vesicle walls, the authors suspect that membranes themselves may regulate the clock in cyanobacteria. They plan to test this idea by inserting other membrane proteins.



They also hope to connect the vesicle clocks to simple gene networks, pushing the system closer to what a bacterium actually experiences.



For now, the take‑home message is elegant: time can keep itself, provided the machinery is dense enough and, when necessary, a coordinating signal brings the ensemble into phase. 



The steady pulses inside these man‑made vesicles whisper of biological perfection. They’re proof that even the tiniest artificial cells can, quite literally, know what time it is.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-025-61844-5" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Communications</a>. 



Image Credit: UC Merced



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How tiny artificial cells can keep perfect time for days

A speck of engineered biology no wider than a human...

In the dense forests of Central and South America, a strange thing happens. Hundreds of butterfly species - most of them nearly identical in appearance - flutter through the trees, each warning predators that they’re toxic through shared colors and patterns. 



But if the butterflies all look the same, how do they find the right partner to mate with? New research reveals that these butterflies can smell each other. 



Even among species that look nearly identical, each one produces a unique scent. This tiny chemical difference is how they tell each other apart.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-genetics-of-glasswing-butterflies">Genetics of glasswing butterflies</h2>



The research was conducted by an international team of scientists led by the <a href="https://www.sanger.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Wellcome Sanger Institute</a>. 



The team sequenced the genomes of dozens of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/the-glasswing-butterfly-has-a-unique-type-of-transparency/">glasswing butterfly</a> species - specifically focusing on two groups known for rapidly forming new species.



Glasswing butterflies are not rare. There are more than 400 species across Central and South America, and many live in the same areas. 



These butterflies are often used in conservation as "indicator species" because their presence reflects the health of the broader <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/insects-play-important-roles-in-ecosystems/">insect ecosystem</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lookalike-butterflies-have-a-strategy">Lookalike butterflies have a strategy</h2>



What makes things tricky is that all glasswing butterflies look strikingly alike - and this similarity is no accident. It’s a defense strategy that warns predators they’re poisonous. 



But while this mimicry helps protect them, it poses a serious challenge for scientists trying to identify or monitor them in the wild.



To solve this, the research team mapped the genetics of the butterflies. In doing so, they discovered six subspecies were actually distinct enough to count as separate species. 



The experts also produced ten high-quality reference genomes now freely available to the research community.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-scent-matters-for-glasswing-butterflies">Scent matters for glasswing butterflies </h2>



One major discovery: even butterflies that look the same can still recognize their own species through <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/false-widow-spiders-use-pheromones-to-manipulate-mates/">pheromones</a> - chemicals they release to communicate through smell.



This matters a lot for mating. Because many of these butterflies have gone through a process called rapid radiation - where lots of new species evolve in a short period - they’re often closely related. 



Visually, the butterflies are often indistinguishable. But smelling different? That’s a game-changer.



“Having the reference genomes for the two groups of glasswing butterflies, Mechanitis and Melinaea, allowed us to take a closer look at how they have adapted to life in such close proximity to their relatives,” said study senior author Dr. Caroline Bacquet.



“These butterflies share the responsibility of warding off predators by displaying similar color patterns, and by producing different pheromones they can successfully find mates and reproduce."



"Now that we have clarity on glasswing butterfly species, we can look for specific markings or differences between them, giving new ways to track them during fieldwork.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-butterflies-that-evolve-quickly">Butterflies that evolve quickly </h2>



The team also uncovered something surprising in the butterflies’ DNA. Most butterflies have 31 chromosomes, but in glasswing species, that number varied from 13 to 28. 



The genes were mostly the same, but they were rearranged in different ways - a phenomenon called chromosomal rearrangement. These rearrangements aren’t just quirky genetic facts. They affect reproduction.



When butterflies with mismatched chromosome arrangements try to reproduce, their offspring are sterile. That means mating with the wrong species is a dead end. So, the butterflies have evolved to rely on pheromones as a way to ensure they choose the right partner.



Scientists think this high level of chromosomal rearrangement might be a key reason why these butterflies evolve into new species so quickly. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-protecting-lookalike-butterflies">Protecting lookalike butterflies </h2>



Once a population’s chromosome count shifts, it effectively becomes its own species, better able to adapt to local environments or food sources.



“Glasswing butterflies are an incredibly adaptive group of insects that have been valuable in ecology research for around 150 years,” said Dr. Eva van der Heijden, first author of the study.



“However, until now, there was no genetic resource that allowed us to robustly identify different species, and it is difficult to monitor and track something that you can’t identify easily." 



"With this new genetically informed evolutionary tree, and multiple new reference genomes, we hope that it will be possible to advance biodiversity and conservation research around the world, and help protect the butterflies and other insects that are crucial to many of Earth’s ecosystems.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-understanding-how-new-species-evolve">Understanding how new species evolve </h2>



Understanding how these lookalike butterflies evolved - and continue to evolve - could help scientists tackle broader questions. 



Why do some insects branch into many species while others don’t? How do environmental pressures drive rapid <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/quick-species-adaptability-shapes-long-term-evolution/">adaptation</a>? And can this knowledge help us in agriculture or pest control?



Dr. Joana Meier, senior author at the Wellcome Sanger Institute, warned that we are in the middle of an <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/humans-were-likely-the-leading-cause-of-megafauna-extinctions/">extinction</a> crisis and understanding how new species evolve, and evolve quickly in some cases, is important for preserving species. 



"Comparing butterflies that rapidly form new species to others that do not could benchmark how common this is in insects and highlight the factors involved," said Dr. Meier.



"This, in turn, could identify any species that require closer conservation and possibly identify genes that are important in the adaptation process and might have uses in agriculture, medicine, or bioengineering. 



"This research would not have been possible without global collaboration. We have one planet, and we must work together to understand and protect it.”



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.2410939122" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a>.



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Lookalike butterflies use hidden cues to identify each other

In the dense forests of Central and South America, a...

Food lovers prize the creamy web of fat that streaks a Wagyu steak. Inside the human body, however, the same kind of “marbling” - known to scientists as intramuscular adipose tissue, or IMAT - signals trouble.



Physicians have long noticed that patients with high IMAT tend to fare poorly. The marbled fat is common in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/obesity-is-much-more-complicated-than-we-thought-manifesting-in-11-different-forms/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">obesity</a>, type 2 diabetes, neuromuscular disorders such as Duchenne muscular dystrophy, and progressive neurodegenerative diseases like ALS.



In some clinics, doctors even watch intramuscular adipose tissue levels to track how fast an illness is advancing.



What remained unclear was whether the fat merely accompanied disease or actively made muscles weaker. Daniel Kopinke, an associate professor of pharmacology and therapeutics at the <a href="https://med.ufl.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Florida College of Medicine</a>, set out to solve that puzzle.



“We wanted to understand the precise function IMAT might play on <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/studies-learn-the-exact-amount-of-time-you-should-spend-training-to-build-muscle/">muscle</a> health,” he explained. The resulting study&nbsp;offers what Kopinke calls “functional evidence that it is an active driver of declining muscle function.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-blocking-fat-from-muscle-injuries">Blocking fat from muscle injuries</h2>



Kopinke’s lab studies how muscles repair themselves. After a strain or tear, stem‑like satellite cells along the fibers awaken, divide, and fuse into new muscle tissue. In healthy people that process restores both size and strength.



But people with high IMAT often struggle to regain full power after injury. To test whether the fat is to blame, the team engineered a mouse line called mFATBLOCK. 



The animals’ muscles could be injured in the usual ways, using a chemical that mimics hard <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/exercise-in-a-pill-is-now-closer-to-reality/">exercise</a>. However, genetic tweaks prevented fat cells from infiltrating the wound site.



The contrast was stark. In ordinary mice fat droplets invaded the damaged region, parking between regenerating fibers. Under a microscope those fibers looked chaotic and undersized.



The marbling occupied about 12 percent of total muscle volume, and when the researchers measured force output, the muscles generated far less power than fat‑free controls.



“This directly translated to a loss of strength,” Kopinke said, noting that marbled muscles could not produce the same amount of force as the healthy, unobstructed muscle.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fat-cells-hijack-healing-space">Fat cells hijack healing space</h2>



Kopinke likened the effect to fighting a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/wildfire-seasons-are-now-overlapping-worldwide/">wildfire</a> in a forest. Imagine clearing the ashes so saplings can grow, only to leave giant boulders scattered across the soil. Wherever a boulder sits, a tree cannot take root.



Fat cells act like those boulders. Once they occupy space inside the muscle, muscle fibers cannot grow. Satellite cells still try to knit new tissue, but their scaffolding twists around lipid pockets and forms weak, disorganized fibers.



The study dispels the notion that IMAT is merely passive fuel storage. Instead, it behaves as a structural barrier that derails the entire regeneration script.



That discovery has wide implications for sports‑medicine clinics that manage severe tears. It also holds promise for researchers pursuing therapies for muscular dystrophy or sarcopenia - the age‑related loss of muscle mass.



If marbling is the obstacle, then simply flooding tissue with growth factors may not restore strength unless the fat blockade is removed.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-exercise-clears-hidden-fat">Exercise clears hidden fat</h2>



The good news is that IMAT appears to shrink the same way <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/long-term-exercise-can-make-belly-fat-healthy/">belly fat</a> does: by tipping the energy equation so the body burns more calories than it consumes.



“You can shrink your fat cells,” said Kopinke. “If you make the area that fat cells occupy in your muscles smaller, the muscle fibers would have more space to grow into.”



Exercise does double duty here, raising calorie burn while also stimulating satellite cells to fuse, though the study did not yet test specific workout regimens.



Because IMAT is tucked deep inside tissue, scales and mirrors cannot reveal progress. Imaging tools such as MRI and ultrasound can, and Kopinke hopes future clinical trials will pair those scans with diet‑and‑exercise programs designed to carve away the internal marbling.



If the rodent data hold true in people, reducing IMAT should give healing fibers room to align and thicken, restoring lost torque.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rethinking-muscle-disease-treatment">Rethinking muscle disease treatment</h2>



These findings shift the perspective on numerous debilitating conditions. Instead of focusing solely on amplifying growth signals or transplanting stem cells, physicians might first target the fatty blockade itself. 



They could do this through <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/secrets-of-a-popular-weight-loss-drug-are-finally-revealed/">metabolic drugs</a>, hormone therapies, or novel biologics that prevent progenitor cells inside muscle from turning into fat in the first place. The mFATBLOCK mouse offers a ready test bed for such ideas.



“By clearing the path for muscle fibers to heal correctly, we may be able to restore function and improve strength in millions of people affected by these debilitating conditions,” Kopinke said.



His lab is now probing why certain diseases spark fat infiltration while others do not and whether specific nutritional cues accelerate IMAT shrinkage. 



For now, the takeaway is both sobering and empowering: marbled steak may melt in your mouth, but marbled muscle could rob you of strength - unless you burn off the fat and give your fibers room to thrive. 



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S2211124725007922" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Communications</a>.



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How fat hidden in muscles weakens strength and healing

Food lovers prize the creamy web of fat that streaks...

Methane traps more than 25 times as much heat as carbon dioxide over a century, so even modest changes in its release can tilt the climate balance.



Scientists already recognize Arctic and sub‑Arctic lakes as natural methane vents, where gas bubbles up from sediments laid down over millennia. But the exact processes controlling how much is produced and how fast it escapes have remained poorly understood.



Now, a new study led by PhD researcher Marie Bulínová from <a href="https://en.uit.no/startsida">UiT The Arctic University of Norway</a> offers fresh insight into these dynamics, revealing how lake productivity plays a central role in methane release.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-more-life-more-methane">More life, more methane</h2>



Bulínová and an international team cored sediments and analyzed pore‑water chemistry in ten <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/arctic-lakes-produce-less-methane-than-previously-thought/">lakes</a> scattered across Svalbard and Arctic Scandinavia. 



They then modeled how methane diffuses from the mud into the overlying water and, ultimately, into the air. The surprise wasn’t that methane was present - every lake emitted some - but that the same factors consistently drove those emissions.



“We were surprised by how clearly the productivity of the ecosystem was linked to methane production,” Bulínová said.



The researchers found that lakes with thicker mats of algae, more aquatic plants, lush shore vegetation, and shallower depths generated the most methane in their sediments.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-where-arctic-methane-begins">Where Arctic methane begins</h2>



Across the lakes, production peaked within the upper decimeter of sediment. That thin layer is rich in freshly fallen, easily digestible organic matter and pulsing with <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/microbes-activities-underground-revealed-by-new-technology/">microbial activity</a>. Beneath it, older, nutrient‑poor mud yields much less gas.



By combining concentration profiles with mass‑transfer equations, the researchers estimated diffusive fluxes between - 0.46 and 3.1 millimoles of methane per square meter per day.



Those numbers match earlier spot measurements in boreal and Arctic water bodies and are far lower than typical tropical or temperate values. Yet, given the sheer abundance of lakes across high‑latitude landscapes, the regional methane budget remains formidable.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lakes-vary-in-emissions">Lakes vary in emissions</h2>



When the team compared their data with more than sixty published estimates from lakes worldwide, a striking pattern emerged. Arctic lakes as a group emit less per unit area than tropical ones, but individual northern lakes vary wildly.



“Some release much more methane than others, depending on local factors like vegetation cover, lake shape, or sediment composition,” Bulínová noted. 



Machine‑learning models confirmed that climate variables - especially <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-earth-energy-imbalance-temperature-rise/">temperature</a> and precipitation - rank alongside primary productivity and basin morphometry as key predictors. 



The upshot is that Arctic methane output will not rise evenly. Hot spots will appear where warming and wetter weather most strongly boost in‑lake photosynthesis.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-living-lakes-drive-feedbacks">Living lakes drive feedbacks</h2>



The findings dovetail with satellite observations of a “greening” Arctic: longer ice‑free seasons and warmer waters spur algae blooms, while shrubs and grasses spread along shorelines.



More plant growth means more organic carbon raining onto lake bottoms, where microbes convert it into methane. That methane, in turn, accelerates warming, potentially creating a feedback loop.



“Our work suggests that increases in ecosystem productivity - something we could think of being positive - can also increase methane release and further accelerate warming,” Bulínová warned.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-arctic-methane-escapes-in-many-ways">Arctic methane escapes in many ways</h2>



The study focused on diffusion, one of several pathways methane follows from mud to sky. Bubbling, or ebullition, can deliver large, sudden pulses when gas pockets overcome sediment pressure. 



Plant stems can vent methane directly, and spring ice‑out may release winter stores in a burst. Accounting for these modes will refine regional budgets. 



But diffusion is a baseline flux that operates almost continuously - and scientists can model it more easily across thousands of lakes once they understand the main controls.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-need-to-study-more-arctic-lakes">Need to study more Arctic lakes</h2>



Because each Arctic lake tells a slightly different story, the authors emphasize breadth as well as depth. “That’s why it’s essential to study a wide range of lake types if we want to understand the Arctic’s role in future <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/oceans-in-crisis-have-we-reached-a-climate-tipping-point/">climate</a> feedbacks,” Bulínová explained.



Their random‑forest approach shows promise for up‑scaling. Feed the algorithm satellite data on lake size, depth, productivity proxies, and local climate, and it can predict methane diffusion with reasonable accuracy.



The same framework could extend to boreal or even temperate basins. This would help Earth‑system models gauge how global lake emissions will shift under various warming scenarios.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-researchers-must-do-next">What researchers must do next</h2>



The study demonstrates that tallying greenhouse gases in the Arctic requires looking beyond <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/permafrost-is-becoming-a-source-of-global-warming/">thawing permafrost</a> soils to include seemingly placid waters.



Policies aimed at limiting methane rise might need to consider land‑use changes that alter nutrient runoff into lakes or protect certain high‑productivity basins from additional disturbance. 



For scientists, the next steps include year‑round monitoring to capture seasonal swings, experiments that manipulate nutrient inputs, and integration of ebullition measurements.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lakes-face-a-warming-future">Lakes face a warming future</h2>



As climate change redraws the Arctic map, lakes will likely become more productive biological engines. Paradoxically, they may also become more potent methane releasers.



The research led by Bulínová offers a first quantitative framework to anticipate that transformation. 



It reminds us that in the delicate dance of climate feedbacks, what looks like a burst of life on a warming tundra can carry an invisible, high‑powered greenhouse cost.



The study is published in the <a href="https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/epdf/10.1029/2024JG008508" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal of Geophysical Research: Biogeosciences</a>.



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Microbes in Arctic lakes are fueling a large methane surge

Methane traps more than 25 times as much heat as...

Earlier this month, astronomers studying the young star V883 Orionis reported spotting complex organic molecules floating in its dusty disk that's in the process of forming planets. 



The discovery hints that life’s chemical toolbox gets stocked well before rocky worlds are even stirred together.



Among the 17 molecular species identified were ethylene glycol and glycolonitrile, both considered stepping stones toward sugars and amino acids.



The <a href="https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.3847/2041-8213/adec6e" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">project</a> was led by <a href="https://www.mpia.de/person/131029/6218661" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Abubakar Fadul</a> at the Max Planck Institute for Astronomy (<a href="https://www.mpia.de/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">MPIA</a>).



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-young-star-named-v883-orionis">Young star named V883 Orionis</h2>



V883 Orionis, which is 1,300 light-years away in Orion, is flaring as it gorges on infalling gas, briefly raising parts of its protoplanetary disk above the water-ice line. 



That extra warmth liberates chemicals that were frozen onto dust grains, which sends tell-tale radio signals toward Earth.



Using the Atacama Large Millimeter/submillimeter Array in Chile (<a href="https://www.almaobservatory.org/en/home/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ALMA</a>), Fadul’s team mapped radiation frequencies between 348 and 366 GHz, isolating 15 emission lines from ethylene glycol and six from glycolonitrile.



The hotter molecule traces gas around 570°F (300°C), while its cooler cousin prefers about 190°F (88°C).



“Our finding points to a straight line of chemical enrichment and increasing complexity between <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earth-collided-with-an-interstellar-cloud-millions-of-years-ago/">interstellar clouds</a> and fully evolved planetary systems,” said Fadul.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-life-molecules-freed-from-ice">Life molecules freed from ice</h2>



Comet observations show that ethylene glycol easily slips from ice when sunlight or mild heat lofts it into space. V883 Orionis supplies the same gentle oven, but on a grander, disk-wide scale.



Glycolonitrile has been detected in dense clouds near the galactic center, proving it can form and survive in harsh stellar nurseries. Its presence in V883 Orionis suggests that survival continues right into the planet-building zone.



In space, ethylene glycol can oxidize into glycolaldehyde, a simple, two-carbon sugar. That sugar was spotted around a young solar-type protostar in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/exoplanet-found-orbiting-the-closest-star-to-our-sun-barnards-star/">Ophiuchus</a> nine years ago.



Laboratory experiments show that glycolonitrile reacts with ammonia to yield glycine, the simplest amino acid, and joins with other nitriles to make adenine, one of DNA’s four bases.



Finding both precursors in the same disk raises the possibility that sugars, acids, and nascent genetic material can migrate together onto pebbles that will seed future planets.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-life-s-chemistry-in-v883-orionis-dust">Life’s chemistry in V883 Orionis' dust</h2>



Many researchers believed outbursts and radiation destroyed inherited molecules, requiring disks to completely rebuild their chemistry from scratch. The new observation tilts the debate back toward inheritance.



Spectral surveys of massive, star-forming cores already list more than two hundred organic species, including ethylene glycol and relatives.



Chemical models show methanol, once locked in ice, endures for millions of years in disk midplanes, later feeding bigger molecules such as ethylene glycol.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/07/complex-organic-molecules_star-V883-Orionis_life-origin-space_credit-ESO_1m.jpg"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/07/complex-organic-molecules_star-V883-Orionis_life-origin-space_credit-ESO_1s.webp" alt="This artist's impression shows the planet-forming disk around the star V883 Orionis. In the outermost part of the disk, volatile gases are frozen out as ice, which contains complex organic molecules. The inset image shows the chemical structure of complex organic molecules detected and presumed in the protoplanetary disk (from left to right): propionitrile (ethyl cyanide), glycolonitrile, alanine, glycine, ethylene glycol, and acetonitrile (methyl cyanide). Credit: ESO/MPIA/HdA" class="wp-image-1979639"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">This artist's impression shows the planet-forming disk around the star V883 Orionis. In the outermost part of the disk, volatile gases are frozen out as ice, which contains complex organic molecules. The inset image shows the chemical structure of complex organic molecules detected and presumed in the protoplanetary disk (from left to right): propionitrile (ethyl cyanide), glycolonitrile, alanine, glycine, ethylene glycol, and acetonitrile (methyl cyanide). Click image to enlarge. Credit: ESO/MPIA/HdA</figcaption></figure>



Because the outburst heats a wide area of the disk, astronomers can track the chemistry across different regions. 



These regions will eventually become asteroid belts, icy rings, and zones where giant planets form - offering a preview of the chemical layout in developing planetary systems.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ancient-ice-holds-life-clues">Ancient ice holds life clues</h2>



Rosetta’s <a href="https://www.esa.int/Science_Exploration/Space_Science/Rosetta/ROSINA" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ROSINA instrument</a> sniffed glycine venting from <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/organic-molecules-found-throughout-the-universe-hint-that-life-began-in-deep-space/">comet 67P/Churyumov-Gerasimenko</a> in 2016. That find proved that amino acid building blocks can hitch rides on icy bodies that eventually rain down on young planets.



Ethylene glycol has turned up in the tails of comets like Lemmon and Lovejoy, underscoring the match between solar system leftovers and V883 Orionis chemistry.



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seven-new-dark-comets-discovered-in-our-solar-system/">Comets</a> act as time capsules, preserving the Sun’s protoplanetary ice for 4.5 billion years.



Each molecular match between those relics and faraway disks strengthens the argument that the delivery of life-building organics to young planets is a standard step, not a quirk of our history



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-gaps-the-models-must-close">Gaps the models must close</h2>



Current disk simulations underproduce glycolonitrile, indicating that additional surface pathways, such as UV-driven reactions between formaldehyde, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/discovery-about-jupiters-clouds-not-ammonia-ice-leaves-astronomers-astonished/">ammonia</a>, and hydrogen cyanide, are still missing.



Adding these energetic routes may also explain why the molecule pops into the gas so readily during stellar flares.



Laboratory studies on cold-grain chemistry continue to improve our understanding of reaction networks. 



However, these networks often leave out the latest radiation experiments, forcing scientists to estimate reaction rates that are still poorly measured.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-questions-still-remain">Questions still remain</h2>



The ALMA spectra show almost no sign of glycolaldehyde, even though the molecule readily converts to ethylene glycol in laboratory ice studies. 



Researchers wonder whether rapid hydrogenation or destruction by hydroxyl radicals keeps the sugar’s signature too faint to see.



Better spectral resolution and follow-up at other wavelengths will help disentangle blended lines and perhaps reveal even heftier organics, from simple peptides to <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/immunology-and-microbiology/phospholipid-synthesis" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">phospholipid precursors</a>.



Scientists still don’t know whether the chemical levels change across the disk or follow patterns called snow lines for each molecule. Answering that question would take sharper images than ALMA can currently provide.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-next-steps-for-v883-orionis">Next steps for V883 Orionis</h2>



The team plans to revisit V883 Orionis once the outburst subsides, so that they can compare hot and cold chemistry in the same system. Such time-lapse snapshots could show which molecules linger and which vanish as the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/planet-forming-disks-surrounding-stars-often-last-much-longer-than-expected/">disk</a> cools.



Meanwhile, other groups are targeting similar flare-up stars of different ages, aiming to chart a timeline of organic complexity across the journey from interstellar cloud to comet.



Future disk surveys with the upcoming <a href="https://ngvla.nrao.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ngVLA</a> will be ten times more sensitive. This could help detect sugars, peptides, and key cell-forming molecules in many star-forming regions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-planets-may-start-life-ready">Planets may start life-ready</h2>



If most disks start with a rich stockpile of prebiotic molecules, nascent planets everywhere may inherit a chemical head start on life. 



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/most-meteorites-can-be-traced-to-three-asteroid-families/">Meteorites</a> that fall to Earth have been found to contain the building blocks of genetic material, like cytosine and uracil.&nbsp;



Scientists already simulate how comet impacts on young planets like Earth could have delivered the building blocks of life. 



Now, they’re extending those simulations to distant star systems like V883 Orionis to see if young planets there could receive similar amounts.



The new ALMA data suggest that delivery service begins well before meteorites form, boosting the odds that rocky worlds across the galaxy begin their stories with similar ingredients.



The study is published in <a href="https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.3847/2041-8213/adec6e" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">The Astrophysical Journal Letters</a>.



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Complex molecules found orbiting a young star strongly point to the origins of life

Earlier this month, astronomers studying the young star V883 Orionis...

Touch is the oldest language of bonding. From a parent cradling an infant to grooming among primates, pleasant tactile stimulation sparks attachment across the animal kingdom.



A new study pushes that insight a step further, showing that the same principle can cross species lines: young <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rats-have-a-very-complex-social-life/">rats</a> repeatedly “tickled” by human fingers start to seek out those hands, and their brains rewire to make the contact feel rewarding.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rats-laugh-during-rough-play">Rats laugh during rough play</h2>



Juvenile rats love rough‑and‑tumble play. When they tussle, they emit rapid bursts of ultrasonic calls around 50 kHz - inaudible to us but easy to pick up with microphones. Neuroscientists interpret these chirps as a sign of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/finding-joy-again-new-therapy-eases-opioid-cravings/">joy</a>.



Earlier work showed that rats produce the same 50 kHz giggles when a person lightly strokes and flips them, imitating play wrestling. With enough sessions, the animals begin to follow the experimenter’s hand, eager for more.



In the new research, a team led by Dr. Himeka Hayashi and Professor Hirotaka Sakamoto from <a href="https://www.okayama-u.ac.jp/index_e.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Okayama University</a> tickled adolescent rats for five minutes twice a day over ten days.



At first, the animals chirped only occasionally, but starting on day five, they consistently produced such vocalizations in response to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/after-centuries-of-debate-we-still-dont-know-how-tickling-works/">tickling</a>. By day ten the calls poured out, clear evidence that repeated touch felt good.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-preference-grows-for-human-touch">Preference grows for human touch</h2>



After the training, the scientists ran a conditioned place preference test. Each rat could roam between two chambers, one linked to tickling in earlier sessions and one neutral. 



The animals spent a larger amount of time in the tickling room after the test as compared to before, a behavioral sign that they now preferred the place associated with human hands.



The finding delighted the researchers on a personal level. “We have always been curious about how humans and animals can form bonds despite having no shared language or lifestyle,” Hayashi said.



“We wondered whether the connection we felt with animals was real or just our imagination. Through this study, we discovered that rats genuinely enjoy interacting with us - which brought us great happiness.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-touch-and-human-animal-bonding">Touch and human-animal bonding</h2>



Pleasure alone was only half the story. The researchers also wanted to see what changed inside the brain. They focused on the ventrolateral part of the ventromedial hypothalamus, or VMHvl, a region already linked to social behaviors in rodents.



After the ten‑day regimen the rats showed increased expression of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/oxytocin-is-crucial-beyond-its-role-as-the-love-hormone/">oxytocin</a> receptors in that hub. Oxytocin, often called the bonding hormone, surges during maternal care, pair bonding, and even friendly hugs in humans.



To test cause and effect, the scientists blocked oxytocin signaling specifically in the VMHvl. The result was striking. Without that chemical handshake, the rats’ new fondness for human touch faded.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-touch-connects-hormone-to-behavior">Touch connects hormone to behavior</h2>



Where does the oxytocin come from? Using neural tracing techniques, the team followed fibers leading into the VMHvl and identified a subset that starts in the supraoptic nucleus, a part of the brain that houses magnocellular neurons known for pumping out oxytocin.



Those long projections suggest a direct anatomical route by which tactile joy travels from a high‑level hormone center to the limbic machinery that tags experiences as good or bad.



“We revealed part of the neural circuitry underlying why naturally wary animals become attached to humans,” Hayashi explained.



“We discovered that during the process of rats becoming tame to human hands, the action of oxytocin in a specific brain region (VMHvl) mediates the effects of pleasant tactile stimulation and controls the formation of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/social-bonds-drive-learning-in-monkeys-and-humans-alike/">social bonds</a> across species.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-human-animal-bonding-beyond-rats">Human-animal bonding beyond rats</h2>



Most companion‑animal owners sense that stroking a cat or dog soothes both parties. The new results give that intuition a mechanistic footing and hint at therapeutic spin‑offs.



“The discovery that pleasant tactile stimulation facilitates cross‑species social bonding could lead to a better understanding of the neural mechanisms underlying both social interaction difficulties and the therapeutic effects of physical contact with animals such as <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/cats-have-become-one-of-the-worlds-most-invasive-predators/">cats</a> and dogs,” Hayashi said.



“This knowledge may contribute to the development of novel therapeutic and support approaches for individuals who struggle with social interactions.”



Nearly 150 years after Darwin wondered how new social ties emerge, the answer for rats and humans appears remarkably simple: persistent, playful touch tunes the same ancient hormone system that once glued mothers to pups.



Unlocking that circuit not only turns skittish rodents into willing partners but may also open doors to treatments that use controlled touch to ease loneliness and boost social confidence in people.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/fulltext/S0960-9822(25)00650-5?_returnURL=https%3A%2F%2Flinkinghub.elsevier.com%2Fretrieve%2Fpii%2FS0960982225006505%3Fshowall%3Dtrue" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Current Biology</a>.



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Tickled rats reveal how human-animal bonds form in the brain

Touch is the oldest language of bonding. From a parent...

In the summer of 2002, the smoke in the air caught Loretta Mickley’s attention. She was on vacation in Western Massachusetts when the sunlight turned strange.



“There was something kind of sparkly about the air,” she recalled. “I’d never seen anything like it, and I said to my husband, ‘What’s going on?’ I’m an atmospheric chemist - I should know, right?”



The shimmering particles turned out to be soot, carried by wind from a wildfire in Quebec. That was over two decades ago. Since then, smoke has gone from a curiosity to a central focus of Mickley’s work.



She’s now a senior research fellow at the <a href="https://seas.harvard.edu/">John A. Paulson</a> School of Engineering and Applied Sciences at Harvard University. Her research is part of a growing wave of attention on wildfire smoke - where it comes from, what it carries, and what it’s doing to our health.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-wildfire-smoke-wasn-t-always-on-the-radar">Wildfire smoke wasn't always on the radar</h2>



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/wildfire-seasons-are-now-overlapping-worldwide/">Wildfires</a> have burned for as long as the planet has existed. But for many years, their consequences were overlooked.



“For a long time, smoke was not considered very important,” Mickley said. "People thought of climate change as temperature and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/record-heat-of-2024-triggered-a-surge-in-sea-level-rise/">sea level rise</a>, and that was it."



"They didn't realize there could be this other consequence of climate change that could be terribly scary, terribly bad for human health - not just close to the fire, but many miles downwind.”



That perception is changing fast. Today, scientists are working across disciplines to understand smoke in detail. 



Chemists break down its chemical components. Engineers build tools to sample the air in and around fire zones. Medical researchers track how it enters the human body. Environmental scientists model future fire risks as the planet heats up.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-smoke-travels-far-and-so-does-the-risk">Smoke travels far - and so does the risk</h2>



Mickley has co-authored dozens of studies on wildfire smoke since 2015. Her work spans continents, even when she doesn’t travel to the fire sites herself.



“I look at agricultural fires in India, and their smoke, which affect millions of people,” she said. “I don't go to these places, but we've done work in the Amazon, work in Australia … working with local people as much as possible.”



What researchers are finding is that wildfire smoke is not just dirty air - it’s <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/almost-everyone-in-europe-breathes-toxic-air/">toxic</a>. When vegetation, buildings, or vehicles burn, they release not only <a href="https://energyeducation.ca/encyclopedia/Soot" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">soot</a>, but also heavy metals and organic compounds that can damage the body.



According to Mickley, many of these chemicals can “attach to and react with human cells.” 



In places like Southern California, where wildfires often spread into developed areas, the smoke can contain harmful synthetic compounds like <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/forever-chemicals-threaten-arctic-wildlife-and-human-health/">PFAS</a> - chemicals linked to cancer and hormonal disruption. These compounds don’t break down easily and can linger in the environment for decades.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tiny-particles-big-health-risks">Tiny particles, big health risks</h2>



The real threat lies in the size of the particles. Most of the health damage comes from PM2.5 - particles that are 2.5 microns in diameter, or smaller. That’s about 20 times smaller than the width of a human hair.



Pollen grains are roughly four times larger than PM2.5 particles, and they get stuck in the nose. By contrast, PM2.5 specks are small enough to enter deep into the lungs and also into the bloodstream. 



"It causes a cascade of inflammation, and it can wreak havoc on <a href="https://www.epa.gov/wildfire-smoke-course/health-effects-attributed-wildfire-smoke">health</a>,” stated Nicholas Nassikas, assistant professor of medicine at Harvard Medical School. He’s also a pulmonologist at Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-human-cost-of-wildfire-smoke-exposure">Human cost of wildfire smoke exposure</h2>



In a study of wildfires in Australia, Mickley and her colleagues found that pregnant women exposed to prolonged smoke had higher risks of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-has-increased-premature-birth-risk-by-60/">premature birth</a>, miscarriage, or needing intensive care for their newborns.



And It’s not just lung or heart disease that are involved. Smoke may worsen COVID-19 symptoms. Early research hints at a link between smoke exposure and dementia. 



Furthermore, hospitals report a rise in emergency visits for multiple conditions after days of smoky air - especially among older adults.



At the Harvard's T.H. Chan School of Public Health, researchers are digging deeper into these effects. Kari Nadeau and her lab are part of the LA Fire HEALTH Study, which looks at how smoke affects people who live and work along the fire lines.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-smoke-s-impact-on-human-cells">Smoke's impact on human cells</h2>



In a June study, researchers examined blood samples from 31 Californians - both firefighters and civilians - who had been exposed to wildfire smoke. 



The experts compared these samples to a control group with no exposure. The results were striking.



“Normally, immune cells are highly regulated, but after smoke exposure, some of those cells begin to behave abnormally - to be hyperactivated,” said study co-author Abhinav Kaushik. Some immune cells, burdened with cadmium and mercury, simply died.



Heavy-metal exposure was most severe among long-term firefighters. Kaushik noted that this may explain the chronic diseases that firefighters experience disproportionately, from cancer to asthma. "Smoke has surfaced as a public-health emergency - no doubt about that,” he added.



The team’s next step is to expand the study and look for a biomarker - something in the blood that would signal smoke exposure. That could help doctors catch issues early or measure the long-term impact.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-big-fires-bigger-numbers">Big fires, bigger numbers</h2>



Even now, the data tells a troubling story. Mickley and co-authors at Harvard and the University of British Columbia estimated that wildfire smoke caused nearly 37,000 excess deaths in 2020 alone.



The range is wide - between 25,000 and 47,000 - but the implication is clear. "In my mind, the exact number is not so important, just that we know it's a big number,” Mickley said. 



“Our goal in giving these numbers is to highlight the sense of urgency and the possible human hazards that follow wildfire smoke which, in turn, is caused by <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-is-making-wildfire-smoke-more-deadly/">climate change</a>.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-new-climate-regime">A new climate regime</h2>



Wildfires feed on dry air, lightning, and heat - all of which are becoming more common as the planet warms. In 2014, Mickley and then-postdoctoral researcher Xu Yue projected that California’s burn area would double by mid-century under one climate scenario. 



What used to be considered an “extreme fire year” in Southern California - about 25,000 acres burned - could become routine. That threshold has already been surpassed in 2025.



At public talks and alumni events, Mickley shares practical steps: wear N95 masks on smoky days, use HEPA filters indoors, and rethink how we manage fire. 



Rather than suppressing every blaze, she advocates for controlled burns to prevent massive, fuel-fed wildfires. However, Mickley stresses that individual actions and local policies can only do so much.



“Wildfire is natural. We're entering a new climate regime that is not - that is at least in large part, due to the greenhouse gases we're pumping into the atmosphere. And this is a recipe for disaster.”



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://phys.org/journals/environmental-science-technology/">Environmental Science &amp; Technology</a>.



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Wildfire smoke is an escalating public health emergency

In the summer of 2002, the smoke in the air...

Modern love stories are rarely built on feelings alone. They are shaped by logistics, timing, and increasingly, financial security.



With more people putting off relationships and marriage, researchers are digging into the reasons why. Career ambitions, shifting social norms, and lifestyle choices all contribute - but one factor stands out above the rest: income.



Psychologists Geoff MacDonald from the <a href="https://www.utoronto.ca" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Toronto</a> and Johanna Peetz from <a href="https://carleton.ca" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Carleton University</a> analyzed data from over 4,800 singles in the U.S. and Germany. They found consistent patterns across cultures. 



Higher income did not boost satisfaction with being single but did spark stronger interest in romantic <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/emojis-help-people-feel-closer-in-their-relationships/">partnership</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-income-boosts-relationship-desire">Income boosts relationship desire</h2>



Across both studies, income had no effect on how satisfied people felt while single. Many affluent singles still expressed discontent. This suggests financial comfort does not improve singlehood joy. Instead, it increases motivation to find a partner.



The researchers also tested whether gender played a role. While the German sample found a stronger effect of income on men’s relationship odds, the overall pattern showed few gender differences in romantic <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mutual-relationships-with-nature-offer-hope-for-a-sustainable-future/">readiness</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-people-feel-emotionally-ready-to-date">People feel emotionally ready to date</h2>



According to Relationship Receptivity Theory, people consider both desire and readiness when entering relationships. Income influences both. 



Higher income individuals feel more prepared emotionally and practically. They can afford transportation, dates, and their own private space.



“I think people get that they are not going to be able to enjoy a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/men-might-say-i-love-you-first-to-show-they-care/">relationship</a> if they are working 80 hours a week, or if they're not sure where they're going to live next year,” noted MacDonald.



The study conducted in the U.S. included follow-up surveys six months later. Participants with higher income were more likely to start relationships during that time, even after accounting for age and gender.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-financial-stability-encourages-dating">Financial stability encourages dating</h2>



Financial peace of mind helps people focus on higher-level needs like companionship. According to Maslow’s hierarchy and related theories, people tackle basic needs first. When those are met, social and romantic needs become more salient.



A higher income may also increase one’s sense of personal power. This could encourage more dating efforts and confidence in romantic interactions. 



For example, some studies suggest that income boosts assertiveness in pursuing potential partners.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-income-drives-relationship-desire">Income drives relationship desire</h2>



Participants who wanted a relationship - particularly those with higher incomes - were more likely to start one later on. 



Interestingly, being happy while single didn’t make someone less likely to begin dating. Income was more strongly linked to a person’s sense of readiness and intention than to how content they felt emotionally.



The German data showed that current income, not income changes, mattered most. This reinforces the idea that stability in the moment is key - not temporary financial bumps.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-does-income-matter-more-for-men">Does income matter more for men? </h2>



Although most results showed gender parity, the German dataset revealed one twist. Income boosted relationship odds more strongly for men than women. Cultural expectations around men as financial providers may play a role.



Still, the broader takeaway is this: across cultures and genders, more money means greater motivation to partner.



“People may not want to take the step towards commitment until they have that economic foundation,” noted MacDonald.



This research links personal finances with bigger social issues. Rising singlehood rates, lower birth rates, and growing loneliness may all tie back to economic insecurity. Helping young adults reach financial stability could indirectly support relationship <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/partners-who-view-the-world-the-same-way-feel-more-secure/">formation</a>.



Policy tools like affordable housing, paid apprenticeships, and income support could make a difference.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-income-and-relationship-readiness">Income and relationship-readiness</h2>



The research invites us to reconsider the long-held belief that love operates solely within the emotional realm. 



While emotions like affection, attraction, and companionship remain central, the decision to pursue and maintain a romantic relationship often hinges on more practical foundations - particularly financial security.



The findings suggest that emotional desire alone may not be enough to motivate relationship pursuit. Instead, economic readiness acts as a gatekeeper, determining whether individuals feel prepared to commit their time, energy, and resources to someone else.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-search-for-love">The search for love </h2>



Wanting love might be nearly universal, a basic human impulse shared across cultures and societies. But the capacity to actively seek out and sustain that love often relies on whether someone feels financially stable. 



Without this foundation, people may choose to delay or avoid relationships altogether, not out of lack of interest, but out of rational concern for their ability to manage the responsibilities that come with partnership.



So, can money buy love? Not in a literal sense. But it can create the conditions in which love feels possible. It grants individuals the breathing room to prioritize connection and take steps toward emotional intimacy. 



In that way, while money may not purchase love itself, it certainly buys the readiness to search for it.



The study is published in the <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/jomf.70000" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal of Marriage and Family</a>.



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Why singles with higher incomes feel more ready for love

Modern love stories are rarely built on feelings alone. They...

A seahorse species found only on Australia’s east coast is at the heart of a quiet conservation project in Sydney Harbor. 



White’s seahorse is shy, delicate, and now one of the only seahorse species in the world officially listed as endangered. One major reason? Its home is disappearing.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-disappearing-seagrass-meadow">A disappearing seagrass meadow</h2>



Researchers from <a href="https://www.unswcollege.edu.au/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">UNSW Sydney</a> have found that one of the seahorse’s key habitats, a native seagrass called <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/worlds-largest-plant-found-in-western-australia/">Posidonia australis</a>, has nearly vanished from Sydney’s coastline. 



Urban expansion, pollution, dredging, and boat traffic have all played a role in wiping out these once-extensive meadows over the past 50 years.



“As the seagrass meadows disappear, so too do the species that depend on them,” said Professor Adriana Vergés. She's part of the Greener Pastures conservation project, and a lead figure in Operation Posidonia and Project Restore - both focused on bringing life back to the harbor.



“There is minimal Posidonia remaining in Sydney Harbor,” noted Professor Vergés. “Historically, these meadows were extensive but coastal development and physical disturbances have wiped much of them out." 



"We predict Posidonia will be locally extinct from Sydney Harbor within the next couple of decades unless we do something about it.”



These meadows aren’t just pretty patches of greenery. They play a key role in keeping the shoreline stable, stopping erosion, storing carbon, and giving marine species places to feed and breed.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-habitat-matters-for-seahorses">Why habitat matters for seahorses</h2>



Seahorses don’t swim like most fish. They float upright and use their prehensile tails to grip seagrass leaves, coral, or sponges. It’s how they stay put when the currents get strong.



“With the Greener Pastures project, we are aiming to tackle one of the root causes of the decline in White's <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seahorse-smuggling-exposed-millions-seized-over-a-decade/">seahorse populations</a>, which is the loss of habitat,” said Professor Vergés. “We can breed and release them, but unless we restore their homes, their populations will keep falling.”



That message is echoed by Mitchell Brennan, program manager of the Sydney Seahorse Project and a Ph.D. candidate at the University of Technology Sydney.



“To hold on to that habitat is critically important,” said Brennan. “Seahorses rely on highly complex habitats like seagrass meadows to camouflage, anchor and feed.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-inspiration-for-seahorse-hotels">Inspiration for seahorse hotels</h2>



However, rebuilding a seagrass meadow isn’t something you can do overnight. While the grass grows, scientists have found a clever way to support the seahorses: hotels.



The idea was first introduced by Dr. David Harasti from the NSW Department of Primary Industries and Regional Development. 



He was inspired by old crab traps that were covered in marine life and designed steel mesh cages - about a meter wide - to mimic the complex tangle of a natural underwater <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/overfishing-and-habitat-degradation-have-devastated-marine-ecosystems/">habitat</a>.



“When left on the seafloor these bespoke hotels soon become encrusted with <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sea-sponges-play-a-critical-role-in-the-ocean-and-they-are-rapidly-vanishing/">sponges</a>, corals and algae,” explained Dr. Harasti.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-safe-zones-for-seahorses">Safe zones for seahorses</h2>



Each cage turns into a safe zone for seahorses. The encrusted material offers camouflage, food, and places to hold onto. Soon, the seahorses start showing up. According to Dr. Harasti, the seahorses move in within three to six months.



At Cobblers Beach, a major site for the project, 15 seahorse hotels were placed next to existing patches of Posidonia in late 2023. Additional seagrass shoots were transplanted shortly after. 



Early surveys showed up to eight seahorses. By 2024, there were 12 - including juveniles likely born on-site.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-when-dads-give-birth">When dads give birth</h2>



Seahorses are unusual in more ways than one. One of the most fascinating things about them? It’s the males who <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/pregnant-male-seahorses-transport-nutrients-to-their-babies/">give birth</a>.



“We've seen multiple pregnant males and partners on the seahorse hotels in the past six months,” said Brennan. “With some of these juveniles being sighted, hopefully the population starts to grow and become stronger and more self-sustaining.”



The hotels may also be helping the newly planted Posidonia itself. Their structure offers protection from waves and shifting sand, giving the delicate grass a better chance to take hold. And as the habitat improves, other species are returning too.



“In areas where we've replanted seagrass, we're already seeing more fish - snapper, flathead, bream and even pajama squid,” said Brennan. "It’s about restoring the function of the whole system.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-role-of-community-engagement">The role of community engagement </h2>



While the science behind Greener Pastures is solid, its heart comes from community involvement.



“This all started when Operation Posidonia received a grant from the Environmental Trust and support from Mosman Council,” said Professor Vergés. 



“The local community is incredibly engaged. They're not just helping us plant seagrass - they're also learning why it matters and sharing this information with their friends and neighbors.”



From the early days of the project in Port Stephens, volunteers have helped collect thousands of loose Posidonia shoots from storm events. Those shoots are then replanted into damaged meadows.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-connecting-people-with-ecosystems">Connecting people with ecosystems </h2>



“Hands-on restoration helps people connect with ecosystems they might never have known about,” said Professor Vergés. 



“When people become part of the process, they gain a sense of ownership - that’s where real stewardship begins. You can't protect what you don't know exists.”



Her goal for the next decade is simple: recovery - for both the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seagrass-plays-a-major-role-in-global-carbon-storage/">seagrass</a> meadows and the seahorses that depend on them.



“I'd like to see a growing population of White's seahorse occupying this habitat - both of them recovering together.”



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How ‘seahorse hotels’ are reviving an endangered species

A seahorse species found only on Australia’s east coast is...

Red-footed tortoises may have more complex mood patterns than we thought. A new study by the University of Lincoln reveals that these reptiles can experience long-lasting emotional states. 



Scientists who specialize in animal cognition now believe red-footed tortoises show mood-linked behaviors and signs of subjectivity once thought unique to birds and mammals.



The research opens a new chapter in how we understand <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/grumpy-tortoise-reptiles-can-experience-mood-swings-too/">reptile</a> minds. It points to long-term mood states, not just momentary reactions. 



If tortoises can experience optimism and pessimism, it challenges deep-rooted beliefs about reptile sentience. This could reshape how we care for them, especially in captivity.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-emotions-and-moods-among-animals">Emotions and moods among animals</h2>



Emotions are short-term reactions tied to specific events. Moods are long-term and independent of immediate context. 



Moods reflect ongoing internal states that shape how animals process the world. Evidence of mood in a species supports the idea that it has the capacity for sentience.



Affective states, which include both emotions and moods, likely evolved because they help animals avoid harm and seek valuable resources. These states also influence how animals learn and make decisions. If an animal is distressed, it may perform poorly in cognitive <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/turtles-may-hold-the-secret-to-cancer-prevention/">tasks</a>. 



When supported socially or placed in comfortable environments, its performance improves.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-tortoise-moods-were-tested">How tortoise moods were tested</h2>



The researchers tested 15 red-footed tortoises using a cognitive bias task. The tortoises learned to associate one location with food and another with no reward. 



Then, the food bowl was placed in ambiguous positions between those two points. <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/world-turtle-day-protecting-turtles-tortoises-and-their-vanishing-habitats/">Tortoises</a> that approached uncertain bowls quickly were seen as optimistic.



The team also assessed the tortoises' behavior in response to new objects and environments. Confident tortoises moved quickly and extended their heads more. This head extension is a known indicator of emotional state in tortoises.



Importantly, the study showed that tortoises were not simply fast or slow movers. Their response times varied depending on their perception of ambiguity. This means their decisions reflected internal states, not random behavior.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-optimism-predicts-lower-anxiety">Optimism predicts lower anxiety</h2>



The results showed a clear link between optimism and reduced anxiety. Tortoises that judged ambiguous cues as positive also showed relaxed behavior in stressful settings. Those with more pessimistic judgments showed hesitancy and limited head extension.



This link mirrors findings in mammals and birds. It suggests tortoises may share an emotional architecture that is much older in evolutionary terms than previously believed.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-animal-welfare-laws">Implications for animal welfare laws</h2>



Sentience is not just a scientific question. It affects how laws treat <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/turtle-heads-reveal-an-ancient-reptilian-secret/">animals</a>. In the UK, the Animal Welfare (Sentience) Act 2022 recognizes animals’ ability to feel. This study supports the idea that reptiles should fall under such protections.



“Animal welfare concerns are reliant upon evidence that a given species has the capacity to experience affective states," noted Anna Wilkinson, a professor of animal cognition.



"With reptiles becoming increasingly common as pets, it is essential for us to study their moods and emotions to try to understand how captivity may impact them."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-understanding-reptile-emotions">Understanding reptile emotions</h2>



The study suggests that reptiles may have a richer emotional life than once believed. While they might not show all the emotional responses seen in mammals - like strong reactions to disappointment - they still seek pleasure, value rewards, and benefit from stimulating environments.



“This is an exciting finding that represents a significant shift in our understanding of what reptiles can experience, with important implications for how we care for these animals in captivity and interact with them in the wild,” said Oliver Burman, professor of animal behavior and welfare at the <a href="https://www.lincoln.ac.uk" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Lincoln</a>.



This research offers two important takeaways. First, tortoises can experience moods, not just emotions. 



Second, cognitive bias tasks and behavioral anxiety tests are valid tools for studying mood in reptiles. Their responses in different contexts indicate that affective states in reptiles are real, measurable, and meaningful.



The study urges us to rethink how we house and care for reptiles. Enriched environments and opportunities for exploration can support their well-being. Recognizing their capacity for mood could also inspire more compassionate treatment.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10071-025-01973-y" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Animal Cognition</a>.



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Tortoises have feelings - and they get stuck in bad moods

Red-footed tortoises may have more complex mood patterns than we...

Researchers at the University of Tokyo have discovered that scent cues from women during ovulation may shape how men perceive them. This isn’t about myths or love potions. It’s about biology in action. The team found that certain compounds in female body odor increase during ovulation. 



When these were mixed with armpit odor samples, men rated the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scent-plays-a-powerful-role-in-choosing-friends/">scent</a> as more pleasant. They also viewed associated images of women as more attractive and more feminine. Additionally, these scents appeared to reduce stress, based on lower levels of the biomarker amylase in saliva.



The team emphasized this is not proof of pheromones in humans. But it suggests smell might quietly influence how people relate to each other.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-human-pheromones-still-uncertain">Human pheromones still uncertain</h2>



Pheromones - behavior-altering chemicals shared between organisms - are a popular staple in pop culture, especially romantic comedies. Despite the fun storylines, their existence in humans has not been definitively proven.



However, a new study from the <a href="https://www.u-tokyo.ac.jp/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Tokyo</a> does show something measurable and interesting is happening - something that parallels the idea of pheromones.



“We identified three body odor components that increased during women’s ovulatory periods. When men sniffed a mix of those <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-the-human-nose-perceives-the-scent-that-lingers-after-rain/">compounds</a> and a model armpit odor, they reported those samples as less unpleasant, and accompanying images of women as more attractive and more feminine,” said Professor Kazushige Touhara. 



“Furthermore, those compounds were found to relax the male subjects, compared to a control, and even suppressed the increase in the amount of amylase (a stress biomarker) in their saliva. These results suggest that body odor may in some way contribute to communication between men and women.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ovulation-changes-body-odor">Ovulation changes body odor</h2>



Previous studies by various research groups found that female body odor changes throughout the menstrual cycle. During the ovulatory phase, these changes can be detected by men and are often described as pleasant. However, the exact nature of these odors remained unknown.



To investigate, Touhara and his team used a technique for chemical analysis called gas chromatography-mass spectrometry and identified volatile compounds that fluctuate across menstrual cycle phases.



“The most difficult part of the study was to determine the axillary (armpit) odor profile within a woman's menstrual cycle. Of particular difficulty was scheduling more than 20 women to ensure that axillary odors were collected at key times during their menstrual cycles,” said first author Nozomi Ohgi, a graduate student in Touhara’s lab at the time of the study. 



“We also needed to interview each participant frequently regarding body temperature and other indicators of the menstrual cycle in order to understand and track their status."



According to Ohgi, this required a great deal of time, effort, and careful attention. "It took more than one month per participant to complete the collection within the menstrual cycle, so very time consuming.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-body-odor-tests-were-done-blindly">Body odor tests were done blindly</h2>



Another challenge the researchers faced was to ensure the tests were done “blind,” meaning the participants did not receive any hints about what they were smelling or why, with some participants being given nothing at all as a measure of control. 



This way, psychological factors and expectations can be reduced or eliminated. The team also used fMRI scans to examine how male brains responded to these ovulation-related body odor <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/why-do-polyester-clothes-stink-more-than-cotton/">compounds</a>. 



The scans showed heightened activity in the orbitofrontal cortex and fusiform gyrus. These regions process reward and facial attractiveness. The effect happened without men consciously noticing the body odor.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-still-not-quite-pheromones">Still not quite pheromones</h2>



“We cannot conclusively say at this time that the compounds we found which increase during the ovulation period are human pheromones. The classical definition of pheromones is species-specific chemical substances that induce certain behavioral or physiological responses,” said Touhara. 



“But from this study, we can’t conclude whether the axillary odors are species-specific. We were primarily focused on their behavioral or physiological impacts, in this case, the reduction of stress and change in impression when seeing faces. So, at this moment, we can say they may be pheromonelike compounds.”



That distinction is key. The researchers found behavioral responses, but not enough to call the compounds true pheromones. Further studies will be needed to confirm whether the effects are species-specific or consistent across diverse populations.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-research-directions">Future research directions </h2>



The team plans to expand their research by including a more diverse group of participants to rule out the influence of specific genetic traits. 



They also aim to conduct more detailed chemical analyses to investigate how ovulatory compounds may impact brain regions involved in emotion and perception.



With more testing, these body odor compounds may offer clues about subconscious human interactions. Body odor might not change behavior dramatically, but it could quietly shape how we feel and connect.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.cell.com/iscience/fulltext/S2589-0042(25)01348-3" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">iScience</a>.



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Body odor may subconsciously change how people interact

Researchers at the University of Tokyo have discovered that scent...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE
</div></figure>



On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop and sunlight barely penetrates through the polar winter. It was here, however, that an international team of scientists found <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/predatory-worms-were-terror-beasts-half-a-billion-years-ago/#google_vignette" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evidence of sea monsters</a> that would change our understanding of ocean life in the past.



This video captures the discovery of Timorebestia fossils that had been hidden for more than 500 million years in the Sirius Passet formation. The "terror beasts," as they are called, are a hidden chapter in the evolutionary history of <a href="https://www.earth.com" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Earth</a>, showing that sophisticated predator-prey interactions occurred much earlier than previously envisioned.



Dr. Jakob Vinther and his research team at the <a href="https://www.bristol.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Bristol</a>, in collaboration with researchers at the <a href="https://eng.kopri.re.kr/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Korean Polar Research Institute</a>, braved extreme weather conditions at 82.5 north latitude to locate these giant creatures. Using sophisticated electron microprobe analysis, they revealed the detailed anatomy of the animals, including their muscle and nerve tissues.



The find upsets the traditional timeline of sea predators. Although we've long appreciated that Cambrian oceans were at one time ruled by <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jWI3-UgA3_o&amp;list=PL1QLQMW9MWDwpkFOnvgAmu7wT6rZmYqdJ&amp;index=19" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">arthropods</a>, these discoveries indicate that relatives of arrow worms were first to dominate the seas. These worms were building sophisticated food webs several million years before other predator groups arose.



Each fossil is a story of ancient hunger, with fossil stomach contents revealing these meter-long beasts dined on heavily armored arthropods regularly, cementing their place as the ocean's first apex predators.



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Worms dominated seas before dinosaurs

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">New York is the site of the world's oldest forest.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-385-million-year-old-trees-discovered">385-million-year-old trees discovered</h2>



Scientists have uncovered something extraordinary just two hours north of New York City. The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/worlds-oldest-forest-discovered-close-to-new-york-city/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">world's oldest forest</a>, dating back 385 million years, offers a window into how Earth's first complex forests shaped our planet's atmosphere.



Located near <a href="https://townofcairo.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cairo, New York</a>, in Greene County, these weren't merely primitive plants struggling to survive. These were sophisticated trees with root systems remarkably similar to modern forests. This ancient woodland predates dinosaurs by 140 million years.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-cairo-forest-discovery">The Cairo forest discovery</h2>



385 million years ago, upstate New York was a tropical paradise near the equator. Thanks to continental drift, this ancient forest has traveled thousands of miles to its current location.



The fossil forest sits in an abandoned quarry, roughly half the size of a football field. This represents just a slice of what was likely a massive forest system stretching from New York into Pennsylvania.



Charles Ver Straeten, curator of sedimentary rocks at the <a href="https://www.nysm.nysed.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">New York State Museum</a>, made the discovery in 2009. While scouting the former highway department property, his trained eye spotted wandering patterns in the stone that looked like marine features.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-revolutionary-age-and-preservation">Revolutionary age and preservation</h2>



The site contains 385-million-year-old rocks with fossilized woody roots forming horizontal patterns up to 18 feet (5.5 meters) wide. As Christopher Berry, a paleobotanist at Cardiff University, explains: "You are walking through the roots of ancient trees."



This discovery pushes back advanced tree evolution by millions of years. The research, published in <a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/home" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Current Biology</a> in December 2019, fundamentally changes our understanding of when complex forests first emerged.



Researchers believe a massive flood buried the forest floor, creating perfect fossilization conditions. Over millions of years, sediment hardened into rock, preserving these root patterns like nature's time capsule.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-meet-archaeopteris-the-first-modern-tree">Meet Archaeopteris: the first modern tree</h2>



The star of this ancient forest is Archaeopteris – not to be confused with the feathered dinosaur Archaeopteryx. This tree was far older and more revolutionary.



William Stein from <a href="https://www.binghamton.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Binghamton University</a> describes the roots as "strikingly modern, essentially what you'd see outside in my yard right now." These weren't simple root systems you'd expect from ancient plants.



Some fossilized roots are six inches (15 centimeters) in diameter, forming 36-foot-wide (11-meter) patterns. These giants grew up to 65 feet (20 meters) tall with five-foot-diameter (1.5-meter) trunks.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-changing-impact">Climate-changing impact</h2>



These trees fundamentally changed Earth's environment. Kevin Boyce, a Stanford University geoscientist, explains how their deep roots triggered "weathering," chemical reactions that pulled carbon dioxide from the atmosphere.



This process dropped atmospheric CO2 levels from 10-15 times higher than today to roughly modern concentrations. These ancient trees helped create atmospheric conditions that made complex life possible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ancient-forest-ecosystem">Ancient forest ecosystem</h2>



The forest was remarkably diverse. Scientists identified Eospermatopteris, palm tree-like plants with short roots that reached 30 feet (9 meters) tall but lacked woody structure. The forest also housed cladoxylopsids and a mysterious third species still being studied.



All reproduced through spores rather than seeds – millions of years before seeds evolved. This tropical environment had no grass, flowers, or flying insects, just towering trees creating Earth's first complex forest canopy.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-scientific-significance">Scientific significance</h2>



Before this finding, the Gilboa forest, located 25 miles (40 kilometers) away, held the "oldest forest" title. Cairo's trees are 2-3 million years older, showing that complex forest ecosystems developed much faster than scientists believed possible.



Patricia Gensel, a <a href="https://www.unc.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of North Carolina</a> paleobotanist, notes: "The size of those root systems is really changing the picture. Even 20 years ago, researchers assumed trees with such complex root systems didn't evolve so early."



The Cairo site presents three unique root systems, suggesting Devonian period forests were diverse ecosystems with different trees occupying different environmental niches, much like today's forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-modern-preservation-efforts">Modern preservation efforts</h2>



In 2022, New York State Senator Michelle Hinchey secured a $170,000 grant for the town of Cairo to construct specialized fencing around the fossil forest site. The town plans to conduct a feasibility study exploring the possibility of creating an educational center and working lab on-site.



Joe Hasenkopf, chair of the Cairo Planning Board, hopes to partner with educational institutions to create a research facility serving scientists, students, and the public.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lessons-for-today-s-climate">Lessons for today's climate</h2>



Why does a 385-million-year-old forest matter today? It shows how dramatically forests can change Earth's climate. These ancient woodlands created the atmospheric conditions supporting complex life.



Understanding how prehistoric forests transformed the planet helps us appreciate modern forests' critical role in addressing climate change. Forests remain Earth's most effective carbon capture systems.



These prehistoric trees changed Earth's atmosphere by pulling massive amounts of carbon dioxide from the air. As we face modern climate challenges, this ancient forest reminds us of trees' incredible power to transform our planet's environment.



The next time you walk through a forest, remember you're experiencing an ecosystem whose blueprint was established 385 million years ago in upstate New York. These ancient pioneers didn't just survive – they thrived and changed the world forever.



The full study was published in the journal Current Biology.



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Earth's oldest forest found in the United States

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ New York is the site of the world's oldest...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Acid rain and a crisis solved.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-don-t-we-ever-hear-about-acid-rain-anymore-the-environmental-crisis-that-was-solved">Why don't we ever hear about "acid rain" anymore? The environmental crisis that was solved</h2>



Remember the 1980s when acid rain dominated headlines? Dire warnings about rain eating buildings, killing fish, and destroying forests filled every news cycle. Then, almost like magic, acid rain vanished from public discourse. What happened? Did we actually solve one of the late 20th century's most pressing environmental challenges?



The answer might surprise you. Unlike many environmental issues that drag on indefinitely, acid rain represents one of modern history's most successful ecological recovery stories. It's a tale of science, politics, and technology working together to tackle what seemed impossible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What was acid rain?</h2>



Acid rain isn't regular rain having a bad day – it's precipitation that became significantly more acidic due to air pollution. When power plants, factories, and vehicles burn fossil fuels, they release sulfur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides (NOx) into the atmosphere.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The science behind it</h2>



Think of acid rain as nature's chemistry experiment gone wrong. These compounds react with water, oxygen, and other chemicals to form sulfuric and nitric acids. When mixed with water vapor in clouds, they create precipitation with dangerously low pH levels.



While clean rain has a pH of about 5.6, acid rain could drop as low as 4.2 to 4.4 – roughly as acidic as tomato juice or coffee. According to US Geological Survey documentation, Scottish chemist Angus Smith first coined "acid rain" in 1872, but it didn't become a household phrase until the 1960s and 1970s when Swedish scientist Svante Odén documented its devastating effects on Scandinavian lakes and European forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The crisis at its peak</h2>



During the height of public concern, environmental damage was both widespread and visible. This wasn't some abstract future threat – people could see destruction happening in real-time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Environmental devastation</h2>



The most dramatic impacts were impossible to ignore. Research documented by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation and the New York State Department of Environmental Conservation shows that in the Adirondack Mountains, more than 200 lakes became so acidic they couldn't support fish life. The Adirondack Council reports that 409 lakes once supported brook trout, but many lost their fish populations due to acid rain.



By 1976, when scientists cataloged all acidified lakes in the Adirondack Park, researchers found that half of the lakes over 2,000 feet above sea level had no fish, according to studies published in environmental journals. The acidification process worked like a slow-motion disaster. As acid rain fell into watersheds, it gradually lowered pH levels. Fish couldn't survive in acidic water, and their food sources died off too.



Trees at high elevations showed stress directly linked to acid rain. It weakened them by leaching nutrients and making them susceptible to disease. Historical records show Germany's Black Forest saw nearly half its trees damaged by the mid-1980s.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Economic impact</h2>



Acid rain wasn't just environmental – it was expensive. Acidic precipitation corroded infrastructure, buildings, and monuments. Historic stone structures deteriorated at accelerated rates. Tourism suffered as lakes became fishless and forests declined. EPA economic analyses from the period documented repair costs mounting into billions annually.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The solution: government action and technology</h2>



Transformation from crisis to success required unprecedented cooperation between governments, industries, and environmental groups.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The Clean Air Act of 1990</h2>



The turning point came with the Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990, signed by President George H.W. Bush. This represented a fundamentally new approach to environmental regulation, as documented in EPA historical records.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Cap-and-trade success</h2>



Instead of mandating specific technologies, the 1990 amendments introduced something revolutionary: a cap-and-trade system for sulfur dioxide emissions. EPA program documentation shows this market-based approach set overall limits but allowed companies to trade emission allowances.



The genius was harnessing market forces to find cost-effective pollution reduction. Companies reducing emissions cheaply could sell excess allowances to those facing higher costs. Research published in environmental economics journals and EPA progress reports shows this resulted in dramatic SO2 reduction at a fraction of projected costs.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Technology advances</h2>



Policy provided the framework, but technology made reductions possible. Studies in atmospheric science journals document the widespread adoption of flue gas desulfurization systems ("scrubbers") that removed sulfur dioxide before it reached the atmosphere. By the 2000s, new installations could remove over 95% of SO2 emissions, according to EPA technical reports.



The push coincided with cleaner energy development. Natural gas produces fewer sulfur compounds than coal. Wind and solar, emerging in the 1990s, captured growing market share, reducing reliance on high-sulfur coal.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-we-don-t-hear-about-it-today">Why we don't hear about it today</h2>



Why did acid rain disappear from headlines? Simple: the problem was largely solved.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Success doesn't make news</h2>



There's an old journalism saying: "If it bleeds, it leads." Environmental success stories don't generate urgency like crisis reporting. Media attention shifted to other challenges: climate change, plastic pollution, and biodiversity loss. There's only so much environmental anxiety the public can absorb, and newer concerns replaced acid rain.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Mission accomplished</h2>



The primary reason is beautifully simple: interventions worked. EPA monitoring data shows sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990. Academic research published in environmental science journals confirms pH levels in formerly affected areas returned closer to normal. This represents one of history's most dramatic environmental recoveries. Studies by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation show fishless lakes now support healthy populations. Forests recovered, and building damage slowed dramatically.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-is-it-really-gone">Is it really gone?</h2>



The crisis is largely resolved, but monitoring data shows the problem isn't completely eliminated – it's managed to acceptable levels. Some areas still experience occasional events during high pollution periods. International environmental research indicates that rapidly industrializing Asian countries face similar problems to what we experienced decades ago, though they're implementing successful strategies.



EPA research shows nitrogen oxide emissions proved more challenging than sulfur dioxide, coming from vehicles and mobile sources. Climate science studies suggest changing weather patterns add complexity to how acid rain forms and falls.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What this teaches us</h2>



The acid rain experience proves that seemingly intractable environmental problems can be solved with scientific understanding, political will, and technological innovation. Environmental monitoring data shows recovery speed was remarkable – within a decade, measurable improvements appeared in air quality and ecosystem health.



Success came from bipartisan support across party lines. Policy analysis studies show the market-based approach appealed to those preferring economic incentives while achieving environmental goals. This support created lasting policy surviving political changes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Conclusion</h2>



Acid rain's disappearance from public consciousness represents environmental science's greatest success stories. Through effective regulation, technological innovation, and international cooperation, we transformed an overwhelming crisis into a manageable challenge.



Today's silence isn't because we forgot – it's because we solved it. The 1990 Clean Air Act, combined with technology and energy market changes, reduced acid rain emissions over 90%, according to comprehensive EPA data analysis.



This success offers hope for current challenges. It proves complex problems can be solved when science, policy, and technology work together. As we face climate change and plastic pollution, acid rain reminds us that dramatic positive change is possible.



Next time someone asks whether environmental regulations work, remember acid rain. It's proof that sometimes, we get it right.



<hr class="wp-block-separator has-alpha-channel-opacity"/>



Sources: This article draws from EPA official documentation and progress reports, peer-reviewed research published in environmental and atmospheric science journals, historical data from the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation, New York State Department of Environmental Conservation records, US Geological Survey publications, policy analysis studies, and environmental monitoring data collected over three decades.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Frequently Asked Questions</h2>



1. Is acid rain completely gone? No, but EPA monitoring shows it's reduced to manageable levels. US sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990, making acid rain much less severe than the 1980s crisis.



2. How long did solving take? Environmental monitoring data shows significant improvements began within 5-10 years of 1990s emission controls. Full ecosystem recovery took longer – some areas need 20-30 years for complete recovery.



3. What made the solution successful? Clear scientific understanding, visible damage motivating action, bipartisan support, available technology, and innovative market-based policies like cap-and-trade.



4. Do other countries have acid rain problems? Yes, particularly rapidly industrializing Asian countries. However, international environmental research shows many implement similar successful control strategies.



5. Could acid rain return? Potentially, if regulations weaken or we return to high-sulfur coal without controls, though effects would take years to become severe according to environmental projections.



6. Can you recommend any teaching tools on the subject of "acid rain"? The United States Environmental Protection Agency produced a wonderful teacher's guide for ages 14 and under that you can find on the EPA website here: <a href="https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf</a>



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The environmental problem we actually solved

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk Acid rain and a crisis solved. Why don't we...

Fresh,Radish,Harvest,On,Soil,In,Garden.

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</div></figure>







Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving fall garden, and this guide lays out the best vegetables and herbs to plant now for a fruitful autumn harvest. 



Fast-growing leafy greens such as spinach, lettuce, kale, and arugula perform especially well in the waning summer heat, with harvests beginning as soon as 30 days. 



These cool-season crops relish the transition into fall, offering repeated yields with cut-and-come-again methods.



Root vegetables like radishes, carrots, and beets also excel during this period. Radishes deliver satisfaction in under a month, while carrots and beets mature in about two months. Employing succession planting ensures a continuous stream of produce deep into the cooler months. 



For a boost of fresh flavor, herbs like cilantro, basil, dill, and chervil are excellent picks. These heat-loving varieties flourish in July’s warmth and are harvest-ready in about 30 days, especially when sown continuously.



Gardeners in zones 6 through 9 can benefit from planting bush beans and snap peas, which don’t require trellising and are ideal for compact plots. 



Maturing in 50–60 days, they’re a smart choice for quick, protein-rich harvests. For those in hotter regions, heat-tolerant crops such as okra and southern peas provide reliable yields and thrive in scorching conditions.



This guide emphasizes more than crop selection—it highlights the importance of timing, soil preparation, and ongoing sowing techniques. 



With thoughtful planning and attention to regional climate needs, even late-summer gardeners can enjoy fresh salads, hearty stews, and the satisfaction of a robust, homegrown harvest well into fall.



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What to plant in your garden in mid-July

https://youtu.be/Fi2OeEwuzRM?si=vTyd2m9FMmtyWkex Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving...

Green,Ecoduct,Over,An,Empty,Highway,During,Sunset.

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://youtu.be/XYgiPzmNBTU?si=eFYY7gPHU1JznLvU
</div></figure>



A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that wildlife tunnels significantly reduce amphibian road mortality during seasonal migrations. 



Frogs and salamanders often cross roads to reach breeding ponds each spring, but many are killed by vehicles. 



Researchers from the <a href="https://www.uvm.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Vermont</a>, in collaboration with local citizens and the Vermont Agency of Natural Resources, installed two underpass tunnels in 2015. 



Over a 12-year monitoring period, they observed an 80.2% reduction in amphibian deaths, and up to 94% for non-climbing species like salamanders. 



The study used a before-after-control-impact design and documented more than 5,200 amphibians, highlighting the tunnels’ effectiveness even in nearby buffer zones.



Funded at $342,397 - far cheaper than wildlife crossings for large mammals - the project showcased the power of community-led conservation.



Local groups initiated the effort after observing mass amphibian deaths. Wildlife cameras later captured over 2,200 amphibians using a tunnel in just one spring, along with other species like raccoons and bobcats, indicating wider ecosystem benefits.



This marks the first peer-reviewed, long-term data set in the northeastern U.S. confirming amphibian-specific underpasses work. 



The study urges transportation departments to incorporate these designs into road planning and highlights how community action, thoughtful infrastructure, and persistence can make a real difference for biodiversity.



The full study was published in the <a href="https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1617138125000780" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal for Nature Conservation</a>.



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Wildlife tunnels save millions of amphibians

https://youtu.be/XYgiPzmNBTU?si=eFYY7gPHU1JznLvU A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that...

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing it with probiotics and prebiotics, aiming to create a treat that satisfies cravings while supporting gut health. 



The challenge lies in maintaining chocolate's beloved texture and flavor while adding health benefits.



<figure class="wp-block-embed aligncenter is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://youtu.be/Ug657J67iEo?si=w96YjGMsg939LD_3
</div></figure>



Probiotics - beneficial microbes that balance gut bacteria and aid digestion - are typically fragile and can be destroyed by stomach acid or processing. 



Prebiotics act as food for these microbes, helping them thrive. Together, they form "synbiotics," a powerful health combination.



Researchers Smriti Gaur and Shubhi Singh from India's Jaypee Institute of Information Technology took an innovative approach, using natural prebiotics like corn and honey instead of complex processing methods. 



They created five chocolate varieties: a control and four synbiotic versions containing different combinations of prebiotics, probiotics (Lactobacillus strains), and flavor enhancers (cinnamon or orange).



Laboratory simulations of human digestion showed the probiotics remained viable for over five hours, suggesting they could survive long enough to benefit gut health.



Taste tests were positive, with researchers particularly enjoying the orange-flavored variety, describing it as having "vibrant citrus notes" complementing the "rich cocoa" with a "luxurious" texture.



This research represents just the beginning. With further refinement of strains, textures, and flavors, chocolate could evolve beyond mere indulgence to become a functional food that nourishes while it delights.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.4c00741" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ACS Food Science &amp; Technology</a>.

Is chocolate the next nutritional powerhouse?

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

[sendtonews key="0ynNMYkMKa-2340414-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

[sendtonews key="LvS8v8bp9z-2564889-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How does salt makes things taste better?

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Santiago, Chile in South America

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Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.



According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."



Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;



ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. 



Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

[sendtonews key="0879czfG3k-1785905-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from NASA...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

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Earth,Like,Exoplanet,3d,Render

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

[sendtonews key="QIoVYJqRBi-2434608-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from NASA...

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Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes Earth’s interconnected systems, and how this network is affected by rising temperatures.&nbsp;



During 2020, average global temperatures matched the hottest year on record. The hurricane season was also record-breaking, with many of the storms intensifying at extraordinary speeds. Hot water in the ocean is fuel for hurricanes. The satellite data shows that it's all one interconnected system showing how Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected.



According to NASA, dust swept up from Northern Africa plays a major role in the formation of hurricanes, and is also a key source of fertilization in the Amazon rainforest. As a result of<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seagrass-wasting-disease-is-fueled-by-climate-change/"> climate</a> change, dust plumes are expected to decline, which will have an effect on vegetation far away.&nbsp;



Images from Earth-observing satellites show how the world’s plant life is affected by natural disasters, fires, and deforestation. Satellites also reveal how widespread changes in vegetation impact waterways,&nbsp; the climate, air quality. Satellites communicate by using radio waves to send signals to the antennas on the Earth. "Earth From Space" is a groundbreaking two-hour special that reveals a spectacular new space-based vision of our planet. 



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected

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