Young aspen trees in Yellowstone are doing something they have not done in almost 100 years. Rather than sprouting and being eaten back to nubs by elk and bison, they're actually growing into tall, adult forest trees rising up towards the canopy.



This matters more than it might seem, because it shows what happens when a missing piece of an ecosystem returns.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-yellowstone-aspens-and-elk">Yellowstone, aspens, and elk</h2>



In the 1920s, people <a href="https://www.yellowstone.org/wolf-project/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">eliminated wolves in Yellowstone</a>. At the time, with limited scientific knowledge, managers believed it was the right thing to do.



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/from-wolves-to-dogs-did-domestication-begin-without-human-help/">Without wolves</a>, elk herds grew very large. Elk love to eat aspen shoots - the tender young growth is highly palatable to them.



For roughly 70 years, elk browsed aspen sprouts down to stub height, and the trees couldn't grow. 



If you had walked through Yellowstone in the 1980s, you would have seen many tiny aspen shoots covering the ground, but almost no young trees gaining height. 



The forest's regeneration was stalled. Old trees died, and no new ones replaced them.



In 1995 and 1996, park managers reintroduced wolves into the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/yellowstone-supervolcano-eruption-study-sparks-new-debate-on-where-and-when-it-will-erupt/">Yellowstone Park ecosystem</a>. Scientists hoped and wondered whether this would change anything for the trees.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-aspen-matter-to-yellowstone">Why aspen matter to Yellowstone</h2>



Aspen groves provide habitat for many species. Birds nest in them. Beavers eat the bark and use the wood for dams. Butterflies and moths lay eggs on the leaves. 



Their canopy admits enough light for wildflowers and shrubs to grow beneath. When it rains, aspen groves hold water in the soil better than some other forest types.



In short, when aspen return, dozens of other species benefit. More trees support more insects, which in turn support more birds, enriching the ecosystem.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-checking-the-trees-three-decades-later">Checking the trees three decades later</h2>



<a href="https://fwcs.oregonstate.edu/users/luke-painter" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Luke Painter</a>, an ecologist at <a href="https://oregonstate.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Oregon State University</a>, sought clear answers. His team returned to 87 aspen stands across Yellowstone that scientists had previously surveyed. 



They measured thousands of young trees, looked for bite marks, and counted how many stems were tall enough that elk could no longer reach the tips.



About a third of these stands now have many tall young aspens pushing toward the canopy. 



"About 26 of the 87 aspen stands we examined had large numbers of tall saplings throughout, a remarkable change from the 1990s when surveys found none at all," Painter said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-wolves-matter-to-yellowstone-aspens">Why wolves matter to Yellowstone aspens</h2>



Breaking it all down, the conclusions of this study are pretty simple. 



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/wolves-move-pups-across-mountains-to-adapt-to-climate-pressure/">Wolves hunt elk</a>. When wolves came back, two things happened. First, elk numbers declined from unusually high levels. Second, elk changed their behavior. They spent less time in the same areas feeding.



With fewer elk and shorter feeding bouts, more aspen shoots survived long enough to exceed the browsing zone - about six to seven feet high. 



Once a sapling reaches that height, elk cannot easily reach the growing tip. The tree continues to grow.



"The reintroduction of large carnivores has initiated a recovery process that had been shut down for decades," Painter explained.



Scientists call this a <a href="https://www.nature.com/scitable/knowledge/library/trophic-cascades-across-diverse-plant-ecosystems-80060347/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">trophic cascade</a> - when adding or removing one species causes changes that ripple through the whole system.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-some-places-recover-others-don-t">Some places recover, others don't</h2>



Unfortunately, not every aspen stand has recovered yet. Some valleys still have many short, heavily browsed shoots, because it's not only elk eating them anymore. 



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/yellowstones-iconic-bison-have-merged-into-a-single-herd/">Bison herds have grown</a>, and bison browse on aspen as well. They are strong enough to break young trees. 



"Increasing numbers of bison may be emerging as a new constraint to aspen in some areas," Painter confirmed.



Additionally, winter snow depth varies; droughts stress trees; bears and mountain lions also hunt elk; and hunting outside the park influences elk distribution. 



All of these factors interact, which is why some sites show strong recovery, others show moderate recovery, and a few have changed very little.



The key pattern is that places with many tall saplings experience little browsing, and aspen groves that remain popular eating grounds today stay short. 



This fact is the strongest indication that tree recovery is linked directly to wolf presence, not solely to weather or soil conditions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-proof-in-the-measurements">Proof in the measurements</h2>



Painter's team did not rely on casual observation. They used the same methods as earlier researchers, measuring the same plots. 



They counted recruitment - when young trees surpass browsing height and begin progressing toward maturity. This measure is crucial. Sprouts are insufficient if they never grow; without recruitment, the forest cannot replace itself.



The results are robust. After being stalled for most of a century, Yellowstone's aspens are increasing in height. In recovering stands today, you will see saplings - six, eight, or ten feet tall - that were not present in the 1990s.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-future-of-yellowstone-s-aspens">The future of Yellowstone's aspens</h2>



"This is a remarkable case of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/giant-viruses-found-in-yellowstones-hot-springs-may-be-near-the-root-of-all-life-on-earth/">ecological restoration</a>," Painter concluded. "Wolf reintroduction is yielding long-term ecological changes contributing to increased biodiversity and habitat diversity."



Trees grow slowly, so even with wolves restored, it will take decades for these young aspens to form a full-grown forest. 



Some areas might never fully recover if bison numbers continue to rise or if the climate becomes too hot and dry.



Thanks to the work of Painter and his team, scientists are now certain that restoring the Yellowstone predator has restarted aspen forest regeneration. Not everywhere and not perfectly, but enough to be measured, creating hope for the future.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0378112725004499?via%3Dihub" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Forest Ecology and Management</a>.



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Yellowstone's aspen trees are growing again thanks to the reintroduction of wolves

Young aspen trees in Yellowstone are doing something they have not done in almost 100 years. Rather than sprouting and being eaten back to nubs by elk and bison, they're actually growing into tall, adult forest trees rising up towards the canopy. This matters more than it might seem, because it shows what happens when a missing piece of an ecosystem returns. Yellowstone, aspens, and elk In the 1920s, people eliminated wolves in Yellowstone. At the time, with limited scientific knowledge, managers believed it was the right...

Central Asia is running faster than nature can keep up. The latest region‑wide audit shows that human claims on land, water, and ecosystem productivity have blown past levels scientists call safe.



The research was led by Professor Duan Weili of the <a href="http://english.egi.cas.cn/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Chinese Academy of Sciences</a> and post‑doctoral researcher Zhu Ziyang. Together with an international team, they tracked six environmental <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/world-water-day-2025-preserving-glaciers-protecting-our-future/">footprints</a> from 2000 to 2020.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-asia-s-rising-water-crisis">Asia’s rising water crisis</h2>



Across the five republics the land footprint already triples the share allowed under the down‑scaled <a href="https://www.stockholmresilience.org/research/planetary-boundaries.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">planetary boundaries</a>. Meanwhile, the metric known as <a href="https://wad.jrc.ec.europa.eu/humanappropriation" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">human appropriation of net primary production</a> climbs even higher. 



Kazakhstan and Uzbekistan are the two biggest borrowers from nature, earning a “priority management” label in the study for their outsized ecological withdrawals.



The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-discovery-water-molecules-will-force-chemistry-textbooks-to-be-rewritten/">pattern</a> is lopsided in another way: more than 80 percent of every footprint originates inside the region, so trade alone cannot solve the crunch. 



Researchers link the spike to rapid population growth and a construction boom fueled by fossil fuel revenues. They also point to an agricultural model inherited from Soviet central planning.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-land-use-threatens-wildlife-and-soil">Land use threatens wildlife and soil</h2>



Converting pasture and desert fringe into irrigated farms strips wild vegetation of the carbon it once fixed and fragments habitats needed by pollinators and large herbivores. 



By 2020, Tajikistan’s sustainability ratio for land‑based productivity had climbed above 90 - a level ecologists regard as ecological emergency territory.



Heavy harvesting of photosynthetic energy thins the soil. Downstream, dust storms take over, carrying eroded silt hundreds of miles into parched <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earths-land-based-water-storage-has-drastically-diminished-and-its-not-being-replaced/">basins</a>. Biodiversity follows the same downward slope, squeezing ancient steppe communities that evolved with far lighter grazing pressure.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-asia-s-old-farming-wastes-water">Asia’s old farming wastes water</h2>



Irrigated farming absorbs roughly 90 percent of diverted water, and aging Soviet‑era canals leak about 40 percent of that volume before it ever reaches a field. 



Cotton, the historic export staple, drinks more than twice as much water per pound of lint as winter wheat, further draining the Amu Darya and Syr Darya rivers of Central Asia.



Field trials in the Fergana Valley show that drip lines trimmed water use by 18-42 percent while boosting <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/222181065_Water_use_efficiency_of_irrigated_cotton_in_Uzbekistan_under_drip_and_furrow_irrigation" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">irrigation efficiency</a> by up to 103 percent. 



Yet only a sliver of cropland currently benefits from such technology, largely because farmers lack capital and clear water‑pricing <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/water-might-have-formed-long-before-galaxies/">signals</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-pollution-from-farming-and-factories-nbsp">Pollution from farming and factories&nbsp;</h2>



Greenhouse‑gas <a href="https://longreads.cabar.asia/climatechangecentralasia_en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">inventories</a> put the region’s annual emissions near 470 million metric tons of CO2‑equivalent, roughly one percent of the global load. 



Nitrogen fertilizer use has increased alongside emissions, adding 628 million kilograms of reactive nitrogen over two decades. This surge has fueled algal blooms that clog irrigation gates.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/07/central-asia_climate-change_illustration_credit-Earths-Future_1m.jpg"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/07/central-asia_climate-change_illustration_credit-Earths-Future_1s.webp" alt="Schematic diagram of the main components of human appropriation of net primary production in arid Central Asia. Credit: Earth's Future (2025)" class="wp-image-1977470"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Schematic diagram of the main components of human appropriation of net primary production in arid Central Asia. Click image to enlarge. Credit: Earth's Future (2025)</figcaption></figure>



Domestic energy burning, petrochemical refining, and steel production together dominate the carbon tally, leaving little room for expansion without efficiency gains.



Because phosphorus runoff is smaller but more concentrated, it acts as a chronic pulse that degrades reservoir water quality. It also shortens canal life through biofouling.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-asia-s-farming-can-save-water">Asia’s farming can save water</h2>



Uzbekistan’s gradual pivot from cotton to wheat and fruit since 2010 has already slowed land‑footprint growth, offering a glimpse of how crop diversification pays ecological dividends. 



Livestock policy is another lever; rotational <a href="https://thescipub.com/abstract/ojbsci.2025.209.218" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">t</a>r<a href="https://thescipub.com/abstract/ojbsci.2025.209.218" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ials</a> in northern Kazakhstan improved pasture biomass and soil organic matter within three seasons, even under heavy stocking rates.



Integrated crop-livestock systems recycle manure locally, cutting both chemical fertilizer demand and methane emissions from open lagoons.



 Precision seeding and deficit‑irrigation scheduling, common in U.S. Southwest farming, could translate readily to the warm, dry climate zones of the Kazakh steppe and the Karshi plain.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-simple-solutions-can-save-nature">Simple solutions can save nature</h2>



“Our study shows that Central Asia's environmental pressure mainly stems from its domestic consumption," said study lead author Zhu Ziyang. "That calls for policies like better irrigation and scientific land management to bring development back inside a safe space.”



Canal lining, pressurized pipe networks, and solar‑powered pump retrofits each deliver quick water savings that postpone contentious upstream‑downstream negotiations.



On rangelands, subsidies that reward seasonal rests or herd rotation cost less than reseeding bare hillsides once degradation sets in. 



International lenders have begun to take notice. In May 2025, the World Bank approved a $200 million credit to modernize Uzbekistan’s irrigation and drainage grid. Disbursements are tied to measurable reductions in leaks.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-asia-s-future-depends-on-water">Asia’s future depends on water</h2>



Scientists warn that six of nine planetary guardrails are already breached worldwide, so the region’s overshoot lands on a planet with shrinking shared headroom. 



Achieving absolute environmental <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-urgent-plea-sustainable-climate-solutions-save-earth-humanity/">sustainability</a> will demand that Central Asia cap resource use even as its population edges toward 45 million and summers grow hotter and drier.



How the five republics respond will shape whether future generations inherit a livable, functioning landscape. Their response will determine whether scarce resources are stabilized or continue to unravel under rising demand and outdated systems.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1029/2025EF006129" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Earth's Future</a>.



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Central Asia has surpassed climate safety limits and now faces 'extreme unsustainability'

Central Asia is running faster than nature can keep up....

The,Galapagos,Islands.,Ecuador.,Galapagos,Tortoise,In,Motion.,Island,Of

For centuries, turtles have fascinated people with their remarkably long lifespans.&nbsp;A new study reveals something even more extraordinary. Cancer is extremely rare in turtles, which makes them a promising model for cancer research.



The study, led by Dr. Ylenia Chiari at the <a href="https://www.nottingham.ac.uk/">University of Nottingham</a>, shows that cancer affects only about 1% of turtles. This rate is much lower than in mammals or birds.



The team analyzed decades of health records from zoos across Europe and the United States, including <a href="https://www.chesterzoo.org/">Chester Zoo</a>. 



The findings suggest that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/world-turtle-day-2025-ancient-creatures-with-modern-challenges/">turtles</a> could help scientists learn new ways to prevent or fight cancer in humans.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-turtles-rarely-get-cancer">Turtles rarely get cancer</h2>



The experts reviewed necropsy records from hundreds of zoo turtles. According to the detailed analysis, only about 0.34% of the turtles examined showed any abnormal growth. 



Cancer cases were even rarer. Most cancers found were isolated cases, and they rarely spread. Turtles show no clear pattern of cancers affecting specific organs.



Compared to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/beating-the-heat-how-sea-turtles-cope-with-warming-waters/">mammals</a> and birds, turtles remain outliers. Mammals have average cancer rates of 10 percent, while birds have rates around three percent. By contrast, cancer rates in turtles are consistently under one percent.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-turtles-have-strong-cancer-defense">Turtles have strong cancer defense</h2>



Turtles have slow metabolisms and strong defenses against oxidative stress. These traits reduce cellular damage over time.



Genomic studies revealed that turtles, especially Galapagos and Aldabra giant tortoises, have unique genetic mutations. These mutations enhance tumour suppression and help maintain DNA stability.



Functional tests on Galapagos giant tortoise cells showed an ability to trigger cell death early. This prevents damaged cells from becoming cancerous. <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/turtle-heads-reveal-an-ancient-reptilian-secret/">Turtles</a> also exhibit robust antioxidant responses, even under stress.



Turtles’ low metabolic rates also limit the buildup of harmful byproducts. This may explain their strong cancer resistance.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-turtles-stay-cancer-free-despite-size">Turtles stay cancer-free despite size</h2>



Turtles challenge common biological patterns. Large, long-lived species often have higher cancer risks because of more cells. But turtles defy this rule.



Some species, like Galapagos and Aldabra tortoises, weigh over 660 pounds. Others, such as leatherback sea turtles, can exceed 1,100 pounds. Still, their cancer rates remain extremely low.



“Turtles, especially iconic species like Galapagos and Aldabra giant <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/young-sea-turtles-swim-and-choose-their-paths-instead-of-drifting/">tortoises</a>, are famous for living long lives and growing to tremendous sizes," noted Dr. Chiari.



"You’d expect that to mean more cancer, but our study, which combines decades of zoo records with previous research, shows how incredibly rare cancer is in these animals." 



Dr. Chiari said that the study highlights turtles as an untapped model for understanding cancer resistance and healthy aging, and it shows the vital role zoos play in advancing science through collaboration.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-turtle-secrets-and-medical-insights">Turtle secrets and medical insights</h2>



According to study lead author Dr. Scott Glaberman from the University of Birmingham, biodiversity has a lot to teach us about how the world works. 



"While fascinating in their own right, extreme species like giant tortoises may have already solved many of the problems humans face, including those related to aging and cancer. That makes biodiversity doubly worthy of protection,” said Dr. Glaberman.



Dr Helena Turner, Research Officer at Chester Zoo, said her team has been long been committed to detailed health monitoring and the long-term care of their animals. 



"It’s fantastic to see these efforts not only contribute to advancing scientific knowledge around cancer resistance but also support vital conservation work to protect these remarkable species that may hold keys to medical breakthroughs benefiting both wildlife and humans,” said Dr. Turner.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-studying-turtles-in-the-wild">Studying turtles in the wild</h2>



Much of the current data comes from zoo populations. Zoo turtles often live longer than wild ones. This could increase chances of detecting cancer. However, researchers still lack cancer data from wild turtles.



Tracking turtles across their long lifespans remains difficult. Many species live as long as humans. Without decades of monitoring, it is hard to collect enough data.



Researchers suggest using turtle cell lines for laboratory studies. These experiments could reveal how turtle cells respond to stress, DNA damage, and other cancer-related triggers.



Such studies may unlock hidden mechanisms behind turtles’ resistance to cancer and aging. Insights from turtles could help both human medicine and wildlife conservation.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-conservation-efforts-remain-critical">Conservation efforts remain critical</h2>



Many turtle species face extinction threats. The <a href="https://www.iucnredlist.org" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">IUCN Red List</a> categorizes several as Endangered or Critically Endangered.



Threats include habitat loss, illegal wildlife trade, and climate change. Many zoos in the study also lead breeding programmes to save these species.



Protecting turtles could also protect vital genetic secrets that benefit human health. Their remarkable resistance to cancer makes their conservation even more urgent.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://academic.oup.com/bioscience/advance-article/doi/10.1093/biosci/biaf100/8185759" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">BioScience</a>.



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Turtles and tortoises may hold the secret to cancer prevention in humans

For centuries, turtles have fascinated people with their remarkably long...

In the arid, fossil-rich landscape of Arizona’s Petrified Forest National Park, a team of paleontologists stumbled across something unexpected. The experts found the fossilized jawbone of a pterosaur that may be the oldest ever found in North America.



The discovery came from a remote site that revealed not just one remarkable creature, but a whole ecosystem preserved in stone.



The study was led by scientists from the Smithsonian’s <a href="https://www.si.edu/museums/natural-history-museum">National Museum of Natural History</a> and <a href="https://www.nps.gov/pefo/index.htm" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Petrified Forest National Park</a>. The research introduces a new pterosaur species alongside more than 1,000 other fossils.



Some of these include one of the world’s oldest turtle specimens. Together, the fossils paint a vivid picture of life just before one of Earth’s biggest mass extinctions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-life-before-mass-extinction">Life before mass extinction</h2>



The pterosaur fossils come from rock layers that date back to the Late <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-did-not-impact-dinosaur-abundance-in-the-triassic/">Triassic</a> period. During this time, ancient amphibians and crocodile-like reptiles lived side by side with animals that would go on to shape the future of the planet, including early turtles, frogs, and flying reptiles.



“The site captures the transition to more modern terrestrial vertebrate communities, where we start seeing groups that thrive later in the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dinosaurs-were-not-the-only-animals-that-grew-fast-during-the-mesozoic/">Mesozoic</a> living alongside these older animals that don’t make it past the Triassic,” said study lead author Ben Kligman.



This glimpse into prehistoric life is especially valuable because it dates to just before the end-Triassic extinction - about 201.5 million years ago - when massive volcanic eruptions dramatically altered Earth’s climate. 



The event wiped out roughly 75% of all species, paving the way for dinosaurs to rise to dominance.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fossils-hidden-by-ash">Fossils hidden by ash</h2>



Direct fossil evidence from just before this extinction is hard to come by. Few fossil-rich outcrops from this time exist, but Petrified Forest National Park is one of the rare exceptions. 



Known for its colorful layers of petrified wood and Triassic fossils, the park has long been a treasure trove for paleontologists.



One rock layer, called the Owl Rock Member, has proven especially important. It’s full of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fire-and-ice-volcanic-ash-plays-a-surprising-role-in-cloud-formation/">volcanic ash</a>, which helped scientists date it precisely to around 209 million years ago. These are some of the park’s youngest rocks - but also among its least explored.



Study co-author William Parker explained that the Owl Rock exposures are tucked away in extremely remote areas. Few teams have been able to study them in detail.



In 2011, a research group led by Kay Behrensmeyer decided to take on the challenge. Braving the rugged terrain - complete with rattlesnakes and wild horses - they went in search of mammal-like fossils. 



What they found instead was a densely packed bonebed, full of life from a vanished world.



“That’s the fun thing about paleontology: you go looking for one thing, and then you find something else that’s incredible that you weren’t expecting,” said Kligman, who started working at the site during his PhD studies in 2018.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ancient-life-buried-by-floods">Ancient life buried by floods</h2>



Back in the Triassic, this part of Arizona was located near the equator and sat in the center of the supercontinent <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthpedia-articles/supercontinents-101-pannotia-gondwana-and-pangea/">Pangaea</a>. 



The land was semi-arid, with winding river channels and a seasonal flood cycle. One of those floods likely buried the animals that are now preserved in the bonebed.



The fossil layer was so dense with tiny remains that collecting them onsite was impossible. Instead, researchers carved out large blocks of sediment, wrapped them in plaster, and brought them back to the lab.



Many of these blocks were sent to the Smithsonian’s FossiLab, where volunteers spent thousands of hours carefully exposing the bones. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-small-fossils-major-clues">Small fossils, major clues</h2>



The rivers teemed with fish like coelacanths and freshwater sharks. Giant amphibians - some stretching over six feet long - swam through the streams. On land, armored herbivores and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ancient-crocodile-like-beast-was-a-terrifying-predator/">crocodile-like predators</a> ruled.



At the same time, smaller creatures were starting to make their mark. The team identified early frogs, relatives of today’s tuataras, and a turtle with spike-like armor that could fit in a shoebox. 



The remains of a small pterosaur were also hidden among the layers - just one part of a fossil record that shows how quickly new groups were emerging and spreading across Pangaea.



“This suggests that turtles rapidly dispersed across Pangaea, which is surprising for an animal that is not very large and is likely walking at a slow pace,” said Kligman.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-pterosaur-that-perched-like-a-bird">Pterosaur that perched like a bird</h2>



One of the most exciting finds was a jawbone with teeth still in place. It belonged to a small pterosaur, one of the first vertebrates capable of powered flight. This early flier could have perched on a person’s shoulder.



The pterosaur fossil was uncovered by Suzanne McIntire, a volunteer who spent 18 years working in the FossiLab.



“What was exciting about uncovering this specimen was that the teeth were still in the bone, so I knew the animal would be much easier to identify,” McIntire said.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/07/pterosaur_Eotephradactylus-mcintireae_Arizona_illustration_credit-Brian-Engh_1big.jpg"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/07/pterosaur_Eotephradactylus-mcintireae_Arizona_illustration_credit-Brian-Engh_1s.webp" alt="An artist's reconstruction of the fossilized landscape, plants and animals found preserved in a remote bonebed in Petrified Forest National Park in Arizona. The newly described pterosaur Eotephradactylus mcintireae is seen eating an ancient ray-finned fish alongside an early species of turtle and an early frog species, with the skeleton of an armored crocodile relative lying on the ground and a palm-like plant growing in the background. Credit: Brian Engh" class="wp-image-1977432"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">An artist's reconstruction of the fossilized landscape, plants and animals found preserved in a remote bonebed in Petrified Forest National Park in Arizona. The newly described pterosaur Eotephradactylus mcintireae is seen eating an ancient ray-finned fish alongside an early species of turtle and an early frog species, with the skeleton of an armored crocodile relative lying on the ground and a palm-like plant growing in the background. Click image to enlarge. Credit: Brian Engh</figcaption></figure>



The wear on the teeth gave scientists a clue about the pterosaur’s diet. It likely fed on armored fish that were common in the area. 



The new species was named Eotephradactylus mcintireae, which translates to “ash-winged dawn goddess." This title honors McIntire, who retired last year.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-exactly-is-a-pterosaur">What exactly is a pterosaur?</h2>



Pterosaurs were flying reptiles that existed during the time of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/where-did-dinosaurs-come-from-missing-fossils-hold-the-secret/">dinosaurs</a>. They were the first animals with backbones to evolve powered flight, well before birds or bats came on the scene.



Powered by skin stretched across an extended fourth finger, they ranged in size and shape from something no larger than a crow to giants with wings up to 30 feet or more.



Pterosaurs were not dinosaurs. They formed their own group of reptiles and possessed special adaptations for flight. Some flew above coastlines, while others preyed on fish or small land animals inland.



The new fossil contributes to what is known about those early birds and how they expanded around the globe.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.2505513122" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a>.



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North America's oldest known pterosaur discovered in a petrified forest

In the arid, fossil-rich landscape of Arizona’s Petrified Forest National...

We hear a lot about how climate change affects food production, especially in terms of crop yields. But a growing body of research points to a quieter, less visible threat: the nutritional quality of our food is changing - and not for the better.



New findings from researchers at <a href="https://www.ljmu.ac.uk/">Liverpool John Moores University</a> suggest that rising levels of CO2 and hotter temperatures are altering the chemistry of common crops. The result? Plants may look healthy and grow fast, but they’re packing fewer essential nutrients.



That has major implications for public health, especially in countries already battling food insecurity and chronic diseases.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-testing-vegetables-for-tomorrow">Testing vegetables for tomorrow</h2>



“Our work looks beyond quantity to the quality of what we eat,” said Jiata Ugwah Ekele, a PhD student at Liverpool John Moores University.



Ekele’s research focuses on how environmental stressors - from increased carbon dioxide to rising temperatures - change the nutritional makeup of food crops. 



Her team grows popular leafy vegetables like kale, rocket, and spinach inside climate-controlled chambers at the university. Researchers adjust the CO2 levels and temperatures to reflect the UK’s future climate projections.



“These environmental changes can affect everything from <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/key-to-life-on-earth-photosynthesis-begins-on-the-quantum-level-with-a-single-photon/">photosynthesis</a> and growth rates to the synthesis and storage of nutrients in crops,” said Ekele.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tracking-plant-activity">Tracking plant activity</h2>



The research takes a closer look at what’s happening inside the plants. Scientists track photosynthetic activity as the plants grow, using chlorophyll fluorescence and quantum yield measurements



At harvest, the team measures yield and biomass, then runs chemical tests to see what nutrients are present. 



Using high-performance liquid chromatography and X-ray fluorescence, they analyze sugars, proteins, flavonoids, vitamins, and antioxidants.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-bigger-crops-fewer-nutrients">Bigger crops, fewer nutrients</h2>



The early data shows that crops do grow bigger under <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/global-warming-is-accelerating-beyond-control-as-co2-levels-rise/">higher CO2 levels</a>. But that doesn’t mean they’re healthier.



“After some time, the crops showed a reduction in key minerals like calcium and certain antioxidant compounds,” Ekele said.



And when heat is added to the mix, things get worse. According to Ekele, the interaction between CO2 and heat stress has complex effects - the crops do not grow as big or fast and the decline in nutritional quality intensifies.



One surprising twist in the results was that not all vegetables responded the same way. Some showed sharp declines in nutrients, while others were more resilient.



“This diversity in response highlights that we can’t generalize across crops. This complexity has been both fascinating and challenging and reminds us why it's important to study multiple stressors together,” Ekele said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-crops-may-fuel-disease">Crops may fuel disease</h2>



A key concern is what happens when crops lose essential nutrients. Elevated CO2 can increase the sugar content in fruits and vegetables - but it often lowers levels of protein, vitamins, and minerals.



“This altered balance could contribute to diets that are higher in calories but poorer in nutritional value,” Ekele said. 



“Increased sugar content in crops, especially fruits and vegetables, could lead to greater risks of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/why-is-obesity-difficult-to-reverse-it-starts-in-the-brain/">obesity</a> and type 2 diabetes - particularly in populations already struggling with non-communicable diseases.”



When people eat food that lacks protein, iron, calcium, or other essential nutrients, it can weaken their immune system and worsen existing health conditions. This hits hardest in low- and middle-income countries where food choices are limited.



“It’s not just about how much food we grow, but also what’s inside that food and how it supports long-term human well-being,” said Ekele.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-food-systems-face-global-stress">Food systems face global stress</h2>



Even though the study simulates future UK climate conditions, the findings echo far beyond British borders.



“Food systems in the Global North are already being challenged by shifting weather patterns, unpredictable growing seasons, and more frequent <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-has-made-heatwaves-more-deadly/">heatwaves</a>,” noted Ekele.



“In tropical and subtropical regions, these areas also contend with overlapping stressors such as drought, pests, and soil degradation – and are home to millions who depend directly on agriculture for food and income.”



Ekele hopes this work inspires more research and cross-disciplinary collaboration. She said that food is more than just calories - it’s a foundation for human development and climate adaptation.



Connecting plant science to broader issues of human well-being is essential, especially as the climate changes and nations work toward building a food system that supports not just productivity, but also health, equity, and resilience.



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Climate change is making our food less nutritious

We hear a lot about how climate change affects food...

Trees are among nature’s most effective tools for capturing carbon dioxide. They absorb this heat-trapping gas as they grow, making forests key allies in the fight against climate change.



But what happens when winters get warmer and snow becomes scarce? That’s the question <a href="https://www.bu.edu/">Boston University</a> scientists set out to answer in a long-term forest experiment. 



The researchers used underground cables to simulate warmer soil and removed snow to mimic shifting winters. The results suggest that future forest growth - and the carbon storage it brings - might not be as strong as we hope.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lack-of-snow-slows-forest-growth">Lack of snow slows forest growth</h2>



In a recent study, BU researchers showed that warmer summers do boost <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/we-still-have-much-to-learn-about-tree-growth/">tree growth</a>. But there's a catch: when snowpack is reduced in winter, that growth slows significantly. Forests may grow faster in heat, but they struggle without a protective blanket of snow.



“We know from past work that there are several negative effects of lessening snowpack, and we know that temperatures are warming and the snowpack is shrinking,” said study co-author Professor Pamela Templer. 



“We wanted to look at the interactions between climate change across the year, and we wanted to be as realistic as possible about the future climate our forests will experience.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-snow-loss-harms-tree-roots">Snow loss harms tree roots</h2>



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/snow-droughts-could-quadruple-by-2100-harming-water-supplies/">Snow</a> insulates the forest floor. With less snow, the soil freezes more often, damaging roots and disrupting the delicate balance trees rely on.



Instead of a steady cold, the ground experiences freeze-thaw cycles that can be stressful for the plants.



At the same time, warmer summers speed up decomposition in the soil, which can help trees grow faster at least on the surface.



“When we think about climate change, it’s not just warmer temperatures in the summer or warmer temperatures overall," said Emerson Conrad-Rooney, a PhD student in Templer’s lab and lead author of the paper.



"We need to account for these changes throughout the year that can differ from season to season.” 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-snow-removal-shrinks-forest-gains">Snow removal shrinks forest gains</h2>



The BU team set up six <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/forests-provide-different-health-benefits-based-on-their-structure/">forest</a> plots, each about the size of a small classroom. Four of them had underground cables that warmed the soil by 5 degrees Celsius (9 degrees Fahrenheit). Two of those were also cleared of snow in the winter. The last two were left alone for comparison.



Year after year, the team returned to measure tree growth using dendrometer bands - spring-loaded metal rings wrapped around trunks that track expansion. These readings allowed them to estimate how much carbon each tree was storing.



Trees in the plots where the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/agricultural-soil-is-now-the-worlds-biggest-plastic-dumping-ground/">soil</a> was artificially warmed and snow was left untouched grew 63 percent more than the trees in the unaltered plots. 



But when snow was removed - triggering repeated freeze-thaw cycles - the growth benefit dropped. Those trees only grew 31 percent more than the controls over the same period. 



In other words, the lack of snow cut the positive effects of warmer temperatures on tree growth by about half.



“Many Earth system models, which predict how much carbon forests can store, aren’t incorporating the complexities of winter climate change that we’re highlighting here,” said Conrad-Rooney. “This means that models might be overestimating the carbon capacity of these temperate forests.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-s-happening-beneath-the-ground">What’s happening beneath the ground?</h2>



Now, the team is turning its attention underground. Templer suspects that repeated freezing and thawing takes a toll on tree roots, which are adapted to the stable cold of snowy winters. 



In 2023, Conrad-Rooney buried mesh cylinders called root ingrowth cores to track how roots are growing in each plot. The results are expected by the end of this year.



“We’re going to keep this work going as long as we can,” said Templer. “We’re so fortunate to have this long-term study because we learn so much the longer we keep going." 



"Right now, we see a warming-induced response from the trees, but maybe that’s temporary - maybe the trees will acclimate and their growth will slow down. We don’t know. That’s really the value of having long-term data.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-climate-puzzle-with-many-pieces">A climate puzzle with many pieces</h2>



This study is one part of a much larger puzzle. Researchers are also looking at how trees behave in cities, along forest edges, and under threats like <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/millions-of-people-die-from-air-pollution-each-year-yet-theres-still-a-lack-of-monitoring/">air pollution</a>, insect loss, and diseases. 



But pulling all these pieces together into one clear forecast for forests remains a huge challenge.



“There are so many global changes happening at the same time,” said Templer. “It’s impossible to get at everything all at once, so we each do what we can."



"The reason we could do this work at all is because others before us monitored the climate. Getting to contribute to long-term science with this study is just amazing.”



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.2412873122">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a>.



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Forests will struggle without winter snow

Trees are among nature’s most effective tools for capturing carbon...

We all know sleep is important, but what if simply flipping on a light at the wrong time could do more than just make you tired? What if artificial light could change the way your body fights illness, how your brain processes emotion, or how you recover from surgery?



A team of researchers at <a href="https://www.wvu.edu/">West Virginia University</a> has explored this question. The research suggests that artificial light at night may silently alter how our bodies function.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-from-night-shifts-to-neuroscience">From night shifts to neuroscience</h2>



The story behind this research starts in an unlikely place. Before becoming a scientist, Dr. Randy J. Nelson, the lead researcher, worked night shifts in a turkey processing plant. Later, he performed autopsies at two hospitals in Cleveland. 



Eventually, a job opening at the San Diego Zoo led Dr. Nelson to pursue a scientific career that took him to UC San Diego and later UC Berkeley, where he became the first person in the U.S. to earn two PhDs at once - one in psychology and one in endocrinology.



"My path to academia is typical in the sense that it is not 'typical,'" said Dr. Nelson. Today, he leads the Department of Neuroscience at West Virginia University. 



In Dr. Nelson's lab, researchers have spent years studying how the modern world, especially its bright nights, can throw off the rhythms our bodies evolved to follow.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-artificial-light-and-human-health">Artificial light and human health</h2>



Most people associate circadian rhythms with sleep, but the WVU researchers show that these rhythms are integrated into almost every system in the body.



The experts report that light at night can disrupt the immune system, making it harder for the body to fight infection or triggering unnecessary inflammation. It can also throw off metabolism, which may contribute to rising rates of obesity. 



When it comes to mental health, artificial light interferes with mood regulation, helping explain why <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/people-with-chronic-pain-have-high-rates-of-depression-and-anxiety/">depression and anxiety</a> are more common among people with irregular schedules.



The effects are wide-ranging and serious. According to the lab's findings, our biology expects natural cycles of light and dark. When those cycles are broken, things can start to go wrong - quietly but powerfully.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-type-of-artificial-light-is-most-harmful">What type of artificial light is most harmful?</h2>



The team’s research is now focused on pinpointing the specific wavelengths of light that cause the most damage. 



The experts are also studying how long it takes for the body to recover from regular <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/artificial-light-pollution-disrupts-entire-ecological-networks/">exposure</a> to artificial light, and whether the time of day makes a difference in how the body responds to light.



"What is the contribution of time-of-day as a biological variable?" That’s one of the questions driving Dr. Nelson's current work.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-turning-research-into-better-care">Turning research into better care</h2>



Beyond the lab, the scientists are running clinical trials to see if reducing exposure to artificial light in hospitals could help patients recover faster.



One trial is focused on people recovering from strokes. Another trial is tracking outcomes after cardiac surgery. Both patient groups often spend time in ICUs, where harsh fluorescent lighting is the norm throughout the day and night.



“<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/colors-of-sunset-and-sunrise-reset-our-circadian-rhythms/">Circadian rhythms</a> are a fundamental aspect of biology, and much is known from foundational science about them,” noted Dr. Nelson. “However, little of this foundational science has been translated to clinical medicine.”



The WVU team is also testing whether night-shift nurses can benefit from wearing bright blue light visors at specific times to help reset their internal clocks. The results could open the door to better health for millions of workers with irregular hours - from factory employees to first responders.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-new-health-insights-about-artificial-light">New health insights about artificial light</h2>



Artificial light has changed how we live - and it’s also changed how our bodies function in ways we are only just beginning to understand.



Other studies have linked nighttime light exposure to increased risks of certain cancers, metabolic disorders, and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/artificial-light-exposure-is-extremely-harmful-to-our-mental-health/">mental health</a> issues. Blue light from screens, in particular, has been shown to suppress melatonin production, making it harder to fall and stay asleep. 



There’s growing evidence that long-term exposure to light at the wrong times may contribute to chronic inflammation and disrupt key hormonal cycles.



What the research from West Virginia University adds is a clearer picture of how these disruptions affect multiple systems at once - and why timing matters just as much as intensity.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://genomicpress.kglmeridian.com/view/journals/brainmed/aop/article-10.61373-bm025k.0083/article-10.61373-bm025k.0083.xml">Brain Medicine</a>.



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Hidden health crisis: How artificial light disrupts our bodies

We all know sleep is important, but what if simply...

Humans in all nations and culture chase youth. In 2024 alone, global spending on anti-aging products was roughly $74 billion. But what if the key to slower aging and longer life hides in psilocybin, the compound found in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/religious-leaders-tried-psilocybin-and-it-changed-their-lives/">psychedelic mushrooms</a>?



This sounds strange. Yet science now says it might be true.



Researchers at <a href="https://www.emory.edu/home/index.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Emory University</a> made a surprising discovery. They found that psilocin, a compound your body produces after eating psychedelic mushrooms, could actually slow down aging in cells. 



Their study appeared in npj Aging, and the results stunned even the researchers.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-understanding-psilocybin-the-basics">Understanding psilocybin - the basics</h2>



After the body converts psilocybin into psilocin, it binds to serotonin receptors, altering perception, mood, and cognition. 



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/brain-before-psilocybin-mushrooms-brain-on-psilocybin-mushrooms-any-questions/">Brain imaging shows</a> that under psilocybin, rigid brain networks loosen their grip, allowing parts of the brain that don’t usually communicate to connect in unexpected ways. 



This rewiring effect can temporarily dissolve the ego and create a sense of unity or interconnectedness, often described as a profound spiritual experience.



But <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-psilocybin-mushrooms-got-their-magic/">the magic</a> isn’t just in the moment - it’s in what comes after. Clinical studies show that a single guided psilocybin session can ease symptoms of depression, anxiety, and PTSD, sometimes <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/psilocybin-may-boost-our-ability-to-learn-and-explore/">with lasting effects</a>. 



Scientists believe this happens because psilocybin disrupts entrenched thought loops and gives people a window to view their life and habits from a new angle. 



Combined with therapy, it can help someone reframe trauma or break out of destructive mental patterns.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-to-study-psilocybin-and-aging">How to study psilocybin and aging</h2>



The researchers grew human lung and skin cells and added psilocin. Normally, these cells grow <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/healthy-aging-how-some-people-live-past-100-years/">old</a> and stop dividing. But this time, something else happened.



At a lower dose, cells lived almost 30% longer. A higher dose pushed that to more than 50%. The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-are-experimenting-with-new-approach-to-fight-and-stop-human-aging-necrosis/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cells stayed active</a>. They kept dividing far longer. They showed fewer signs of stress and less damage.



The treated cells had more sirtuin1, a protein that helps cells survive stress. They also showed less DNA damage. And there was another surprise - these cells kept their telomeres intact.



<a href="https://www.genome.gov/genetics-glossary/Telomere" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Telomeres</a> protect DNA from damage. As people grow older, telomeres shrink, leading to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/organ-aging-can-predict-diseases-decades-in-advance/">age</a>-related diseases. In this study, psilocin stopped that shrinkage.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mice-lived-longer-with-psilocybin">Mice lived longer with psilocybin</h2>



For years, scientists tossed around the “psilocybin-telomere hypothesis.” They suspected psychedelics could help protect telomeres and slow aging. But no one had ever proved it. Until now.



This wasn’t just a lab trick. The team also tested psilocybin in aging mice, equal in age to 60 to 65-year-old humans. First, the mice got a low dose of psilocybin. Then they received higher doses once a month for ten months.



They waited and watched. The outcome was hard to ignore. About 80% of the treated mice survived the entire study. In the untreated group, only half survived.



The treated mice also looked healthier. They had better fur, fewer white hairs, and even some new hair <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/defying-time-three-ways-to-slow-biological-aging/">growth</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-cells-stay-younger">How cells stay younger</h2>



Psilocybin activates serotonin receptors. These receptors are not just in the brain - they are everywhere in the body. They exist in the heart, lungs, skin, immune cells, and more.



In this study, psilocin boosted <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/neuroscience/sirtuin-1" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">sirtuin1</a> in cells. This protein helps the body manage oxidative stress. Less stress meant cells stayed younger for longer.



The researchers now believe psilocybin touches many aging pathways. It protects DNA, lowers stress, preserves telomeres, and may slow aging itself.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-psilocybin-may-improve-aging-even-later">Psilocybin may improve aging even later</h2>



“Most cells in the body express <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-dopamine-and-serotonin-shape-behavior/">serotonin</a> receptors, and this study opens a new frontier for how psilocybin could influence systemic aging processes, particularly when administered later in life,” said study co-author Dr. Louise Hecker.



Her words say it all: this isn’t just about mental health anymore.



“Our study opens new questions about what long-term treatments can do. Additionally, even when the intervention is initiated late in life in mice, it still leads to improved survival, which is clinically relevant in healthy aging,” Hecker said.



The message is clear: it’s never too late to change how we age.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-better-way-to-age">A better way to age</h2>



This discovery comes at a crucial time. A recent report showed that life expectancy in the United States still falls behind other countries. Americans not only live shorter lives but also struggle with quality in later years. 



“This study provides strong preclinical evidence that psilocybin may contribute to healthier aging, not just a longer lifespan, but a better quality of life in later years,” says study co-author Dr. Ali John Zarrabi.



Zarrabi worries about extending life without improving well-being. He doesn’t want people trapped in bodies that no longer work.



“As a palliative care physician-scientist, one of my biggest concerns is prolonging life at the cost of dignity and function. But these mice weren’t just surviving longer. They experienced better aging,” said Zarrabi.



His words strike a deep chord. Aging isn’t only about years.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-just-the-beginning-for-psilocybin">Just the beginning for psilocybin</h2>



The researchers know their work is just beginning. They must study psilocybin in humans. They need to find the safest doses and study long-term effects.



There are hurdles. Psilocybin is a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/millions-americans-are-microdosing-psilocybin-mdma-cannabis-lsd/">controlled substance</a>. Getting approval and funding takes effort. But many researchers remain hopeful.



Psilocybin already holds FDA “breakthrough therapy” status for depression. This could help speed up future research on aging.



A psychedelic drug helping people live longer might sound strange. But science rarely cares about what sounds strange. It cares about results. And right now, psilocybin’s results are impossible to ignore.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41514-025-00244-x" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">npj Aging</a>.



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Study shows psilocybin from 'magic mushrooms' delays aging and significantly extends lifespan

Humans in all nations and culture chase youth. In 2024...

Music education is gaining recognition as a vital well-being tool, and a recent study sheds new light on its importance for young people.



The research, led by Dr. Jason Goopy at Edith Cowan University (<a href="https://www.ecu.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ECU</a>), stresses that learning music offers more than entertainment. It provides real emotional and social benefits to students.



The team reviewed 30 academic sources, most of which revealed strong positive links between music <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/music-rewires-the-brain-to-quickly-navigate-emotion/">learning</a> and well-being. The results showed that music education supports confidence, social connections, and overall engagement with learning.



"Music can play a crucial role in supporting the well-being of children and adolescents. From listening to active participation, young people worldwide use music as an activity and resource for well-being," wrote the researchers.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-music-programs-and-student-well-being">Music programs and student well-being </h2>



Dr. Goopy emphasized that music education in schools goes beyond music <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/our-brain-doesnt-just-hear-music-it-becomes-the-rhythm/">appreciation</a> and learning an instrument. “It can strengthen self-confidence, social connections and engagement in education."



"We found that music education can foster a sense of belonging, improve emotional awareness and encourage perseverance, all of which contribute to a young person's overall well-being," said Dr. Goopy.



The findings suggest that schools should treat music as essential - not as just another extracurricular activity.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-music-boosts-focus-and-confidence">Music boosts focus and confidence</h2>



The analysis also showed that music learning improves self-confidence, emotional regulation, and personal fulfillment. 



“Music learning creates opportunities for self-expression, collaboration and achievement, all of which contribute to students living well and healthy,” Dr. Goopy said.



Young people also benefit from improved motivation and stronger relationships with teachers and peers. These positive changes ripple through their academic and personal lives.



The research identifies effective practices for enhancing well-being through <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/experts-reveal-how-music-can-heal-the-brain/">music</a>. These include group music activities, songwriting, focused listening, and collaborative decision-making.



Such activities encourage participation, creativity, and emotional expression. They also help students build skills in patience, leadership, and emotional awareness.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-music-helps-children-feel-connected">Music helps children feel connected</h2>



The study highlights the social impacts of music <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/music-has-the-power-to-change-the-mood-of-our-memories/">learning</a>. Many young people reported stronger friendships, improved teamwork, and a sense of belonging.



Shared musical experiences help students feel connected. Programs that promote collaboration tend to bring students closer together. Music classes can also strengthen ties between teachers and students.



Music learning improves academic motivation and focus. Students often feel more engaged and achieve better results in other subjects.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-key-features-of-successful-programs">Key features of successful programs</h2>



The research points out what makes some music programs really stand out. It all starts with students making music together. When they play, sing, or create as a group, students feel more connected.



Music programs help students set future goals. They also encourage students to think about careers involving music.



These programs do not just teach music. They help students grow in other ways too, building skills like teamwork, patience, and confidence. 



Above all, successful music programs balance fun with just the right amount of challenge.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-music-education-as-a-well-being-strategy">Music education as a well-being strategy </h2>



Music education should be embraced as a well-being strategy - not just an art form. The researchers recommend integrating well-being goals into music programs.



The review highlights the lack of large-scale research on music learning and well-being. Most existing studies use small sample sizes and qualitative methods.



The authors urge for new tools to measure mental health outcomes in music education. They recommend combining both qualitative and quantitative methods for future studies.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-expanding-access-to-music-learning">Expanding access to music learning</h2>



Access to music education remains unequal. Many young people from disadvantaged backgrounds benefit the most from such programs.



Schools and communities must ensure all students have equal opportunities to learn music. Doing so will promote both personal growth and community well-being.



“This research sends a clear message: learning music is more than just an artistic indulgence,” said Dr. Goopy.



“It actively contributes to young people's ability to thrive. Every child needs access to quality, sequential and ongoing school music education delivered by confident and capable teachers."



“The opportunity to enhance wellbeing from learning music should be available to every child regardless of what school they attend.”



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/1321103X251323562" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Research Studies in Music Education</a>.



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How music education helps young people thrive

Music education is gaining recognition as a vital well-being tool,...

Most people think aging always brings health problems. Inflammation seems like a part of getting older. It slowly builds up, leading to serious diseases. 



Doctors call this slow-burning process “inflammaging.” But not everyone is sure that this process is unavoidable. Some scientists are starting to ask new questions. Does every species experience inflammaging? Is it something we can avoid?



Elaine Guevara from <a href="https://duke.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Duke University</a> studies primates, a group that includes both lemurs and humans. Her work focuses on aging and how it works in different species.



Recently, Guevara began looking at lemurs for answers. These animals may look far removed from humans, but their biology has much to teach us. In fact, her latest <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/endangered-lemurs-millions-of-years-of-diversity-at-risk/">research</a> suggests that inflammation during aging may not be as inevitable as people believe.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lemurs-challenge-our-view-of-aging">Lemurs challenge our view of aging </h2>



Guevara's study was focused on two <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/hormones-influence-power-and-peace-in-lemur-society/">species</a>: the ring-tailed lemur and the sifaka lemur. These species have many similarities but also some key differences. They have different lifespans and distinct life patterns, which makes them perfect for comparison.



Lemurs share an ancient ancestor with humans. This connection makes them valuable for studying human biology. Scientists often use primates to answer tricky questions about human health.



Guevara wanted to see if lemurs show signs of inflammaging as they grow older. The idea was simple. If inflammation rises in both humans and lemurs, it might be a natural part of aging for all primates. But the results took everyone by surprise.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lemurs-aged-without-more-inflammation">Lemurs aged without more inflammation</h2>



The team expected to see clear signs of inflammaging in lemurs. This would have matched patterns seen in humans. But that is not what happened.



“Contrary to our predictions, neither <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/hibernation-allows-lemurs-to-slow-down-their-aging/">species</a> showed age-related change in either marker of oxidative stress," said Guevara.



"Neither lemur species exhibited age-related change in inflammation; if anything, contrary to our prediction, ring-tailed lemurs showed marginal declines in inflammation with age."



The findings challenge what many people think about aging. If lemurs do not show inflammaging, maybe it is not something all species must face.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-is-inflammaging-really-unavoidable">Is inflammaging really unavoidable?</h2>



Lemurs are not alone in this unexpected pattern. Researchers have seen similar results in other primate species. Christine Drea, a scientist involved in the lemur study, explained the bigger picture.



According to Drea, the research suggests inflammaging is not universal across primates. If that is true, it raises an important question. Could some humans also avoid inflammaging?



The idea turns traditional thinking about aging upside down. Many believed inflammaging was simply part of life, but the study shows it might not be that simple.



Scientists are now looking at aging in a whole new way. They are asking if the right conditions might prevent or delay inflammation in humans too.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-inflammaging-causes-health-issues">Inflammaging causes health issues</h2>



Inflammaging sounds like a problem only scientists worry about, but it affects millions of people. As people age, their bodies often enter a state of low-level inflammation. This quiet <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/endangered-lemurs-now-prey-for-equally-endangered-fosas/">process</a> can cause serious harm over time.



Inflammaging connects to many common diseases. These include heart problems, strokes, diabetes, cancer, and arthritis.



Doctors and researchers are working hard to find solutions. If they can understand why inflammaging happens, they may find ways to stop it.



The lemur study offers new hope. It suggests that inflammaging is not locked into our biology. That alone is an exciting discovery.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-challenge-of-studying-lemurs">The challenge of studying lemurs</h2>



Studying aging in lemurs is not easy. The animals cannot explain their health. Researchers had to come up with a safe way to collect data.



"Our role at the beginning was planning, designing, brainstorming, comparing and getting these samples,” said Drea.



The team collected urine samples from the lemurs. This method allowed them to study oxidative stress and inflammation without harming the animals.



The research was conducted at the Duke Lemur Center. This facility only allows non-invasive studies. The lemurs remained unharmed throughout the entire project.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-research-on-lemurs-and-aging">Future research on lemurs and aging</h2>



Guevara now wants to expand her research. Her next focus will be wild lemurs living in their natural environment.



“There are a lot of good reasons to think that aging can be quite different in captivity and in the wild, and that in itself, is informative to evaluating the degree to which human inflammation is intrinsic versus environmental,” she said.



Wild lemurs face many challenges that captive lemurs do not. Their diet, stress, and activity levels all vary. 



By studying lemurs, scientists can learn whether environment shapes aging. The ongoing research could reveal even more about human aging.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lemurs-offer-new-aging-insights">Lemurs offer new aging insights</h2>



People around the world are living longer. However, many of those extra years come with health issues. Inflammaging is a major reason for this.



Guevara believes her work is an important first step toward finding new solutions. "These insights are essential for mitigating disability and improving quality of life in later years."



This study shows that aging does not look the same in every species. Lemurs have shown a very different path. They age without the same inflammation humans often face. 



Researchers now have a fresh question to explore. Can humans also avoid inflammaging? The answer could change how we think about growing older. It could shift how we approach health care for aging populations.



Lemurs may not have provided all the answers yet, but they have certainly started an important conversation.



The study is published in the <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s00360-025-01619-y" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal of Comparative Physiology B</a>. 



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Lemurs reveal surprising new clues about healthy aging

Most people think aging always brings health problems. Inflammation seems...

Research has shown that, while riding a stationary bike, people judged a 30‑second time interval about 9 percent too quickly. Their perception of time became distorted during exercise such that the external clock felt sluggish while their legs were flying.



<a href="https://loop.frontiersin.org/people/336590/network">Andrew M. Edwards</a>, a sports scientist at <a href="https://www.canterbury.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Canterbury Christ Church University</a>, led the research alongside collaborators at the <a href="https://www.rug.nl/?lang=en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Groningen</a> and <a href="https://vu.nl/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Vrije University</a> of Amsterdam.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-time-is-not-time-during-exercise">Time is not time during exercise</h2>



Exercise distorts time perception, the everyday sense of how long an event lasts. <a href="https://www.keele.ac.uk/media/keeleuniversity/facnatsci/schpsych/weardenpublications/wearden2003.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Classic scalar expectancy</a> theory proposes an internal pacemaker that fires pulses; count more pulses and a moment seems longer, count fewer and it shrinks. 



During intense effort, sensory input and body signals grab attention, widening the attentional “gate” so extra pulses slip through and lengthen our subjective perception of time.



A complementary striatal beat frequency <a href="https://scholarcommons.sc.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1298&amp;context=jscas" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">model</a> points to oscillations in the basal ganglia, a deep brain hub that also coordinates movement and reward, as a neural metronome. 



Neuro‑imaging shows overlapping circuits for timing and reward anticipation, hinting that the same dopamine‑rich loops flag both pace and pleasure.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-inside-the-4-kilometer-pedal-test">Inside the 4‑kilometer pedal test</h2>



Thirty‑three recreational riders, none of them cyclists by trade, completed three four‑kilometer trials on a high‑precision ergometer. 



Between sprints they estimated 30 seconds five times, giving a snapshot of the brain’s stopwatch before, during, and after exertion.



“There was no difference between exercise conditions or <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/time-has-three-dimensions-and-space-is-just-a-byproduct-according-to-new-theory/">time</a> points,” the authors reported, emphasizing that competition alone did not reset the internal clock. 



Whether they rode solo, chased a passive avatar, or tried to beat an active opponent, the time warp held steady. 



After finishing, their estimates snapped back to real‑world accuracy within two minutes, underscoring how tightly the illusion is tied to effort.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-your-brain-during-exercise">Your brain during exercise</h2>



Heart rate climbs, lactate builds, and muscle pain demands focus, pushing athletes toward an associative mindset where every pedal stroke is monitored. 



Laboratory work with treadmill runners shows that as <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/28858053/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">rate of perceived exertion</a> climbs from “somewhat hard” to “very hard,” seconds feel even longer.



The surge in afferent signals may flood cortical networks that normally keep temporal information tidy, so the brain logs more sensory events per unit of real time. 



Electrophysiological <a href="https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4830363/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">studies</a> link this overload to elevated activity in supplementary motor areas, cerebellum, and ventral striatum, regions repeatedly flagged in timing meta‑analyses.



Because those circuits also help schedule movements, distorted timing could feed back into pacing errors, explaining why novice cyclists often start too hard and fade.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-competition-exercise-and-time-perception">Competition, exercise, and time perception</h2>



Many coaches assume that racing a foe distracts athletes from discomfort, shortening perceived <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/time-may-not-just-move-forward-experts-say-it-could-rewind/">time</a>. 



The cycling data upend that idea: even when volunteers tried to outsprint a rival and actually finished about 1  seconds quicker, their timing errors matched the solo run.



“More work has to be done to further unravel the role of external stimuli, exercise intensity, and duration on the perception of time during exercise,” wrote Edwards and colleagues, calling for studies that vary course length and sport.



Visual pacers such as <a href="https://runningmagazine.ca/the-scene/is-wavelight-technology-good-for-the-sport/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Wavelight technology</a> - a ring of LED lights that guides record attempts in track meets - may offer a stronger cue; analysts note that <a href="https://worldathletics.org/athletes/uganda/joshua-cheptegei-14645612" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Joshua Cheptegei’s 10,000‑meter</a> world record was set while chasing the moving lights, which kept every kilometer within 0.8 seconds.



Yet even lights cannot erase internal noise completely, so athletes must still learn to calibrate effort against split times displayed on the track or bike computer.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-have-we-learned">What have we learned?</h2>



Knowing that exercise stretches moments can shape better pacing strategies. Endurance coaches often teach swimmers to rehearse key distances with a metronome or music track so the internal clock anchors to an external beat. 



Cyclists can glance at distance markers rather than <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/physicists-make-bold-claims-that-time-is-an-illusion-question-its-existence/">time</a>, because distance cues remain objective even when seconds feel elastic.&nbsp;



For high‑intensity interval training, pre‑programmed timers remove guesswork, preventing premature burnout caused by overestimating rest breaks. 



Recreational exercisers may welcome the illusion, after all, a half‑hour ride that feels like forty minutes makes the gym session feel “worth it.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-unanswered-questions-and-next-steps">Unanswered questions and next steps</h2>



Does the illusion scale with workout length, or plateau after the first surge of pain signals? Would elite athletes, who spend years refining <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/psychiatry/articles/10.3389/fpsyt.2024.1355442/full" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">interoceptive awareness</a>, show smaller distortions, or merely learn to ignore them?



Brain‑stimulation studies could temporarily mute motor cortex or cerebellum activity to test causal roles in the effect. 



Wearable neuroimaging, now light enough for treadmill use, might map the live interplay between stride cadence, pulse counts, and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-explain-why-time-seems-to-fly-by-pass-faster-as-we-age-brain-perception/">subjective time</a>.



Until then, the best takeaway is pragmatic: trust the stopwatch, not your feelings, when pacing the final lap or last hill climb.



The study is published in <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/brb3.3471" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Brain and Behavior</a>.



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Scientists learn why time seems to slow down dramatically when difficult activities

Research has shown that, while riding a stationary bike, people...

A single teaspoon of healthy soil can hold as many as a billion bacteria, yards of fungal threads, and a menagerie of microscopic grazers. These organisms form the root microbiome, which helps keep plants fed, watered and defended against drought and disease.



New <a href="https://academic.oup.com/ismej/advance-article/doi/10.1093/ismejo/wraf137/8182121?login=false" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">research</a> now argues that plants are not just passive tenants in this world but active managers that build hand‑picked below‑ground crews, a process the authors call functional team selection (FTS).



The <a href="https://academic.oup.com/ismej/advance-article/doi/10.1093/ismejo/wraf137/8182121?login=false" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">study</a> is led by Regents’ Professor <a href="https://directory.nau.edu/faculty?name=nancy%20johnson&amp;person=nj4" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nancy Collins Johnson</a> of Northern Arizona University, working with <a href="https://www.ust.cl/personas/curriculum/cesar-marin/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">César Marín</a> of Universidad Santo Tomás in Chile.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-plants-create-microbiomes">How plants create microbiomes</h2>



A <a href="https://www.niehs.nih.gov/health/topics/science/microbiome" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">microbiome</a> is the collective genomes and activities of bacteria, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/can-trees-talk-through-fungal-networks/">fungi</a>, viruses, and other tiny life forms that live in and around a host. 



In plants the action centers on the rhizosphere, the thin <a href="https://www.nrcs.usda.gov/sites/default/files/2023-04/NRCS_Healthy%20Soils%20at%20Home_12_22_FINAL%20sent%20to%20printers.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">shell of soil</a> that sticks to roots and hums with chemical chatter.



Microbes in this region swap nutrients, growth hormones, and signals with their hosts, often trading nitrogen or phosphorus for sugars. 



Under drought conditions, some bacteria exude sticky <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fsufs.2023.1253735/full" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">biofilms</a> that help roots hang on to water, improving crop yields in experimental fields.



Yet the community is no free‑for‑all; opportunistic pathogens lurk, and beneficial species can be crowded out by chance or by a sudden fertilizer surge. 



Understanding how plants steer the mix in the root microbiome is therefore critical for sustainable farming.



Scientists <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/nrmicro2644" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">sequence</a> the <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/neuroscience/16s-ribosomal-rna" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">16S rRNA gene</a> from <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/agricultural-and-biological-sciences/rhizosphere" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">rhizosphere</a> samples and routinely detect more than 5,000 operational taxonomic units on a single maize plant. 



That microbial diversity rivals the entire bacterial roster of many animal <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/our-gut-microbiome-is-shaped-by-what-we-eat/">gut microbiomes</a>, underscoring how much genetic potential lies just outside a root tip.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-plant-microbiomes-shaped-by-stress">Plant microbiomes shaped by stress</h2>



Johnson’s earlier field <a href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/1942106" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">work</a> showed that adding chemical fertilizer for eight years shifted <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/immunology-and-microbiology/arbuscular-mycorrhiza" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi</a> toward strains that taxed big bluestem grass more than they helped it. 



The finding hinted that low‑nutrient stress is not just tolerated but needed to keep the symbiosis honest.



Other <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fmicb.2020.622926/full" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">studies</a> echo the pattern: under conditions of water scarcity, maize roots release flavonoids that attract drought‑tolerant microbes, whereas well‑watered plants skip the recruitment drive. 



Selective pressure, in other words, acts like an admissions test for the root community.



This ecological sorting sets the stage for evolution, because <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/microbes-laid-the-foundation-for-early-life-on-earth/">microbes</a> that pass the test multiply and share genes for the traits the plant needs. Over time the soil becomes a living memory of past hardships.



Plants secrete up to 40 percent of the carbon they fix as root exudates, a spill that serves as both payment and message to <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fagro.2021.753474/full" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">microbes</a>. 



Compounds such as malic acid call in growth‑promoting <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK7699/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Bacillus</a>, while terpenes can ward off unwanted invaders.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-functional-team-selection-fts-idea">Functional team selection (FTS) idea</h2>



Johnson and Marín propose that four ingredients - selection force, host constitution, microbial diversity, and time - determine whether a functional team selection <a href="https://ecoevorxiv.org/repository/view/6944/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">(FTS) pathway</a> opens. 



When the mix is right, a plant and its hand‑picked allies act as one adaptive system rather than as separate parts.



“Functional teams are unlikely to evolve in benign environments with no stress and ample resources because they lack the selection pressure that is required to curate the composition of the microbiome,” Johnson said. 



Her remark underlines why crop inoculants bought off the shelf often disappoint farmers who apply them to fertile, irrigated soils.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-plants-microbiomes-and-fts">Plants, microbiomes, and FTS</h2>



The framework leans on the recently articulated <a href="https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.2310223120" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Law of Increasing Functional Information</a>, which holds that complex systems tend to explore ever more effective configurations when variation meets selection. 



Roots and microbes, stars and minerals all follow comparable rules, differing only in the building blocks they shuffle.



<a href="https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.2310223120" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Hazen and colleagues</a> illustrated the law with examples that range from heavy‑element synthesis in stars to enzyme evolution on Earth, arguing that a drive toward functional novelty bridges physics and biology. 



By situating FTS within that broader law, Johnson’s team claims no special exemption for life; they simply place roots and their microbiomes on the same playing field as <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/galaxies-are-much-bigger-than-we-originally-believed-gas-clouds/">galaxies</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lessons-for-agriculture">Lessons for agriculture</h2>



Worldwide sales of <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fsufs.2021.606815/full" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">microbial biofertilizers</a> are booming, yet meta‑analyses show that many products fail to colonize <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/galaxies-are-much-bigger-than-we-originally-believed-gas-clouds/">roots</a> or boost yields once they leave the greenhouse. 



FTS suggests that success will improve when products are matched to the stresses and nutrient limits of specific root microbiomes rather than offered as universal cures.



Breeders could also select crop varieties that reward resident mutualists instead of favoring short‑term fertilizer responses. 



That shift would align genetic improvement with the slow buildup of local microbial teams instead of tearing them down each season.



Adopting FTS thinking could also cut greenhouse‑gas emissions because successful microbial teams often help plants capture nitrogen from air and recycle soil carbon, <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s00253-024-13347-4" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">trimming demand</a> for energy‑intensive fertilizer. Lower fertilizer demand translates to fewer nitrous oxide emissions, a potent greenhouse gas.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fts-from-soil-to-other-systems">FTS from soil to other systems</h2>



The authors argue that FTS can illuminate animal guts, coral reefs, and even human‑made bioreactors because each hosts a crowd whose joint output beats any single member. 



Testing the idea across systems may reveal design rules for building resilient microbiomes in medicine and industry.



A similar logic already guides fecal microbiota transplants that restore healthy gut ecosystems after recurrent infections, proving that designed consortia can outperform single‑strain probiotics. 



Cross‑talk between fields may speed the jump from proof of concept to routine practice.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-where-research-goes-next">Where research goes next</h2>



Johnson and Marín want field trials that run for multiple plant generations, use minimal fertilizer, and track microbial genomes alongside plant performance. 



Such studies would put FTS to the test by asking whether curated teams stay stable and beneficial when weather and management shift.



Meanwhile ecologists are building network models that predict which microbes form keystone partnerships under drought, salinity, or heat waves. 



If those models hold, future crops may come with recommended microbial seed mixes tailored to local stress profiles instead of chemical input schedules.



The study is published in <a href="https://academic.oup.com/ismej/advance-article/doi/10.1093/ismejo/wraf137/8182121?login=false" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">The ISME Journal</a>.



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Plants have microbiomes like humans do, now scientists have learned how they work

A single teaspoon of healthy soil can hold as many...

Sport does more than entertain. For billions of fans, it nourishes a deep need for belonging, identity, and meaning, working on the mind in much the same way religion or faith does.



Recent analysis shows that the thrill of victory and the agony of defeat satisfy ancient psychological drives, binding fans together and shaping how they see the world.



The evidence is set out in <a href="https://www.routledge.com/The-Psychology-of-Sports-Fans/Smith/p/book/9781032957838?srsltid=AfmBOoo4MMEoDr0QwxFlKFNnKVhhdIFiSBKhmt2eNa1oAFkaUgvoilQB">The Psychology of Sports Fans</a>, a new book by Aaron C. T. Smith, a professor at the <a href="https://www.canberra.edu.au/">University of Canberra</a> and <a href="https://www.lboro.ac.uk/">Loughborough University</a>.



Drawing on studies from neuroscience, evolutionary psychology, and cultural anthropology, Smith argues that devotion to a club or athlete taps “superordinate ideologies” that sit at the core of a person’s <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/psychedelics-sexuality-and-self-discovery-what-a-new-study-reveals/">identity</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-belief-drives-sports-devotion">Belief drives sports devotion</h2>



From Japanese baseball diamonds to New Zealand rugby grounds, the phenomenon crosses cultures and persists because it meets basic social and emotional needs.



“Our minds possess an incredible ability to believe; an ability that has been crucial for survival throughout human history,” Smith said.



“Now, like a muscle that’s been trained to the extreme, we can’t resist flexing our <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/highlighting-scientific-consensus-on-climate-change-shifts-beliefs/">beliefs</a>. Investing in certain beliefs, particularly those associated with sports and players, brings us significant personal and social rewards.”



That powerful capacity once helped early humans rely on group <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/from-single-cells-to-complex-life-was-cooperation-the-first-step/">cooperation</a> to stay alive. Today it fuels banners, chants, and weekend rituals.



Belief in a team creates strong emotional bonds that override geography, age, and even language. People all over the world attach their sense of self to colors, symbols, and collective memories that define in-groups and out-groups, strengthening community ties.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-emotion-links-sports-and-religion">Emotion links sports and religion</h2>



Cognitive shortcuts reinforce the attachment. Optimism bias lets followers expect glorious comebacks no matter the score. 



Confirmation bias filters news so that only flattering facts stick. Because these mental habits operate automatically, allegiance often survives losing streaks that would destroy a purely rational investment.



As Smith put it, supporting a team feels like a personal victory or defeat. The brain registers a last-minute goal in much the same way it records personal success, flooding circuits with <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dopamine-helps-us-learn-from-positive-and-negative-experiences/">dopamine</a>. Conversely, a crushing loss can mimic real heartbreak.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-sports-memories-echo-religion">Sports memories echo religion</h2>



The book describes how pivotal moments in sport burn into long-term <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/smartphones-are-teaching-us-how-to-supercharge-our-memory/">memory</a>. French fans still relive the 1998 FIFA World Cup triumph with pristine clarity. Such recollections become emotional touchstones.



“Memory becomes part of the mental scaffolding that supports sports faith,” Smith said. Selective recall then keeps the devotion alive, foregrounding moments of glory while fading the dull or painful.



Smith introduces the idea of “partitioned reality.” Supporters carve out a mental zone where stadium logic applies. Within that zone, miraculous comebacks feel plausible and seasons unfold like epic sagas.



Outside the zone, the same individuals may be sober accountants or careful scientists. The partition lets them embrace narratives that stretch probability without violating their everyday reasoning.



“Fans learn to cope with the highs and lows of their team’s performance, experiencing vicarious resilience that strengthens their bond,” Smith explained. Triumph teaches euphoria, while adversity trains endurance, both inside a safe, rule-bound arena.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-sports-rituals-reinforce-belief">Sports rituals reinforce belief</h2>



Emotions alone do not keep devotion alive. Heuristics - swift mental rules of thumb - shore up belief when facts threaten it. A team’s downturn can be blamed on biased referees, unlucky injuries, or a rebuilding year instead of poor play.



“Heuristics act as cognitive guardrails, stabilizing fans’ beliefs and protecting their emotional investment,” Smith said. These guardrails prevent disillusionment and safeguard the social rewards that fandom offers. 



Shared chants in a stadium, synchronized celebrations in a living room, or witty banter on an online forum echo religious gatherings where collective emotion intensifies personal conviction.



The communal charge also enhances <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/supportive-adults-help-protect-children-from-mental-health-issues/">mental health.</a> Research cited in the book shows that group support lowers stress markers and increases a sense of purpose. 



In times of crisis, donning a familiar jersey can restore continuity and hope. Fans do not merely watch a contest; they enact identity.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-sports-mimic-global-religion">Sports mimic global religion</h2>



The massive reach of sports - nearly five billion devotees worldwide - suggests that it fills a universal niche. 



Followers create myths of founding legends, holy relics in signed jerseys, and pilgrimage sites in historic arenas. They pass stories down generations, forging continuity that rivals established faith traditions.



“Fans don’t just support a team; they believe in it. They have faith in the athletes who represent them, in the colors they wear, and in the history they honor,” Smith said. That belief may not promise salvation, but it grants community, excitement, and meaning.



When the whistle blows, neurons fire, biases activate, and memories are enriched. Victory feels transcendent, defeat stings like loss, and every season offers renewal.



In that ritual cycle, the psychology of sports fandom shows how deeply it resembles religion - revealing that, through games played on grass or ice, people are still practicing the age-old act of belief.



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Your brain reacts to sports like it does to religion

Sport does more than entertain. For billions of fans, it...

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https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE
</div></figure>



On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop and sunlight barely penetrates through the polar winter. It was here, however, that an international team of scientists found <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/predatory-worms-were-terror-beasts-half-a-billion-years-ago/#google_vignette" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evidence of sea monsters</a> that would change our understanding of ocean life in the past.



This video captures the discovery of Timorebestia fossils that had been hidden for more than 500 million years in the Sirius Passet formation. The "terror beasts," as they are called, are a hidden chapter in the evolutionary history of <a href="https://www.earth.com" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Earth</a>, showing that sophisticated predator-prey interactions occurred much earlier than previously envisioned.



Dr. Jakob Vinther and his research team at the <a href="https://www.bristol.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Bristol</a>, in collaboration with researchers at the <a href="https://eng.kopri.re.kr/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Korean Polar Research Institute</a>, braved extreme weather conditions at 82.5 north latitude to locate these giant creatures. Using sophisticated electron microprobe analysis, they revealed the detailed anatomy of the animals, including their muscle and nerve tissues.



The find upsets the traditional timeline of sea predators. Although we've long appreciated that Cambrian oceans were at one time ruled by <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jWI3-UgA3_o&amp;list=PL1QLQMW9MWDwpkFOnvgAmu7wT6rZmYqdJ&amp;index=19" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">arthropods</a>, these discoveries indicate that relatives of arrow worms were first to dominate the seas. These worms were building sophisticated food webs several million years before other predator groups arose.



Each fossil is a story of ancient hunger, with fossil stomach contents revealing these meter-long beasts dined on heavily armored arthropods regularly, cementing their place as the ocean's first apex predators.



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Worms dominated seas before dinosaurs

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">New York is the site of the world's oldest forest.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-385-million-year-old-trees-discovered">385-million-year-old trees discovered</h2>



Scientists have uncovered something extraordinary just two hours north of New York City. The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/worlds-oldest-forest-discovered-close-to-new-york-city/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">world's oldest forest</a>, dating back 385 million years, offers a window into how Earth's first complex forests shaped our planet's atmosphere.



Located near <a href="https://townofcairo.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cairo, New York</a>, in Greene County, these weren't merely primitive plants struggling to survive. These were sophisticated trees with root systems remarkably similar to modern forests. This ancient woodland predates dinosaurs by 140 million years.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-cairo-forest-discovery">The Cairo forest discovery</h2>



385 million years ago, upstate New York was a tropical paradise near the equator. Thanks to continental drift, this ancient forest has traveled thousands of miles to its current location.



The fossil forest sits in an abandoned quarry, roughly half the size of a football field. This represents just a slice of what was likely a massive forest system stretching from New York into Pennsylvania.



Charles Ver Straeten, curator of sedimentary rocks at the <a href="https://www.nysm.nysed.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">New York State Museum</a>, made the discovery in 2009. While scouting the former highway department property, his trained eye spotted wandering patterns in the stone that looked like marine features.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-revolutionary-age-and-preservation">Revolutionary age and preservation</h2>



The site contains 385-million-year-old rocks with fossilized woody roots forming horizontal patterns up to 18 feet (5.5 meters) wide. As Christopher Berry, a paleobotanist at Cardiff University, explains: "You are walking through the roots of ancient trees."



This discovery pushes back advanced tree evolution by millions of years. The research, published in <a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/home" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Current Biology</a> in December 2019, fundamentally changes our understanding of when complex forests first emerged.



Researchers believe a massive flood buried the forest floor, creating perfect fossilization conditions. Over millions of years, sediment hardened into rock, preserving these root patterns like nature's time capsule.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-meet-archaeopteris-the-first-modern-tree">Meet Archaeopteris: the first modern tree</h2>



The star of this ancient forest is Archaeopteris – not to be confused with the feathered dinosaur Archaeopteryx. This tree was far older and more revolutionary.



William Stein from <a href="https://www.binghamton.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Binghamton University</a> describes the roots as "strikingly modern, essentially what you'd see outside in my yard right now." These weren't simple root systems you'd expect from ancient plants.



Some fossilized roots are six inches (15 centimeters) in diameter, forming 36-foot-wide (11-meter) patterns. These giants grew up to 65 feet (20 meters) tall with five-foot-diameter (1.5-meter) trunks.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-changing-impact">Climate-changing impact</h2>



These trees fundamentally changed Earth's environment. Kevin Boyce, a Stanford University geoscientist, explains how their deep roots triggered "weathering," chemical reactions that pulled carbon dioxide from the atmosphere.



This process dropped atmospheric CO2 levels from 10-15 times higher than today to roughly modern concentrations. These ancient trees helped create atmospheric conditions that made complex life possible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ancient-forest-ecosystem">Ancient forest ecosystem</h2>



The forest was remarkably diverse. Scientists identified Eospermatopteris, palm tree-like plants with short roots that reached 30 feet (9 meters) tall but lacked woody structure. The forest also housed cladoxylopsids and a mysterious third species still being studied.



All reproduced through spores rather than seeds – millions of years before seeds evolved. This tropical environment had no grass, flowers, or flying insects, just towering trees creating Earth's first complex forest canopy.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-scientific-significance">Scientific significance</h2>



Before this finding, the Gilboa forest, located 25 miles (40 kilometers) away, held the "oldest forest" title. Cairo's trees are 2-3 million years older, showing that complex forest ecosystems developed much faster than scientists believed possible.



Patricia Gensel, a <a href="https://www.unc.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of North Carolina</a> paleobotanist, notes: "The size of those root systems is really changing the picture. Even 20 years ago, researchers assumed trees with such complex root systems didn't evolve so early."



The Cairo site presents three unique root systems, suggesting Devonian period forests were diverse ecosystems with different trees occupying different environmental niches, much like today's forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-modern-preservation-efforts">Modern preservation efforts</h2>



In 2022, New York State Senator Michelle Hinchey secured a $170,000 grant for the town of Cairo to construct specialized fencing around the fossil forest site. The town plans to conduct a feasibility study exploring the possibility of creating an educational center and working lab on-site.



Joe Hasenkopf, chair of the Cairo Planning Board, hopes to partner with educational institutions to create a research facility serving scientists, students, and the public.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lessons-for-today-s-climate">Lessons for today's climate</h2>



Why does a 385-million-year-old forest matter today? It shows how dramatically forests can change Earth's climate. These ancient woodlands created the atmospheric conditions supporting complex life.



Understanding how prehistoric forests transformed the planet helps us appreciate modern forests' critical role in addressing climate change. Forests remain Earth's most effective carbon capture systems.



These prehistoric trees changed Earth's atmosphere by pulling massive amounts of carbon dioxide from the air. As we face modern climate challenges, this ancient forest reminds us of trees' incredible power to transform our planet's environment.



The next time you walk through a forest, remember you're experiencing an ecosystem whose blueprint was established 385 million years ago in upstate New York. These ancient pioneers didn't just survive – they thrived and changed the world forever.



The full study was published in the journal Current Biology.



-----



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Earth's oldest forest found in the United States

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ New York is the site of the world's oldest...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Acid rain and a crisis solved.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-don-t-we-ever-hear-about-acid-rain-anymore-the-environmental-crisis-that-was-solved">Why don't we ever hear about "acid rain" anymore? The environmental crisis that was solved</h2>



Remember the 1980s when acid rain dominated headlines? Dire warnings about rain eating buildings, killing fish, and destroying forests filled every news cycle. Then, almost like magic, acid rain vanished from public discourse. What happened? Did we actually solve one of the late 20th century's most pressing environmental challenges?



The answer might surprise you. Unlike many environmental issues that drag on indefinitely, acid rain represents one of modern history's most successful ecological recovery stories. It's a tale of science, politics, and technology working together to tackle what seemed impossible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What was acid rain?</h2>



Acid rain isn't regular rain having a bad day – it's precipitation that became significantly more acidic due to air pollution. When power plants, factories, and vehicles burn fossil fuels, they release sulfur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides (NOx) into the atmosphere.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The science behind it</h2>



Think of acid rain as nature's chemistry experiment gone wrong. These compounds react with water, oxygen, and other chemicals to form sulfuric and nitric acids. When mixed with water vapor in clouds, they create precipitation with dangerously low pH levels.



While clean rain has a pH of about 5.6, acid rain could drop as low as 4.2 to 4.4 – roughly as acidic as tomato juice or coffee. According to US Geological Survey documentation, Scottish chemist Angus Smith first coined "acid rain" in 1872, but it didn't become a household phrase until the 1960s and 1970s when Swedish scientist Svante Odén documented its devastating effects on Scandinavian lakes and European forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The crisis at its peak</h2>



During the height of public concern, environmental damage was both widespread and visible. This wasn't some abstract future threat – people could see destruction happening in real-time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Environmental devastation</h2>



The most dramatic impacts were impossible to ignore. Research documented by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation and the New York State Department of Environmental Conservation shows that in the Adirondack Mountains, more than 200 lakes became so acidic they couldn't support fish life. The Adirondack Council reports that 409 lakes once supported brook trout, but many lost their fish populations due to acid rain.



By 1976, when scientists cataloged all acidified lakes in the Adirondack Park, researchers found that half of the lakes over 2,000 feet above sea level had no fish, according to studies published in environmental journals. The acidification process worked like a slow-motion disaster. As acid rain fell into watersheds, it gradually lowered pH levels. Fish couldn't survive in acidic water, and their food sources died off too.



Trees at high elevations showed stress directly linked to acid rain. It weakened them by leaching nutrients and making them susceptible to disease. Historical records show Germany's Black Forest saw nearly half its trees damaged by the mid-1980s.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Economic impact</h2>



Acid rain wasn't just environmental – it was expensive. Acidic precipitation corroded infrastructure, buildings, and monuments. Historic stone structures deteriorated at accelerated rates. Tourism suffered as lakes became fishless and forests declined. EPA economic analyses from the period documented repair costs mounting into billions annually.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The solution: government action and technology</h2>



Transformation from crisis to success required unprecedented cooperation between governments, industries, and environmental groups.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The Clean Air Act of 1990</h2>



The turning point came with the Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990, signed by President George H.W. Bush. This represented a fundamentally new approach to environmental regulation, as documented in EPA historical records.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Cap-and-trade success</h2>



Instead of mandating specific technologies, the 1990 amendments introduced something revolutionary: a cap-and-trade system for sulfur dioxide emissions. EPA program documentation shows this market-based approach set overall limits but allowed companies to trade emission allowances.



The genius was harnessing market forces to find cost-effective pollution reduction. Companies reducing emissions cheaply could sell excess allowances to those facing higher costs. Research published in environmental economics journals and EPA progress reports shows this resulted in dramatic SO2 reduction at a fraction of projected costs.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Technology advances</h2>



Policy provided the framework, but technology made reductions possible. Studies in atmospheric science journals document the widespread adoption of flue gas desulfurization systems ("scrubbers") that removed sulfur dioxide before it reached the atmosphere. By the 2000s, new installations could remove over 95% of SO2 emissions, according to EPA technical reports.



The push coincided with cleaner energy development. Natural gas produces fewer sulfur compounds than coal. Wind and solar, emerging in the 1990s, captured growing market share, reducing reliance on high-sulfur coal.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-we-don-t-hear-about-it-today">Why we don't hear about it today</h2>



Why did acid rain disappear from headlines? Simple: the problem was largely solved.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Success doesn't make news</h2>



There's an old journalism saying: "If it bleeds, it leads." Environmental success stories don't generate urgency like crisis reporting. Media attention shifted to other challenges: climate change, plastic pollution, and biodiversity loss. There's only so much environmental anxiety the public can absorb, and newer concerns replaced acid rain.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Mission accomplished</h2>



The primary reason is beautifully simple: interventions worked. EPA monitoring data shows sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990. Academic research published in environmental science journals confirms pH levels in formerly affected areas returned closer to normal. This represents one of history's most dramatic environmental recoveries. Studies by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation show fishless lakes now support healthy populations. Forests recovered, and building damage slowed dramatically.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-is-it-really-gone">Is it really gone?</h2>



The crisis is largely resolved, but monitoring data shows the problem isn't completely eliminated – it's managed to acceptable levels. Some areas still experience occasional events during high pollution periods. International environmental research indicates that rapidly industrializing Asian countries face similar problems to what we experienced decades ago, though they're implementing successful strategies.



EPA research shows nitrogen oxide emissions proved more challenging than sulfur dioxide, coming from vehicles and mobile sources. Climate science studies suggest changing weather patterns add complexity to how acid rain forms and falls.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What this teaches us</h2>



The acid rain experience proves that seemingly intractable environmental problems can be solved with scientific understanding, political will, and technological innovation. Environmental monitoring data shows recovery speed was remarkable – within a decade, measurable improvements appeared in air quality and ecosystem health.



Success came from bipartisan support across party lines. Policy analysis studies show the market-based approach appealed to those preferring economic incentives while achieving environmental goals. This support created lasting policy surviving political changes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Conclusion</h2>



Acid rain's disappearance from public consciousness represents environmental science's greatest success stories. Through effective regulation, technological innovation, and international cooperation, we transformed an overwhelming crisis into a manageable challenge.



Today's silence isn't because we forgot – it's because we solved it. The 1990 Clean Air Act, combined with technology and energy market changes, reduced acid rain emissions over 90%, according to comprehensive EPA data analysis.



This success offers hope for current challenges. It proves complex problems can be solved when science, policy, and technology work together. As we face climate change and plastic pollution, acid rain reminds us that dramatic positive change is possible.



Next time someone asks whether environmental regulations work, remember acid rain. It's proof that sometimes, we get it right.



<hr class="wp-block-separator has-alpha-channel-opacity"/>



Sources: This article draws from EPA official documentation and progress reports, peer-reviewed research published in environmental and atmospheric science journals, historical data from the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation, New York State Department of Environmental Conservation records, US Geological Survey publications, policy analysis studies, and environmental monitoring data collected over three decades.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Frequently Asked Questions</h2>



1. Is acid rain completely gone? No, but EPA monitoring shows it's reduced to manageable levels. US sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990, making acid rain much less severe than the 1980s crisis.



2. How long did solving take? Environmental monitoring data shows significant improvements began within 5-10 years of 1990s emission controls. Full ecosystem recovery took longer – some areas need 20-30 years for complete recovery.



3. What made the solution successful? Clear scientific understanding, visible damage motivating action, bipartisan support, available technology, and innovative market-based policies like cap-and-trade.



4. Do other countries have acid rain problems? Yes, particularly rapidly industrializing Asian countries. However, international environmental research shows many implement similar successful control strategies.



5. Could acid rain return? Potentially, if regulations weaken or we return to high-sulfur coal without controls, though effects would take years to become severe according to environmental projections.



6. Can you recommend any teaching tools on the subject of "acid rain"? The United States Environmental Protection Agency produced a wonderful teacher's guide for ages 14 and under that you can find on the EPA website here: <a href="https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf</a>



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The environmental problem we actually solved

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk Acid rain and a crisis solved. Why don't we...

Fresh,Radish,Harvest,On,Soil,In,Garden.

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://youtu.be/Fi2OeEwuzRM?si=vTyd2m9FMmtyWkex
</div></figure>







Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving fall garden, and this guide lays out the best vegetables and herbs to plant now for a fruitful autumn harvest. 



Fast-growing leafy greens such as spinach, lettuce, kale, and arugula perform especially well in the waning summer heat, with harvests beginning as soon as 30 days. 



These cool-season crops relish the transition into fall, offering repeated yields with cut-and-come-again methods.



Root vegetables like radishes, carrots, and beets also excel during this period. Radishes deliver satisfaction in under a month, while carrots and beets mature in about two months. Employing succession planting ensures a continuous stream of produce deep into the cooler months. 



For a boost of fresh flavor, herbs like cilantro, basil, dill, and chervil are excellent picks. These heat-loving varieties flourish in July’s warmth and are harvest-ready in about 30 days, especially when sown continuously.



Gardeners in zones 6 through 9 can benefit from planting bush beans and snap peas, which don’t require trellising and are ideal for compact plots. 



Maturing in 50–60 days, they’re a smart choice for quick, protein-rich harvests. For those in hotter regions, heat-tolerant crops such as okra and southern peas provide reliable yields and thrive in scorching conditions.



This guide emphasizes more than crop selection—it highlights the importance of timing, soil preparation, and ongoing sowing techniques. 



With thoughtful planning and attention to regional climate needs, even late-summer gardeners can enjoy fresh salads, hearty stews, and the satisfaction of a robust, homegrown harvest well into fall.



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What to plant in your garden in mid-July

https://youtu.be/Fi2OeEwuzRM?si=vTyd2m9FMmtyWkex Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving...

Green,Ecoduct,Over,An,Empty,Highway,During,Sunset.

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://youtu.be/XYgiPzmNBTU?si=eFYY7gPHU1JznLvU
</div></figure>



A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that wildlife tunnels significantly reduce amphibian road mortality during seasonal migrations. 



Frogs and salamanders often cross roads to reach breeding ponds each spring, but many are killed by vehicles. 



Researchers from the <a href="https://www.uvm.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Vermont</a>, in collaboration with local citizens and the Vermont Agency of Natural Resources, installed two underpass tunnels in 2015. 



Over a 12-year monitoring period, they observed an 80.2% reduction in amphibian deaths, and up to 94% for non-climbing species like salamanders. 



The study used a before-after-control-impact design and documented more than 5,200 amphibians, highlighting the tunnels’ effectiveness even in nearby buffer zones.



Funded at $342,397 - far cheaper than wildlife crossings for large mammals - the project showcased the power of community-led conservation.



Local groups initiated the effort after observing mass amphibian deaths. Wildlife cameras later captured over 2,200 amphibians using a tunnel in just one spring, along with other species like raccoons and bobcats, indicating wider ecosystem benefits.



This marks the first peer-reviewed, long-term data set in the northeastern U.S. confirming amphibian-specific underpasses work. 



The study urges transportation departments to incorporate these designs into road planning and highlights how community action, thoughtful infrastructure, and persistence can make a real difference for biodiversity.



The full study was published in the <a href="https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1617138125000780" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal for Nature Conservation</a>.



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Wildlife tunnels save millions of amphibians

https://youtu.be/XYgiPzmNBTU?si=eFYY7gPHU1JznLvU A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that...

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing it with probiotics and prebiotics, aiming to create a treat that satisfies cravings while supporting gut health. 



The challenge lies in maintaining chocolate's beloved texture and flavor while adding health benefits.



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Probiotics - beneficial microbes that balance gut bacteria and aid digestion - are typically fragile and can be destroyed by stomach acid or processing. 



Prebiotics act as food for these microbes, helping them thrive. Together, they form "synbiotics," a powerful health combination.



Researchers Smriti Gaur and Shubhi Singh from India's Jaypee Institute of Information Technology took an innovative approach, using natural prebiotics like corn and honey instead of complex processing methods. 



They created five chocolate varieties: a control and four synbiotic versions containing different combinations of prebiotics, probiotics (Lactobacillus strains), and flavor enhancers (cinnamon or orange).



Laboratory simulations of human digestion showed the probiotics remained viable for over five hours, suggesting they could survive long enough to benefit gut health.



Taste tests were positive, with researchers particularly enjoying the orange-flavored variety, describing it as having "vibrant citrus notes" complementing the "rich cocoa" with a "luxurious" texture.



This research represents just the beginning. With further refinement of strains, textures, and flavors, chocolate could evolve beyond mere indulgence to become a functional food that nourishes while it delights.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.4c00741" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ACS Food Science &amp; Technology</a>.

Is chocolate the next nutritional powerhouse?

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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How does salt makes things taste better?

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Santiago, Chile in South America

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.



According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."



Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;



ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. 



Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

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Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes Earth’s interconnected systems, and how this network is affected by rising temperatures.&nbsp;



During 2020, average global temperatures matched the hottest year on record. The hurricane season was also record-breaking, with many of the storms intensifying at extraordinary speeds. Hot water in the ocean is fuel for hurricanes. The satellite data shows that it's all one interconnected system showing how Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected.



According to NASA, dust swept up from Northern Africa plays a major role in the formation of hurricanes, and is also a key source of fertilization in the Amazon rainforest. As a result of<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seagrass-wasting-disease-is-fueled-by-climate-change/"> climate</a> change, dust plumes are expected to decline, which will have an effect on vegetation far away.&nbsp;



Images from Earth-observing satellites show how the world’s plant life is affected by natural disasters, fires, and deforestation. Satellites also reveal how widespread changes in vegetation impact waterways,&nbsp; the climate, air quality. Satellites communicate by using radio waves to send signals to the antennas on the Earth. "Earth From Space" is a groundbreaking two-hour special that reveals a spectacular new space-based vision of our planet. 



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected

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